OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

TOPIC 6: WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT &

ERGONOMIC
Principles of Ergonomic
CODE COURSES: DUW10012

LECTURER NAME: ENCIK AMINUDDIN

NAME MATRICS NO
NAVINKUMAR A/L TAMILMANI 02DSK19F2005
IRFAN MUSLIHIN BIN MOHD HANIF 02DSK29F2055
AMIR HAKIM BIN AZLIN 02DSK19F2025
KHRISHA A/P SASETHRAN 02DSK19F2003

What is Principles of Ergonomic?

This index includes many general ergonomic principles that apply to this e-Tool and smart
practices that increase productivity and decrease ergonomic risks such as: -
 Correct, neutral posture
 Housekeeping
 Lifting
 Planning
 Power zone
 Proper handholds
 Pulling vs. Pushing
 Staging
 Task Rotation
The field of physical ergonomics can be summarized in a series of principles. You will very
readily see that you can apply these principles at work, at home, or any other place.
As an example: Putting on Your Ergonomics Glasses
The basics of ergonomics do not need to be hard. Much of it amounts to looking at routine
activities from a new perspective, putting on your ergonomics glasses.

Principles of Ergonomic
Principle 1: Work in Neutral Postures
Your posture provides a good starting point for evaluating the tasks that you do. The best
positions in which to work are those that keep the body "in neutral."
Postures where the body is aligned and balanced, while sitting or
standing. The head is kept upright and is not turned to either
side more than about 30 degrees or tilted forward or backward
more than about 15 degrees. When the worker is standing, the
torso is not bent more than 10 to 20 degrees from the vertical
position and the natural curves of the spine are maintained. The
pelvis and shoulders should face straight ahead to avoid twisting
the torso. The shoulders are relaxed, and knees slightly bent.
The arms hang normally at the side, with elbows close to the
body. The elbows are not bent more than about 90 degrees and
the palms face in toward each other and the centre line of the body. The wrists are in line with the
forearms and are not bent sideways, forward (towards the palm), or backward (towards the back of
the hand.) When the worker is seated, the buttocks and feet are firmly supported. It is important to
maintain the natural S-curve of the back, whether sitting or standing. The most important part of this
"S" is in the lower back, which means that it is good to keep a slight "sway back, "When standing,
putting one foot up on a footrest helps to keep the spinal column in proper alignment.

Principle 2: Reduce Excessive Force

Excessive force on your joints can create a potential for fatigue and injury. In practical terms, the
action item is for you to identify specific instances of excessive force and think of ways to make
improvements.

For example, pulling a heavy cart might create excessive force for your
back. To make improvements it might help to make sure the floor is in
good repair, that the wheels on the cart are sufficiently large, and that
there are good grips on the cart. Or a power tagger might be needed.

Another kind of example is having handholds on boxes or carrying

totes. Having the handhold reduces the exertion your hands need to
carry the same amount of weight. Or another example of reducing
force is to use a hoist for lifting heavy objects, like this vacuum hoist in
the drawing. There are thousands of other examples and the field of ergonomics includes much
information on conditions that affect force. The basic point is to recognize activities that require
excessive force, then think of any way you can to reduce that force.

Principle 3: Keep Everything in Easy Reach

The next principle deals with keeping things within easy reach. In many ways, this principle is
redundant with posture, but it helps to evaluate a task from this specific perspective.

One concept is to think about the "reach envelope." This is the semi-circle
that your arms make as you reach out. Things that you use frequently
should ideally be within the reach envelope of your full arm. Things that
you use extremely frequently should be within the reach envelope of your
forearms.

Much of the time, problems with reach are simply matters of rearranging
your work area and moving things closer to you. This is not exactly a hard
concept to grasp; what is difficult is having the presence of mind to notice
and change the location of things that you reach for a lot. Often it is a matter of habit. You are
unaware that you continually reach for something that could be easily moved closer. Or sometimes,
the work surface is just too big, causing you to reach across to get something. One option is just to
get a smaller surface. Another option is to make a cut out. This way your reaches are cut, but you
still have plenty of space for things.

Principle 4: Work at Proper Heights

Working at the right height is also a way to make things easier.

A good rule of thumb is that most work should be done at about

elbow height, whether sitting or standing. A real common
example is working with a computer keyboard. But there are
many other types of tasks where the rule applies. There are
exceptions to this rule, however. Heavier work is often best done
lower than elbow height. Precision work or visually intense work
is often best done at heights above the elbow. Sometimes you
can adjust heights by extending the legs to a worktable or cutting them down. Or you can either put
a work platform on top of the table (to raise the work up) or stand on a platform (to raise YOU up).
Or to be a little more complicated, there are ways to make stands and worktables instantaneously
adjustable with hand cranks or pushbutton controls.

Principle 5: Reduce Excessive Motions

The next principle to think about is the number of motions you make throughout a day, whether
with your fingers, your wrists, your arms, or your back.

One of the simplest ways to reduce manual repetitions is to use power

tools whenever possible. Another approach is to change layouts of
equipment to eliminate motions. In the example here, the box is moved
closer and tilted, so that you can slide the products in, rather than having
to pick them up each time. Or sometimes there are uneven surfaces or
lips that are in the way. By changing these, you can eliminate motions. As
always, there are more examples, but you should be getting the idea.

Principle 6: Minimize Fatigue and Static Load

Holding the same position for a period is known as static load. It creates fatigue and discomfort and
can interfere with work.

A good example of static load that everyone has experienced is writer’s

cramp. You do not need to hold onto a pencil very hard, just for long
periods. Your muscles tire after a time and begin to hurt. In the
workplace, having to hold parts and tools continually is an example of
static load. In this case, using a fixture eliminates the need to hold onto
the part. Having to hold your arms overhead for a few minutes is another
classic example of static load, this time affecting the shoulder muscles.
Sometimes you can change the orientation of the work area to prevent this, or sometimes you can
add extenders to the tools. Having to stand for a long time creates a static load on your legs. Simply
having a footrest can permit you to reposition your legs and make it easier to stand.

Principle 7: Minimize Pressure Points

Another thing to watch out for is excessive pressure points, sometimes called "contact stress."

A good example of this is squeezing hard onto a tool, like a pair of pliers.
Adding a cushioned grip and contouring the handles to fit your hand
makes this problem better. Leaning your forearms against the hard edge
of a worktable creates a pressure point. Rounding out the edge and
padding it usually helps. We’ve all had to sit on chairs that had
cushioning and so understand almost everything we need to know about
pressure points. A particularly vulnerable spot is behind your knees,
which happens if your chair is too high or when you dangle your legs. Another pressure point that
can happen when you sit is between your thigh and the bottom of a table. A slightly more subtle
kind of pressure point occurs when you stand on a hard surface, like concrete. Your heels and feet
can begin to hurt and your whole legs can begin to tire. The answer is anti-fatigue matting or
sometimes using special insoles in your shoes. Like the other basic principles that we’ve covered so
far, pressure points are things that you can look for in your work areas to see if there are ways to
make improvements.

Principle 8: Provide Clearance

Having enough clearance is a concept that is easy to relate to.

Work areas need to be set up so that you have enough room for your
head, your knees, and your feet. You obviously don’t want to have to
bump into things all the time, or must work in contorted postures, or
reach because there is no space for your knees or feet. Being able to
see is another version of this principle. Equipment should be built, and
tasks should be set up so that nothing blocks your view.

Principle 9: Move, Exercise, and Stretch

To be healthy the human body needs to be exercised and stretched.

You should not conclude after reading all the preceding information about reducing
repetition, force, and awkward postures, that you’re best off just lying around pushing
buttons. Muscles need to be loaded and your heart rate needs periodic elevation.
Depending upon the type of work you do, different exercises on the job can be helpful.
If you have a physically demanding job, you may find it helpful.

 to stretch and warm up before any strenuous activity.

 If you have a sedentary job, you may want to take a quick "energy break" every
so often to do a few stretches.

If you sit for long periods, you need to shift postures:

 Adjust the seat up and down throughout the day.

 Move, stretch, and change positions often.

It would be ideal if you could alternate between sitting and standing throughout the day. For some
tasks, such as customer service, desks are available that move up and down for this purpose (this is
not new; Thomas Jefferson built a desk like this for himself).

Principle 10: Maintain a Comfortable Environment

This principle is a catch-all that can mean different things depending

upon the nature of the types of operations that you do. One common
problem is lighting. In the computerized office, lighting has become a big
issue, because the highly polished computer screen reflects every stray
bit of light around. But many other types of tasks can be affected by poor
lighting, too. Concerns include glare, working in your own shadow, and
just plain insufficient light. One good way to solve lighting problems is by
using task lighting; that is, having a small light right at your work that you
can orient and adjust to fit your needs. Vibration is another common
problem that can benefit from evaluation. As an example, vibrating tools
can be dampened.
Person

The person is the central point of the work. The person combines knowledge from other
elements in the concentric model to complete the work. Effective work is designed by
optimising the person's ability to complete the work, eg designing it so that it is within their
mental and physical capabilities.
The person should be able to work in a comfortable and effective manner. Equipment,
furniture, the environment and task activities should all support this.
Mental capabilities, such as memory, concentration, reasoning and interpretation, should all
be considered when designing tasks, environments and work systems. This should aim to
optimise a person's capacity to interact with the work.
An important, but often overlooked, point is that the person is the one aspect of the work
system that cannot be changed. Therefore the purpose of the concentric model of ergonomics
is to adapt all other elements of the work system to fit the capabilities of the person.

Work Task

Ergonomics addresses the work task by ensuring that the elements of the task are structured
to suit the person carrying it out.
The factors to be considered in relation to the work task include the following.
 Tools and equipment must be easily reached to avoid poor working postures.
 Tasks requiring the exertion of force should be automated or semi-automated
wherever possible, always aiming to minimise the degree of exertion.
 Repetitive tasks should be automated where possible, or frequently interrupted by
changes of activity or work breaks, and should preferably be self-paced.
 Static work postures should be changed regularly — movement during task
completion should be encouraged.
  Changes of activity and job rotation should be encouraged to enable changes of
posture, especially if some or all the tasks are repetitive.
 Rest breaks should be short, but frequent, to prevent fatigue.
 Instructions or information about the task, such as from displays or controls, should
be provided clearly and logically.
 Training should be provided for the task, use of equipment, furniture and health and
safety matters. Training is particularly important when any element undergoes
changes that impact the completion of the task.
 Information required to complete the task, eg security codes or operation sequences,
should be logical and easy to remember.
Understanding the psychological capabilities of the person, such as the limits of his or her
memory and concentration, will help to design a task within those limits. This should make
the task accessible to the person. The provision of any information or instruction should also
account for the way in which people process information. Postural and biomechanical
knowledge will also place the physical elements of the task within the capabilities of the
person.

Workstation

The workstation is the area where the task is conducted. Commonly this will be a desk or
work surface, but may equally be at a conveyor belt or within a driver's cab.
The workstation should be designed so that it is accessible for the person using it.
The factors to be considered in relation to the workstation include the following.
 The surface height should be sufficient to avoid stooping or reaching to its surface.
 There should be sufficient legroom for standing and writing tasks so that the person is
able to get close enough to the workstation.
 The surface properties should not present a risk to the person, eg no sharp edges or
unprotected hot/cold surfaces.
 Surrounding workstations or other items in the environment, eg columns or posts,
should not constrain the user's posture.
 Any furniture should support a good working posture, eg chairs should provide
lumbar support.
 The workstation should be suitable for the work task such that all equipment can be
located and arranged for the person to complete the task.
Adjustable equipment and furniture will increase the flexibility of a workstation making it
more accessible to a range of work tasks and/or workers.

Work Environment

The work environment is the place of work which includes the physical environment and
general layout. Environmental concerns include the temperature, humidity, lighting and
noise.
The factors to be considered in relation to the work environment include the following.
 Temperature and humidity levels will directly affect the person's comfort and capacity
to work. Excessive temperatures can lead to fatigue and loss of concentration as well
as loss of dexterity.
  Illumination of the task and information is important. Eliminating glare or reflections
is also vital.
 Noise levels can affect concentration or lead to physical discomfort. Noise sources
should be reduced, eliminated or protective equipment supplied.
 Health and safety regulations must be adhered to and, to encourage this, the work
tasks themselves need to be configured to safe systems of work.

Work System

The work system refers to the structure of the organisation and the way it operates. It includes
communications, policies and working standards.
Industry standards or health and safety regulations may place constraints or requirements on
the organisation, which affect the way in which the work is completed.
For example, a company may have to meet quality standards which require comprehensive
quality information to be supplied. This requires the worker to fill in a quality report for all
work completed. This may affect the ergonomics by increasing the activity required in the
task (which may affect the posture or rest breaks), and requires additional material to be
stored at the workstation, ie report forms. The storage of additional material and the need to
complete writing tasks requires additional space at the workstation and may compromise the
work posture adopted or the completion of the task.
Poor job scheduling or job deadline pressures, considered as part of the work system, may
also place constraints or high demands on work tasks and workers. Shift patterns and job
rotation are also elements which affect work and the way it is completed.
Work can be dramatically improved or constrained by work systems. The system must be
reviewed in relation to all of the other elements of work to avoid unforeseen constraints being
imposed or potential improvements remaining unrecognised.

Ergonomics Techniques

The nature of ergonomics requires thorough and comprehensive investigation of all parts of
the work. In order to ensure that all aspects are considered there are specific techniques which
can be employed.

Task Analysis

A task analysis provides information for the design of new work tasks or the evaluation of
existing work tasks. The process identifies what people actually do when they perform tasks,
highlighting connections between activities and identifying unplanned or unusual activities
within the work.
A task analysis is completed in three stages.
1. Task description: this details the activities identified. The format for a task
description may vary depending on the target audience reviewing the information. For
example, it may be shown to senior managers who are used to reading flow charts or
it may be for workers who are more familiar with procedural lists. Most commonly a
diagram is used, although lists, flow charts or tables are equally valid, as long as the
analyst's findings are clear and concise.
 2. Data collection: activities are identified through observation, review of records and
manuals or discussions with workers and managers.
3. Data analysis: findings are interpreted in relation to how the system should work. In
particular, any mismatches between the findings and the theoretical completion of the
task can be identified and the cause investigated. For example, the analysts may have
recorded a worker repeatedly pressing a control button when only one press was
instructed in the manual. This may reveal that the button is faulty, the system requires
confirmation or the button press is not being registered with the system. These all
have implications for the effectiveness of the system, particularly in terms of time
spent and accuracy of operation.
Hierarchical Task Analysis

Hierarchical task analysis (HTA) is a commonly-used method for breaking the task into its
component activities. Beginning with the overall goal of the task, a structure is created
showing the levels of activity required to complete the task.
Figure 2: Hierarchical Task Analysis for a Simple Assembly Task

All boxes (activities) in the hierarchy can be numbered to clarify their sequence and
dependence within the work task.

Workflow Analysis

The flow of work is important to the design of workstations and workplaces. Workflow
analysis plots the flow of activity on a plan of the workplace. This helps to identify the
pattern of activities, ensuring they are optimised to avoid wasting time and energy. It also
ensures that the workplace is appropriately designed.
Workflow analysis can also be used to optimise the arrangement of equipment and
components at the workstation. For example, by ensuring that items used together or in
sequence are placed close to each other to improve the completion of the task.
Figure 3: Examples of Workflow Identification and Change
Frequency Analysis

The frequency with which tools and equipment are used can be important factors in work
design. Frequently-used items may be positioned closer to the worker for ease of access and
to prevent unnecessary hold-ups to the process. Equally, the frequency analysis may be used
in the assessment of postures (how often a posture is adopted) or the repetition involved in
the work task.
A simple tick-box technique can be used to record the frequency that an activity or posture
occurs, or an item is used.

Video Analysis

Digital or video recordings provide permanent, reusable records of activities and work tasks.
Using video has the advantage of providing a record which is accessible to a range of analysts
after the event and away from the work environment. As the record is reusable it provides the
scope to record and analyse data in great detail. It is also a relatively unobtrusive method of
observation and data capture.
The main disadvantage of using digital or other recording techniques is that the camera angle
restricts what is recorded, and therefore constrains what can be analysed without invalidating
the analysis or making it unreliable. The detail in which analysis of data can be recorded can
also make the process time-consuming and therefore costly.
 Risk Assessments

Ergonomic risk assessments can be conducted to assess the work.

The assessment should be systematic and comprehensive, accounting for all elements of the
work. Checklists can be used to ensure all elements, ie the person, work task, workstation,
work environment and work system, are covered.
All hazards should be identified and recorded and an assessment of the risk posed by the
hazard should be made. All hazards must be addressed, eliminated where possible or reduced
as far as practicable.
Any checklist used should incorporate the five elements of the concentric approach, but can
be tailored to suit the work within the business. For example, by placing more emphasis on
the environmental issues involved in the safe use, storage and handling of chemicals where
the business focuses on their use; or by emphasising the importance of good software design
for call-centre work, where the software is relied on to provide information to the worker and
the customer.

Allocation of Function

Allocation of function is the process of assigning activities to either the person or the
machine in order to complete the work task. By allocating activities to the person or machine
most suited to complete them the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the work is
improved.
Each activity needs to be assessed to identify the requirements for completing it and then
assigned according to the abilities of the person or machine. Some general guidelines are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Guidance for Allocating Functions

Person: Good At Machine: Good At
Sensing stimuli: at low levels over background noise Sensing stimuli: outside human range
Recognising patterns of stimuli Monitoring
Sensing unexpected occurrences Calculating
Decision making Applying force
Information recall High speed operations
Creating alternatives Repetitive tasks
Interpreting subjective data Sustained accuracy and reliability
Adapting responses Counting or measuring
Simultaneous operations
(Adapted from Human Factors in Engineering and Design, Sanders and McCormick. McGraw Hill)
Allocation of function may also be affected by economic or social factors. For example,
mechanising work tasks may require high machining costs, and lead to unemployment for
workers. The “best” performance may not always be required and contact with people is
sometimes preferable to dealing with machines.
It should also be noted that to optimise job design, retaining some interesting tasks for people
may be more important than mechanising them, leaving only machine monitoring or
maintenance tasks for workers.
Application Areas
There are some specialist areas of application in the field of ergonomics.

Human-computer Interaction

Human-computer interaction (HCI) deals with the interchange between people and computer
technology. It has developed as a specialism of ergonomics, as the use of and dependence on
computer technology has grown.
The main disciplines of reference are psychology and cognitive science, which are concerned
with how information is interpreted, processed and responded to. This knowledge helps to
identify how information and systems can be best organised and presented such that people can
easily and accurately use them. Computer science knowledge is also important, providing
information about the technology and the systems being used. New and emerging information
technologies can also influence decisions concerning ongoing interaction.

Human-machine Interaction

Human-machine interaction deals with the interaction between people and machinery facilitated
by the physical operation of controls and mental interpretation of displays.
This interaction relates to tasks as diverse as driving, operating equipment and monitoring
systems. Knowledge from psychology and anatomy are particularly relevant.

Software Design

Software can be designed to make using systems more intuitive and accessible for work.
Previously systems were designed based on the capacity of the technology with little thought for
the “front-end”, or software interface. Now, with increasing demand to make systems more
accessible to everyone and not just to computer experts, the use and arrangement of colour and
text can be developed to enhance the usability of the software. Equally, the structure of menus,
commands and programs, which the user is not so aware of, can be designed to improve the
interface or make it more predictive.
The development of software technology that hides complex programming code and replace it
with commands familiar to everyday work have greatly advanced the use of computers and their
accessibility to a wide range of workers.
The use of intuitive or what might be described as "intelligent" software also has implications for
ergonomics and assumptions should not be made that these will always minimse ergonomic
risks. This may be especially true where different software programs — sometimes at different
levels of maturity — may need to used by the same worker to complete a task.

Interface Design

Communication with machines and computers is done through interfaces. These consist of
displays to relay information about the machine/computer state, and controls to enable people to
react to the display, instructing the machine/computer with a response.
Smartphones are tablets are progressively becoming more important in terms of daily interfaces
used by staff and so the procurement of these devices should consider ergonomic factors.
Information can be collated, arranged and presented in formats which psychological studies have
shown to be quicker and easier to read and interpret. Colours, shapes and sizes as well as
audible messages can also be used to aid understanding and improve the interaction between
the machine and the person. For example, alarms or warning signals can be designed to provoke
different types of responses, eg a loud alarm or a soft feminine voice advising a warning.
Logical arrangement of displays and controls will improve the interface, particularly where the
arrangement relates to the sequence or frequency of operations. Good design of displays,
controls and commands can mitigate accidental or unintended commands by panel layout.
Psychology is the dominant knowledge base for interface design.

Displays and Controls

Displays and controls are the mechanisms used to enable people and machines to interact. The
state of the machine is relayed to the person through a display (eg liquid crystal or LED displays,
readings and even dials on some older machines) and the person instructs the machine by
operating controls (eg touch, swipe or tap, buttons, switches and levers). Developments in touch
screen and voice recognition technologies can also influence such interaction.
Displays and controls can be ergonomically designed to enable an effective interaction between
the person and the machine. Shapes, colours, locations, text, arrangement and responsiveness
can all affect whether the person is able to accurately obtain information from the machine and
precisely operate it thereafter.

Job Design

The design of the job or work task is important for obtaining the maximum performance from the
person for the minimum effort, but also in terms of creating a level of job satisfaction. There are
three stages considered to be influential in successfully designing jobs.
1. Job rotation: this involves people being moved from one task to another to allow changes
in posture, movement, and mental and physical dexterity. Job rotation can help to
overcome boredom, particularly in repetitive jobs, and to prevent fatigue, loss of
concentration and deterioration in performance.
2. Job enlargement: this involves increasing the scope and range of tasks carried out by
one person, which provides greater flexibility and incorporates wider skills.
3. Job enrichment: this involves enriching the job by incorporating motivating factors, such
as increased responsibility and involvement. Job enrichment aims to provide greater
autonomy over the planning, execution and control of work.