5.1. Derivation of The Wave Equation
5.1. Derivation of The Wave Equation
5.1. Derivation of The Wave Equation
(5.1) utt − ∆u = 0
This identity is true for any region, hence the divergence theorem tells that
utt = div F.
1
2 5. The Wave Equation
For elastic bodies, F is a function of Du, i.e., F = F (Du). For small u and small Du,
we use the linearization aDu to approximate F (Du), and so
utt − a∆u = 0,
when a = 1, the resulting equation is the wave equation. The physical interpretation
strongly suggests it will be mathematically appropriate to specify two initial conditions,
u(x, 0) and ut (x, 0).
which is called the domain of influence for (x0 , 0). The domain of determinacy of
[x1 , x2 ]; that is, the set of points (x, t) at which the solution is completely determined by
the values of initial data on [x1 , x2 ], is given by
x2 − x1
D(x1 , x2 ) = (x, t) x1 + t ≤ x ≤ x2 − t, t ∈ 0, .
2
Lemma 5.1 (Parallelogram property). Let Ω be an open set in R × R̄+ . Then any solution
u of the one-dimensional wave equation in Ω satisfies
(5.5) u(A) + u(C) = u(B) + u(D),
where ABCD is any parallelogram contained in Ω with the slope 1 or −1, with A and C
being two opposite points as shown in Figure 5.1.
0 x
We may use this property to solve certain initial and boundary problems.
Example 5.2. Solve the initial boundary value problem:
utt − uxx = 0,
x > 0, t > 0,
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x), x > 0,
u(0, t) = k(t), t > 0,
where g, h, k are given functions satisfying certain smoothness and compatibility conditions.
Solution. (See Figure 5.2.) If point E = (x, t) is in the region (I); that is, x ≥ t > 0, then
u(x, t) is given by (5.4):
g(x + t) + g(x − t) 1 x+t
Z
u(x, t) = + h(y) dy.
2 2 x−t
In particular, Z 2x
g(2x) + g(0) 1
u(x, x) = + h(y)dy.
2 2 0
4 5. The Wave Equation
Region (II)
A
E Region (I)
B
0 F G x
If point A = (x, t) is in the region (II); that is, 0 ≤ x < t, then we use the parallelogram
ABCD as shown in the figure to obtain u(x, t) = u(B) + u(D) − u(C), where
u(B) = u(0, t − x) = k(t − x),
Z x+t
x+t x+t g(x + t) + g(0) 1
u(D) = u( , )= + h(y) dy,
2 2 2 2 0
t−x t−x g(t − x) + g(0) 1 t−x
Z
u(C) = u( , )= + h(y) dy.
2 2 2 2 0
Hence, for 0 ≤ x < t,
g(x + t) − g(t − x) 1 x+t
Z
u(x, t) = k(t − x) + + h(y) dy.
2 2 t−x
Therefore the solution to this problem is given by
g(x + t) + g(x − t) + 1 x+t h(y) dy
R
(0 ≤ t ≤ x),
2 2 x−t
(5.6) u(x, t) =
k(t − x) + g(x + t) − g(t − x) + 1 x+t h(y) dy (0 ≤ x < t).
R
2 2 t−x
Of course, some smoothness and compatibility conditions on g, h, k are needed in order for
u(x, t) to be a true solution of the problem. Derive such conditions as an exercise.
Example 5.3. Solve the initial-boundary value problem
utt − uxx = 0,
x ∈ (0, π), t > 0,
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x), x ∈ (0, π),
u(0, t) = u(π, t) = 0, t > 0.
Solution. (See Figure 5.3.) We divide the strip (0, π) × (0, ∞) by line segments of slope ±1
starting first at (0, 0) and (π, 0) and then at all the intersection points with the boundaries.
5.2. One-dimensional wave equations and d’Alembert’s formula 5
(IV)
(II) (III)
B
(I)
0 π x
We can solve u in the region (I) by formula (5.4). In all other regions we use the
parallelogram formula (5.5).
Another way to solve this problem is the method of separation of variables. First
try u(x, t) = X(x)T (t), then we should have
X 00 (x)T (t) = T 00 (t)X(x), X(0) = X(π) = 0,
which implies that
T 00 (t) X 00 (x)
= = λ,
T (t) X(x)
where λ is a constant. From
X 00 (x) = λX(x), X(0) = X(π) = 0,
we find that λ = −j 2 with all j = 1, 2, . . ., and
Xj (x) = sin(jx), Tj (t) = aj cos(jt) + bj sin(jt).
To make sure that u satisfies the initial condition, we consider
X∞
(5.7) u(x, t) = [aj cos(jt) + bj sin(jt)] sin(jx).
j=1
i.e., the aj and jbj are Fourier coefficients of functions g(x) and h(x). That is,
2 π
Z Z π
2
aj = g(x) sin(jx)dx, bj = h(x) sin(jx)dx.
π 0 jπ 0
Substitute these coefficients into (5.7) and we obtain a formal solution u in terms of trigono-
metric series; the issue of convergence will not be discussed here.
6 5. The Wave Equation
So, for fixed x, the function U (x; r, t) extends as a function of r ∈ R and t ∈ R+ . One can
recover u(x, t) from U (x; r, t) in terms of
u(x, t) = lim U (x; r, t).
r→0+
Proof. 1. Note that, for each x ∈ Rn , the regularity of U on (r, t) follows easily as
Z
U (x; r, t) = − u(x + rξ, t)dSξ .
∂B(0,1)
5.3.2. Solutions in R3 and Kirchhoff ’s formula. For the most important case of three-
dimensional wave equations, we can easily see that the Euler-Poisson-Darboux equation
implies
1
(rU )rr = rUrr + 2Ur = (r2 Ur )r = rUtt = (rU )tt .
r
3
That is, for fixed x ∈ R , the function Ũ (r, t) = rU (x; r, t) solves the 1-D wave equation
Ũtt = Ũrr in r > 0, t > 0, with
Ũ (0, t) = 0, Ũ (r, 0) = rG := G̃, Ũ (r, 0) = rH := H̃.
This is the mixed-value problem studied in Example 5.2; hence, by (5.6) we have
1 t+r
Z
1
Ũ (r, t) = [G̃(r + t) − G̃(t − r)] + H̃(y) dy (0 ≤ r ≤ t).
2 2 t−r
We recover u(x, t) by
Ũ (r, t)
u(x, t) = lim U (x; r, t) = lim
r→0+ r→0+ r
" #
r+t
G̃(r + t) − G̃(t − r)
Z
1
= lim + H̃(y) dy = G̃0 (t) + H̃(t).
r→0+ 2r 2r −r+t
Therefore, we have obtained the so-called Kirchhoff ’s formula for 3-D wave equation:
Z ! Z
∂
u(x, t) = t− g(y) dSy + t − h(y) dSy
∂t ∂B(x,t) ∂B(x,t)
Z
(5.10) = − (th(y) + g(y) + Dg(y) · (y − x)) dSy
∂B(x,t)
Z
1
= (th(y) + g(y) + Dg(y) · (y − x)) dSy (x ∈ R3 , t > 0).
4πt2 ∂B(x,t)
p
Note that Dγ(z) = (x − z)/ t2 − |z − x|2 and thus
p t dz
dSỹ = 1 + |Dγ(z)|2 dz = p ;
t2 − |z − x|2
hence, noting that ∂B(x̃, t) has the top and bottom parts with y3 = ±γ(z),
Z Z
1
− g̃(ỹ) dSỹ = g̃(ỹ) dSỹ
∂ B̃(x̄,t) 4πt2 ∂ B̃(x̄,t)
Z
2 g(z)t dz
= 2
p
4πt B(x,t) t2 − |z − x|2
Z
1 g(z) dz
= p
2πt B(x,t) t2 − |z − x|2
Z
t g(z) dz
= − p .
2 B(x,t) t2 − |z − x|2
R
Similarly, we obtain the formula for −∂ B̃(x̄,t) h̃(ỹ) dSỹ ; finally, we have obtained the so-called
Poisson’s formula for 2-D wave equation:
!
∂ t2 t2
Z Z
g(z) dz h(z) dz
u(x, t) = − p + − p
∂t 2 B(x,t) t2 − |z − x|2 2 B(x,t) t2 − |z − x|2
(5.11)
tg(z) + t2 h(z) + tDg(z) · (z − x)
Z
1
= dz (x ∈ R2 , t > 0).
2πt2 B(x,t)
p
t2 − |z − x|2
Remark 5.2. (i) There are some fundamental differences for the wave equation between
the one dimension and the dimensions n = 2, 3. In both Kirchhoff’s formula (n = 3) and
Poisson’s formula (n = 2), the solution u depends on the derivative Dg of the initial data
u(x, 0) = g(x). For example, if g ∈ C m , h ∈ C m−1 for some m ≥ 1 then u is only C m−1 and
hence ut is only C m−2 (but ut (x, 0) = h(x) ∈ C m−1 ); therefore, there is loss of regularity
for the wave equation when n = 2, 3 (in fact for all n ≥ 2). However, this does not happen
when n = 1, in which u, ut are at least as smooth as g, h.
(ii) There are also some fundamental differences between the 3-D wave equation and
the 2-D wave equation. In R2 , we need the information of initial data g, h in the whole disc
B(x, t) to compute the value u(x, t); that is, the domain of dependence for (x, t) is the
whole disc B(x, t), while in R3 we only need the information of g, h on the sphere ∂B(x, t)
to compute the value u(x, t); that is, the domain of dependence for (x, t) is the sphere
∂B(x, t), not the solid ball B(x, t). In R3 , a “disturbance” initiated at x0 propagates along
the sharp wavefront ∂B(x0 , t) and does not affect the value of u elsewhere; this is known
as the strong Huygens’s principle. In R2 , a “disturbance” initiated at x0 will affect the
values u(x, t) in the whole region |x−x0 | ≤ t. In both cases n = 2, 3 (in fact all cases n ≥ 1),
the domain of influence of the initial data grows (with time t) at speed 1; therefore, the
wave equation has the finite speed of propagation.
(iii) To illustrate the differences between n = 2 and n = 3 of the wave equation, imagine
you are at position x in Rn and there is a sharp initial disturbance at position x0 away from
you at time t = 0. If n = 3 then you will only feel the disturbance (e.g., hear a screaming)
once, exactly at time t = |x − x0 |; however, if n = 2, you will feel the disturbance (e.g., you
are on a boat in a large lake and feel the wave) at all times t ≥ |x − x0 |, although the effect
on you will die out at t → ∞.
5.4. Solutions of the wave equation for general dimensions 9
where β0k = (2k − 1)!! = (2k − 1)(2k − 3) · · · 3 · 1 and βjk are independent of f .
Proof. Homework.
Now that
1 ∂ k−1 2k−1 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
V (r, 0) = ( ) (r U (x; r, 0)) = ( ) [r Mg (x, r)] := G̃(r)
r ∂r r ∂r
and
1 ∂ k−1 2k−1 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
Vt (r, 0) = ( ) (r Ut (x; r, 0)) = ( ) [r Mh (x, r)] := H̃(r).
r ∂r r ∂r
Hence, by (5.6), we have
1 r+t
Z
1
(5.12) V (r, t) = [G̃(r + t) − G̃(t − r)] + H̃(y)dy (0 ≤ r ≤ t).
2 2 t−r
and hence
V (r, t)
u(x, t) = U (x; 0+ , t) = lim
r→0+ β0k r
" Z r+t #
1 G̃(r + t) − G̃(t − r) 1
= k lim + H̃(y)dy
β0 r→0+ 2r 2r t−r
1 0
= [G̃ (t) + H̃(t)].
β0k
Therefore, we obtain the formula for C k+1 -solution of (2k + 1)-dimensional wave equa-
tion:
1 ∂ 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
(5.13) u(x, t) = k ( ) t Mg (x, t) + ( ) t Mh (x, t) .
β0 ∂t t ∂t t ∂t
Note that when n = 3 (so k = 1) this formula agrees with Kirchhoff’s formula derived
earlier.
In fact, the formula (5.13) defines indeed a classical solution to problem (5.8) under
some smoothness assumption on initial data.
Theorem 5.7 (Solution of wave equation in odd-dimensions). If n = 2k + 1 ≥ 3, g ∈
C k+2 (Rn ) and h ∈ C k+1 (Rn ), then the function u(x, t) defined by (5.13) belongs to C 2 (Rn ×
(0, ∞)), solves the wave equation utt = ∆u in Rn ×(0, ∞), and satisfies the Cauchy condition
in the sense that, for each x0 ∈ Rn ,
lim u(x, t) = g(x0 ), lim ut (x, t) = h(x0 ).
x→x0 , t→0+ x→x0 , t→0+
Proof. We may separate the proof in two cases: (a) g ≡ 0, and (b) h ≡ 0. The proof in
case (a) is given in the text. Here we give a similar proof for case (b) by assuming h ≡ 0.
1. The function u(x, t) defined by (5.13) becomes
1 ∂ 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
u(x, t) = k ( ) t G(x; t) , G(x; t) = Mg (x, t).
β0 ∂t t ∂t
By Lemma 5.5(ii),
k−1 j j+1 G
1 X k j∂ G j+1 ∂
u(x, t) = k β (j + 1)t +t → G(x0 , 0+ ) = g(x0 )
β0 j=0 j ∂tj ∂tj+1
Note that Z Z
t 1
Gt (x, t) = − ∆g(y) dy = ∆g(y) dy.
n B(x,t) nαn t2k B(x,t)
Hence ut (x, t) → 0 as (x, t) → (x0 , 0+ ).
2. By Lemma 5.5(i),
1 1 ∂ k 2k 1 ∂ 1 ∂ k 2k
(5.14) ut (x, t) = (t Gt ), utt (x, t) = (t Gt ).
β0k t ∂t β0k ∂t t ∂t
5.4. Solutions of the wave equation for general dimensions 11
Since
!
Z Z t Z
1 1
Gt (x, t) = ∆g(y) dy = ∆g(y) dSy dρ,
nαn t2k B(x,t) nαn t2k 0 ∂B(x,ρ)
we have Z
2k 2k
(t Gt )t = t − ∆g(y) dSy .
∂B(x,t)
Hence
Z
1 ∂ 1 ∂ k−1 1 2k 1 ∂ 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
utt (x, t) = k (t Gt )t = k t − ∆g dS .
β0 ∂t t ∂t t β0 ∂t t ∂t ∂B(x,t)
t 2
since dS = √ 2 dy on the surface yn+1 + |y − x|2 = t2 . Similarly we have
t −|y−x|2
Z
2 h(y)
Mh̃ (x̄, t) = n−1
p dy.
t (n + 1)αn+1 B(x,t) t2 − |y − x|2
Therefore, we have the following representation formula for even n:
2 n ∂ h 1 ∂ n−2 Z g(y) dy i
u(x, t) = ( ) 2 p
(n + 1)!!αn+1 ∂t t ∂t B(x,t) t2 − |y − x|2
(5.15) Z
1 ∂ n−2 h(y) dy o
+( ) 2 p .
t ∂t B(x,t) t2 − |y − x|2
When n = 2, this reduces to Poisson’s formula for 2-D wave equation obtained above.
5.4.3. Solution of the wave equation from the heat equation*. We study another
method of solving the odd-dimensional wave equations by the heat equation.
Suppose u is a bounded, smooth solution to the Cauchy problem
(
utt − ∆u = 0 in Rn × (0, ∞)
(5.16)
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = 0 on x ∈ Rn ,
where n is odd and g is smooth with nice decay at ∞. We extend u to negative times by
even extension of t and then define
Z ∞
1 s2
v(x, t) = 1/2
u(x, s)e− 4t ds (x ∈ Rn , t > 0).
(4πt) −∞
5.4. Solutions of the wave equation for general dimensions 13
Then v is bounded,
Z ∞
1 2
− s4t
∆v(x, t) = ∆u(x, s)e ds
(4πt)1/2 −∞
Z ∞
1 s2
= 1/2
uss (x, s)e− 4t ds
(4πt) −∞
Z ∞
1 s − s2
= us (x, s) e 4t ds
(4πt)1/2 −∞ 2t
Z ∞ s2
1 1 − s2
= u(x, s) − e 4t ds
(4πt)1/2 −∞ 4t2 2t
and Z ∞ s2
1 1 − s2
vt (x, t) = u(x, s) − e 4t ds.
(4πt)1/2 −∞ 4t2 2t
Moreover
lim v(x, t) = g(x) (x ∈ Rn ).
t→0+
Therefore, v solves the Cauchy problem for the heat equation:
(
vt − ∆v = 0 in Rn × (0, ∞)
v(x, 0) = g(x) on x ∈ Rn .
As v is bounded, by uniqueness, we have
Z
1 |y−x|2
− 4t
v(x, t) = g(y)e dy (x ∈ Rn , t > 0).
(4πt)1/2 Rn
We have two formulas for v(x, t) and take 4t = 1/λ in the two formulas to obtain
Z ∞
1 λ n−1
Z
−λs2 2
e−λ|y−x| g(y) dy
2
u(x, s)e ds =
0 2 π Rn
(5.17) n−1 Z ∞
nαn λ 2
2
= e−λr rn−1 G(x; r) dr
2 π 0
for all λ > 0, where Z
G(x; r) = Mg (x, r) = − g(y) dSy .
∂B(x,r)
So far, we have not used the odd dimension assumption. We will solve for u from (5.17)
when n = 2k + 1 ≥ 3 is odd. Noticing that − 2r 1 d −λr2 ) = λe−λr2 , we have
dr (e
Z ∞ Z ∞
n−1
−λr2 n−1 2
λ 2 e r G(x; r) dr = λk e−λr r2k G(x; r) dr
0 0
(−1)k ∞ h 1 d k −λr2 i 2k
Z
= (e ) r G(x; r) dr
2k 0 r dr
Z ∞ h
1 1 ∂ k 2k−1 i 2
= k r (r G(x; r)) e−λr dr,
2 0 r ∂r
where we integrated by parts k times (be careful with the operator ( 1r dr
d k
) ). We can then
write (5.17) as
Z ∞ Z ∞ h
2 nαn 1 ∂ k 2k−1 i 2
u(x, r)e−λr dr = k k+1 r (r G(x; r)) e−λr dr
0 π 2 0 r ∂r
14 5. The Wave Equation
for all λ > 0. If we think of r2 as τ , then this equation says that the Laplace transforms of
two functions of τ are the same; therefore, the two functions of τ must be the same, which
also implies the two functions of r are also the sam. So we obtain
nαn 1 ∂ k 2k−1 nαn ∂ 1 ∂ k−1 2k−1
(5.18) u(x, t) = k k+1 t (t G(x; t)) = k k+1 ( ) t G(x; t) ,
π 2 t ∂t π 2 ∂t t ∂t
which, except for the constant, agrees with the formula (5.13) with h ≡ 0. In fact the
n/2
constant here, using αn = Γ(πn+2 ) , Γ( 12 ) = π 1/2 and Γ(s + 1) = sΓ(s) for all s > 0,
2
Z t
∆u(x, t) = ∆U (x, t; s)ds.
0
Hence utt − ∆u = f (x, t). Clearly u(x, 0) = ut (x, 0) = 0.
Example 5.10. Find a solution of the following problem
(
utt − uxx = tex , (x, t) ∈ R × (0, ∞),
u(x, 0) = 0, ut (x, 0) = 0.
Example 5.14. (a) Show that there exists a constant K such that
K
|u(x, t)| ≤U (0) ∀ 0 < t < T
t
whenever T > 0 and u is a smooth solution to the Cauchy problem of 3-D wave equation
(
utt − ∆u = 0, x ∈ R3 , 0 < t < T,
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x), x ∈ R3 ,
(b) Let u be a smooth solution to the wave equation utt = ∆u in R3 × (0, ∞) satisfying
Z
1
lim (|u(x, t)| + |Du(x, t)| + |ut (x, t)| + |Dut (x, t)| + |D2 u(x, t)|) dx = 0.
t→∞ t R3
Proof. The details are left as Homework. Part (b) follows from (a) by considering ũ(x, t) =
u(x, T − t) on Rn × (0, T ).
Theorem 5.15 (Uniqueness of mixed-value problem for wave equation). There exists at
most one solution u ∈ C 2 (ΩT ) of mixed-value problem (5.24).
5.6.3. Other initial and boundary value problems. Uniqueness of wave equation can
be used to find the solutions to some mixed-value problems. Since solution is unique, any
solution found in special forms will be the unique solution.
Example 5.16. Solve the Cauchy problem of the wave equation
(
utt − ∆u = 0 in R3 × (0, ∞),
u(x, 0) = 0, ut (x, 0) = h(|x|),
where h(r) is a given function.
Solution. In theory, we could use Kirchhoff’s formula to find the solution; however, the
computation would be too complicated. Instead, we can try to find a solution in the form
of u(x, t) = v(|x|, t) by solving an equation for v, which becomes exactly the Euler-Poisson-
Darboux equation that can be solved easily when n = 3; some condition on h is needed in
order to have a classical solution. Details are left as an exercise.
Example 5.17. Let λ ∈ R and λ 6= 0. Solve
(
utt − ∆u + λu = 0 in Rn × (0, ∞),
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x).
Solution. We use the idea of Hadamard’s descent method. We first make u a solution to
the wave equation in Rn+1 × (0, ∞) and recover u by this solution.
If λ = µ2 > 0 (the equation is called the Klein-Gordon equation), let v(x̃, t) =
u(x, t) cos(µxn+1 ), where x̃ = (x, xn+1 ) ∈ Rn+1 and x ∈ Rn .
If λ = −µ2 < 0, let v(x̃, t) = u(x, t)eµxn+1 . Then, in both cases, v(x̃, t) solves the wave
equation and can be solved by using the formula (5.13) or (5.15). Then we recover u(x, t)
in both cases by u(x, t) = v(x̄, t), where x̄ = (x, 0) ∈ Rn+1 .
Example 5.18. Solve
utt (x, t) − ∆u(x, t) = 0,
x = (x0 , xn ) ∈ Rn−1 × R+ , t > 0,
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x), xn > 0,
u(x0 , 0, t) = 0, x0 ∈ Rn−1 .
Solution. We extend the functions g, h to odd functions g̃ and h̃ in xn ; e.g., g̃(x0 , −xn ) =
−g̃(x0 , xn ) for all xn ∈ R and g̃(x0 , xn ) = g(x0 , xn ) when xn > 0. We then solve
(
ũtt − ∆ũ = 0, x ∈ Rn , t > 0,
ũ(x, 0) = g̃(x), ũt (x, 0) = h̃(x), x ∈ Rn .
Since V (x, t) = ũ(x0 , xn , t) + ũ(x0 , −xn , t) solves
Vtt − ∆V = 0, V (x, 0) = 0, Vt (x, 0) = 0,
the uniqueness result implies V ≡ 0, i.e., ũ is an odd function in xn . Hence u = ũ|xn >0 is
the solution to the original problem.
Example 5.19. Let Ω be a bounded domain. Solve
utt − ∆u = f (x, t)
in Ω × (0, ∞),
u(x, 0) = g(x), ut (x, 0) = h(x), x ∈ Ω,
u(x, t) = 0, x ∈ ∂Ω, t ≥ 0.
5.7. Finite speed of propagation for second-order linear hyperbolic equations 19
Solution. Use the method of separation variables and try to find the solution of the form
∞
X
u= uj (x)Tj (t),
j=1
where
−∆uj = λj uj , uj |∂Ω = 0,
Tj00 (t) − λj T (t) = wj (t), Tj (0) = aj , Tj0 (0) = bj ,
By the elliptic theory, eigenfunctions {uj (x)}∞ 2
j=1 form an orthonormal basis of L (Ω), and
wj (t), aj , bj are the Fourier coefficients of w(x, t), g(x) and h(x) with respect to uj (x),
respectively.
The question is whether the series gives indeed a true solution; we do not study such
questions in this course.
:= A − B.
Note that aij Di uDj ut = Dj (aij ut Di u)−ut Dj (aij Di u) (no sum); hence, integrating by parts
and by the equation utt + Lu = 0, we have
Z n
X Z n
X
A= ut utt − Dj (aij Di u) dx + ut aij (Di u)νj dS
Ct i,j=1 ∂Ct i,j=1
Z n
X Z n
X
=− ut Di uDj aij dx + ut aij (Di u)νj dS,
Ct i,j=1 ∂Ct i,j=1
Therefore
Z n
X n
1/2 X 1/2
|A| ≤ Ce(t) + |ut | aij Di uDj u aij νi νj dS
∂Ct i,j=1 i,j=1
Z n n
1 X X 1/2
≤ Ce(t) + u2t + ij
a Di uDj u ij
a νi νj dS.
2 ∂Ct i,j=1 i,j=1
5.7.1. Energy method for mixed-value problems. Let Ω be a bounded smooth do-
main in Rn and let ΩT = Ω × (0, T ]. Let
ΓT = ∂ 0 ΩT = ΩT \ ΩT .
We are interested in the uniqueness of initial-boundary value problem (mixed-value problem)
(
utt + Lu + B(x, t) · Du + c(x, t)u = f in ΩT ,
(5.26)
u = g on ΓT , ut = h on Ω × {t = 0},
where Lu is defined as above, B and c are bounded functions on ΩT , and g, h are given
functions.
Theorem 5.22 (Uniqueness of mixed-value problem). There exists at most one solution
u ∈ C 2 (ΩT ) of mixed-value problem (5.26).