Figure 

3.4. The hydrological

Figure 3.4.cycle.Used
The hydrological
under license
cycle.Used
fromunder
Shutterstock.com/Image
license from Shutterstock.com/Image
ID:236708653. ID:236708653.
Poulomi Chakravarty, Manoj Kumar, in Phytomanagement of Polluted Sites, 2019
 Poulomi Chakravarty, Manoj Kumar, in Phytomanagement of Polluted Sites, 2019

6.5.1 Hydrological
6.5.1 Cycle
Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle
The of
hydrological
the earth iscycle
the sum
of thetotal
earth
of isallthe
processes
sum totalin which
of all processes
water in which water
moves from the land moves
and from
oceanthe surface
land and
to the
ocean
atmosphere
surface to and
theback
atmosphere
in form ofand back in form of
precipitation. The hydrological
precipitation.cycleThe is
hydrological
dependentcycleon various
is dependent
factors and
on various
is equally
factors and is equally
affected by oceans affected
and landbysurfaces.
oceans and In the
land
case
surfaces.
of the land In the
surface,
case ofvegetation
the land surface, vegetation
plays a vital role inplays
the maintenance
a vital role inofthethemaintenance
hydrologic budget
of the hydrologic
(Pielke andbudget
Niyogi,(Pielke and Niyogi,
2009). The presence 2009).
of vegetation
The presence
increases
of vegetation
the capacity
increases
of the the
landcapacity
surface of
to the
retain
land surface to retain
moisture. Precipitation
moisture.
is thenPrecipitation
interceptedisbythenplants
intercepted
and directly by plants
evaporated
and directly
when evaporated when
captured by the canopy.
capturedTheby plants
the canopy.
themselves
The plants
transpirethemselves
and aid intranspire
the creation
and aid
of in the creation of
a major amount ofawatermajorvapor
amount through
of water
evapotranspiration
vapor through evapotranspiration
processes. The surfaceprocesses. The surface
runoff, in the case ofrunoff,
bare ground,
in the caseis much
of baregreater
ground,than
is much
in vegetated
greaterlands.
than inAsvegetated
plants lands. As plants
dominate the processes
dominateof energy,
the processes
water vapor,
of energy,
and carbon
water exchange,
vapor, andtheir
carbonpresence
exchange, their presence
is critical to the functioning
is critical to
of the
the functioning
hydrologicalofcycle.
the hydrological cycle.

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Hydrological
Hydrological
Cycle andCycle
Waterand
Budgets
Water Budgets
T.N. Narasimhan, in
T.N.
Encyclopedia
Narasimhan,of in
Inland
Encyclopedia
Waters, 2009
of Inland Waters, 2009

Summary Summary
The concept of hydrological
The concept cycle
of is
hydrological
elegantly simple.
cycle isBut,
elegantly
its importance
simple. But,
in the
its importance in the
functioning of the functioning
geological and of the
biological
geological
Earthandis biological
profound, Earth
transcending
is profound,
watertranscending water
itself. It plays an overarching
itself. It plays
roleaninoverarching
the cycling of rolesolar
in the
energy,
cycling sediments,
of solar energy,
and sediments, and
chemical elementschemical
vital for the
elements
sustenance
vital for
of life.
the sustenance
Although it of is clear
life. Although
that contem-
it is clear that contem-
porary ecosystemsporary
reflect ecosystems
an evolutionaryreflectadaptation
an evolutionary
to the delicate
adaptation linkages
to thethat
delicate linkages that
exist among the various
exist among
components
the various
of thecomponents
hydrologicalofcycle,
the hydrological
it is also apparent
cycle, it is also apparent
that evolving life must
that have
evolving
influenced
life must thehave
evolution
influenced of the
thehydrological
evolution ofcycle
the over
hydrological cycle over
geological time. Life,
geological
it appears,time.
is simultaneously
Life, it appears,aisproduct
simultaneously
of the hydrological
a product ofcycle
the hydrological cycle
and its cause. and its cause.

> Read full chapter

> Read full chapter

Watersheds
Watersheds
of Want of Want
John F. Shroder, inJohn
Natural
F. Shroder,
Resources
in Natural
in Afghanistan,
Resources
2014
in Afghanistan, 2014
Abstract
 Abstract
The hydrological cycle
The in
hydrological
Afghanistancycle is one
in Afghanistan
of the high altitude
is one ofsnow
the high
and rain,
altitude
com-
snow and rain, com-
monly torrential, which
monlyproduces
torrential,
catastrophic
which producesdownstream
catastrophic
effectsdownstream
such as avalanch-
effects such as avalanch-
es and floods. Mostesofandthefloods.
precipitation
Most ofthat thedrives
precipitation
the river-flow
that drives
lifeblood
the river-flow
of the lifeblood of the
country outward from
country
the tops
outward
of the
fromwatersheds
the tops inof Afghanistan
the watersheds diminishes
in Afghanistan
towarddiminishes toward
the borders from its
thehighs
borders
in the
from
northeast
its highs ofinthe
thenation.
northeast
The main
of theriver
nation.
systems,
The main river systems,
listed in a counterclockwise
listed in adirection
counterclockwise
around Afghanistan.
direction around
include
Afghanistan.
the Amu Darya,
include the Amu Darya,
Hari Rud–Murgab,Hari Helmand–Arghandab,
Rud–Murgab, Helmand–Arghandab,
and the Kabul, eachand of which
the Kabul,
is discussed
each of which is discussed
in more detail herein.
in more
Lakesdetail
in Afghanistan
herein. Lakes include
in Afghanistan
glacial, landslide-dammed,
include glacial, landslide-dammed,
car- car-
bonate-precipitatebonate-precipitate
types, diastrophic (tectonic
types, diastrophic
and volcanic)
(tectonic
lakes,and
tectonic—mixed
volcanic) lakes, tectonic—mixed
types, and multipletypes,
deflation-basin
and multiple sortsdeflation-basin
of lakes, many sorts
of which
of lakes,
aremany
intermittently
of which are intermittently
dry. Underground dry.
water
Underground
in Afghanistan water
occurs
in Afghanistan
in aquifer basins
occursthroughout
in aquifer basins
the throughout the
country, with the basin
country,
beneath
with the
Kabulbasin
Citybeneath
undergoingKabulsevere
City undergoing
drawdown. severe drawdown.
Rivers of the Boreal Uplands
 Rivers of the Boreal Uplands
Jan Henning L'Abée-Lund,
Jan Henning
... Lars-Evan
L'Abée-Lund,
Pettersson,
... Lars-Evan
in Rivers
Pettersson,
of Europe,
in2009
Rivers of Europe, 2009

15.2.3 Hydrology
15.2.3 Hydrology
The hydrological cycle
The is
hydrological
influenced by cycle
several
is influenced
factors such
by several
as solarfactors
influx,such
rotation
as solar
of influx, rotation of
the earth, distance the
fromearth,
the ocean,
distance
topography,
from the ocean,
and general
topography,
atmospheric
and general
circulation
atmospheric circulation
patterns. In the Boreal
patterns.
Uplands,
In thetopography
Boreal Uplands,
and distance
topography
from and
the ocean
distance
vary
from the ocean vary
considerably among considerably
watercourses.
amongIn general,
watercourses.
the meanIn general,
annual precipitation
the mean annual
is precipitation is
highest in the westhighest
and north
in the
with
west
values
andexceeding
north with4000
values
mm.
exceeding
In the east
4000
andmm. In the east and
in inland areas of large
in inland
fjords,
areas
theofmean
largeannual
fjords,precipitation
the mean annual
is <1000
precipitation
mm. The is <1000 mm. The
maximum and minimum maximum meanandannual
minimum precipitation
mean annual
duringprecipitation
1961–1990during
was 69441961–1990 was 6944
and 128 mm, respectively.
and 128 mm, respectively.

Runoff is not evenlyRunoff

distributed
is not evenly
throughout
distributed
the yearthroughout
and can bethe divided
year and
intocan be divided into
specific runoff regions
specific(Gottschalk
runoff regions
et al. 1979).
(Gottschalk
In coastal
et al.areas,
1979).
with
In coastal
a so-called
areas, with a so-called
Atlantic regime, the
Atlantic
lowestregime,
runoff occurs
the lowest
during runoff
May–August
occurs during
and runoff
May–August
is similar
and runoff is similar
during the other months.
during theTheother
inlandmonths.
regime,The situated
inlandbetween
regime,thesituated
Atlantic
between
and the Atlantic and
the mountain regime,
the mountain
is characterized
regime,
by islowcharacterized
runoff in winterby low(January–March),
runoff in wintera(January–March), a
marked increase duemarked
to snowincrease
melt indue
April
to snow
and May,meltandin April
low values
and May,
in summer
and low that
values in summer that
increase from August
increase
until winter
from August
begins.until
The winter
geographical
begins.variation
The geographical
in precipitation
variation in precipitation
is reflected in the flow
is reflected
regime inof the
theflow
riversregime
(Figureof15.2).
the rivers
In some
(Figure
rivers,
15.2).
theInperiod
some rivers, the period
of recording coversofseveral
recording
yearscovers
prior several
to and after
yearsdevelopment
prior to and after
of hydropower
development of hydropower
schemes. Hydropowerschemes.
development
Hydropower
has resulted
development in a significant
has resultedreduction
in a significant
in the reduction in the
ratio between floodratio
andbetween
minimum flood
discharge.
and minimum discharge.
FIGURE 15.2. FlowFIGURE
dynamics15.2.
of 10
Flow
selected
dynamics
boreal
of 10
rivers.
selected
Nameboreal
of gauging
rivers. station
Name of gauging station
and recording period
andare
recording
indicated.
period are indicated.
> Read full chapter
 > Read full chapter

Hydrology
Hydrology
S.J. Marshall, in Reference
S.J. Marshall,
Module in Reference
in Earth Systems
Moduleand
in Earth
Environmental
Systems and
Sciences,
Environmental Sciences,
2013 2013

The Global Water

The Cycle
Global Water Cycle
The hydrological cycle
The describes
hydrologicalthecycle
perpetual
describes
flux and
the perpetual
exchange flux of water
and exchange
between of water between
different global reservoirs:
differenttheglobal
oceans,
reservoirs:
atmosphere,
the oceans,
land surface,
atmosphere,
soils, land
groundwater
surface, soils, groundwater
systems, and the solid
systems,
Earthand
(Figure
the solid
1). Most
Earthof(Figure
the world’s
1). Most
waterof–the
approximately
world’s water – approximately
96.3% – is in the world’s
96.3% oceans,
– is in the
where
world’s
wateroceans,
molecules
wherehave
water
anmolecules
average residence
have an average residence
time of about 3300time
years.
of Glaciers
about 3300 andyears.
ice sheets
Glaciers
lockand
up more
ice sheets
than lock
half up
of the
more than half of the
remaining water (Table
remaining
1), with
water
90%(Table
of this1),stored
with 90%
in the
ofAntarctic
this stored
IceinSheet.
the Antarctic
Most Ice Sheet. Most
of what remains liesofbelow
what remains
the surface,
lies in
below
groundwater
the surface,
aquifers,
in groundwater
where vastaquifers,
reserveswhere vast reserves
of water are saline of
or water
difficultaretosaline
access.
or difficult to access.

Figure 1. The global

Figure
water1.inventory.
The global water inventory.

Table 1. The globalTable

water1.inventory
The global
(km
water
3) inventory (km3)

Reservoir Reservoir
Size (km3) World water (%) Size
Freshwater
(km3) (%) W
All All Surface S
Oceans1 1 285 400 000
Oceans1 96.30 − 1 285 400 000 − 96.30
Ice Sheets2 25 470 000
Ice Sheets2 1.91 − 25 470 000 − 1.91
Glaciers2 270 000
Glaciers2 0.02 − 270 000 − 0.02
Permafrost3 22 000
Permafrost3 0.002 − 22 000 − 0.002
Groundwater4 23 400 000
Groundwater4 1.75 − 23 400 000 − 1.75
 Fresh 10 530 000
 Fresh 0.79 98.85
10 530 000 0.79
Lakes 176 400
Lakes 0.01 − 176 400 − 0.01
 Fresh
Figure 2. The global
Figure
water2.cycle,
The global
with fluxes
waterincycle,
1012 m
with
3 yrfluxes
− 1 after
in the
1012U.S.
 m3 yr
Univer-
− 1 after the U.S. Univer-

sity Corporation forsity

Atmospheric
CorporationResearch,
for Atmospheric
https://spark.ucar.edu/longcontent/wa-
Research, https://spark.ucar.edu/longcontent/wa-
ter-cycle, with updates
ter-cycle,
fromwith
Durack
updates
et al. from
(2012).Graphic
Durack et adapted
al. (2012).Graphic
from NOAA adapted from NOAA
National Weather Service,
Nationalhttp://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/index.htm.
Weather Service, http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/index.htm.
When rain hits Earth, some soaks into the ground and becomes available for plants.
Some percolates through the soil to the groundwater table. Rainwater also flows
overland as runoff into streams, rivers, lakes, and even the ocean. Fresh surface water
includes flowing water such as streams and rivers and still water such as ponds. Wa-
ter in the ocean contains ionic species; therefore, it is called salt water. Groundwater
refers to all the water hidden in the ground. It may contribute to soil moisture or
may be flowing through an aquifer. Artesian wells tap into groundwater trapped
between two impermeable layers. Unconfined aquifers flow through deposits of
rock, pebbles, sand, and other types of porous media. Humans and other animals
consume both surface water and ground water.
The overview article on Hydrology considers aspects of the global water cycle and
the amount of water stored in these different reservoirs. Figure 1 indicates the
global-scale fluxes of water between these reservoirs, expressed in 1012 m3 yr− 1
(trillions of m3 yr− 1). Evaporation and precipitation over the world's oceans dominate
the fluxes within the global water cycle, and are truly prolific. Ocean evaporation
rates, estimated at 424 trillion m3 yr− 1, equate to 1.2 m of water skimmed off the
surface of the global ocean each year.
 The overview article on Hydrology considers aspects of the global water cycle and
the amount of water stored in these different reservoirs. Figure 1 indicates the
global-scale fluxes of water between these reservoirs, expressed in 1012 m3 yr− 1
(trillions of m3 yr− 1). Evaporation and precipitation over the world's oceans dominate
the fluxes within the global water cycle, and are truly prolific. Ocean evaporation
rates, estimated at 424 trillion m3 yr− 1, equate to 1.2 m of water skimmed off the
surface of the global ocean each year.

Figure 1. The global

Figure
water1.cycle,
The global
with fluxes
waterincycle,
1012 m
with
3 yrfluxes
− 1 after
in the
1012U.S.
 m3 yr
Univer-
− 1 after the U.S. Univer-

sity Corporation forsity

Atmospheric
CorporationResearch,
for Atmospheric
https://spark.ucar.edu/longcontent/wa-
Research, https://spark.ucar.edu/longcontent/wa-
ter-cycle, with updates
ter-cycle,
fromwith
Durack
updates
et al. from
(2012).Graphic
Durack et adapted
al. (2012).Graphic
from NOAA adapted from NOAA
National Weather Service,
Nationalhttp://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/index.htm.
Weather Service, http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/index.htm.

There is tremendousThere
turnover
is tremendous
within theturnover
global water
withincycle;
the global
the average
water residence
cycle; the average residence
time of a water molecule
time ofina the
water
atmosphere
molecule in is about
the atmosphere
9.2 days. Roughly
is about90%
9.2 days.
of water
Roughly 90% of water
molecules cycle quickly
molecules
through cycle
thequickly
atmosphere,
throughevaporating
the atmosphere,
and precipitating
evaporatingover
and precipitating over
the world's oceans the
(Figure
world's
1). Water
oceansvapor
(Figure
that1).isWater
blownvapor
inlandthat
andisprecipitates
blown inland over
and precipitates over
the continents hasthe
a more
continents
circuitous
has path
a more
back circuitous
to the oceans,
path back
and to
can
the
getoceans,
diverted
and can get diverted
and stored in snowpacks,
and stored
vegetation,
in snowpacks,
soils, wetlands,
vegetation,lakes,
soils,
or wetlands,
groundwaterlakes,
systems.
or groundwater systems.
Water molecules canWater
be ‘recycled’
moleculesmany can betimes
‘recycled’
on themany
continents,
times onthrough
the continents,
cycles through cycles
of evapotranspiration
of evapotranspiration
and precipitation. Eventually,
and precipitation.
rivers and
Eventually,
subsurface
rivers
drainage
and subsurface drainage
systems return thissystems
water toreturn
the ocean,
this water
and over
to thea period
ocean, ofanda year
over or
a period
more this
of a year or more this
discharge equals the
discharge
net evaporation
equals the minus
net evaporation
precipitation minus
from precipitation
the oceans. from the oceans.

This must be true or This

global
mustsea
be level
true would
or global
be sea
highly
level
unstable
would be (i.e.,
highly
dropping
unstable
by (i.e., dropping by
1.2 m yr− 1 if rivers1.2 m yr
did not − 1
return
if rivers
water
didtonot
thereturn
ocean).water
There toare
theexceptions
ocean). There
to this
are exceptions to this
rule, particularly over
rule,longer
particularly
timescales
over oflonger
Earthtimescales
history. Interannual
of Earth history.
variability
Interannual
in variability in
precipitation, continental storage, and runoff rates can give small-scale (mm yr− 1)
fluctuations in sea level (e.g., Boening et al., 2012). Growth and decline of glaciers
and ice sheets involves large quantities of water storage on land. During the Qua-
ternary glaciations, for instance, ice-sheet buildup over many thousand years led to
a sea-level drawdown of more than 120 m.
 precipitation, continental storage, and runoff rates can give small-scale (mm yr− 1)
fluctuations in sea level (e.g., Boening et al., 2012). Growth and decline of glaciers
and ice sheets involves large quantities of water storage on land. During the Qua-
ternary glaciations, for instance, ice-sheet buildup over many thousand years led to
a sea-level drawdown of more than 120 m.

In practice, hydrologists
In practice,
typically
hydrologists
focus on terrestrial
typically focus
environments
on terrestrial
and environments
examine the and examine the
water balance for awater
particular
balancelocation
for a particular
or region,location
considering
or region,
the inputs,
considering
outputs, the inputs, outputs,
exchanges, and storage
exchanges,
of waterandwithin
storagethatofregion
water within
of interest.
that region
There are
of interest.
many There are many
scales of interest with
scales
respect
of interest
to water
withbalance.
respectExamples
to water balance.
include agricultural
Examples include
fields, agricultural fields,
lakes or reservoirs,lakes
river or
basins,
reservoirs,
political
river
jurisdictions
basins, political
(e.g., ajurisdictions
state or nation),
(e.g., or
a state or nation), or
larger regions whichlarger
are vulnerable
regions which to hydrological
are vulnerable extremes
to hydrological
such as drought
extremes(e.g.,
such as drought (e.g.,
East Africa, the western
East Africa,
U.S.). Water
the western
management
U.S.). Water
practices
management
depend critically
practicesondepend critically on
accurate accounting accurate
of wateraccounting
balance onofseasonal
water balance
to multiannual
on seasonal timeto scales,
multiannual
while time scales, while
shorter-term watershorter-term
fluctuations are water
important
fluctuationsto many
are important
other considerations
to many other such considerations
as such as
crop growth, river crop
flows,growth,
wildfires,river
andflows,
floodwildfires,
events. and flood events.

Inputs to a region Inputs

come intothe
a region
form ofcome
precipitation
in the formandofwater
precipitation
flow (e.g.,
and
rivers,
water flow (e.g., rivers,
springs), while outputs
springs),
include
while
evaporation,
outputs include
transpiration,
evaporation,
biological
transpiration,
uptake, and
biological uptake, and
surface or groundwater
surface
flows
or groundwater
that transportflows
waterthat
outtransport
of the region
waterofout
interest.
of the region of interest.

Within a region, there

Within
are aexchanges
region, there
between
are exchanges
the surface
between
environment
the surface
(lakes,environment
rivers, (lakes, rivers,
wetlands), soils, vegetation,
wetlands),thesoils,
groundwater
vegetation,system,
the groundwater
and human system,
uptakeandin service
human uptake in service
of agricultural, industrial,
of agricultural,
and municipal
industrial,
water
anddemands.
municipal Water
watercan
demands.
also be stored
Water can also be stored
for extended periods,
for extended
amounting periods,
to manyamounting
years in the
to case
manyofyears
someinlarge
the case
lakesofand
some large lakes and
groundwater systems.groundwater
This generalized
systems.water
This balance
generalized
for awater
region
balance
(or a specific
for a region
lake (or a specific lake
or catchment) can orbe catchment)
expressed as:can be expressed as:

[1] [1]

where V is the volume

where
of water,
V is thet is
volume
time, Sofiswater,
the rate
t isof
time,
storage
S is the
(or release)
rate of storage
of water,
(or release) of water,
and Q refers to theand
various
Q refers
volume
to thefluxes
various
of water
volumeintofluxes
or outofofwater
the region.
into or out of the region.
HYDROLOGY | Hydrological Cycle; HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Conversion
on Streamflow; HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Management on Streamflow;
HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Management on Water Quality; PLANTATION
SILVICULTURE | Forest Plantations; PLANTATION SILVICULTURE | Short Rotation
Forestry for Biomass Production; SOIL BIOLOGY AND TREE GROWTH | Soil and its
Relationship to Forest Productivity and Health; SOIL DEVELOPMENT AND PROP-
ERTIES | Forests and Soil Development; SOIL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPERTIES
| Water Storage and Movement; TREE PHYSIOLOGY | A Whole Tree Perspective;
TREE PHYSIOLOGY | Forests, Tree Physiology and Climate; TREE PHYSIOLOGY |
Root System Physiology.
HYDROLOGY | Hydrological Cycle; HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Conversion
on Streamflow; HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Management on Streamflow;
HYDROLOGY | Impacts of Forest Management on Water Quality; PLANTATION
SILVICULTURE | Forest Plantations; PLANTATION SILVICULTURE | Short Rotation
Forestry for Biomass Production; SOIL BIOLOGY AND TREE GROWTH | Soil and its
Relationship to Forest Productivity and Health; SOIL DEVELOPMENT AND PROP-
ERTIES | Forests and Soil Development; SOIL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPERTIES
| Water Storage and Movement; TREE PHYSIOLOGY | A Whole Tree Perspective;
TREE PHYSIOLOGY | Forests, Tree Physiology and Climate; TREE PHYSIOLOGY |
Root System Physiology.