Chapter 5

thermal loads
Factor Affect Thermal Comfort
1. Dry blub temperature
2. Mean radiant temperature
3. Relative humidity.
4. Air velocity.
5. Cloth insulation.
6. Level of activity.
Thermal load calculation
The critical inputs and their associated risks discussed in this guide are:
 Design Conditions
1. Location
2. Latitude
3. Elevation
4. Outdoor temperature and relative humidity
 Orientation (direction)
 Internal conditions
Indoor temperature and relative humidity
 Building Enclosure
1- Insulation levels of walls, ceilings, and floors
2- Window specification
3- Thermal conductivity
4- Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)
5- Infiltration and ventilation levels
6- Interior and exterior shading
 Internal loads
1- Number of occupants
2- Electronics, lighting and appliances.

- Heat gains through walls by conduction (Qtrans)

- Heat gains by solar radiation by conduction through glass windows (Qw)
- Heat gains by occupants, electronics, lighting and appliances (Qinter)
- Heat gains by ventilation and infilteration (Qv)
- Heat gains by other sourses (Qm)
-
QT = Qw + Qinter  QTrans  Qv  Qm
Heat gains through walls by conduction (Qtrans)

QTrans = U × A × (ti – to)

ti ≡ indoor air temperature (K) (℃)

to ≡ outdoor air temperature (K) (℃)

A ≡ area of separating section concerned, m2

U ≡ Coefficient of overall heat transfer between adjacent and conditioned space, W/ (m2·K)

1 1 1  x
=
U ho
+
hi
+   k 

ho (W/m2K) convection heat transfer coefficient for the outdoor air

hi (W/m2K) convection heat transfer coefficient for the intdoor air
x (m) wall thickness
k (W/mK) is the property of a material to conduct heat, table 1shows the conductivity of some materials
Example 3-1

Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the wall as shown in the figure, if the convection heat transfer
coefficient for the outside and outside are ho = 20W/m2K and hi = 10W/m2K

Solution

x x 1 x 2 x3 x4
k k k k k
= + + +
1 2 3 4

x1 = x4 = 0.005m, x2 = 0.4m, and x3 = 0.05m

From table 1

k1 = k4 = 0.80 W/mK
k2 = 0.72 W/mK
k3 = 0.036 W/mK

x 0.005 0 .4 0.05 0.005

k =
0 .8
+
0.72
+
0.036
+
0 .8
= 1.957W/m2K

1 1 1
= + + 1.957 = 2.107  U = 0.475 W/m2K
U 20 10
Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD)

CLTD is theortical temperature difference defined for each wall/roof to give the same heat load for
exposed surfaces to account for the combined effect of radiation, convection and convective. It is
affected by orientation, time, latitude, etc. CLTD is given by:

∆T = (CLTD + LM) K + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)

Table 2 shows the CLTD of a group of different types of wall and ceiling, overall heat transfer
coefficient, solar time, and latitude.

LM is a correction factor for latitude of walls and roof, month, and direction. Table 3 shows a different
value of LM.

K is the correction factor of the color, for a dark wall K = 1, for medium color wall K = 0.85 and light
color wall K = 0.65.
To and Ti are the internal and ambient temperature, To is calculated by:

To = Tm - ∆Tm× pc

Tm ≡ the maximum temperature during the day

pc ≡ the range between the max and min temperature during the day

pc = To,max – To,min (pc = 11~ 15)

∆Tm ≡ the percentage of daily range of the air temperature, table 4

The CLTD of the ceiling when calculate the heating load is given by;

∆T = {(CLTD + LM) K + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)} × F

F ≡ color correction factor for a dark ceiling F = 1, light color F = 0.5

Thermal gain by solar radiation and conductivity through glass Qw

1 1 1 x
= + +
U ho hi k

Qw = A× (U × ∆T + SC × SHGFmax × CLF)

∆T = CLTD + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)

- CLTD from table 5

- SC (Shading Coefficient) is a measure of the total amount of heat passing through the glass
(known as the total solar heat transmission) compared with that through a single clear glass.
Table 6 shows different values SC.
- SHGFmax (Solar Heat Gain Factor Max). The Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) is the percent of
solar energy incident on the glass that is transferred indoors both directly and indirectly through
the glass. The direct gain portion is the solar energy transmittance, while the indirect is the
fraction of solar energy incident on the glass that is absorbed and re-radiated or transmitted
through convection indoors. Table 7, 8, and 9.
- CLF (Cooling Load Factor) for class windows with and without shade, CLF can be estimated
from tables 10 and 11.
Infiltration and Ventilation Load (Qv)

Infiltration is the unintentional or accidental introduction of outside air into a building, typically
through cracks in the building envelope and through use of doors for passage. Infiltration is sometimes
called air leakage. Infiltration is many depend maily on outside air velocity and the type of the building
quality:-

- Tight building
- Medium building
- Loose building

Tables 12 and 13 estimate the amount of the infilteration air as a function of air velovity Ca (m/s), the
difference between indoor and outdoor temperature (To, Ti), the volume of the space and number of
changing air of the space (NA)

NA = a + b× Ca + c × (To - Ti)

The constant a, b and c are given in table 14. The infilteration air mass flow rate is calculated by using;

minf = NA × V × ρ ṁ
Ventilation air is air used to provide acceptable indoor air quality. It may be composed of forced or
natural ventilation

mven = Np × V × ρ
Np ≡ number of persons

V ≡ Ventilation air required for one person
QS.leak = ( mven + minf ) × cpa (To - Ti)

QL.leak = ( mven + minf ) × (ωo – ωi) × hfg

Qleak = QS.leak + QL.leak

Internal Heat Load

Lighting Load

Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space. Since the heat transferred from the lighting system
consists of both radiation and convection, a Cooling Load Factor is used to account for the time lag.
Thus the cooling load due to lighting system is given by:

Qlight = Fu × Fb × LR × CLF

LR = 10 ~ 20 W/m2

Fu ≡ Utilization Factor (using factor), equal one in case of full lighting (using all lamps).

Fb ≡ Factor, for fluerocent lamp is 1.2, for tungsten lamp is 1 and 1.37 for sodium vapour lamp

CLF = 0.8 ~ 0.98 for using 5 ~ 16 hours

Appliances Load

Qapp = ∑power × (1 – η)

η ≡ Appliance Efficiency at ful load

‫‪Occupancy Load‬‬

‫‪Qs.per = Np × HS × CLF‬‬

‫‪QL.per = Np × HL‬‬

‫‪Np number of persons‬‬

‫‪HS sensible heat for person‬‬

‫‪HL latent heat for person‬‬

‫‪Table 16 gives the sensible and latent heat for an adult man‬‬

‫الجدول )‪ (16‬يعطي الحمل المحسوس والحمل الكامن لرجل بالغ كدالة في درجة حرارة الحيز ونوع النشاط اما اﻻنثى البالغة تعطي‬
‫‪ 85%‬من الحمل الحراري لرجل بالغ والطفل ‪ 75%‬من حمل الرجل البالغ‬
‫‪ CLF‬معامل الحمل المحسوس لﻼشخاص نتيجة فترة بقائهم في المكان ﻻن الحمل المحسوس يزيد بزيادة فترة بقاء اﻻنسان ) ‪CLF‬‬
‫‪ (= 0.6 ~ 0.97‬لفترة بقاء من ساعتين حتى ستة عشرة ساعة‪.‬‬

‫عند ايجاد حمل التبريد الكلي يجب ضرب الناتج في معامل امان ) ‪ (Safety Factor‬تتراوح قيمته بين‬

‫)‪(SF = 5 ~ 20 %‬‬
Example 3-1

The room shown below is theater, calculate the total cooling load (QT) and room sensible heat factor
(RSHF), if the number of persons is 500. The room is at latitude of 32o N, 21 of July, and solar time of
15 hrs. The room is maintained at 24oC dbt and 50% RH, the ambient conditions are 38oC dbt and 25oC
wbt. The ceiling is very heavy concrete of 20cm, 5cm ceramic slab and 3cm cement layer from inside.
The wall is from common bricks of 20cm and 3cm cement layer from inside and outside. The floor is
from concrete of 10cm over unconditioned space, 5cm ceramic slab and 3cm cement layer from outside,
convective heat transfer coefficient is hi = 9W/m2K and ho = 22W/m2K. The light intensity is 15W/m2
of floor area and fluorescent. The appliance is 10kW. The air density is 1.18kg/m3 and specific heat
capacity is 1.005kJ/kg.K. The water evaporation heat is 2570kJ/kg.
Data: -

tdbR = 24oC, RHR = 50%, tdbo = 38oC, twbo = 25oC, Np = 500, 32o N, 21 July, solar time 15 hrs, hi =
9W/m2.K, ho = 22W/m2.K, light of 15W/m2, ρa = 1.18 kg/m3, cpa = 1.005kJ/kg.K, and hfg = 2570kJ/kg,
The appliance is 10kW

Required: - QT, and RSHF

 Solution

Heat transmission through walls

From table (1) k1 = k3 = 0.72, and k2 = 0.73 W/m.K
1 1 x x x 1 1 0.03 0.2 0.03 1
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + = + + + +
U hi k1 k2 k3 ho 9 0.72 0.73 0.72 22
 UWall = 1.931W/m2K
∆T = (CLTD + LM) K + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)

From table (2), at group B and 15hrs solar time, CLTD = (N = 5, E = 13, S = 8, and W = 8). From table
(3) at latitude 32o N, and at July, LM = (N = 0.5, E = W = 0.0, and S = -1.6). For wall color take K =
0.85.

∆TN = (5 + 0.5) 0.85 + (25.5 – 24) + (38 – 29.4) = 14.76oC

∆TE = (13 + 0.0) 0.85 + (25.5 – 24) + (38 – 29.4) = 20.85oC
∆TW = (8 + 0.0) 0.85 + (25.5 – 24) + (38 – 29.4) = 16.9oC
∆TS = (8 – 1.6) 0.85 + (25.5 – 24) + (38 – 29.4) = 15.20oC
Q = UWall × A × ∆T
From room figure the active wall area must be found for each side

QN = UWall × AN × ∆TN = 1.931 × (30 × 13 – 4 × 3) × 14.76 = 10857.28 W

QE = UWall × AE × ∆TE = 1.931 × (40 × 13 – 4 × 3 – 3 × 1.5 × 3) × 20.81 = 19782.42 W
QW = UWall × AW × ∆TW = 1.931 × (40 × 13 – 3 × 1.5 × 4) × 16.9 = 16177.33 W
QS = UWall × AS × ∆TS = 1.931 × (30 × 13 – 3 × 1.5 × 3) × 15.2 = 11136.57 W
QWalls = 10857.28 + 19782.42 + 11136.57 + 16177.33 = 57781.263 W

QWalls = 57781.263 W
Heat transmission through ceiling
From table (1) k1 (cement layer) = 0.72, k2 (concrete) = 1.1, and k3 (ceramic) = 0.67 W/m.K
1 1 x 1 x 2 x 3 1 1 0.03 0.2 0.05 1
= + + + + = + + + +
UC hi k1 k2 k3 h o 9 0.72 1.1 0.67 22
UC = 2.199 W/m2.K
∆TC = {(CLTD + LM) K + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)} × F

From table (2) at 203mm and 15hrs solar time, the CLTD = 18. From table (3) at latitude 32o N, July,
and horizontal LM = 0.5. K = 1 (ceiling dark color), and F = 1 for normal ceiling.

 ∆TC = {(18+ 0.5) × 1 + (25.5 – 24) + (38 – 29.4)} × 1 = 28.6 oC

Qceiling = UC × AC × ∆TC = 2.199 × (40 × 30) × 28.6 = 75482.09 W

Qceiling = 75482.09 W
Heat transmission through floor
From table (1) k1 (ceramic) = 0.67, k2 (concrete) = 1.1, and k3 (cement layer) = 0.72 W/m.K
1 1 x x x 1 1 0.05 0.1 0.03 1
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + = + + + +
UF hi k1 k2 k3 ho 9 0.67 1.1 0.72 22
UF = 2.749 W/m2.K
∆TF = (to - ti) = 38 – 24 = 14 oC

QFloor = UF × AF × ∆TF = 2.749 × (40 × 30) × 14 = 46183.2W

QFloor = 46183.2W
Heat transmission through wooden doors
Assume the doors from soft wood with thickness 4cm.
From table (1) k (soft wood) = 0.116 W/m.K

1 1 x 1 1 0.04 1
= + + = + +
UD hi k h o 9 0.116 22
 UD = 1.994 W/m2.K
QD.N = UD × AD.N × ∆TN = 1.994 × (6 × 3) × 14.76= 529.766 W
QD.E = UD × AD.E × ∆TE = 1.994 × (6 × 3) × 20.85= 1276.679 W
QDoors = 529.766 + 1276.679 = 1276.679W

QDoors = 1276.679W
Total transmission load
QTrans = QWalls + Qceiling + QFloor + QDoors
= 57781.263 + 75482.09 + 46183.2W + 1276.679 = 180723.236W

 QTrans = 180723.236W
Solar heat gains through glass windows

Assume the glass is clear, 3mm thickness, and medium Venetian shade. From table (1), k for glass =
1.4
1 1 x 1 1 0.003 1
= + + = + +
UG hi kG ho 9 1 .4 22

UG = 6.301 W/m2.K

∆TG = CLTD + (25.5 – Ti) + (To – 29.4)

From table (5), the CLTD for glass at 15hrs solar time is equal to 8

∆TG = 8 + (25.5 - 24) + (38 – 29.4) = 18.1oC

QG = AG× (UG × ∆TG + SC × SHGFmax × CLF)

From table (6), at medium Venetian and 3mm thickness the SC = 0.64.From table (9), at July SHGFmax
= 678 for W & E, for S = 227, and from table (10) and 15hrs solar time the CLF values are equal to (E
= 0.2, S = 0.5, and W = 0.72).
QGE = AGE× (UG × ∆TG + SC × SHGFmax × CLFE)

QGE = (3 × 3 × 1.5) ((6.301 × 18.1) + (0.64 × 678 × 0.2)) = 4468.609W

QGS = (3 × 3 × 1.5) ((6.301 × 18.1) + (0.64 × 227 × 0.53)) = 2579.128W

QGW = (4 × 3 × 1.5) ((6.301 × 18.1) + (0.64 × 678 × 0.72)) = 8457.525W

QGlass = QGE + QGS + QGW = 4468.609 + 8457.525 + 2579.128 = 15413.678W

QGlass = 15413.678W
Ventilation and Infiltration:-

The volume of the room = 40 × 30 × 13 = 15600m3, assume tight room, and ti = 24oC therefore from
table (12) NA = 0.36 air change rate per hour. Take VA = 3.4m/s
a = 0.15, b = 0.01, and c = 0.007
NA = a + b×VA + c (to - ti) = 0.15 + 0.01 × 3.4 + 0.007 (38 - 24)
 N A  0.282 Number of change per hour
ṁinf = NA × V × ρ = (0.282/3600) × 15600 × 1.18 = 1.841kg/s

From table (15) (16), assume smoking person and seated rest, from table (15) Np = 7.5
liter/s/person

m ven = Np × V × ρ = 500 × 7.5 × 10-3 × 1.18 = 4.425kg/s

QS.leak = ( minf + mven ) × cpa (To - Ti) = (1.841 + 4.425) × 1005 × (38 -24) = 88162.62W

QS.leak = 88162.62W
From Psychometric chart and at (tdbR = 24oC, RHR = 50%), ωR = 0.0095. and at (tdbo = 38oC, twbo =
25oC), ωo = 0.0147

QL.leak = ( minf + mven ) × (ωo – ωi) × hfg

= (1.841 + 4.425) × (0.0147 - 0.0095) × 2547 × 103 = 83738.824W

QL.leak = 83738.824W
Lighting load

Qlight = Fu × Fb × LR × CLF

Take Fu = 1 (Full lighting), Fb = 1.2 (fluorescent), CLF = 0.92, and LR =15 × 30 × 40

Qlight =1 × 1.2 × 0.92 × (15 × 30 × 40) = 19872W

Qlight = 19872W

Appliance load

Qapp = ∑power = 10000W

Qapp = 10000W
Persons load

From table (16), at 24oC room dry bulb temperature, and seated rest Hs = 75, and HL = 40W, for 15hrs
CLF = 0.97

QS.per = Np × Hs × CLF = 500 × 75 × 0.97 = 36375W

QS.per = 36375W

QL.per = Np × HL = 500 × 40 = 20000W

QL.per = 20000W

Total Sensible and Latent Heat

QS = QTrans + QGlass + QS.leak + Qlight + Qapp + QS.per

= 180723.236 + 15413.678 + 88162.62 + 19872 + 10000 + 36375 = 350.739kW

QL = QL.leak + QL.per = 83738.824 + 20000 = 103.739kW

QT = QS + QL = 350.739 + 103.739 = 454.286kW

QT = 454.286kW
 ‫‪Q S 350.547‬‬
‫= ‪Room Sensible Heat Factor‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.7716‬‬
‫‪Q T 454.286‬‬

‫الرسم التالي يوضح دورة التبريد الصيفية حيث يتم خلط الهواء النقي مع جزء من الهواء المسترجع من دورة التبريد قبل ملف التبريد‬
‫كما يلي‪14oC :‬مع فرض ان درجة حرارة التغذية للغرفة يساوي‬
From Psychrometric chart, the properties of air are:
h1 = 34.5kJ/kg, h2 = 48kJ/kg, νo = 0.9023m3/kg
Process 1-2 is parallel to RSHF = 0.772, and t1 = 14oC
Assume safety factor 5%, and the supply air is
QT = 1.05 × 464.779 = 477kW
QTotal 477
mair  = = 35.3kg/s
h2  h1 48  34.5
m ven / persons = 4.425kg/s
The recirculated air = 35.3 – 4.425 = 30.9kg/s
Heat balance of mixture at point 4
m2 h2 + m3 h3 = m4 h4

30.9 × 48 + 4.425 × 76.4 = 35.3 × h4

hmix = h4 = 53.8kJ/kg, ωmix = 0.0102 kg/kg

Process 4-1, cooling and dehumidification from 4 to 1 straight line to saturation condition to locate at
( t 5 ) dew point DP. The condition at point 5 :
t 5 = 9.8oC.
Cooling coil capacity (CCC) = mair h4  h1  = 35.352  34.5  456.7kW
456.7
CCC   130.5TR
3. 5
h4  h5 53.8  34.5
Cooling coil efficiency  CC =   0.763  76.3%
h4  h5 53.8  28.5

Bypass Factor = 1 -  CC = 1- 0.763 = 0.237

Condensate water mw  mair ( 4  1 ),  4  0.0102kg / kg DA , 1  0.008kg / kg DA

 m w  35.3(0.0102  0.008)  0.07443kg / s  4.47kg / min