Drama

What this handout is about

This handout identifies common questions about drama, describes the elements of drama that
are most often discussed in theater classes, provides a few strategies for planning and writing
an effective drama paper, and identifies various resources for research in theater history and
dramatic criticism. We'll give special attention to writing about productions and
performances of plays.

What is drama? And how do you write about it?

When we describe a situation or a person's behavior as "dramatic," we usually mean that it is
intense, exciting (or excited), striking, or vivid. The works of drama that we study in a
classroom share those elements. For example, if you are watching a play in a theatre, feelings
of tension and anticipation often arise because you are wondering what will happen between
the characters on stage. Will they shoot each other? Will they finally confess their undying
love for one another? When you are reading a play, you may have similar questions. Will
Oedipus figure out that he was the one who caused the plague by killing his father and
sleeping with his mother? Will Hamlet successfully avenge his father's murder?

For instructors in academic departments—whether their classes are about theatrical literature,
theater history, performance studies, acting, or the technical aspects of a production—writing
about drama often means explaining what makes the plays we watch or read so exciting. Of
course, one particular production of a play may not be as exciting as it's supposed to be. In
fact, it may not be exciting at all. Writing about drama can also involve figuring out why and
how a production went wrong.

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What's the difference between plays, productions, and

performances?
Talking about plays, productions, and performances can be difficult, especially since there's
so much overlap in the uses of these terms. Although there are some exceptions, usually
plays are what's on the written page. A production of a play is a series of performances,
each of which may have its own idiosyncratic features. For example, one production of
Shakespeare's Twelfth Night might set the play in 1940's Manhattan, and another might set
the play on an Alpaca farm in New Zealand. Furthermore, in a particular performance (say,
Tuesday night) of that production, the actor playing Malvolio might get fed up with playing
the role as an Alpaca herder, shout about the indignity of the whole thing, curse Shakespeare
for ever writing the play, and stomp off the stage. See how that works?

Be aware that the above terms are sometimes used interchangeably—but the overlapping
elements of each are often the most exciting things to talk about. For example, a series of
particularly bad performances might distract from excellent production values: If the actor
playing Falstaff repeatedly trips over a lance and falls off the stage, the audience may not
notice the spectacular set design behind him. In the same way, a particularly dynamic and
inventive script (play) may so bedazzle an audience that they never notice the inept lighting
scheme.

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A few analyzable elements of plays

Plays have many different elements or aspects, which means that you should have lots of
different options for focusing your analysis. Playwrights—writers of plays—are called
"wrights" because this word means "builder." Just as shipwrights build ships, playwrights
build plays. A playwright's raw materials are words, but to create a successful play, he or she
must also think about the performance—about what will be happening on stage with sets,
sounds, actors, etc. To put it another way: the words of a play have their meanings within a
larger context—the context of the production. When you watch or read a play, think about
how all of the parts work (or could work) together.

For the play itself, some important contexts to consider are

 The time period in which the play was written

 The playwright's biography and his/her other writing
 Contemporaneous works of theater (plays written or produced by other artists at
roughly the same time)
 The language of the play
 Setting
 Plot
 Themes
 Characters

Depending on your assignment, you may want to focus on one of these elements exclusively
or compare and contrast two or more of them. Keep in mind that any one of these elements
may be more than enough for a dissertation, let alone a short reaction paper. Also remember
that in most cases, your assignment will ask you to provide some kind of analysis, not simply
a plot summary—so don't think that you can write a paper about A Doll's House that simply
describes the events leading up to Nora's fateful decision.

Since a number of academic assignments ask you to pay attention to the language of the play
and since it might be the most complicated thing to work with, it's worth looking at a few of
the ways you might be asked to deal with it in more detail.

Language

There are countless ways that you can talk about how language works in a play, a production,
or a particular performance. Given a choice, you should probably focus on words, phrases,
lines, or scenes that really struck you, things that you still remember weeks after reading the
play or seeing the performance. You'll have a much easier time writing about a bit of
language that you feel strongly about (love it or hate it).

That said, here are two common ways to talk about how language works in a play:
1. How characters are constructed by their language

If you have a strong impression of a character, especially if you haven't seen that
character depicted on stage, you probably remember one line or bit of dialogue that
really captures who that character is. Playwrights often distinguish their characters
with idiosyncratic or at least individualized manners of speaking. Take this example
from Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest:

ALGERNON: Did you hear what I was playing, Lane?

LANE: I didn't think it polite to listen, sir.
ALGERNON: I'm sorry for that, for your sake. I don't play accurately—
anyone can play accurately—but I play with wonderful expression. As far as
the piano is concerned, sentiment is my forte. I keep science for Life.
LANE: Yes, sir.
ALGERNON: And, speaking of the science of Life, have you got the
cucumber sandwiches cut for Lady Bracknell?

This early moment in the play contributes enormously to what the audience thinks
about the aristocratic Algernon and his servant, Lane. If you were to talk about
language in this scene, you could discuss Lane's reserved replies: Are they funny? Do
they indicate familiarity or sarcasm? How do you react to a servant who replies in that
way? Or you could focus on Algernon's witty responses. Does Algernon really care
what Lane thinks? Is he talking more to hear himself? What does that say about how
the audience is supposed to see Algernon? Algernon's manner of speech is part of
who his character is. If you are analyzing a particular performance, you might want to
comment on the actor's delivery of these lines: Was his vocal inflection appropriate?
Did it show something about the character?

2. How language contributes to scene and mood

Ancient, medieval, and Renaissance plays often use verbal tricks and nuances to
convey the setting and time of the play because performers during these periods didn't
have elaborate special-effects technology to create theatrical illusions. For example,
most scenes from Shakespeare's Macbeth take place at night. The play was originally
performed in an open-air theatre in the bright and sunny afternoon. How did
Shakespeare communicate the fact that it was night-time in the play? Mainly by
starting scenes like this:

BANQUO: How goes the night, boy?

FLEANCE: The moon is down; I have not heard the clock.
BANQUO: And she goes down at twelve.
FLEANCE: I take't, 'tis later, sir.
BANQUO: Hold, take my sword. There's husbandry in heaven; Their candles
are all out. Take thee that too. A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, And
yet I would not sleep: merciful powers, Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that
nature Gives way to in repose!

Enter MACBETH, and a Servant with a torch

 Give me my sword.
Who's there?

Characters entering with torches is a pretty big clue, as is having a character say, "It's
night." Later in the play, the question, "Who's there?" recurs a number of times,
establishing the illusion that the characters can't see each other. The sense of
encroaching darkness and the general mysteriousness of night contributes to a number
of other themes and motifs in the play.

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Productions and performances

Productions

For productions as a whole, some important elements to consider are:

 Venue: How big is the theatre? Is this a professional or amateur acting company?
What kind of resources do they have? How does this affect the show?
 Costumes: What is everyone wearing? Is it appropriate to the historical period?
Modern? Trendy? Old-fashioned? Does it fit the character? What does his/her
costume make you think about each character? How does this affect the show?
 Set design: What does the set look like? Does it try to create a sense of "realism"?
Does it set the play in a particular historical period? What impressions does the set
create? Does the set change, and if so, when and why? How does this affect the show?
 Lighting design: Are characters ever in the dark? Are there spotlights? Does light
come through windows? From above? From below? Is any tinted or colored light
projected? How does this affect the show?
 "Idea" or "concept": Do the set and lighting designs seem to work together to produce
a certain interpretation? Do costumes and other elements seem coordinated? How
does this affect the show?

You've probably noticed that each of these ends with the question, "How does this affect the
show?" That's because you should be connecting every detail that you analyze back to this
question. If a particularly weird costume (like King Henry in scuba gear) suggests something
about the character (King Henry has gone off the deep end, literally and figuratively), then
you can ask yourself, "Does this add or detract from the show?" (King Henry having an
interest in aquatic mammals may not have been what Shakespeare had in mind.)

Performances

For individual performances, you can analyze all the items considered above in light of how
they might have been different the night before. For example, some important elements to
consider are:

 Individual acting performances: What did the actor playing the part bring to the
performance? Was there anything particularly moving about the performance that
night that surprised you, that you didn't imagine from reading the play beforehand (if
you did so)?
  Mishaps, flubs, and fire alarms: Did the actors mess up? Did the performance grind to
a halt or did it continue?
 Audience reactions: Was there applause? At inappropriate points? Did someone fall
asleep and snore loudly in the second act? Did anyone cry? Did anyone walk out in
utter outrage?

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Response papers
Instructors in drama classes often want to know what you really think. Sometimes they'll give
you very open-ended assignments, allowing you to choose your own topic; this freedom can
have its advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, you may find it easier to express
yourself without the pressure of specific guidelines or restrictions. On the other hand, it can
be challenging to decide what to write about. The elements and topics listed above may
provide you with a jumping-off point for more open-ended assignments. Once you've
identified a possible area of interest, you can ask yourself questions to further devleop your
ideas about it and decide whether it might make for a good paper topic. For example, if you
were especially interested in the lighting, how did the lighting make you feel? Nervous?
Bored? Distracted? It's usually a good idea to be as specific as possible. You'll have a much
more difficult time if you start out writing about "imagery" or "language" in a play than if
you start by writing about that ridiculous face Helena made when she found out Lysander
didn't love her anymore.

If you're really having trouble getting started, here's a three point plan for responding to a
piece of theater—say, a performance you recently observed.

1. Make a list of five or six specific words, images, or moments that caught your
attention while you were sitting in your seat.
2. Answer one of the following questions: Did any of the words, images, or moments
you listed contribute to your enjoyment or loathing of the play? Did any of them seem
to add to or detract from any overall theme that the play may have had? Did any of
them make you think of something completely different and wholly irrelevant to the
play? If so, what connection might there be?
3. Write a few sentences about how each of the items you picked out for the second
question affected you and/or the play.

This list of ideas can help you begin to develop an analysis of the performance and your own
reactions to it.

Two of our other handouts might be useful if you need to do research in the specialized field
of performance studies (a branch of communication studies) or want to focus especially
closely on poetic or powerful language in a play: these handouts are about communication
studies and poetry explications. For additional tips on writing about plays as a form of
literature, see our handout on writing about fiction.

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Works consulted
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a
comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own
research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for
the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For
guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Worthen, W.B. The Wadsworth Anthology of Drama. New York: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.

Carter, Paul. The Backstage Handbook: An Illustrated Almanac of Technical Information, 3rd
Ed. Shelter Island, New York: Broadway Press, 1994.

UNC Libraries Comprehensive Guide to Resources for the Study of Drama and Theater.