Computer Science 3A - CSC3A10/CSC03A3: Lecture 2: Arrays, Linked Lists and Recursion

Outline Arrays Basic ADT’s Singly Linked Lists Doubly Linked Lists Circular Linked Lists Recursion
Computer Science 3A - CSC3A10/CSC03A3

Lecture 2: Arrays, Linked Lists and Recursion
Academy of Computer Science and Software Engineering

University of Johannesburg
Computer Science 3A - CSC3A10/CSC03A3 1/66 Academy of Computer Science and Software Engineering
1 Arrays
Array Properties
Arrays Implemented
2 Basic ADT’s
Position ADT
List ADT
3 Singly Linked Lists
Singly Linked List Properties
Node Class
Insertion
Removal
Stack with a Singly Linked List
Queue with a Singly Linked List
Singly Linked List Implementation
Singly Linked List Performance
4 Doubly Linked Lists
Doubly Linked List Properties

Doubly Linked List Structure
Doubly Linked List Insertion
Doubly Linked List Removal
Doubly Linked List Performance
5 Circular Linked Lists

Circular Linked Lists
6 Recursion
Recursion Properties
Recursion Examples
Content of a Recursive Method
Visualizing recursion
Types of Recursion
Linear Recursion
Tail Recursion
Binary Recursion
Multiple Recursion
Exercises
Arrays
Arrays
Storing in an array
Object to store (such as GameEntry)
High score class
Insertion
Removal
Arrays II
Sorting an array
Insertion sort
Algorithm
Java.util
Equals
fill
sort
toString
Arrays Implemented
Pseudo-Random Number (java.util.Random and seed)

Cryptography (Caesar Cipher)
2D Arrays (Matrix and Positional games, such as Tic-Tac-Toe)
Basic ADT’s
Postion ADT
The Position ADT models the notion of place within a data structure where a
single object is stored
It gives a unified view of diverse ways of storing data, such as
a cell of an array
a node of a linked list
Just one method:
object element(): returns the element stored at the position
List ADT
Accessor methods:
The List ADT models a first()
sequence of positions last()
storing arbitrary objects prev(p)
next(p)
It establishes a
Update methods:
before/after relation
replace(p, e)
between positions
insertBefore(p, e),
Generic methods: insertAfter(p, e),
size() insertFirst(e)
isEmpty() insertLast(e)
remove(p)
Singly Linked Lists
Singly Linked List Properties
A singly linked list is a

concrete data structure
consisting of a sequence
of nodes
Each node stores
element
link to the next node Figure: An individual node in a
Singly Linked List
Singly Linked List II
Figure: Singly Linked List with multiple nodes
Singly Linked List Node Class I
1 p u b l i c c l a s s Node {
2 // I n s t a n c e v a r i a b l e s :
3 private Object element ;
4 p r i v a t e Node n e x t ;
5 /∗ ∗ C r e a t e s a node w i t h n u l l r e f e r e n c e s t o i t s e l e m e n t and n e x t
node . ∗/
6 p u b l i c Node ( ) {
7 this ( null , null ) ;
8 }
9 /∗ ∗ C r e a t e s a node w i t h t h e g i v e n e l e m e n t and n e x t node . ∗/
10 p u b l i c Node ( O b j e c t e , Node n ) {
11 element = e ;
12 next = n ;
13 }
14 // A c c e s s o r methods :
15 public Object getElement () {
Singly Linked List Node Class II
16 return element ;
17 }
18 p u b l i c Node g e t N e x t ( ) {
19 return next ;
20 }
21 // M o d i f i e r methods :
22 p u b l i c v o i d s e t E l e m e n t ( O b j e c t newElem ) {
23 e l e m e n t = newElem ;
24 }
25 p u b l i c v o i d s e t N e x t ( Node newNext ) {
26 n e x t = newNext ;
27 }
28 }
Inserting at the Head
1 Allocate new node

2 Insert new element
3 Have new node point to
old head
4 Update head to point to
new node
Figure: Insertion at head
Inserting at the Tail
1 Allocate a new node

2 Insert new element
3 Have new node point to
null
4 Have old last node point
to new node
5 Update tail to point to
new node
Figure: Insertion at tail
Removal at the Head
1 Update head to point to

next node in the list
2 Allow garbage collector to
reclaim the former first
node
Figure: Removal at head
Removal at the Tail
1 Removing at the tail of a

singly linked list is not
efficient!
2 There is no constant-time
way to update the tail to
Figure: Removal at tail
point to the previous node
Stack with a Singly Linked List

We can implement a stack with a singly linked list
The top element is stored at the first node of the list
The space used is O(n) and each operation of the Stack ADT takes O(1) time
Figure: A visualization of a stack implemented using a SLL
Queue with a Singly Linked List

We can implement a queue with a singly linked list
The front element is stored at the first node
The rear element is stored at the last node
The space used is O(n) and each operation of the Queue ADT takes O(1) time
Figure: A visualization of a queue implemented using a SLL
Singly Linked List Implementation
Implementation (Node class - CF 3.12 and SLinkedList Class - CF 3.13)

Insertion (Head and Tail - CF 3.14, but what about the middle?
Removal (Head - CF 3.13, but what about the tail and middle?)
Singly Linked List Performance
In the implementation of the List ADT by means of a singly linked list

The space used by a list with n elements is O(n)
The space used by each position of the list is O(1)
Most of the operations of the List ADT run in O(1) time (except access methods)
Operation element() of the Position ADT runs in O(1) time
Doubly Linked Lists
Doubly Linked List Properties
Singly Linked Lists: No way of going (quickly) to predecessor node

Doubly Linked List Nodes have both Next and Previous references (CF 3.16)
They also contain Sentinel Nodes namely the header and trailer, which are empty!
(Fig 3.19)
Doubly Linked List Properties II
Now removing the tail?

Adding at the head (in fact, add after the header)
Insertion in the middle? (Easy: for any node v we call insertAfter(v, z) - z being
the node to insert)
Removal in the middle? (CF 3.17)
Doubly Linked Structure
A doubly linked list

provides a natural
implementation of the
List ADT
Nodes implement Position
and store:
element
link to the previous
node Figure: An individual node in a
link to the next node Doubly Linked List
Special trailer and header
nodes
Doubly Linked List II
Figure: Doubly Linked List with multiple nodes
Doubly Linked List Insertion
Figure: Doubly Linked List before insertion
Doubly Linked List Insertion II
Figure: Doubly Linked List during insertion
Doubly Linked List Insertion III
Figure: Doubly Linked List after insertion
Doubly Linked List Insertion IV
1 Algorithm i n s e r t A f t e r (p , e ) :
2 C r e a t e a new node v
3 v . setElement ( e )
4 v . setPrev ( p ) { l i n k v to i t s p r e d e c e s s o r }
5 v . setNext (p . getNext () ) { l i n k v to i t s s u c c e s s o r }
6 ( p . getNext () ) . setPrev ( v ) { l i n k p ’ s old s u c c e s s o r to v}
7 p . s e t N e x t ( v ) { l i n k p t o i t s new s u c c e s s o r , v }
8 r etu rn v { the p o s i t i o n f o r the element e}
insertAfter algorithm
Doubly Linked List Removal
Figure: Doubly Linked List before removal
Doubly Linked List Removal II
Figure: Doubly Linked List during removal
Doubly Linked List Removal III
Figure: Doubly Linked List after removal
Doubly Linked List Removal IV
1 A l g o r i t h m remove ( p ) :
2 t = p . element {a temporary v a r i a b l e to hold the return v a l u e }
3 ( p . g e t P r e v ( ) ) . s e t N e x t ( p . g e t N e x t ( ) ) { l i n k i n g o u t p}
4 (p . getNext () ) . setPrev (p . getPrev () )
5 p . s e t P r e v ( n u l l ) { i n v a l i d a t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n p}
6 p . setNext ( null )
7 return t
remove algorithm
Doubly Linked List Performance
In the implementation of the List ADT by means of a doubly linked list

The space used by a list with n elements is O(n)
The space used by each position of the list is O(1)
All the operations of the List ADT run in O(1) time
Operation element() of the Position ADT runs in O(1) time
Always a next pointer

No null to signify end of list.
No head, no tail
Special node known as the cursor (RDBMS anyone?)
Circular Linked Lists II
Some methods
add
remove
advance [the cursor]
Sorting (definitely easier on a doubly linked list!)
insertion sort (CF 3.27)
Java (CF 3.28)
Recursion
Recursion Properties
When a method calls itself

Sometimes the solution has repetition
Recursion Examples
Classic recursive examples include:

Euclid’s algorithm
The factorial function
The Fibonacci sequence
The Ackermann function
Towers of Hanoi
Others
Every recursive function can be written in an iterative manner!
Recursion Examples II
Euclid’s Algorithm (Greatest Common Divisor):
(
a if b = 0,
For a, b ≥ 0, gcd(a, b) =
gcd(b, a mod b) otherwise
1 p u b l i c s t a t i c i n t gcd ( i n t a , i n t b )
2 {
3 i f ( b == 0 )
4 return a ;
5 e l s e i f ( a >= b && b > 0 )
6 r e t u r n gcd ( b , a % b ) ;
7 e l s e r e t u r n gcd ( b , a ) ;
8 }
Euclid’s Java function

Recursion Examples III

The factorial function:
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · ... · (n − 1) · n
(
1 if n = 0,
f (n) =
n · f (n − 1) else
1 public static int r e c u r s i v e F a c t o r i a l ( int n) {

2 // b a s i s c a s e
3 i f ( n == 0 ) r e t u r n 1;
4 // r e c u r s i v e c a s e
5 e l s e r e t u r n n ∗ r e c u r s i v e F a c t o r i a l ( n− 1 ) ;
6 }
Factorial Java function

Content of a Recursive Method
Base case(s):
Values of the input variables for which we perform no recursive calls are called
base cases (there should be at least one base case).
Every possible chain of recursive calls must eventually reach a base case.
Recursive calls:
Calls to the current method.
Each recursive call should be defined so that it makes progress towards a base
case.
Visualizing recursion
Recursion trace
A box for each recursive
call
An arrow from each caller
to callee
An arrow from each callee
to caller showing return
value
Types of Recursion
Linear recursion
Tail recursion
Binary recursion
Multiple recursion
Linear Recursion
Test for base cases

Begin by testing for a set of base cases (there should be at least one).
Every possible chain of recursive calls must eventually reach a base case, and the
handling of each base case should not use recursion.
Recur once:
Perform a single recursive call. (This recursive step may involve a test that
decides which of several possible recursive calls to make, but it should ultimately
choose to make just one of these calls each time we perform this step.)
Define each possible recursive call so that it makes progress towards a base case.
Linear Recursion II
1 A l g o r i t h m Li nea rS um (A , n ) :
2 I n p u t : A i n t e g e r a r r a y A and an i n t e g e r n = 1 , s u c h t h a t A h a s a t l e a s t
n elements
3 Output : The sum o f t h e f i r s t n i n t e g e r s i n A
4 i f n = 1 then
5 return A[ 0 ]
6 else
7 r e t u r n Li nea rS um (A , n − 1 ) + A [ n − 1 ]
Linear Summation Algorithm
Linear Recursion III
Figure: Recursive Linear Summation Visualized
Linear Recursion IV
1 A l g o r i t h m R e v e r s e A r r a y (A , i , j):
2 I n p u t : An a r r a y A and n o n n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r i n d i c e s i and j
3 Output : The r e v e r s a l o f t h e e l e m e n t s i n A s t a r t i n g a t i n d e x i and
ending at j
4 i f i < j then
5 Swap A [ i ] and A [ j ]
6 R e v e r s e A r r a y (A , i + 1 , j − 1)
7 return
Reverse Algorithm
Linear Recursion V
Defining Arguments for Recursion

In creating recursive methods, it is important to define the methods in ways that
facilitate recursion.
This sometimes requires we define additional parameters that are passed to the
method.
For example, we defined the array reversal method as ReverseArray(A, i, j), not
ReverseArray(A).
Tail Recursion
Tail recursion occurs when a linearly recursive method makes its recursive call as
its last step.
The array reversal method is an example.
Such methods can be easily converted to non-recursive methods (which saves on
some resources).
Tail Recursion II
For example:
1 A l g o r i t h m I t e r a t i v e R e v e r s e A r r a y (A , i , j ) :
2 I n p u t : An a r r a y A and n o n n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r i n d i c e s i and j
3 Output : The r e v e r s a l o f t h e e l e m e n t s i n A s t a r t i n g a t i n d e x i and
ending at j
4
5 w h i l e i < j do
6 Swap A [ i ] and A [ j ]
7 i = i + 1
8 j = j − 1
9 return
Reverse Algorithm
Binary Recursion
Problem: add all the numbers in an integer array A:

1 A l g o r i t h m BinarySum (A , i , n ) :
2 I n p u t : An a r r a y A and i n t e g e r s i and n
3 Output : The sum o f t h e n i n t e g e r s i n A s t a r t i n g a t i n d e x i
4 i f n = 1 then
5 return A[ i ]
6 r e t u r n BinarySum (A , i , n/ 2 ) + BinarySum (A , i + n/ 2 , n/ 2 )
Binary Sum
Binary Recursion II
Figure: Example trace for binary sum
Binary Recursion III
The Fibonacci Algorithm via Binary recursion


 F0 = 1
 (or F0 = 0)
f (n) = 1 F =1

 F =F
i i−1 + Fi−2 for i > 1
Binary Recursion IV
As a recursive algorithm (first attempt):

1 Algorithm BinaryFib ( k ) :
2 Input : Nonnegative i n t e g e r k
3 Output : The k t h F i b o n a c c i number Fk
4 i f k = 0 | | k = 1 then
5 return k
6 else
7 return B i n a r y F i b ( k − 1) + B i n a r y F i b ( k − 2)
Binary Fibonacci
Binary Recursion V
Let nk denote number of recursive calls made by BinaryFib(k). Then
n0 = 1 (sometimes there is a n00 = 0)

n1 = 1
n2 = n1 + n0 = 2
n3 = n2 + n1 = 3
n4 = n3 + n2 = 2 + 3 = 5
n5 = n4 + n3 = 3 + 5 = 8
n6 = n5 + n4 = 5 + 8 = 13
n7 = n6 + n5 = 8 + 13 = 21
n8 = n7 + n6 = 13 + 21 = 34.
Note that the value at least doubles for every other value of nk . That is, nk > 2k/2 . It
is exponential!
Binary Recursion VI
Use linear recursion instead:

1 Algorithm LinearFibonacci (k ) :
2 Input : A nonnegative integer k
3 Output : P a i r o f F i b o n a c c i numbers ( Fk , Fk −1)
4 i f k = 1 then
5 return ( k , 0)
6 else
7 (i , j ) = L i n e a r F i b o n a c c i ( k − 1)
8 r e t u r n ( i +j , i )
Linear Fibonacci
Runs in O(k) time!
Multiple Recursion
Motivating example: summation puzzles
pot + pan = bib

dog + cat = pig
boy + girl = baby
Multiple recursion: makes potentially many recursive calls (not just one or two).
Multiple Recursion II
1 A l g o r i t h m P u z z l e S o l v e ( k , S , U) :
2 I n p u t : An i n t e g e r k , s e q u e n c e S , and s e t U ( t h e e l e m e n t s u s e d t o t e s t )
3 Output : An e n u m e r a t i o n o f a l l k−l e n g t h e x t e n s i o n s t o S u s i n g e l e m e n t s
in U
4 without r e p e t i t i o n s
5
6 f o r a l l e i n U do
7 Remove e from U { e i s now b e i n g u s e d }
8 Add e t o t h e end o f S
9 i f k = 1 then
10 Test whether S i s a c o n f i g u r a t i o n that s o l v e s the p u z z l e
11 i f S s o l v e s the puzzle then
12 return ‘ ‘ S o l u t i o n found : ‘ ‘ S
13 else
14 P u z z l e S o l v e ( k − 1 , S , U)
15 Add e back t o U { e i s now u n u s e d }
16 Remove e from t h e end o f S
Multiple Recursion II
Example trace for PuzzleSolve(3,S,U) where S=() and U={a,b,c}
Reinforcement exercises: (U.S. version in parenthesis)

R-3.1
R-3.4
R-3.7
Creativity exercises:
C-3.15
C-3.18
C-3.21
C-3.22
C-3.23
C-3.30
C-3.31

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Outline Arrays Basic ADT’s Singly Linked Lists Doubly Linked Lists Circular Linked Lists Recursion

Computer Science 3A - CSC3A10/CSC03A3

Academy of Computer Science and Software Engineering

Doubly Linked List Properties

5 Circular Linked Lists

Pseudo-Random Number (java.util.Random and seed)

Singly Linked Lists

Singly Linked List Properties

A singly linked list is a

Singly Linked List II

Figure: Singly Linked List with multiple nodes

Singly Linked List Node Class I

Singly Linked List Node Class II

Inserting at the Head

1 Allocate new node

Figure: Insertion at head

Inserting at the Tail

1 Allocate a new node

Removal at the Head

1 Update head to point to

Figure: Removal at head

Removal at the Tail

1 Removing at the tail of a

Stack with a Singly Linked List

Figure: A visualization of a stack implemented using a SLL

Queue with a Singly Linked List

Figure: A visualization of a queue implemented using a SLL

Singly Linked List Implementation

Implementation (Node class - CF 3.12 and SLinkedList Class - CF 3.13)

Singly Linked List Performance

In the implementation of the List ADT by means of a singly linked list

Doubly Linked Lists

Doubly Linked List Properties

Singly Linked Lists: No way of going (quickly) to predecessor node

Doubly Linked List Properties II

Now removing the tail?

Doubly Linked Structure

A doubly linked list

Doubly Linked List II

Figure: Doubly Linked List with multiple nodes

Doubly Linked List Insertion

Figure: Doubly Linked List before insertion

Doubly Linked List Insertion II

Figure: Doubly Linked List during insertion

Doubly Linked List Insertion III

Figure: Doubly Linked List after insertion

Doubly Linked List Insertion IV

Doubly Linked List Removal

Figure: Doubly Linked List before removal

Doubly Linked List Removal II

Figure: Doubly Linked List during removal

Doubly Linked List Removal III

Figure: Doubly Linked List after removal

Doubly Linked List Removal IV

Doubly Linked List Performance

In the implementation of the List ADT by means of a doubly linked list

Circular Linked Lists

Circular Linked Lists