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NI
 o r eseofarch review
CE EAR
CH OFFICE AEROSPACE RESEARCH
SPA RES
OFAEROCONE
S ORD UNIT OAR : The Research Agency
of The United States Air Force
JAN 20 1967 APR 1966
VOLUME V AN BHBER 1 ENGINEERINO MARCH 1966

COSMIC -RAY TRAJECTORIES

SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
Cosmic rays - -atomic nuclei, primarily ing cosmic - ray data ,
hydrogen - - approach the earth from all di The results of this intensive research
rections. When these particles encounter investigation are contained in a recently
the earth ' s magnetic field , their trajectories issued AFCRL report, " A Study ofVertically
are altered. Some in fact pursue an erratic Incident Cosmic - Ray TrajectoriesUsing Sixth
course for several orbits around the earth . Degree Simulations of the Geomagnetic
Just what trajectory the particle will follow Field ," (AFCRL -65 -705). This 350 -page re
depends on many things - - particle momentum , port consists largely of computer -generated
charge, direction of approach to the magnet tables of the trajectories of particles with
osphere, and the magnetic - field strength and a different momentum and charge at more
configuration . The resultant trajectories are than 130 locations around the world . These
so complicated that predicting them is a results are the most accurate and complete
mathematical problem of somemagnitude, determinations of cosmic - ray trajectories
Until recently only approximate solutions to made to date.
this problem were available since each tra In considering the trajectory of a given
jectory calculation involves several thousand particle, it is convenient to consider mo
iterative steps to reach a solution . With com mentum and charge as a single quantity . This
puters , this problem has been made tractable . quantity is called the particle ' s " rigidity,"
For the past two years, M . A . Shea and and is the ratio of momentum per unit
D . F . Smart of AFCRL , and K . G .McCracken charge. All particles having the same rigid
of the Graduate Research Center of the ity, whether an individual proton or a heavy
Southwest in Dallas , Texas, using computers , nucleus, will follow the same path through
have plotted trajectories of cosmic rays in a magnetic field if they enter the field at
the geomagnetic field . Their calculated values the same place and from the same direction ,
are more consistent with the results of The AFCRL report deals with vertical " cutoff
observational cosmic - ray data than previous rigidities. " Such a cutoff rigidity is defined
values, Already, scientists from a number of as the lowest rigidity a particle may possess
countries, including Australia , England, Can and still arrive at a specific point on the
ada, Argentina, and South Africa, have suc earth 's surface from the vertical direction .
cessfully applied these new values in analyz The three investigators have made a signifi

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES + AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE, OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
cant refinement to this definition which or if our observations were made well above
makes it possible to calculate the effects of the atmosphere, cosmic -ray maximawould be
the geomagnetic field more accurately. This found near the geomagnetic poles, as expected .
new definition is called an " effective cutoff Why then do we not observe these conditions
rigidity ." At the magnetic equator, where on the ground ? It has to do with the particle 's
the particle must perpendicularly traverse cutoff rigidity - - which can be thought of as
the geomagnetic field , the " effective vertical a kind of threshold energy . All particles
cutoff rigidity " is more than 15 billion volts , above 1 by are able to penetrate the earth 's
while at the magnetic poles , where the magnetic field in all regions above 55 de
particles are essentially parallel to the grees geomagnetic latitude, All particleswith
field lines , it is theoretically zero . rigidities lower than 1 bv are absorbed by
From this one would expect to observe the earth ' s atmosphere (without creating the
(by detecting a cascade of secondaries at cascade of secondaries ), and are not detected
the earth 's surface ) a minimum cosmic - ray on the earth ' s surface . This applies whether
intensity at the magnetic equator, and a max they enter at 55 degrees or at 90 degrees
imum intensity at the geomagnetic poles. geomagnetic latitude, or atany pointbetween .
This minimum is in fact observed at the Because cosmic - ray trajectories are di
magnetic equator; but the maximum intensity rectly influenced by the configuration of
is not correspondingly observed at the geo the magnetic field, which varies diurnally,
magnetic poles. Contrary to expectations, seasonally, and with solar -cycle variations,
there is no localized area of maximum it is possible to derive information on the
intensity . The maximum is rather uniform changing magnetic field byobserving cosmic
ally distributed throughout the entire regions ray events. Also , because the calculations of
above 55 degrees geomagnetic latitude. cosmic - ray rigidities are equally valid for
However, if the earth had no atmosphere, solar protons, the calculation techniques
ELECTROFLUID DYNAMIC WORKING MEDIA FOR
research review DIRECT ENERGY -CONVERSION PROCESSES
Michael Hawes. .. . . 5
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCOPE
TO BEGIN IN 1966
QAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of.
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), HaOf. Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL .. .
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF , 4th and Independence BAND STRUCTURE OF ZnO
Avenue, S . W . , Washington , D . C . 20333. The objective of this
publication is to make a positive contribution to the exchange Y . S . Park ......
of information concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored TOMORROW 'SWEAPONS AND BASIC RESEARCH
research activities.
Dr. William L. Ruigh... ..
JACOB SEIDEN SOLAR RADIO NOISE: POTENTIAL INDEX TO
Editor
ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION
COSMIC -RAY TRAJECTORIES John P . Castelli........ ..... ...
Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ............. 1 POLYMER DEFORMATION STUDIES
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION -HOW SPONTANEOUS IS IT ? Dr. Anthony J. Matuszko .
(Electromagnetic Radiation) ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , AFCRL . . . 3 Meteorology Laboratory , AFCRL .....
TIME - LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT IONOSPHERIC FLYING LABORATORY UNDERGOES
INSTALLED AT SACRAMENTO PEAK MAJOR MODIFICATIONS
Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL..... Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , AFCRL..... 22
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U . S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D . C . 20402 - $ 2 .75 per year domestic, 75 cents additional for
foreign mailing, 25 cents per single copy and 15 cents per Annual Index,
Back issues will not be furnished .
developed under this study can be used to waiting to absorb the emission , is actually
evaluate the trajectories of these solar a part of the emission process. This is
particles as well. an intriguing concept- -but there is nowhere
The three investigators have thus far used on the horizon any approach to an experiment
about 1500 hours of computer time on a to prove or disprove it.
Philco 2000 computer to make their cal The whole matter falls under the general
culations. This work is now being extended heading of quantum electrodynamics (where
to produce a world -wide grid of cutoff the equations of classical electrodynamics
rigidities. A 15 - by - 15 -degree grid has al are recast into quantum mechanics). Leading
ready been completed, and is currently being theoretical physicists have devoted inordinate
refined to include latitude intervals of 5 de effort to refining these equations during the
grees. With this vertical cutoff rigidity map , past several decades. In fact, Schwinger,
the trajectories and rigidities for cosmic Feynman and Tomonaga received the 1965
rays detected at any point on the earth may be Nobel Prize in physics for work in this field .
determined. But, in spite of the wondrous formulations
that have evolved , the fact remains that
radiation theory is still not a complete and
consistent part of physics ,
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION In a recent AFCRL report, " A Discussion
of the Wheeler - Feynman Absorber Theory of
HOW SPONTANEOUS Radiation, " Dr. Ronald G . Newburgh exam
ines one theory of radiation and provides
some extensions. In another paper, soon to be
(Electromagnetic Radiation) issued as an AFCRL report, " A Survey of
UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS Classical Radiation Theory," Dr. E . J. Post
LABORATORY, AFCRL surveys the accumulated product of our
knowledge in quantum electrodynamics. Both
Most of us at one time or another have papers provide interesting new perspectives ,
examined the old question as to whether but only the Wheeler -Feynman theory will be
or not, if a tree fell in the forest and no one touched on here.
was around to hear it fall, there would be Reduced to its simplest terms, quantum
sound - - a question that , on analysis , really electrodynamics is concerned with the inter
doesn 't have much meaning . action of an electron and an electromagnetic
A superficially related question exists in field . And the primary theoretical problem is
electromagnetic theory - - but with the differ that of explaining how an accelerating elec
ence that the question has realmeaning and tron can emit an infinity of photons. So the
is of major theoretical importance . The object of the theorist is to envision a system
question is this : if there is no absorber of in which energy and momentum are con
electromagnetic radiation , can electromag served ; one approach is to invoke radiative
netic radiation be emitted? In 1922 it was reaction . The problem takes him into that
first postulated (by Tetrode) that there can be grey area in which physical entities merge
no emission from a particle if there is not into purely mathematical and even meta
a second particle to absorb the emission . physical constructs ,
In his paper , Tetrode stated, " The sun
would not radiate if it were alone in space The Wheeler -Feynman theory fuses a num
and no other bodies could absorb its radi ber of concepts: 1 ) the field is not an inde
ation , . . One might accordingly adopt the pendent entity with degrees of freedom of
opinion that the amount of material in the its own ; the motion of a given particle is
universe determines the rate of emission . " determined by the sum of the fields produced
Wheeler and Feynman extended this concept by all other particles ; 2) a particle cannot
in the late 1940 's , showing that the absorbing act on itself - -that is, an electron cannot
particle, instead of sitting passively and spontaneously
S P emit a photon ; 3 ) the sym
metry between past and future prescribes more realistic system in which , for every
the fields . Here we find ourselves confronted emitter, there may be something on the
with the conceptionally difficult notion of order of 1023 absorbers. In the natural sys
retarded and advanced potentials . The very tem , one may consider the effects of the
definition of " potentials" varies from dis absorbers as consisting of many small im
cipline to discipline with only loose unifying pulses transferred to the emitter . Because of
threads. In one sense , potentials can be the large numbers of absorbers ( 1023 ), one
considered only as mathematical additives - - may visualize many tiny effects continuously
involving differentials , vectors and tensors - - arriving at the emitter. This is analogous to
needed to show conservation of energy mo the Brownian motion of molecules in fluids,
mentum , At the moment of emission , these effects
To satisfy energy -momentum relations , " sum ," thus " causing " the electron to emit
one must have , in addition to the emitting its stream of photons and providing fuel for
electron and its emitted photon, a third their continuous emissions.
body - -which , as we have said , is the ab
sorber. Together these comprise a system , On first meeting the concept of advanced
but a system that, through the mechanism of effects and the necessity of an absorber for
retarded and advanced potentials , operates emission , one feels that common sense
forward and backward in time. Of course , has been violated . After we grow accus
in the real world , we don 't have just one tomed to this precept, it offers the satis
absorber. Newburgh , in his commentary on faction of logical economy and does not
the Wheeler -Feynman theory, considers the appear physically unreasonable.

TIME - LAPSE
VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT INSTALLED
AT SACRAMENTO PEAK SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
With the delivery of a special video tape Time-lapse photography of sunspots has
recorder built by RCA , stop-motion video been made previously at the observatory on
tape pictures of suns pots will soon be made motion -picture film , Delays involved in film
at AFCRL 's Sacramento Peak Observatory. processing, however, have resulted in cor
The video tape produces time- lapse photog responding delays in making predictions ,
raphy of the type sometimes used to speed up Since a magnetic -tape record of TV pictures
slowly evolving processes such as the growth needs no processing , the observatory staff
of plants. can replay a sequence of stop -motion pic
tures immediately , and make judgements ,
The new equipment will permit Sacra When the TV recorder is in operation,
mento Peak astronomers to analyze with it will record two television frames every
greater speed and precision the growth and 30 seconds. A replay of only 15 seconds of
movement of sunspots. It is difficult for such a recording represents 112. 5 minutes of
the astronomer to be aware of the many actual observation , or a speed -up of the
changes in sunspot development that take scene of 450 times .
place when these are viewed on a real- time The machine being modified for the assign
basis . The new equipment will help advance ment is RCA 's type TR -4 , a fully tran
AFCRL ' s over - all program for predicting sistorized unit widely used by the TV net
safe periods during which there is an absence works and stations for recording and playing
of solar proton showers. These high - energy, back programs and commercials. It will
ionizing particles erupt periodically from record pictures made by a vidicon camera
the sun and are closely associated with connected to observation instruments on
sunspot activity . a 12- foot telescope.
 electrofluid dynamic working media for direct
energy-conversion processes
MICHAEL HAWES, Thermomechanics Research Laboratory , ARL
One highly interesting electrofluid dynamic desirable properties of the gas are a high
(EFD ) process is the direct conversion of dielectric strength and a low molecular
fluid dynamic energy into electricity . The weight, Unfortunately, the low - density gases ,
basic process involved can be summarized hydrogen and helium , do not have a very good
briefly (see Fig. 1 ): charged particles of one dielectric strength , If, however , it should be
polarity are transported in a fluid working possible to find someadditive which increases
medium through a conversion section against the dielectric strength of one of these gases
an electrostatic field produced by the deposi to a value nearly equal to that of air , while
tion of charge on the collector electrode. It is increasing the molecular weight only slightly ,
similar to the process in the Van de Graaff a very desirable medium would be achieved ,
electrostatic generator except that a flowing The following table illustrates the improve
gas replaces the mechanically driven belt. ments that could be gained in power density
Using a gas has severaladvantages ; the trans and efficiency at an operating pressure of 20
port speed of the charges can be far higher , atmospheres :
and the charges are distributed throughout a
volume space rather than being limited to a POWER STAGE
surface area , GAS DENSITY EFFICIENCY

It is important for the performance of an Air 400 watts / cm 41%

EFD generator that the gas have certain Hydrogen 290 watts / cm 45 %
properties . In a generator which employs Hydrogenand
charged colloids as the transported particles,
800 watts / cm2
Additives 800 watts /cm 70%
CHARGE CONVERSION SECTION
SEEDING

GAS FLOW

GROUNDED LOAD COLLECTOR

ENTRANCE RESISTANCE 5 ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
Fig . 1. Basic E . F . D . Process
 50

AIR .
.BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE
,KV

+ H2+ 10 % SF6
r H2+ 5 % SFG
- H2+ 2% SF6
> H2+ 1% SF6

0 200 400 600 800 1,000

PRESSURE , P. 5. 1. A .
Fig . 2 . Breakdown Voltages of Hydrogen - SF , Mixtures

An investigation was carried out at ARL values as well as other favorable properties.
to try to synthesize a good working medium It is known that there is a disproportional
of low molecular weight by increasing the increase in dielectric strength of a gas at
dielectric strength of hydrogen or helium , low additive concentrations ; this implies
Sulfur hexafluoride and dichlorodifluoro large increases in strength at small density
methane (Freon - 12) areattractivesubstances increases, a welcome trend ,
to employ as the breakdown inhibitor additives Dielectric strength values are not amenable
because of their high breakdown voltage to calculations; they must be determined
 50

.BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE

AIR
,KV

- He + 10 % SF

- He + 5 % SF6
r - He + 2 % SF6
mtoto He + 1 % SFG

Et He

07
0 200 400 600 800 9,000
PRESSURE, P. S. I. A .
Fig. 3. Breakdown Voltages of Helium -SF, Mixtures

experimentally for each substance of interest. up to this level. Actually, the investigation
Dielectric strengths were determined for the was extended to cover the pressure range
parent gases , hydrogen and helium , with 0 - 1 ,000 p . s . i.
additive percentages of 0 , 1 , 2 , 5 and 10 in The experimental apparatus consisted of
each case. Furthermore, as pressures up to two 1 3 /8 -inch diameter spherical electrodes
600 p .s . i, have been used in the conversion mounted within a 6 - inch diameter stainless
section of the ARL experimental EFD genera steel test chamber. Spacing was maintained
tor, it is necessary to determine the dielectric constant at .010 - inch in all tests so that an
strength of each mixture at pressures at least essentially uniform field resulted. The
 VHz+ 1% SFG
E a gas H2+ 2 % SF6
El o' gir H2+ 5 % SF6
0 .6

H2+ 10 % SFG

200 400 600 800 1,000

PRESSURE , P . S. T. A .
Fig. 4. Relative Merits of Hydrogen -SF Mixtures (Power Considerations)
dielectric strength is then readily available ployed throughout the investigation .
from a knowledge of the breakdown voltage. Graphical results are shown in Figures 2
D - C voltage from a 0 -60 kV continuously and 3 for the case where SF6 was the break
variable commercial power supply was em down inhibitor added . This additive proved to
Flogo
s
22 dair
3

\ H2 + 1 % SF6
H2 + 2 % SF6

H2+ 5 % SF6
- Ha + 10 % SFG

200 400 600 800 1,000

PRESSURE , P . S . I.A .
Fig. 5. Relative Merits of Hydrogen - SF Mixtures (Efficiency Considerations)

be somewhat more effective than Freon - 12 at strength and a the speed of sound in the gas,
all pressures. The curve for air as deter is the criterion for selecting the best gas
mined experimentally during the investigation or mixture for power- production purposes
is also shown on these graphs for comparison in an EFD generator. Similarly , the gas with
purposes . the highest value of the product E2a2 yields
the best stage efficiency for the process .
It is seen that a hydrogen - 10 % SF6mixture These parameters are plotted in Figures
has a dielectric strength approximately equal 4 and 5 over the pressure range investigated ,
to that of air in the low -pressure regime up and are nondimensionalized by dividing by the
to 300 p .s .i., but that this mixture has a corresponding value for air at the same
molecular weight of 16 . 4 , which represents pressure. It can be seen that a gas composed
an appreciable increase over the value of 2 of hydrogen - 1 % SF6 is an attractive mixture
for hydrogen . However, the magnitude of the to employ as an EFD working medium over a
product Eża, where E is the gas dielectric wide pressure range.
construction of solar vacuum telescope
to begin in 1966 SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
Construction of a unique solar telescope scope, the Sacramento Peak Observatory,
at the Air Force Cambridge Research Labo already a major solar research center , will
ratories ' Sacramento Peak Solar Observa become one of the most complete facilities
tory, Sunspot, New Mexico , will begin in the in the world for the study of solar phenomena .
spring of 1966. Design concepts for the The above- ground portion of the telescope
telescope were established by an AFCRL will consist of a truncated, cone -shaped tower
scientist, Dr. Richard Dunn . Plans call for and associated laboratory buildings. The base
its completion early in 1968. of the 126 - foot tower will have an inside
The $ 3 . 16 -million telescope will be 326 feet diameter of 40 feet. The diameter will narrow
long; 200 feet of this length will be beneath to 20 feet at the top .
ground level. The above- ground segmentwill Atop the tower will be a rotating turret for
rise 126 feet on a peak of the Sacramento tracking the sun in elevation and azimuth ,
Mountains, which are 9 ,200 feet above sea Light from the sun will pass through a quartz
level. With the completion of the new tele- window having a 30 - inch aperture onto flat

This is a model of the solar vacuum telescope. This modelwas photographed at its proposed location
atop Sacramento Peak .
10
mirrors mounted in the turret. The mirrors
will direct the light down a long 320 - foot tube BAND STRUCTURE OF
to a spherical mirror at the bottom . This
spherical mirror will have a diameter of 64 Zno
inches and focal length of 180 feet. By tilting
the mirror, light can be directed upward to Y. S. PARK , Solid State PhysicsResearch
any one of 5 observation ports in the asso Laboratory , ARL
ciated ground facilities.
Two design features should give the tele A detailed study of the absorption and
scope exceptional flexibility and resolution . reflection spectra of ZnO crystals has re
The first is in the mounting of the optical cently been made in the region of intrinsic
system . The entire optical system , including absorption in this Laboratory . ( 1) From these
the 320 - foot interior tube and associated results, we have proposed an alternate band
instrumentation , will rotate as the sun is assignment different from that previously
tracked . This system will weigh approxi reported by Thomas. (2 )
mately 250 tons. The second feature is that According to group symmetry studies by
the optical system and associated instru Birman , (3 ) the fundamental exciton absorp
ments will be placed in a vacuum . The pur tion bands of the wurtzite structure in II - VI
pose of the vacuum is to eliminate air compounds at k = 0 consist of the s - like con
turbulence , which can greatly affect the reso duction band and the p - like valence band.
lution of the telescope. An added advantage of The valence band is split into three doubly
the vacuum is the elimination of dust from degenerate states due to the spin -orbit and
optical surfaces thatwould degrade resolution crystal field effects. The conduction band has
and sensitivity. Two vacuum pumps will evac al symmetry. The top valenceband ( A -band)
uate the entire optical system and associated has ſo symmetry while thetwo lower valence
instruments to working pressure in about six bands ( B and C - bands) have ry symmetry .
hours , displacing 17, 000 cubic feet and obtain The selection rules allow a rom , tran
ing a vacuum of . 25 torr , which corresponds sition for light polarized in the orientation
to an altitude of 180, 000 feet. ElC ; 57 -59 transitions are allowed for
The new facility is closely linked to the both modes of polarization (ElC and Ell C ).
nation 's space programs. Of prime concern On the basis of this model, the optical
are high proton showers associated with sun spectra of CdS(4 ), CdSe(5 ) and ZnS(6 ) crys
spot activities. These showers provide a tals were successfully explained .
great potential hazard to man in space, and The fundamental exciton spectra of
degrade electronic equipment. The study of Zno crystals were first investigated by
characteristic features on the surface of the Thomas. ( 2) On the basis of polarization
sun which give rise to these showers will experiments, he proposed that in Zno ,unlike
receive special emphasis. From these in other II -VI compounds, the symmetries of
studies , AFCRL scientists hope to extend the two top valence bands were reversed . We
period over which they can predict the onset have found that the line interpreted by Thomas
of proton showers . Predictions can now be as the ground - state A exciton transition is
made with considerable accuracy over a actually of impurity origin , and that the band
10 - day period . symmetries and valence band ordering in
In addition to research leading to themore ZnO are the sameas in other II- VI compounds ,
precise prediction of dangerous proton Figure 1 shows the absorption spectrum of
showers, the new telescope will be used for ZnO taken at 1 . 20K in polarized light. The
research on a range of solar phenomena , essential feature of this spectrum is the
Solar activities have a profound effect on existence of three intrinsic exciton bands
the earth 's weather and on communication (the A - , B - and C -bands) with the associated
and detection systems, AFCRL scientists excited states (n = 2 ,3,4 ) observed for the
hope to obtain a clearer picture of solar A - Band. The line at 3653 .42Ă (A , n = 1) and
terrestrial relationships. the A , n =2 , 3,4 states of exciton A are seen
 ABSORPTION
Zno
1.2° K

A ( n = 1)

Hg
DENSITY
OPTICAL

A (n = 2 )
A (n= 3)

Toto A (n = 4 ) EIC

EU

cin = 1)
VB(n =1)
3600 3575
3675 3650
36753650 W 3625 ,
A _ WAVELENGTH
Fig. 1. Absorption Spectra of a Vapor-Grown ZnO Platelet at 1 .2° K in Polarized Light.
12
only in EIC . The A , n =4 state and the B , n = 1
state are very close together and are not Conduction
resolved . The lines at 3610 .81Ă ( B , n = l ) and
3572.86Ă (C , n = 1) appear strong for light Band
polarized with Ell C . The absorption of the
C exciton for Elc is weak ,
The impurity line at 3669.66X (In ), con
sidered as the ground - state A exciton tran
sition by Thomas, is preferentially polarized
for Elc . We interpret this line as a bound 3 .435
exciton line resulting from an ionized donor
complex. Some of the experimental evidence
that points to the extrinsic nature of the line
follows:
a ) The intensity of line Ib is always less
than that of the 3653.42A (A , n = 1) line, The
ground - state A exciton would be expected to
be the most intense transition ,
b) Line Ib splits in a magnetic field as
would be expected for a charged donor com
plex arising from a ry rotransition . (7)
c) The variation of the strength of Ip in 0400G A
different crystals of Zno . In the hydro 0378v Valence
thermally grown crystal, it is completely - B Bands
absent.
- C
d ) The very different temperature de
pendence of line Ip from that of the ground
state exciton . At 1800K , Ip line disappeared
while the A - exciton line persisted . If these
two lines were due to the A and B intrinsic > K
exciton transitions in Zno , it would be rea
sonable to assume that they would both show
K = 0 ,0 ,0
very similar temperature dependence . Fig. 2 . The Experimental Values of the Band
e ) The fact that line Ib disappears when the Structure of ZnO at k =0.
crystal is baked in Zn vapor demonstrates
the extrinsic nature of the line,
From the intrinsic exciton energies , a num
ber of relevant parameters relating directly
REFERENCES
to the band structure can be determined .
Using the ground -state exciton energy ( A , n = 1 ) (1) Park, Y. S., C . W . Litton , T. C . Collins and D . C .
and the first excited -state energy ( A , n =2 ), Reynolds, to be published in Phys. Rev.
and assuming the exciton has a hydrogen -like (2) Thomas, D . G ., J. Phys. Chem . Solids, 15, 86, 1960.
( 3 ) Birman , J . L . , Phys. Rev. Letters, 2 , 157 , 1959.
set of energy levels, the exciton binding ( 4 ) Thomas, D . G . and J . J . Hopfield , Phys . Rev ., 116 ,
energy is calculated to be Ep = 0 . 042 eV , At 573, 1959.
1 . 20K , the energy gap is 3 .435 eV. Thomas, D . G . and J . J . Hopfield , Phys. Rev., 122 ,
From these results , we conclude that the 35 , 1962.
band symmetries and valence band ordering (5) Wheeler, R. G . and J. 0. Dimmock, Phys. Rev.,
125, 1805 , 1962.
in Zno are the same as in other II -VI ( 6 ) Wheeler, R . G . and J . C . Miklosz , Proceedings of
compounds. The band structure of ZnO at the 7th InternationalConference, Paris , 1964 , p. 873.
k = 0 , together with the band symmetry , is ( 7) Reynolds, D . C ., C . W . Litton and T . C . Collins,
shown in Fig . 2 . to be published in Phys. Rev .
tomorrow ' s weapons
and basic
research
DR. WILLIAM L . RUIGH
Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR
Tomorrow ' s Weapons is the title of a
recent book by Brig. Gen. J. H . Rothschild ,
USA (Retired), former Commanding General,
U . S . Army Chemical Corps. , which is re
sponsible for research in chemical, biological
and radiological warfare (CBR ). This book
discusses the tabooed subject of CBR weap
ons and points out that, in recent years ,
practically none of our responsible military
or civilian governmentalofficials have openly AFOSR , has supported research efforts in
discussed the subject of CBR warfare. In the those categories which sustain and strengthen
introduction to his book , General Rothschild our capabilities in certain forseeably impor
says that Russian officials discuss the subject tant areas. More specifically , the Directorate
freely, and openly state that these weapons of Chemical Sciences has usually supported
will probably be used on a large scale in a modest program of three or four investi
future wars . These being the facts of life, gations in the chemistry of phosphorus com
not to be prepared to defend our troops and pounds. Part of the reason for its support is
civilian population against CBR weapons the long -range interest of the Air Force in
would be folly indeed. phosphorus compounds , since some of them
One of the most important areas of re are potent toxic war gases .
search in gas warfare is the measurement The research effortofDr. K . Darrell Berlin
of gas dispersal and the rate at which the at Oklahoma State University, entitled "Nucle
concentration changes with many factors. ophilic Displacements on Trivalent Phos
Thus , some of the toxic materials are sen phorus," is far from the field of toxic
sitive to water and are decomposed by it, phosphorus war gases, but is good interesting
whereas others are sensitive to light. To phosphorus chemistry. While working in this
measure the minute concentration of these area, a need arose for versatile analytical
materials in the field is an extremely difficult methods; the principal one used was gas
problem . What complicates the picture is chromatography . Dr. Berlin published a paper
that the analysis often has to be done in the recently called " Gas Chromatographic Analy
presence of relatively nontoxic degradation ses of Organophosphorus Compounds Using
products which contain the same elements as a Hydrogen Flame Ionization Detector. The
the original material. Where does basic Use of Chromosorb Gas as a Solid Support."
research enter into the picture ? The question This paper was published in the Journal of
is sometimes difficult to answer ; but it seems Gas Chromatography for August 1965. The
obvious that highly technical weapons, like abstract of this paper follows:
chemical gas weapons, need a very highly " The analyses of several classes of
developed state of technology to solve prob organophosphorus compounds are
lems associated with their use. For this rea described. Some of the problems
son the Directorate of Chemical Sciences, usually associated with the chroma
14
 tography of these compounds are with which the analysis of toxic war gases
evaluated , and methods used to cir can be made. We feel this is a good example
cumvent these difficulties are dis of how basic research in mission -oriented
cussed . This report arose as the areas of science can help to back up a strong
result of an attempt to analyze , technology for defense in this day of " Tomor
both qualitatively and quantitatively , row 's Weapons."
several different types of reac
tion mixtures containing phosphorus
compounds . Results indicate that REFERENCES
commercially available equipment 1. Janz , George J., Bibliography on Molten Salts ,
(gas chromatograph and packed col Second Edition , June 1961. [Contract AF49(638 )
umns) is sufficient, without modifi 978 , TechnicalReport 2, AFOSR No. 786 , Depart
cation , to give good resolution and ment of Chemistry , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
rapid analysis of a large variety of Troy, New York . ]
organophosphorus substances." 2. Janz , George J ., Anthony T. Ward and Roger D .
Reeves, Molten Salt Data Electrical Conductance,
This paper has substantially improved Density and Viscosity), July 1964 . [Grant AF
our knowledge of the analysis of micro AFOSR - 181-63, Technical Report, AFOSR No. 64
amounts of phosphorus compounds, and may 0039 , Department of Chemistry, Rensselaer Poly
serve to increase the accuracy and facility technic Institute, Troy, New York .]

solar radio noise: potential index to environmental prediction

JOHN P. CASTELLI, Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL
The sun radiates energy over a range of observatory in the U .S. is making such con
radio frequencies. At any given frequency, tinuous , long-term measurements. Although
the strength or flux of these emissions some equipment modifications will probably
changes rapidly and often unpredictably . be made to the program between now and
September 1966 , planning calls for com
How do changes in flux at certain fre pletely uniform and continuous monitoring
quencies correlate with solar and terrestrial after that date ,
effects ? - - solar proton showers , solar flares ,
magnetic storms, auroral displays, and radio Records are made available to both the
communications blackout? Can certain char Air Weather Service (AWS), which has the
acteristic changes in radio emissions be Air Force responsibility for predicting the
identified as precursors to these observed occurrence ofall environmental events affect
effects ? Can they provide a basis for pre ing Air Force and DoD operations, and to the
diction ? general scientific community. These records
In a general, qualitative way we already are distributed daily. Solar - noise bursts are
know something of the positive relationships , reported immediately. AWS personnel at
But we don 't have enough continuous, long Sagamore HillObservatory provide these data
term data to state these relationships with to AWS headquarters by TWX .
any degree of assurance, In January 1966 , Two of the smaller radio telescopes at
AFCRL began a study that may lead to the AFCRL Sagamore HillRadio Observatory
precise formulations, Under this program , are used in these studies - -one with a 28 - foot
five different frequencies are monitored dish , the other with a dish of 8 feet. The
continuously from sunup to sundown seven 8 -foot telescope provides flux values at
days a week . Absolute flux measurements of 2700 mc and 8800 mc. A multifrequency feed
the sun at these five frequencies are moni (which includes provision for 5000 mc output)
tored, and consistent records will be main is used on the equatorially mounted antenna .
tained over long periods . No other radio The outputs of each of the radiometers are
 An 8 -foot telescope is used to record solar radiation at 606 and 8800 mc.
recorded on dual channel paper records, One The output of this unit is fed to digital equip
channel of limited dynamic range is used for ment as well as to paper chart recorders.
the small daily variations of the flux, the This unit is presently not in continuous oper
slowly varying components of the sun ' s ation , since final adjustments of the antenna
radiation . The second channel is used for and the recording equipment are taking place,
recording the burst activity which may rise The flux of radio emissions peaks at dif
to many times the solar background. ferent frequencies , depending on the source
The equatorially mounted 28 - foot antenna region , Sunspots emit energy in the spectral
has 2 radiometers at its output, one at 606 mc range of 1415 to 10 ,000 mc. At 606 mc, the
and the second at 1415 mc, It is also set up to radiation is from the outer layers of the solar
record the flux of the slowly varying com atmosphere, the corona. At 8800 mc, the
ponent and the bursts from solar flares . radiation is from the chromosphere , closer
16
 I
L
UN

The 28 -foot radio telescope (foreground ) will be used to record emissions from sunspots between
1415 and 10 , 000 mc. AFCRL 's 150-foot radio telescope is shown in the background. These telescopes
are located at the Sagamore Hill Radio Observatory at Hamilton, Mass., which is one of the most com
plete radio observatories in the country .
to the sun 's visible surface. In addition to the two radio telescopes to be
Sunspot regions have, historically , been of permanently assigned to the solar- noise
primary interest. From these centers of monitoring program , other receivers will be
activity , flares are generated . Those studying used periodically for special observations .
prediction techniques hope to be able to An 84 - foot antenna , for example, will be used
distinguish unambiguously between those cen for more precise analysis of radiation from
ters of sunspot activity that produce geo the corona and the chromosphere.
magnetic events and those that have no ter This research was funded under the Air
restrial effects , Force Independent Research Fund.
 PROFILES

Dr. Richard B. Dunn is a physicist at the Sacramento Peak Observatory , Sunspot, New Mexico , Air
Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. From the University ofMinnesota he received the degrees of
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering in 1949 and Master of Science in 1950. In the fall of 1950, he be
came a teaching fellow and graduate student in astronomy at Harvard University . Upon completion, in
1960, of his thesis entitled " Photometry of the Solar Chromosphere, ” Harvard University awarded him
the degree of Ph. D . Dr. Dunn joined the staff of Sacramento Peak in 1953, and has been with AFCRL
ever since. He is now engaged in work concerned with designing and constructing optical instruments
for solar research.His observationalwork on the structure of the solar chromosphere and limb darkening
profile in the continuum is outstanding for the meticulous care and ingenuity displayed in the elimina
tion of instrumental and " seeing'' effects . In addition to publishing a number of articles, Dr. Dunn
has provided the design concepts for a unique solar vacuum telescope, which is described in this issue
of the Review in the article, " Construction of Solar Vacuum Telescope to begin in 1966 ."
18
 Dr. Denny D . Watson of the General Physics Research Labora
tory , ARL , was author of " Some Nuclear-Structure Studies Using
Gamma-Ray Angular Correlations" which appeared in the December
1965 issue of the OAR Research Review . (His " profile " is re
published here because of an error in the December 1965 " OAR
Profiles." The photo used in that issue was not of Dr. Watson ,
but of Dr. J. H . Winicour.) Dr. Watson is currently concerned with
properties of excited states of C135, new and improved methods
forthe analysis of gamma-ray angular correlation data , and the de
sign of mechanical and electronic systems to provide for gamma
ray polarization measurements. He received his B .S . (Engineering
Physics) in 1960, and his Ph.D . (Physics) in 1965, both from the
University of Kansas. Prior to joining ARL , he was a research
assistant, Nuclear Physics Laboratory, University of Kansas,
from 1958 to 1964 .

Mr.Michael Howes, a member of the Thermomechanics Research

Laboratory, ARL, is engaged in research in the direct conversion
of fluid dynamic energy into electricity . The energy - conversion
process necessitates consideration of the interplay of electrical,
aerodynamic, and thermodynamic effects to achieve desirable op
erating characteristics of an electrofluid dynamic ( EFD )generator.
Typical output voltages are of the order of hundreds of kilovolts,
with output currents in the milliampere range. Particular areas of
research are the development of instrumentation and loading
methods to match these output parameters, investigations into gas
seeding methods, and dielectric testing with the aim of determin
ing the most suitable gases to be used as the EFD transportmedium .
Mr. Hawes was graduated from the National University of Ireland
( B . E . degree in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, 1958). In
this issue of the Review , he writes on " Electrofluid Dynamic
Working Media for Direct Energy -Conversion Processes."

Dr. Yoon Soo Park has been a research physicist with the Solid
State Physics Research Laboratory, ARL , from 1962 to the present.
Prior to that, he was a research physicist with the D . H . Baldwin
Company , a teaching assistant at the University of Alberta, and
an instructor at Pusan University . He has a B . S . in Physics from
the Seoul National University (1952), an M . S. in Physics from the
University of Alberta (1955), and a Ph. D . in Physics from the
University of Cincinnati (1963). He also has a number of publica
tions to his credit. Currently, he is conducting research on the
optical electrical properties of 11-VI-compound semiconductors . In
this issue of the Review , he writes on the " Band Structure of ZnO."
19
POLYMER DEFORMATION STUDIES
DR . ANTHONY J.MATUSZKO, Directorate of Chemical Sciences , AFOSR

With grant support from the Directorate of molecules, crystals, and crystalline super
Chemical Sciences, AFOSR , Dr. Richard Stein structure in a polymer. If the sample is
and his co -workers at the University of mechanically vibrated at a frequency cor
Massachusetts have developed and applied responding to a period shorter than the
a new method for the study of polymer orientation time of a particular structural
deformation . The method involves the meas mechanism , that mechanism will not con
urement of " dynamic birefringence" (double tribute to the birefringence change at the
refraction ) of a polymer film in which the particular frequency. As the frequency is
stress , strain and birefringence are simul lowered , more mechanisms contribute, and
taneously observed . The mechanical and the birefringence increases in a manner
optical data obtained serve to characterize dependent upon the time dependence of poly
the deformation mechanism of the polymer , mer mobility.
thereby yielding information about the molec
ular nature of structural changes which is not A thorough study was made of the dynamic
obtainable from mechanical spectra alone. mechanical and optical properties of a num
A diagram of the type of apparatus used is ber of polymeric systems such as poly
shown in Figure 1. ethylene, polypropylene, etc . Through the
results obtained by the dynamic birefringence
and related techniques, a new picture of the
deformation of crystalline polymers has
QQQQ Q .10 @ @ evolved , involving the rapid deformation of
the crystalline superstructure as the sample
.

is deformed, followed by a slower visco

elastic reorientation of the constituent crys
tals ,
In order to learn more about crystal
orientation changes in the polymer when
deformed, the University of Massachusetts
research group developed a dynamic X - ray
diffraction technique which is capable of
® é o directly measuring rates of such changes ,
Fig. 1. The dynamic birefringence apparatus: This involves an " X - ray stroboscope" tech
nique in which a sample is vibrated in the
( A )mercury light source; (B ) condensing lens; X - ray beam . The output of the detector of
( C) monochromatizingfilter; (D ) polarizer; the diffracted radiation is distributed among
(E ) slits; (F ) sample ; (G ) analyzer; four scalers by a commutator operating in
(H ) photomultiplier; (1) two- channelamplifier; synchronism with the sample vibration (Fig
(J) two-channel recorder; (K ) eccentric drive; ure 2 ). Preliminary experiments have indi
( L ) motor; ( M ) variable-speed transmission ; cated a crystal-orientation response time
(N ) linear variable differential transformer. comparable with that deduced from dynamic
birefringence studies (1 ) (of the order of
The birefringence of a polymer is a meas
ure of its orientation . The finding that bire a second for polyethylene at room temper
fringence decreases with increasing fre ature).
quency of strain is a consequence of the In one other phase of this study, Dr. Stein
finite time required for the orientation of and co -workers have developed a high - speed
20
 ECCENTRIC CAM
VARIABLE
SPEED
MOTOR SCALER

POWER
TRANS CAMS AND SWITCHES
MISSION FOR GATING SIGNAL SCALER
#2
JAW
X -RAY G .M .
TUBE SAMPLE TUBE

G . E . EA - 75 JAW PHIL PS SCALER

63019
#3

75 KVP
GENERATOR SCALEP
AMPLIFIER
G .E . XRD -6 #4
ECCENTRIC CAM

Fig. 2. A diagrammatic sketch of the dynamic diffractometer.

motion- picture technique to learn moreabout thereby eliminating factors which cause poly
polymer deformations. When used in con meric materials to degrade or crack under
nection with a high - speed elongation ap extreme stress,
paratus and a continuous gas laser, this
apparatus is capable of taking light-scattering REFERENCES
movies of sample elongations . (2)
This research on polymers will be useful (1) Polymer Letters, 2, 1075, 1964.
to the Air Force in better understanding and (2) J. Polymer Sci., C5, 179, 1963.

ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM

METEOROLOGY L'ABORATORY, AFCRL
So varied are the driving forces and physical To set the stage for his discussion of
manifestations of the severe local storm that the 26 May 1963 family of storms, Dr. Keith
it defies complete description, let alone com
plete understanding. From pieces of the puz A . Browning, editor of the 16 -chapter report,
zle gathered on a number of different occasions devotes the first few chapters to an analysis
it is possible to synthesize a general picture of the over - all weather picture across the
of a severe local storm , but rarely has it been U . S. and in Oklahoma on thedayofthe storm .
possible to approach adequate description of Observations were made south of Oklahoma
the many aspects of a single storm or group of
storms from information gathered on a single City , in an area highly subject to severe
occasion . This volume now attempts to do just local storms during the spring and early
that. summer. Some eight AFCRL meteorologists
This foreword introduces a 346- page participated in the study, together with mete
AFCRL special report, A FamilyOutbreak of orologists of Chicago University and the
Severe Local Storms- - A Comprehensive U . S. Weather Bureau, and researchers from
Study of Storms in Oklahoma on 26 May 1963, Pennsylvania State University, Hazleton
(AFCRL -65 -695 - I). The report covers the re Nuclear Science Corporation , Litton Systems,
sults of the most complete series ofobserva Inc., and Stanford University .
tions ever made of a single storm . These Meteorological equipments and sensors of
results, in turn , provide a number of new in great variety provided the data - -a Tiros
sights into the behavior of the severe local satellite , weather radar, aircraft,and devices
storm , to monitor bursts of radio static (sferics).
Standard monitoring equipments for meas
uring pressures, winds , humidities and tem
peratures were widely used throughout the
area through which the storms passed. In
addition , rainfall was collected for later LABORATORY UNDERGOES
analysis of its radioactivity, and giant hail
stones were gathered and placed in deep
freeze for laboratory examination . (Photo
MAJOR MODIFICATIONS
graphs of the cross sections of these hail UPPER ATMOSPHERE
stones in polarized and unpolarized light PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
provide excellent information on their for
mation and growth . ) AFCRL 's highly instrumented KC - 135 ion
ospheric flying laboratory has recently under
The family of storms on 26 May began to gone major modifications to incorporate new
form along a cold front southwest of Okla equipments which will make the aircraft
homa City about 1 p.m . and moved in an an incomparable ionospheric research facil
east -northeasterly direction . Eleven indi ity. Most important of the modifications was
vidual storm cells comprised this family , the installation of a second hyperhemispheri
and the tops of their towering cumulo cal dome (atop the fuselage) to accommodate
nimbus clouds merged together to form a 35 -mm all- sky camera and a granger
a giant anvil canopy at altitudes between ionospheric sounder . This is the first time
30,000 and 50,000 feet. A number of these such a sounder has been installed in an air
storms produced giant hail and tornadoes. craft.
Observers on the ground were able to watch This unique aircraft with its great variety
the formation and behavior of two of these of instrumentation permits AFCRL scientists
awesome funnel clouds. From the extensive to conduct ionospheric studies all over the
observations, detailed models of precipi world . The aircraft is flown under the direc
tation trajectories and air - flow patterns were tion of Dr. George J. Gassmann as part of
derived .
AFCRL 's upper - atmosphere research pro
gram ,
The conclusions contained in each chapter
(prepared by various participants) are too The KC - 135 will be used for research in
numerous to summarize here; but one of the such areas as electrojet studies, aurora ,
more significant generalizations in the report air glow , arctic propagation studies, ion
is contained in Browning's introduction : " As ospheric perturbations and ionospheric den
emphasized in the following chapters , severe sities ,
local storms are quite different from non
severe storms. They are notmerely scaled - up Among the other equipments in the aircraft
thunderstorms, but have a character all are a gamma- ray monitor for cosmic - radi
their own. " One of the primary ways in which ation studies , photometers , visible and in
this difference is manifested is in the life frared spectrometers , day and night polarim
cycles of these two types of storms. An eters , and various all - sky and narrow - field
ordinary storm passes through three stages : cameras to record natural and artificial
air - glow phenomena .
the cumulus , or formative stage; theordinary
mature stage; and the dissipating stage, A fluxgate magnetometer is used to meas
However, instead of dissipating after passing ure total magnetic - field intensity . A peri
through the ordinary stage , the severe storm , scope, interlocked to directional cameras
which had been comprised of several subcells , and a photometer , provides servo control of
evolves into a large and sometimes persistent these equipments. A precision timing unit
single cell. It is during this stagethattornadic provides the time base for all equipment.
activity , also very characteristic of the Data are recorded on magnetic tape, film
severe local storm , develops . and chart,
22
 U . S . AIR FORCE

Photo 1. The KC-135 Ionospheric Flying Laboratory

Photo 2. The three domes of the aircraft can be seen here . The first dome at the left contains a mirror
system for spectrographs separating in the visible and infrared regions. In the center, the tip of the
periscope is shown surrounded by an airfoil to give aerodynamical stability . The dome at the far right
houses the photometer.
Photo 3. Here maybe seen the heart of the instrumentation aboard the aircraft. The various racks con
sist primarily of power stages for transmitters and various recording devices.
 EFFECTS OF VORTEX FLOW

Most of today' s high-enthalpy arc-heating devices utilize vortex flow around the arc column. How
ever, the effects of the vortex flow on heat transfer from the arc to the gas are not at all understood,
and strong controversies exist as to its value. Thus, ARL's Thermomechanics Research Laboratory ,
under an in -house study as the first phase of the program on gas-arc interaction , is investigating the
effect of a vortex flow field on arc characteristics and on the heat transfer from a coaxial arc column.
For this study, the simplest possible arc model was chosen: a very long arc column drawn coaxially
within a cylindrical tube of 2 " diameter through which nitrogen gas flows at controlled speed with a
continuously variable rotational component. Through adjustments of the gas-injection angle , the vor
tex strength of the flow field may be changed without affecting the mass flow through the system . The
arc, drawn up to 33 inches in length between movable cooled electrodes, is operated with alternating
current at a power level up to 150 kw at about 1200 volts.

Control Console, Vortex-Stabilized Arc

25
 Vortex-Stabilized Arc

Vortex-Stabilized Arc in Operation (Closeup Showing Arc Flame)

26
 TO OUR READERS

Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
(except for those from Latin America ).

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
Laurence G . Hanscom Field , Bedford , Massachusetts 01731

AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn: ARI
Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433

AIR FORCE OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Attn : SRGL
4th and Independence Avenue, S.W ., Washington , D. C . 20333
THE FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
USAF Academy, Colorado 80840

OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
Holloman AF Base, New Mexico 88330

Request for further information from institutions and individuals in Latin America should
be addressed to :

LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE AEROSPACE RESEARCH

U . S . EMBASSY
Rio de Janeiro , Brazil

Detailed documentary reports may be obtained from :

CLEARINGHOUSE
U . S. Department of Commerce, Springfield , Virginia 22151

DEFENSE DOCUMENTATION CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION *

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* Qualified requestors
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 501.64 0 5

research review
DCU
W CE EA S OFFICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
FIC O ERSOPSA RES
A
E F
)
G

OAR : The Research Agency

N
C

of The United States Air Force

JAN 20 1967

LIBRE
VOLUME v NUMBER 2 APRIL 1966
LAPR 1966
ENGINEERING
earthquake - triggering mechanisms
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES LABORATORY, AFCRL
Tests of rock behavior under conditions of occurred . Laboratory measurements of the
high temperature and pressure have sug strength of rocks indicate that much greater
gested two new mechanisms that may trigger forces are needed to deform rocks than are
earthquakes. In a recent series of laboratory associated with deep earthquakes. But in the
experiments using a large shear press, absence of experimental data , there was
Dr. Robert E . Riecker of AFCRL found that nothing to replace the fault theory as an
the strength of a water - bearing mineral was explanation of deep earthquakes.
drastically reduced when the mineral was Such considerations led Dr. Riecker to
dehydrated by heat. In another case, the study the behavior of silicate minerals, like
crystal structure of a material changed sud those in the earth ' s mantle, at temperatures
denly under certain conditions. Dr. Riecker and pressures comparable to those found as
believes that such internal changes in rock deep as 200 km in themantle , Eighty per cent
structures, rather than their slippage along of deep earthquakes originate in the region
faults, may be the main cause of "deep above 200 km . Previous studies of rock
earthquakes ' - -those originating below the strength had mostly been conducted at lower
earth ' s outermost layer or crust. temperatures and pressures. Only with
Geologists have realized for some time AFCRL ' s high - temperature, high -pressure
that the fault theory, though adequate to ex shear press has it been possible to simulate
plain " shallow " earthquakes (those origi simultaneously the pressures and tempera
nating in the earth 's crust), had severe tures found in the earth ' s mantle.
shortcomings when applied to deep earth In Dr. Riecker 's hydraulic press, thin
quakes. In the earth 's mantle , where deep wafers of various minerals are squeezed
earthquakes originate , pressures ofhundreds between flattened dips of two tungsten - carbide
to thousands of atmospheres squeeze adjoin anvils . Samples are heated by an induction
ing rock structures together too tightly for coil. The strength of the samples is tested by
them to slip along faults.Under greater pres slowly rotating the shaft on which one of the
sures, deformation of the rock structures anvils is mounted . At low pressures , the flat
would absorb these forces before slippage tip of the rotated anvil slides across the sur

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * TheFRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES * AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE , OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE , OAR
face of the sample much like a slipping clutch . One of these is a greenish mineral called
At higher pressures, however, friction serpentine, a magnesium silicate that con
between the two surfaces is too great for tains water molecules in its crystal lattice.
slipping to occur , and the internal structure Dr. Riecker found that, attemperatures above
of the sample is deformed by twisting. The 500 degrees, the water is driven out of the
shear stress which produces this deformation serpentine's crystal lattice, thereby greatly
is the same type of stress present in the weakening its ability to withstand stress.
earth ' s interior, and provides a measure of Indications are that other hydrous minerals ,
the material' s strength . With this press, believed to exist in the earth 's mantle, may
Dr. Riecker has been able to measure the undergo a similar weakening under condidions
effects of shear stress on materials atpres of high temperature. Thus an increase in
sures of 60 ,000 atmospheres and tempera temperature in a region of the mantle con
tures of 1000 degrees C - - conditions more taining such materials could weaken them
extreme than have been achieved in other enough for existing shear stresses to trigger
laboratory tests of rock strength . These a cataclysmic deformation resulting in an
conditions correspond to a depth of about earthquake.
200 km . The other material is a silicate mineral
With the shear press, Dr. Riecker has called enstatite . Dr. Riecker discovered that
examined the properties of a large number this mineral changes its crystal structure
of minerals . Two of these proved of special under certain conditions of temperature and
interest. Each one suggested a mechanism pressure. This mineral has two different
for earthquake formation . types of crystal structure. At temperatures

TAILORING INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO PEOPLE

Rowena Swanson . .
research review THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH 1st LtWilliam F . King, III .. .... 6
METHOD FOR MEASURING VERTICAL WIND
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of. PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Ha Of. Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL .... 9
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF, Ath and Independence
Avenue, S.W ., Washington , D .C . 20333. The objective of this ROCKETS, ARECIBO RADAR AND SPORADIC E
publication is to make a positive contribution to the exchange UpperAtmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL . . . . 10
of information concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored
research activities. AFOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL
PROBLEMS
JACOB SEIDEN Directorate of Chemical Sciences , AFOSR . . . . . . . . 13
Editor
THE LINEARIZED RAYLEIGH PROBLEM ACCORD
ING TO KINETIC THEORY
19
EARTHQUAKE - TRIGGERING MECHANISMS K . S. Nagaraja . ... . . . . .. .

Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory ,AFCRL . . . .. . . 1

MATTHIESSEN 'S RULE- ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
THE OXIDATION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFACES OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS
Dr. T . W . Haas . Max Swerdlow ...

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U . S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D . C . 20402 - $ 2,75 per year domestic, 75 cents additional for
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Back issues will not be furnished ,
between 500 and 700 degrees C , enstatite structures on the surface. Its removal was
changes from one type of structure (from effected by heating the samples in an oxygen
one phase) to another which occupies 10 per atmosphere . This oxidizes the carbon to
cent less volume. The particular tempera carbon monoxide, which is subsequently de
ture at which this phase change occurs de sorbed. Heating alone is not adequate to
pends on the pressure . However ,Dr. Riecker remove this carbon contaminant. Heating in
discovered that this change could be brought excess of 1000° C in an ultrahigh vacuum
about suddenly at much lower temperatures environment will removemolybdenum oxides ,
by applying a relatively small shear stress exposing the clean surface. A LEED pattern
to the material. If such changes in crystal from a clean Mo (110 ) surface taken at 145
structure occur in materials in the earth ' s , volts incident beam energy is shown in
mantle, they could also trigger earthquakes. Figure 1. A marble model was made to

The Oxidation of Clean

Molybdenum Surfaces
DR. T. W . HAAS 02
Chemistry Research Laboratory, ARL
The refractory metals have many prop
erties which suggest important uses in Air
Force applications. One of their more im 11
portant properties, strength at elevated tem
peratures, is offset somewhat by a tendency
to oxidize at temperatures of interest. Very
little is known of the initial stages of oxida
tion in these metals, although many studies
have been carried out on the later stages.
A study of the molybdenum (110 ) surface and
its oxides has been carried out recently at 01
the Aerospace Research Laboratories using 10
low - energy electron - diffraction techniques
(LEED )* . These studies have led to the
determination of the structures of the clean
( 110 ) surface as well as the various oxide
structures formed in the initial stages of
oxidation .
The single crystals of molybdenum used
in these studies were of extreme purity .
Nonetheless , surface contaminants were
present and had to be removed prior to LEED Figure 1 . Diffraction pattern from clean Mo (110 )
studies. The principal contaminant appeared surface taken at 140 V. Marble model shows a unit
to be carbon , which diffuses to the surface at rectangularmesh (dark balls) as well as azimuth
elevated temperatures and forms various designations. Diffraction beams are indexed using
these designations. Note absence of 01 and 10 re
* Low -energy electron diffraction was discussed in a flections. Diffraction patterns and marble models
recent article in the Review by M . Swerdlow (Decem are oriented so that a (110 ) crystallographic di
ber 1965) . Since the basic ideas of this technique were
presented quite well in that article , these details are rection in the crystal is horizontal, while a (100 )
not repeated here. direction is vertical.
portray the arrangement of the molybdenum erage shown in Figure 2c. Patterns due to
atoms; this model is shown below the dif higher coverages are also obtained , but have
fractogram to aid in interpretation of the not been entirely explained as yet. In all
patterns . Directions in the crystal are indi cases these reactions were carried out at
cated by the arrows on the marble model, room temperature . At room temperature ,
and diffraction beams are indexed using these the oxidation does not appear to go much
unit mesh vectors. beyond two layers of oxide even after long
If the clean surface is exposed to an oxygen exposures to oxygen . Heating the sample to
atmosphere , various oxide structures are about 600° C causes growth of oxide layers
formed , depending on the exposure. The first on the surface. Figure 3 shows a pattern
clear patterns correspond to 1/ 4 monolayer obtained after heating in oxygen . Epitaxial
coverage. The diffraction pattern from such growth of oxides has certainly taken place,
a structure is shown in Figure 2a, along with but the patterns obtained have not as yet
a marble model indicating a structure con been fully explained .
sistent with this diffraction pattern . Further
exposure to oxygen produces new diffraction As regards kinetic considerations it would
patterns corresponding to 1/ 2 monolayer appear that, below one monolayer coverage
coverage. This diffraction pattern , as well at least, each oxygen molecule which strikes
as a marble model showing the atomic ar the surface is adsorbed and reacts . The re
rangment, is shown in Figure 2b . Further action is sufficiently rapid so that no rate
exposure produces the 3/ 4 monolayer cov constants have been determined .

01
02
02

20

Figure 2. Patterns obtained after exposure to oxygen. a ) 1 /4 monolayer adsorbed; note presence of01,
10 and 1/ 2 1/2beams(140 volts );b) 1/ 2 monolayer coverage; note absence of 01 and 10 beams (140 volts);
c ) pattern due to 3 / 4 monolayer; note reappearance of 01 and 10 beams (95 volts). Dark balls represent
oxygen atoms, light ballsmolybdenum atoms.
 the neutrino together with what everyone
else had to say during the period 1960 - 1962.
People have idiosyncrasies. They mani
fest some of the most idiosyncratic behavior
with respect to information storage and
retrieval. They keep their books in highly
personalized arrangements. They file re
ports and tables and correspondence in ways
that may be meaningful only to them . They
have ways of putting together a sentencehere
with a numerical value there, and designing
an entire experiment or building a theory
based on what they synthesize from a few
bits and their own mental store.
Information systems are supposed to be
designed for people. They are supposed to be
able to use ideas on how to arrange informa
Figure 3. Photograph of diffraction pattern ob tion , and devices for storing and manipu
tained after heating in oxygen ( 140 volts). lating marks to relieve people who use
A number of outstanding problems in the information from the necessity ofalso having
use of LEED for these studies remain . Chief to code and file it . Libraries have long done
among these is adequate accounting for in the collective job of serving a community of
tensity variations of these beams. As such people . Books are easy to find in a library,
problems are overcome, LEED will doubt either through card catalogs or knowing
less be used more and more to obtain funda where groups of them are filed on shelves.
mental information about important solid But the library catalog is not usually so
surface properties. detailed as to tell everything about a Charles
Slosh or about work on neutrinos during the
period 1960– 1962. This is what thenew gene
tailoring information ration of storage - and - retrieval schemes,
called " information systems, " is supposed to
do .
systems to people It would be possible to design an informa
ROWENA SWANSON
Directorate of Information Sciences, AFOSR tion system to serve a single person . This
would be a rather expensive system , since
People have memories, rather good ones. it could require a system designer to observe
They can recall a yellow - covered book , a the total information - gathering and using
magazine with a particularly appealing cover, habits of that person . In addition , it could
a graph in the upper right corner of a page, require a documentalist to establish a clas
or the fact that some data were interpre sification scheme for arranging and sorting
tively reviewed in a report read about six the information , a subject specialist to read
months ago . and evaluate the information , a coder and/ or
People have nesting instincts . The house filer and/ or machine for storing the infor
wife arranges food, clothing and jewelry in mation , and a reference librarian for re
ways that help her find what she wants fairly trieving it.
quickly . The manager, the scientist, and the The practical approach for serving groups
secretary try to do this too - -but the number of people has been to establish information
of items they have to file and find keeps centers. The success of these centers in
growing . One day one might want to find tailoring their services to the individual has
everything Charles Slosh has ever said- -but varied . One of the outstanding networks of
the next day only what he had to say about such centers is that at the Oak RidgeNational
Laboratory (ORNL ). But the ORNL complex them ? How do you use them ? How often ? How
is the exception rather than the rule. If the do you up -date them ? Jahoda is also trying
system for the single person is not eco to integrate the information specialist with
nomically practical, and if the system for the information user to help them both . The
groups of people appears to be the necessary hypothesis is that the information specialist
compromise, it becomes desirable to do what can relieve the scientist from the time- con
the system designer would do for the indi suming chores of journal and document scan
vidual, i. e., try to assess individualpractices ning, indexing, and filing . But the scientist
and attempt to extrapolate from a sufficient must learn to have confidence in the ability
sampling to satisfy group needs. This , in of the information specialist to select, sort,
effect, is what has been done and is being and file. The information specialist, in turn ,
done at ORNL , and is at least one of the cannot perform adequately unless he knows
reasons for the success of the ORNL centers. the behavior and interests of the scientist,
This assessment is what is also being done Jahoda has set out to show that this interac
for a more general population of scientists tion can work, and he plans to specify how it
by Prof. Gerald Jahoda at Florida State Uni can work , based on data he is gathering in
versity under AFOSR grant 895– 65 . Prof. his experiment.
Jahoda has sampled the individual informa A further hypothesis relevant to informa
tion - gathering and storing behaviors of about tion systems might also be made . This con
75 university professors and graduate stu cerns the generalizability of Jahoda's data to
dents who are teaching and doing research . the design of large- scale , machine- based
He is asking such questions as: How do you systems that can accommodate various and
arrange your personalfiles ?How do you index varying needs of many users in such a fashion
as to give each the impression that the system
(1) Several of ORNL ' s information centers are described is tailor -made. The proof of this hypothesis
in " Infomation Centers at the Oak Ridge National depends not only on Jahoda's data , but also
Laboratory (A Study in Diversity),” by FrancoisKertesz, on the results of a number of studies being
ORNL- TM - 996 , 13 Nov 64 . sponsored by AFOSR and other agencies. *

THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE

IST LT WILLIAM F. KING , III, Data Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL
The quest for new and better devices for field is applied in the opposite direction ,
the construction of digital processors has regions of the sheet reverse the direction
often led to the possibility of an all-magnetic of magnetization . These regions of reversed
computer. Many of these attempts have failed magnetization grow across the sheet of
because the device , even though it worked , permalloy in long thin spikes or tips at an
was just not as simple to construct and approximate speed of 105 cm /sec.
operate as the transistor. Under AFCRL If a thin sheet of aluminum is placed under
contract, the Laboratory for Electronics, a portion of the magnetic sheet, that portion
Boston , Mass. , has discovered a new mag of the sheet will not change direction of
netic phenomenon applicable to digital magnetization as easily as the rest of the
computer technology that has the requisite sheet. If the sheet of aluminum is etched in
simplicity of operation and construction . a particular shape, the reversed domain
This phenomenon, known as domain -tip will grow only along the etched regions of
propagation , occurs in a thin (~ 1000 A ) that shape.
sheet of permalloy. Initially, the sheet is Figure 1 shows a sheet of permalloy with
magnetized all in one direction much like the underlying aluminum everywhere, except
an ordinary bar magnet. If a small magnetic in the channels. In this example, for small
 PERMALLOY OVER
ALUMINUM

CHANNEL
( PERMALLOY ONLY)

DIRECTION OF
MAGNETIC FIELD

DOMAIN TIP
PROPAGATING
Fig. 1. Sheet of permalloy with underlying aluminum everywhere, except in channels.

magnetic fields, the magnetization direction underlying aluminum pattern . In (c), the
of the permalloy would change only in the channel is returned to its initial state except
channels . for a small tip at the bottom vertex , Now in
(d), the tip in the bottom vertex is allowed
One application of domain -tip propagation to propagate in the next channel. Part (e ) is
is a shift register , i. e., a device that stores the same as (c ), and the operation is com
a number of bits of information and can plete .
shift the information from one location to
another . The shift register shown in Figure 2 At the tip of a reversed region , there is
has the underlying aluminum everywhere, a gradient of magnetization which gives rise
except in the zigzag pattern . One bit of in to a magnetic field. The reversed region
formation can be stored in every other can be thought of as a bar magnet with
vertex . The transfer of a bit is shown in north and south poles at the ends. The well
Figure 2. In part ( a), a bit of information is known principle of like poles repelling and
stored in a vertex of the shift register. It opposite poles attracting is the basis for
will now be transferred to the next vertex another application of the domain -tip
to the right. In part (b ), a magnetic field is phenomenon . The device shown in Figure 3
applied to grow the tip along the channel, is a simple switch . If a tip is in the left-hand
Only the channel is reversed because of the channel, no tip may pass by in the right-hand
'APPLIED r
FIELD n

(c )

Fig. 2. Shift register with underlying aluminum everywhere, except in zigzag pattern .
 CHANNEL

NOR GATE

Fig. 3 . Simple switch. Fig . 4 . NOR (logic ) gate .

channel. Other more sophisticated arrange principle , this enables one to construct an
ments of this type are possible (e .g ., Fig - entire computer with these domain - tip
ure 4 shows a NOR ( logic) gate ); thus, in propagation devices.

method for measuring vertical wind

profile from aircraft
AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY, AFCRL
A system for measuring the vertical wind measure of wind direction . More sophisti
profile from an aircraft has been designed cated is the " dropsonde" used to obtain
by James F . Morrissey of AFCRL . With vertical profiles of atmospheric tempera
this system , wind speed and direction at tures and density .
various altitudes could be obtained in remote Previous attempts to accurately measure
areas where observations cannot easily be wind speed and direction at all levels be
made - - over oceans, for example, tween an aircraft and the ground have cen
The basic component is an expendable tered around a parachute system which
transmitter dropped from the airplane, descended slowly enough to acquire the
Dropping things from aircraft is hardly a motion of the surrounding air . Tracking
new technique for gathering weather infor - such systems from aircraft by some type
mation . The oldest and simplest example is of electromagnetic ranging system provided
the smoke bomb used to obtain a coarse a vertical profile of wind speed and direction
relative to the aircraft. But in converting this
to a profile of wind relative to the ground,
large errors resulted from even small un
ROCKETS,
certainties in the aircraft' s speed. The
problem was to design a relatively simple, ARECIBO RADAR
inexpensive sonde that operated on an en
tirely different principle . & SPORADICE
Morrissey designed a free-falling sonde UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS
that is aerodynamically similar to a rocket. LABORATORY, AFCRL
This sonde makes use of the familiar prin
ciple of weathercocking- -the tendency of Scientists of the Air Force Cambridge
streamlined objects to align themselves with Research Laboratories and Cornell Univer
the wind . In the case of the sonde proposed sity have recently jointly conducted a series
by Morrissey, its rocket shape keeps its of experiments designed to learn more about
cylindrical axis vertical when it is falling dense, patchy layers of the ionosphere known
through a region of no wind . Otherwise, it as sporadic E .
is tilted into the wind by an amount propor Sounding rockets, which released a vertical
tional to the horizontal wind speed. The chemiluminescent trail starting at 30 miles
degree of tilt is then determined by a slowly
and extending to a peak altitude of 180 miles ,
rotating accelerometer mounted in the sonde
and the 1000 - foot Arecibo radar in Puerto
to monitor the angle between the cylindrical Rico , were used to obtain precise data on
axis and the earth' s gravitational field . ionospheric and wind conditions under which
Such a system , of course, measures wind sporadic E forms.
speed and direction only with respect to the
A series of four rocket firings by a group
sonde itself. A means to determine the orien led by Dr. N . W . Rosenberg of AFCRL were
tation of the sonde with respect to the air made from Camp Tortuguera , Puerto Rico .
craft is also needed . This information can This was timed with simultaneous measure
then be combined with the aircraft ' s heading
ments made at Arecibo using a lower - iono
to obtain wind speed and direction with re sphere study program which has been de
spect to the ground. This is , after all, the veloped over the past year by Merle LaLonde
desired end product.
of Cornell University .
The sonde' s telemetry system can be made
to serve a kind of double duty to provide this The rocket trajectory and radar beam in
information . The sonde 's directional antenna tersected at a height of approximately 100
is rotated so that the signal received by the km , some 20 km north of Arecibo over the
aircraft varies in strength in a regular way. Atlantic Ocean . The measurements were
As the antenna passes a particular point on made at night, and were spaced between
the sonde, a tracer signal is added . The phase sunset and sunrise on a night when sporadic
difference between the time this signal is E was detected by radio means at Arecibo .
received and the time the maximum signal The particular night chosen required the
strength is received indicates the orientation cooperation of both local weather conditions
of the sonde with respect to the aircraft. for a clear observation of the trails and the
mechanism which produces the sporadic E
Wind speed and direction as a function of phenomenon .
altitude are obtained by timing the sonde's
descent and converting the timing data to Sporadic E occurs randomly and unpre
altitude. Typical times of descent will be 5 dictably , and affects both radio communica
to 10 minutes when the sonde is released tions and radar detection - -usually in a harm
from altitudes around 30 ,000 feet. ful way. Depending on radio or radar wave
An operational device is expected to be lengths, the signal is either absorbed or
available in about 18 to 24 months. * reflected , causing such effects as radar
10
 Photo 1. This is a picture of a chemiluminescent cloud showing the distortion effects of upper
atmospheric winds. One canbarely discern in this photograph that the trail does in fact assume a helix
like configuration . The ballooning upper portion of the trail is due to the trail's expansion in the rare
upper atmosphere .
clutter, signal fading, or the reflection of the theory, known as the "Wind Shear Theory,"
signal over great distances. predicts that charged particles in the lower
Although sporadic E layers have been ionosphere will be forced to pile up into thin
studied for many years , just how they are layers because the particles are moving rela
formed is not well understood . Onepromising tive to the earth 's magnetic field . The mag
11
netic field deflects the particles vertically , given altitudes. This causes them to pile up at
with the amount of deflection depending on certain altitudes, thereby creating sporadic E .
the direction and velocity of the wind at any To evaluate this theory , it is necessary
given altitude. Because the 100 -to - 150 -mile to know more about wind shear - -that is , the
per -hour wind changes direction by 180 change in wind direction with altitude, High
degrees at roughly 15 -mile intervals , altitude wind profiles are measured by re
luminescent trails produced by rocket fir leasing a luminescent chemical vapor from
ings are distorted and assume a helical a rocket as it proceeds along a nearly
configuration . Thus, the moving charged vertical trajectory. These trails are tracked
particles cut across the lines of force by cameras, and the height profile of wind
of the earth 's magnetic field at all angles, and magnitude and direction is obtained from the
are consequently deflected more strongly at cloud motions as recorded on the films. *

Photo 2. This is a standard view of the Arecibo lonospheric Observatory which is an intrinsic part
of the sporadic E test.
AFOSR chemists probe Air Force
technical problems
DIRECTORATE OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES, AFOSR
The mission of the Air Force Office of Thiokol Chemical Corp, to start the ball
Scientific Research (AFOSR ), Office of Aero rolling , spoke on the role of basic research
space Research (QAR ), is to sponsor basic in a mission -oriented organization , and the
research by awarding grants and contracts need for adequate communication between the
to support deserving unsolicited proposals. research organization and the user com
In the area of chemistry, the Directorate of mands.
Chemical Sciences, AFOSR , evaluates these Col D . R . Jones, Defense Intelligence
proposals for scientific merit, novelty and Agency, discussed the intelligence require
import, originality , cost effectiveness, and ments to which chemical technology may
significance to long -range Air Force objec apply - -specifically , the need formore sensi
tives. Always a goal, the relevancy of basic tive sensors such as those for infrared ,
research programs to, and the feedback into , ultraviolet, and sound .
development programs of the Air Force is Col E . R . Davies, Deputy Chief, Biological
being increasingly reflected in these selec Chemical Division , Directorate of Armament
tions. Development, Air Force Systems Command ,
One approach in this direction was a recent covered three main points: (1) synthesis of
conference in which selected Air Force de compounds with desired characteristics ;
velopment personnel and members of the (2) investigation of detectable body effluents
Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR , for location of concealed persons; and ( 3 ) in
intensively probed Air Force requirements vestigation of the chemistry and physics of
to which chemical research might contribute. fine material basic to the development of
Their aim was to identify , by joint effort, incendiary weapons .
the basic - research areas most likely to yield Maj Jerome G . Bricker, Chemical and
significant advances in terms of operational Biological program monitor, Weapons and
needs . Weapons Effects Division , Research and
According to Dr. Amos G . Horney, AFOSR 's Technology Division , AFSC , pinpointed the
Director of Chemical Sciences, " The purpose need for rapid chemical methods for the
of this exploratory meeting was to help de detection of biological agents and binary
velop a clearer concept of new and outstand biological agent techniques.
ing chemical problem areas in the Air Force. Mr. J. Paul Cali, Chief, Properties and
We intend to include more applicable re Analysis Branch , Solid State Sciences Lab
search in our future program , while main oratory, Air Force Cambridge Research
taining the scientific merit and originality Laboratories, OAR, emphasized that new
approaches are required for the determina
of the present program . "
tion of the light elements in electromagnetic
The conference, chaired by Dr. Horney,
was attended by more than 25 representa materials . No satisfactory methods are
tives from various Air Force installations , presently available for the determination of
15 of whom spoke on selected topics. More such elements as O , N , or C in less than
important, the discussions brought to light part -per -million amounts in semiconductor
specific technical requirements and promis materials. These trace elements affect radia
ing areas for chemical research . Some of tion resistances in electronic devices.
these are highlighted below .
Dr. J . T . Grey, Jr. , Assistant to the Mr. Frank Rehm , Group Leader in the
President for Research and Development, Antenna and Coherent Optical Section , Rome
13
Air Development Center , AFSC , pointed out ical Sciences , AFOSR , provided details on
the need for more intensive investigation of the AFOSR chemistry program . Research
the laser aspects of organometallic com interest has developed recently in the better
pounds and of spectral cross relaxation in understanding of bonding between organic
neodymium glass media . molecules and metals. This has resulted in
Mr. Karl Kyselka, Directorate of Arma at least three international symposia on
ment Development, AFSC , discussed the organometallics, in the past three months.
requirement for an exploratory -development Among Air Force interests in organometal
program directed toward advanced explosive lics may be listed adhesion , polymeriza
systems- - specifically, the development of an tions, propellant ingredients, and lasers.
explosive to withstand a temperature of Significant contributions in organometallic
350 degrees F for 15 minutes, and with chemistry in the AFOSR program were
about 1. 25 the explosive force of TNT. cited .
Lt Col George F . Babits, Chief, Propellant
Division, Rocket Propulsion Laboratory , Dr. William L . Ruigh , program chief for
AFSC , spoke about low -molecular -weight inorganic chemistry , Directorate of Chemical
metallic elements , such as Be , B , Al, and Sciences, AFOSR , emphasized inorganic
Mg, which are of current interest in high chemistry and new techniques in the AFOSR
energy propellant systems. Gaseous mole chemistry program . The program in phos
cules such as H2, F2, O2 and 03 are the phorus chemistry has resulted in both a
most interesting oxidizers, and the noble general advance in the field and, more spe
gases and their derivatives are now receiv cifically, a marked advance in the gas
ing emphasis. More investigation is needed chromatographic detection and analysis of
on: (1) energetic species, including metasta phosphorus compounds. An improved gas
ble atoms, ions, andmolecules; free - radical, chromatographic detector has been developed
and unstable ions; ( 2 ) oxidizer structural which will be of value in defense against
studies - NMR (nuclearmagnetic resonance) , toxic phosphorus gases. New techniques in
IR ( infrared), UV (ultraviolet), EPR (electron infrared spectroscopy supported by AFOSR
paramagnetic resonance), and spectral have led to the first chemical laser, thus
studies of possible energetic rocket oxi providing a powerful new tool for studying
dizers; and (3) chemical kinetic studies -- high -speed chemical reactions.
reaction - rate studies on chemical rocket
propellant candidates . Dr. Alfred Weissler, program chief for
Dr. H . A. Tanner, Assistant for In -House physical chemistry, Directorate of Chemical
Research , Air Force Materials Laboratory, Sciences, AFOSR , provided details on the
AFSC, discussed their research program , AFOSR program in physical chemistry, with
especially energy dissipation in solids and special attention to the structure of matter
the surface phenomena of metals. and the interactions between energy and
Dr. J. Bierlein, Chief, Chemistry Branch , matter. This included photochemistry , radia
Aerospace Research Laboratories, OAR , tion chemistry, and shock -wave and other
covered the ARL program and , in particular, high -temperature research . Chemical ultra
current efforts on the separation of ele sonics was pinpointed as a promising new
ments with gas chromatography . field ,with ramifications ranging from stand
Col Charles K . Arpke, Director, Chemistry ard methods for evaluating the efficiency of
Division , Frank J. Seiler Research Labora ultrasonic cleaners used by the Air Force,
tory, OAR , highlighted FJSRL 's research to novel syntheses for propellants.
program and the research which cadets and
faculty of the Air Force Academy are en As the result of this conference and similar
couraged to perform . such efforts, AFOSR research in chemistry
will reflect a steadily increasing emphasis
Dr. Anthony J. Matuszko, program chief on immediate and long - range Air Force
for organic chemistry , Directorate of Chem - technical problems.
 1030
Mr. K . S. Nagaraja, Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL, is
currently concerned with studies of the physics of condensation,
particularly with reference to wind-tunnel condensation in hyper
sonic flows. The shock structure problem and the transition from
the noncontinuum to continuum flows also are being investigated ,
together with related problems in rarefied gas flows. Mr.Nagaraja
has submitted the thesis for his Ph .D . (Aeronautical Engineering
and Astronautics) at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
New York. In 1958, he received an Associate ship of the Indian
Institute of Science ( A .1.1. Sc.), Bangalore , India. His M .S . in
Mathematics was obtained in 1954 from Banaras Hindu University ,
India . His B . S . in Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry ( 1951),
and his Diploma in Intermediate Science (1949) both were ob
tained from the University of Mysore, India . Mr. Nagaraja was
awarded scholarships by the Government of India and the Indian
Institute of Science for conducting theoretical studies in applied
aerodynamics, particularly in wing design in subsonic and super
sonic flows. He has also published many articles. In this issue
of the Review , he writes on " The Linearized Rayleigh Problem
According to Kinetic Theory ."

Dr. Trice W . Haas is a task scientist in the Chemistry Research

Laboratory, ARL . He is basically concerned with studies of the
physics and chemistry of solid surfaces. One of the objectives is
to prepare clean surfaces and to study their interaction with var
ious gases. The interactions on the surface are studied by low
energy electron diffraction . This is coupled with a partial pres
sure analysis of the gases in equilibrium with the surface using
standard mass spectrometric techniques. Another subject of cur
rent interest is the investigation of gettering properties of various
evaporated metals under ultrahigh-vacuum conditions. Dr. Haas
received his Ph. D . from the lowa State University of Science and
Technology ( 1960), and his B .S. from St.Mary 's University (1954).
Prior to coming to ARL in April 1964, he was a research chemist
with the National Cash Register Company, and a senior research
technologist with the Socony Mobil Oil Co. In this issue of the
Review , Dr. Haas discusses " The Oxidation of Clean Molybde
num Surfaces."
 PROC
ESSI
NG SYSTEM

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The article, " Cosmic-Ray Trajectories," which appeared in the March 1966 issue of the Review ,
reflected work by Miss M . (Peggy) Ann Shea (left) and Mr. Don F . Smart (right), both with the Cosmic
Radiation Branch, Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL .
Miss Shea attended the University of New Hampshire, Durham , N .H ., receiving in 1958 a B .S. in
Physics from the College of Engineering, and in 1961 an M .S. in Physics. From July to October 1962,
she worked as a physicist atthe University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii and, from October 1962 until
January 1964 , as an associate scientist in the Geophysics Section of the AVCO Corporation , Wilming
ton , Massachusetts. Currently, as a research physicist at AFCRL , Miss Shea conducts investigations
involving the behavior of solar-flare particle radiation, primary cosmic radiation , and intensity-time
variations. She has a number of publications to her credit. Miss Shea is a member of the American
Geophysical Union , the American Physical Society, and Sigma Xi.
Mr. Smart has a B .S. in Physics ( 1957) from Utah State University. He is presently taking graduate
courses in physics in his spare time. After graduation from college, Mr. Smart worked for the U .S.
Naval Ordnance Laboratory at Corona, California on guided-missile fusing until ordered to active duty
as a Lieutenant in the Air Force. He was assigned to the Air Force Cambridge Research Center (now
AFCRL ), becoming project scientist for the IGY Project 1.24 at Thule, Greenland. After completion of
his active duty in February 1960 , Mr. Smart remained at AFCRL as a civilian physicist. Currently, he
is Acting Chief of the Cosmic Radiation Branch. He has been working on the problems of the “ optics".
of cosmic radiation , including the asymptotic direction of approach allowed through the earth 's mag
netic field and cosmic-ray cutoff rigidities. He is further concerned with data-processing problems en
countered in utilizing satellite vehicles for geophysical research. Mr. Smart is amember of the Ameri
can Geophysical Union and American Association for the Advancement of Science.
16
 Mr. John P. Castelli is Supervisory Research Electronics Engineer with the Radio Astronomy Branch ,
Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL. He attended Boston College, Newton, Massachusetts where, in
1938 , he received his A . B . ( cum laude) in the Romance Languages. In 1939, he received his M . A . from
the same college. During 1943-1946 , Mr. Castelli served in the U . S. Army Air Forces as a radar of
ficer. From 1946 to 1949, he was engaged in rocket instrumentation for the V- 2 and aerobees. Cur
rently, Mr. Castelli is project engineer for the Sagamore Hill Solar Radio Observatory, for microwave
solar research, and microwave radio -astronomy research in the Space Physics Laboratory utilizing
1200 MHz through 35,000 MHz. He supervises the layout of the project, implementation of equipment,
data collection , and analysis. Mr. Castelli led a group in Florence , Italy in 1961, and in Bangor, Maine
in 1963 during total solar eclipses. Presently , he is preparing to conduct further eclipse experiments
in Greece (May 1966) and in Peru (November 1966 ). He was author of the article , " Solar Radio Noise:
Potential Index to Environmental Prediction, " which appeared in the March 1966 Review .
12
 First Lt. William F . King, III is a member of the Logic Technology Branch, Data Sciences Lab
oratory , Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. He received a B . S. E .E . with high honors from
the University of Florida in 1963 . Upon entering the Air Force, he was assigned to the Air Force In
stitute of Technology and was graduated from Stanford University with an M .S . degree in 1964. He is
currently working in the area of modular sequential machine design . Also he is teaching advanced
mathematics at Northeastern University . Lt. King is a member of Sigma Tau . In this issue of the Re
view , he describes a " Thin Magnetic Film Logic Device."
18
 THE LINEARIZED RAYLEIGH PROBLEM ACCORDING
TO KINETIC THEORY
K . S. NAGARAJA, Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL
Recent advances in the flights ofmissiles retically as well as experimentally, of the
and space vehicles in regions far above the flow characteristics in the entire transition
" dense " atmosphere have accelerated region . It is evident that the Navier - Stokes
efforts toward understanding the basic flow equations cannot be used as a tool for
phenomena in low -density regions . The analysis when the flow departs from con
aerodynamic problems associated with the tinuum . A " global" equation which can pre
flight of subsonic and supersonic aircraft dict the macroscopic behavior in the entire
in dense regions of the atmosphere can be transition region, and which is derived on
analysed theoretically by using the so -called the basis of statistical mechanical and
continuum equations. They are either the molecular interaction laws, has to be
Navier- Stokes equations or equations of adopted . The classical Boltzmann equa
motion derived from them . The flow fields tion ( 1 ) (written hereafter as B -equation )
around bodies, either in flight or under for electrically neutral particles which , on
laboratory testing conditions, are char the one hand , predicts the free -molecular
acterized by a large number of collisions behavior and, on the other hand, yields the
(on the order of 1010 per second) among Navier - Stokes equations , has been success
the molecules themselves. However , as the fully used for obtaining solutions in the
flight altitude is increased, the atmosphere neighborhood of free -molecular or continuum
becomes thinner , and the fluid medium can conditions. With the advent of high -speed
no longer be treated as a continuum . The computers, it has become possible, using the
degree of rarefaction of the medium can B - equation , to obtain solutions in the entire
reach such a limit that free -molecule flow transition region , provided the problem can
ensues which , by definition , is free of inter be suitably formulated.
molecular collisions. However, the occur
rence of a few intermolecular collisions in The unknown function (to be determined
the free -molecule limit does not influence as a solution of the B -equation ) is the velocity
the macroscopic (or the average ) flow field distribution function (or the probability func
around a body surface. The aerodynamic tion ) which expresses the probability value
forces on a body in a free -molecule flow of a certain number ofmoleculesor particles
are entirely due to the momentum and being present in a given cell in " phase
energy transfer resulting from the impact space ." The two " classes" (or " species"').
of the molecules on the surface. of molecules which densely fill the phase
The flow regime between the continuum space , each of which can be described by a
and the free -molecule limits is known as characteristic distribution function , collide
the " transition region , " which is char between themselves. The change in the num
acterized by the influence , in varying de ber of molecules of one " class" in the cell
grees , of both the molecule -molecule due to collisions, together with the change
collisions and the molecule - body collisions. in the same class in the cell due to flux , is
If the latter alone is dominant, the flow is shown to be equal in the B - equation to the
near -free -molecular. The preponderance of time variation of the number of molecules
the molecule-molecule collisions describes belonging to the same class. The resulting
continuum or near - continuum flow . integrodifferential equation is nonlinear and
One of the major problems in rarefied partial. Once the solution of this equation is
gas dynamics is the determination , theo - obtained, subject to the appropriate boundary
19
conditions, the macroscopic (or the average) B - equation involves a modification of the
flow properties can be obtained by taking collisional integral. One of the models which
the higher moments of the velocity distribu involves replacing the collisional integral in
tion function . the B - equation is called the BGK model, or
The collision - free flow is characterized the so - called Krook model ( 2) . The model
by Maxwell's velocity distribution function has been widely discussed and its usefulness
which is of the form of the Gaussian proba established by applying the BGK equation for
.bility distribution . The flow becomes non solving the problems of Couette flow , the
isentropic when the velocity distribution shock structure in a monatomic gas, transi
function deviates from the Maxwellian . It is , tional drag on a sphere, etc . Another simpler
therefore, necessary to consider the B - equa boundary -value problem , which is investi
tion . However, as the equation is formidable, gated by using the BGK equation , is the
some approximation techniques becomenec classical Rayleigh problem ( 3 ). The problem
essary in order to obtain the solutions . can be stated as follows; an infinite flat plate
The first method of solving the B - equation suddenly moves with an impulsive velocity
depends on perturbing the velocity distribu V , which is small compared with the local
tion function around the Maxwellian ; the speed of sound. The disturbance velocity as
solutions obtained in analytical form are well as the shear stress in the flow field
generally valid in the neighborhood of the must be determined. The original Rayleigh
free -molecule or the continuum flow . solution was derived for an incompressible
The second approach for solving the flow . However, subsequent works included

2 .2 .

1.80
rdt = 0

1.000 11t = 10
0.8 x R x = 25
0 .61 a ods. Ya sdt=50
0.4 kit Aoa t=100
Y
0 .21 A -
M yD- DVA

0.125 0.25 0 .625 0 .75 v 1.0

Velocity Profiles for Different Values of Collision Numbers

20
the effects of compressibility , and all of these assumptions, the functions @ and
these solutions depended on Navier -Stokes are linearized as follows
equations,
~ F ( 1 + 0)
The Rayleigh problem is an illustration of
the unsteady, or transient, flow problems and ñ 0 F ( 1+ 2 ß § 9x )
associated with suddenly accelerated bodies.
The unsteady solutions not only provide an where F is the Maxwellian function of the
understanding of the growth and propagation undisturbed stream , B = 1 /2 RTCO (R being
of flow characteristics, but also determine the universal gas constant), and 4x is the
the range and validity of the Navier - Stokes average velocity in the x -direction . The
equations or the boundary layer equations ( 4 ). linearized equation and the boundary con
Howarth ( 5 ) has shown in his analysis of the ditions now are
Rayleigh problem that the steep pressure
fall in extremely short intervals of time 0 0 + n0ay = 1 (- 0 + 2 B & qy) -- - (1)
invalidates the use of the Navier - Stokes at
equations. He points out that an approach
based on kinetic theory is desirable to obtain 0 = 2 BĘ V (90) at y = 0 - -- (2)
accurate solutions. The kinetic theoretic - 0
approach is also essential for obtaining the
(n < 0) y → 00
transitional behavior when bodies, such as Taking the moment of $ reduces the equa
space vehicles re - entering the atmosphere , tion (1 ) under the boundary conditions ( 2) into
traverse through regions of different a singular integral equation for qx . The
densities. , As a step in the direction of solutions qx, evaluated on an IBM 7094,
understanding the different problems in are shown in the accompanying graph . * It is
volved , the simple Rayleigh problem is con seen that the velocity profiles for different
sidered . The governing BGK equation is collisional numbers lie between the limiting
profiles ; , t = 0 corresponds to the free
molecule flow , and the slip - velocity then is
de to vão = d - ) V / 2 ; whereas, with increasing collisional
numbers the slip - velocity decreases, and
where Ø ( , y , t, f , n , $ ) is the molecular finally becomes zero in the Rayleigh limit.
velocity distribution function ; 1 is a con In other words, with increasing collisions,
stant collision frequency, and t denotes the ratio qx / V increases to the limit of
time; is the equilibrium velocity dis unity . On the other hand , an increase in the
tribution function which the system attains number of collisions decreases the
due to the intermolecular collisions; y re " boundary - layer " thickness and, in the limit,
fers to the axis normal to the plate surface , the boundary - layer solution corresponds to
and the x - axis is along the plate surface the Rayleigh solution .
and parallel to the direction of V ; & , neš Further results, including an extension of
are the molecular velocity components along the Rayleigh problem for obtaining the
the three co -ordinate axes (x , y , z ), re temperature distribution , are given in
spectively. The probability functions of the Reference (6 ).
incident and reflected molecules are as
sumed to be Maxwellian . The plate tempera * p is a nondimensional co- ordinate distance given by
ture Tw is the same as the undisturbed P = VB. ylt.
stream static temperature, Too . In view of
REFERENCES
the assumption that Vis small compared
with the local speed of sound, the density ( 1) Chapman, S . and T. G . Cowling, “ The Mathemati
( 2 ) remains constant, and the average cal Theory of Nonuniform Gases , ” Cambridge Univ .
velocity qy in the y - direction is zero. Under Press, 1958 .
(2 ) Bhatnagar, P . L ., E . P . Gross and M . Krook , “ A resistivity, Pi (T), of the pure metallic
Model For Collision Processes In Gases,” solvent and a temperature- independent
1. " Small Amplitude Processes In Charged and residual resistivity, * * Po, proportional to
Neutral One-Component Systems, ” Physical Re
view , Vol. 94 , No. 3 , March 1954 . the concentration of the metallic solute or
" impurity ", i. e., P = Pi ( T ) + Po. This rela
(3 ) Lord Rayleigh : “ On The Motion of Solid Bodies tion is easily understood in terms of the
Through Viscous Liquid ,” Phil. Mag., Ser. 6 , simple Drude theory * * *. The current is
Vol. 21 , 1911, pp. 647 -711 . carried by the valence electrons which are
(4 ) Stewartson , K ., “ The Theory of Unsteady Laminar free to move through a metallic crystal.
Boundary Layers, ” Advances In Applied Mechan All of the electrons are supposed to have
ics, Vol. VI, Academic Press, 1960. the same mass, speed, and mobility. The
electrons are scattered both by the vibra
(5 ) Howarth, L ., “ Some Aspects of Rayleigh ' s Prob tions of the lattice and by the solute atoms.
lem For A Compressible Fluid ,” J . Mech . and Ap
plied Math ., Vol. 4 , Part 2, 1951. Since these scattering mechanisms are in
dependent of each other, they contribute
(6 ) Nagaraja, K . S ., “ Numerical Solutions of the additively to the electrical resistance. Ex
Krook Kinetic Equation Applied to Linearized perimentally, Matthiessen ' s rule is found to
Rayleigh Problem , ” (to be published as an ARL
report ) .
be a good first approximation; however,
significant deviations from the rule have
been found. The measured values of
the resistivity may be represented by
MATTHIESSEN'S RULE 2 (T) = Pi(T) + Pot A (T).
A number of investigations, both experi
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY mental and theoretical, undertaken to explain
the occurrence of the term A have achieved ,
at best, only partial success . Two nearly
OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS self - evident causes of deviations from
MAX SWERDLOW Matthiessen 's rule must be mentioned. The
Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR * *Residual resistance is that part of the electrical
resistance of a metal which is independent of the
temperature and, hence, remains when the re
The study of the electrical resistivity of sistance due to scattering of the electrons by
metals is one of the oldest subjects in lattice vibrations is made small at low tempera
solid - state physics . The topic,Matthiessen 's tures . Residual resistance is caused by impurities
rule, (1) is just over 100 years old. How and imperfections in the crystal lattice and,
ever , the continuing investigation of the hence, may be reduced by purification , annealing,
electrical resistivity of metals still proves etc .
fruitful. Measurements can be made with
great accuracy and, combined with our in * * * The Drude theory of electrons in metals ex
presses the original form of the free -electron
creasingly comprehensive knowledge of the theory of metals in which the electrons are treated
solid state , prove to be a useful tool in the as a gas of classical particles. This theory is
study of the ever -more subtle effects in capable of explaining the high electrical conduc
solids . ductivity of metals, but attributes to them far too
According to Matthiessen 's rule,* the large a specific heat, and has to be supplemented
electrical resistivity, p ( T), of a binary alloy by the postulate that the electrons obey Fermi
Dirac rather than Maxwell- Boltzmann statistics .
is the sum of the temperature - dependent According to the free - electron theory of metals ,
the conductivity of electrons in a perfect atomic
*Matthiessen ' s rule is an approximate rule stating lattice should be infinite . This is also true, in
that the total electrical or thermal resistivity of a the band theory of solids , for an unfilled elec
metal is the sum of the separate resistivities due tronic band. However, the lattice is never perfect.
to scattering of the electrons by thermal vibra It always contains imperfections and impurities,
tions of the crystal lattice, by impurities, by im and is always in a state of agitation by thermal
perfections, etc . vibrations, which scatter conduction electrons.
addition of the solute to the solvent will (6 ) (7) the results of some AFOSR - sponsored
change the spectrum of the lattice vibrations investigations designed to discover the im
and will also change the concentration of portance of inelastic impurity scattering.
electrons, particularly if the solute and Many experimental results showed deviations
solvent atoms have different valences. How from Matthiessen ' s rule, but there were no
ever , measurements made on very dilute detailed studies on dilute alloys at low
alloys in which these effects should be temperatures. Damon and Klemens under
minimal show that these changes cannot took to test the theoretical prediction (4 ) that
completely account for the deviations from (a ) inelastic electron scattering should lead
Matthiessen ' s rule. Moreover, the Drude to a component of resistivity in alloys pro
free - election theory is an oversimplification portional to T4 at low temperatures , and
of the true situation in real metals. Devia (b ) this component, which is proportional to
tions from Matthiessen ' s rule can occur T at high temperatures , should deviate from
because all the electrons do not have the linearity when the solute atoms are sub
same mass, speed and mobility. This effect stantially lighter than the solvent atoms.
is typified by the two -band model proposed
by Sondheimer and Wilson . ( 2) According to Klemens the inelastic im
Koshino ( 3 ) has suggested that deviations purity scattering should make a contribution
from Matthiessen 's rule may be caused by to of the form B ( T) e with B ( T) a T4 if
inelastic scattering of the electrons by the T < < Op where Op is the Debye tempera
solute atoms. This idea has been discussed ture.* * ** Measurements of the resistivity of
by Klemens (4 ) and Taylor. (5 ) Although a number of gold alloys containing either Cu
the detailed theoretical calculations are or Pt as solutes were made between 2 and
rather formidable, a very simple picture of 40°K (See Figure 1). Below about 160K
the effect can be drawn. The elementary ( ~ D / 10) it was found that A could be repre
calculation of the residual resistivity pro sented by A = api + Bee with a nearly inde
ceeds by treating the solute atom as a fixed pendent of temperature and Boc T4 (See Fig
center carrying an electrical -charge dis ure 2). Furthermore, the values of a and B
tribution different from that on a solvent were the same for both solutes. The first term
atom . An electron can then be scattered by can be explained by using the previously
the electric field surrounding the solute mentioned two- band model. Very roughly ,
atom . In such a scattering event, momentum the electrons in gold can be divided into
can be transferred between the electron and two groups (i.e ., two ''bands" ) with distinctly
the lattice; however, the energy of the different properties. These two "bands" are
electron is unaltered. In reality , the solute in reality different parts of the complex
atom is always moving relative to its Fermi surface of gold . The second term
neighbors. The effect of this motion is to suggests that inelastic impurity scattering
distort the electric potential surrounding the is indeed important. The magnitude of B is
impurity and to make it time -dependent. about five times larger than would be sug
This permits the occurrence of other scat gested by a simple theoretical model.
tering events (thus increasing the resistivity )
in which not only momentum but also energy * * * *Debye temperature is a parameter having the di
is transferred between the electron and the mensions of temperature appearing in the Debye
lattice . To give an equivalent description of theory of specific heat. It is defined by the re
the effect in terms of phonons rather than lation A = where V is the maximum frequency
vibrations of the atoms, one could say that of the thermal vibrations of the lattice , h is
the electron is scattered by the solute atom Planck ' s constant, and k is the Boltzmann con
with the simultaneous emission or absorption stant. The symbol is also used somewhat in
of a phonon . discriminately in various other contexts (e .g .,
Recently, Drs. D . H . Damon and P . G . electrical conductivity of metals ) where it really
Klemens, working at the Westinghouse Re should be defined differently , and may have a
somewhat different value .
search and Development Center, reported
 TTT
CURVE 570694 - D

100

Alloys

_ Gold
)-co(1x810hm09m

Alloys

• Pt po= 1.576 x 106 ohm -cm - cm

p = 1.136 x 10-6 ohm -cm

P = 0.924 x 10-6 ohm -cm
ճ3

Pt p =0.494 x 10-6 ohm -cm

", Cu P =0.272 x10-6 ohm -cm 1 - cm

0.223 x 10 -6 ohm -cm

1410 115 120 125

25
130 135 140 - 43
T (OK )

Fig. 1.
24
 At high temperatures, T > op , phonon deviations from Matthiessen 's rule, a con
assisted impurity scattering should result clusion could only be reached through a
in values of A proportional to T . Such de comparison of the resistivities of alloys
viations from Matthiessen 's rule are fre with different solutes and thus different
quently observed, but need not necessarily local-mode frequencies.
arise from this cause . For example , over a Measurements of the resistivity of Au
100 to 200°K range of temperatures for alloys containing either Al, Cu (fo ~ 2fp ),
samples with Pi and Po of the same order Zn (F . 2fp ) or Pt (no local mode) were
of magnitude, the two -band model would also made between 800K ( ~ 0D / 2) and 5000K
predict that A should be roughly propor (See Figure 3). The results showed no
tional to T. systematic differences that could be ascribed
In order to investigate the importance of to phonon - assisted impurity scattering via
inelastic impurity scattering at high tempera the local modes, though there were sub
tures , Damon and Klemens carried out an stantial deviations due to other causes,
other series of measurements in which they probably the " two -band" effects .
made use of the special vibrationalproperties The measurements at higher temperatures
of light mass impurities in a heavy mass are inconclusive . One cannot say that in
solvent. A light atom in a crystal of heavy elastic impurity scattering is absent athigher
atoms can vibrate with a frequency, fo , temperatures, since it may be overshadowed
considerably higher than the Debye, or cutoff by other effects. At low temperatures, how
frequency, fp . This vibration cannot propa ever, where the overlapping factors are less
gate through the crystal and is called a complicating, the presence of strong in
local mode. Most of the local strain field elastic scattering has been established .
surrounding the impurity (which is a measure Although it is believed that the electrical
of the relative displacement of the impurity resistivity of metals and alloys is , in the
and thus determines the strength of the main , understood today, there are many
inelastic impurity scattering) is associated minor effects which still await an explana
with the local mode . If measurements of the tion. The latter can, in principle , throw light
resistivity of Au containing Al (fo ñ3p ) on the electronic and vibrational properties,
were made from a temperature of ~ 0p / 2 if only theoretical understanding can be
(hfp = k od ) to a temperature correspond adequately refined.
ing to the local-mode frequency, To = hfo,
one might expect A to increase faster than REFERENCES
linearly with T since , over this temperature
range, the local mode would change from (1) Matthiessen , A . and C . Vogt, “ Uber den Einfluss
being only feebly excited to being fully excited. der Temperatur auf die elektrische Leitfahigkeit
Since there are other possible causes of der Legierungen ,” Pogg Ann., 122, 19, 1864.
Fig. 1. Values of p - po vs. T. For each specimen, pis the total electrical resistivity and Po is the
residual resistivity . A log scale is used for p - p and a linear scale for T only for convenience in dis
playing the results . The lower curve shows the behavior of two pure-gold specimens whose residual
resistivities were 7 .79 x 10°° and 9 . 10 x 10 -9 ohm - cm . The upper curves show the results for the al
loys and are distinguished in the legend . Open symbols show the results obtained using hydrogen va
por pressure as a thermometer; the full symbols show the results obtained using Au-Co thermocouples
for thermometers. With the exception of the specimen with P = 0.223 x 10 -6 ohm -cm , the residual re
sistivity of each of the other samples was independent of temperature between 1. 3 and 4 .2°K . The
resistivity of this exception showed a slight minimum so that its Po is somewhat uncertain . For the
two pure-gold specimens, it is assumed that I = P - Po - P: = 0 , i.e., P - Po = p; where Pi is the
ideal resistivity of pure Au. Below about 10°K , e; is very nearly proportional to T5; however, P; is not
exactly proportional to any power of T even over the restricted range 7° < T < 16°K . The results
clearly show that a > 0 for the alloys, and that is an increasing function of po .
25
 CURVE 571479- 8
DTT
3.0

205

17°K
x0g1

• Pt
A CU
wyo

opi
7°0
607
Wɔ-0)(x

14°K

0 .6F

0. 4 0. 8 1. 2
po x 10° , ohm -cm
i ,
0. 4 -
20
Temperature, OK
Fig . 2 . The insert shows p - po plotted against po at 14 and 17°K . The results show that A = p - e - e .
as a function of Pois equal to (constant + Boc ) if po > 80 p . The constant is equal to ap, with a only
feebly temperature-dependent for T < 16°K . The main portion of the figure shows Bas a function of T .
It is clear that Bat4 for T < 15°K .
26.
 CURVE 569206 - B

0. 4 Sample
• 2 - 1% Pt
A 3 - 1. 6% Pt
A 4 - 1. 8% Zn
o 5 - 2. 4% AI
06 - 2.6% Cu
mhm
)-c(oAx
106

100 200 300 400 500

Temperature (°K )
Fig. 3. Values of A =p - p - for the gold alloys measured at high temperature . Again , pis the total
electrical resistivity, p; the ideal resistivity of pure gold , and Po is the residual resistivity measured
at 4.2°K . The legend identifies the alloys and shows the solute and its concentration in atomic per
centage.
REFERENCES (Cont'd)
(2 ) Sondheimer, E . and A . H . Wilson , " The Theory of “ Changes in Electrical Resistance Caused by In
the Magneto -Resistance Effects in Metals ,” Proc . coherent Electron- Phonon Scattering,” Phys. Rev.,
Roy . Soc ., A190 , 435 , 1947. 135 , A 1333 , 1964 .

(3) Koshino, S., " Scattering of Electrons by the Ther (6 ) Damon , D . H . and P . G . Klemens, “ Inelastic Im
malMotion of Impurity lons,” Prog . Theoret. Phys ., purity Scattering of Electrons in Gold Alloys at
24 , 484 , 1960 . Low Temperature, ” Low Temperature Physics,
LT9 , (Edited by J. G . Daunt, D . 0 . Edwards, F . S .
(4 ) Klemens, P . G ., “ Electron Phonon Interactions Milford , and M . Yaqub ), New York : Plenum Press ,
Induced by Lattice Defects in Metals, ” J . Phys. 1965, p. 996 .
Soc . (Japan ), 18, Suppl. II, 77 , 1963.
(7) Damon, D . H . and P . G . Klemens, " Electrical Re
(5) Taylor, P . L ., “ The Inelastic Scattering of Elec sistivity of Some Gold Alloys: A Search for Ef
trons at Impurities in Metals ,” Proc . Phys. Soc. fects Due to Local Modes,” Phys. Rev., 138 , A
(London ), 80, 755, 1962; and Taylor, P . L ., 1390 , 1965.
ARL PUSHES FORWARD WITH ITS
RESEARCH ON CRYSTALS
1 Single CdS crystals grown at ARL . In addition to bulk crystals of cadmium sulfide, the Solid State
Physics Research Laboratory also grows platelet and whisker- type crystals. These crystals are in
herently of higher purity than bulk crystals. The mechanical properties of the se crystals also indicate
that they are far superior to bulk crystals with respect to lattice defects.

2 Cds film (solar) cell measuring 2 3 / 4 " x 2 3/ 4 " . It has an open circuit voltage of 0 .5 volts and a
short circuit of 0 .52 amps. These characteristics were measured in sunlight at an intensity of 1000
watts/ m2. Cells of this type have been produced at ARL ' s Solid State Physics Research Laboratory
with power- to-weight ratios of 33 watts per 1b .
29
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VOLUME V LIBEMBER 3 MAY 1966
BRARY

SYMMETRIZATION POSTULATE and PARASTATISTICS

IST LT DONALD R . LEHMAN , Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR
The quantum physics description of sys contrast to bosons , for which there is no such
tems containing identical particles is very restriction .
different from that in classical physics. One The symmetrization postulate is generally
of the main differences is the dependence of regarded as necessary for constructing
the theoretical formulation of the type of theories of identical particles in a con
particles being considered . The physical sistent way and is introduced ad hoc into
property of the particles which determines quantum theory . Numerous experimental suc
how they are treated quantitatively is their cesses in atomic physics ,molecular physics,
spin (a property, like angular momentum , and quantum electrodynamics appear to pro
that is expressed in units of integer or half vide firm support for the symmetrization
integer ħ , where ħ is Planck ' s constant postulate. The rotational spectra of homo
divided by 2 ). According to quantum theory, nuclear diatomic molecules and the success
the particles are divided into two types : those of the Pauli principle for electrons , which
with half - integer spin called fermions, and states that a system containing several
those with interger spin called bosons. In electrons must have each electron in a dif
terms of this nomenclature, for example , ferent state, indicate that the electron and
electrons (spin ş) are fermions , and photons nucleons are fermions, Black -body radiation
(spin 1 ) are bosons. and the success of quantum electrondynamics
The assumed division of particles into suggest that photons are bosons. In view of
these two types is called the symmetrization these well - established results , the symme
postulate. The symmetrization postulate re trization postulate is usually assumed to ap
quires that quantum mechanical states con ply to all other particles .
taining identical particles be either sym
metric (bosons ) or antisymmetric (fermions) Recently , however, O . W . Greenberg ( 1) of
with respect to an exchange of particles. the University of Maryland, with the support
Fermions, according to this postulate, have of the Nuclear Physics Division of AFOSR ,
the property that only one fermion at a time completed an exhaustive studyofthe theoreti
may be in a given quantum state. This is in cal justification and the experimental evi

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J .SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES + AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES * EUROPEAN OFFICE ,OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
dences for the symmetrization postulate. His quantum theory is that the indistinguishability
collaborator in the study was A . M . L .Messiah of the particles being considered does not
of the Center of Nuclear Studies at Saclay, imply the need for the symmetrization postu
France, Messiah and Greenberg investigated late; rather, it restricts the interactions
the foundations of the postulate from two which they will undergo.
viewpoints : particle quantum mechanics and Based on this more general quantum me
quantum field theory. These two approaches chanical viewpoint, experimental results ofall
are known to be equivalent in the cases of particle collisions presently available in
fermions and bosons ; whether this would hold high - energy particle accelerators indicate
true for the possibility of particles not clas that the symmetrization postulate is valid .
sifiable as fermions or bosons remains an These experiments are somewhat limited ,
open question . since the colliding particles are always
either fermions or bosons. For other cases ,
Messiah and Greenberg show thatparticles convincing tests ofthesymmetrization postu
which do not obey the symmetrization postu late are very hard to obtain , mainly due to
late can be accommodated in quantum theory the lack of detectable interference between
without violating any of the basic principles. interactions that obey and interactions that
The major change in the structure of the violate the postulate. For example, the sym
theory is that the wave function , which gives metrization postulate is well established for
the mathematical description of a quantum electrons, nucleons, and photons; strong evi
state, must be generalized . One of the dence is accumulating that pions (pi mesons )
interesting conclusions of this " generalized" are bosons , Messiah and Greenberg discuss

research review
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH
HEAT- TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of. INSTRUMENTED HONEYCOMB PANELS
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Ha 01. Captain Karlheinz 0 . W . Ball ... .................. 8
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF, 4th and Independence IMPERFECT BY ONLY FIVE PARTS IN TEN MILLION !
Avonvo , S.W ., Washington , D .C . 20333. The objective of this
publication is to make a positive contribution to the exchange (Or Long Live Crystal Defects )
of information concerning Air Force conducted and sponsorod Max Swerdlow ............ 10
rosearch activities .
JACOB SEIDEN KIRCHHOFF 'S LAW AND THE RADIANT PLASMA
Editor Dr. Wolfgang G . Braun ...... .......... 16
SYMMETRIZATION POSTULATE AND PARASTATISTICS EARTH -SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
1st Lt Donald R . Lehman ...... ..... .... " Microwave Physcics Laboratory, AFCRL .................. 19
EXPLOSIVE WARMING IN THE STRATOSPHERE HOW NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS FORM
Meteorology Laboratory , AFCRL ...... ............ Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ....................... 20
LECTURE SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ON INVESTIGATIONS OF STATIONARY MAGNETICALLY
Dr. R . G . Pohrer .......... .......... 5 BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS
Dr. T. W . Myers .. ......... 22
THE CONTRIBUTION OF HYDROGEN - DISLOCATION
INTERACTIONS TO THE EMBRITTLEMENT OF IRON PHONONS,MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMISSION
AND STEEL LINES
Attwell M . Adair ............... . 6 Microwave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ....... .. ... 25

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a method whereby it may be possible to test bers smaller than k . Combining rules (2) and
the lambda particle. It does not appear pos ( 3 ) , one can see that for each order k at least
sible to establish whether particles such as two para particles must enter into every
the muon , kaons , and sigma minus obey or reaction . Due to this stringent requirement,
violate the symmetrization postulate,
curate . presently available experimental evidence
Since evidence compiled from the view implies that no presently known particles are
point of quantum mechanics gives no a priori para particles.
reason against the existence of particles
other than bosons or fermions , it is natural Though experimental evidence seems to
to carry this general viewpoint over to field indicate that no presently known particles
theory. Specifically, quantum field theory are para particles , this does not eliminate
need not be formulated in accordance with the possibility of their existence, Recently ,
Fermi or Bose statistics, wherein fermions Greenberg ( 4 ) has shown that the group
and bosons are the only types of particles, but theoretical classification of particles, SU (6 ) - -
may be formulated in a broader sense in a larger classification schemethan the " eight
accordance with what is called parastatistics . fold way " of Gell -Mann and Ne'eman which
The first attempt at a more general quantum was used to predict the omega -minus par
field theory, known as parafield theory, was ticle - -requires the possible existence of
carried out by H . S . Green (2) in 1953. In parafermions of order three. The particles
Green 's formulation , quantum field theory which must be parafermions are the " quarks "
based on ordinary quantum statistics is a or basic building -block particles of the SU (6 )
special case. model. (5)
Parastatistics differs from ordinary quan The quarks arise in this model through the
tum statistics in severalways , Parafermions assumptions that baryons and mesons are
(half - integer spin particles ) divide into composite, that they are composed of basic
groups of particles and may be distinguished particles, and that the basic forces between
only as members of different groups . As in the particles are approximately independent
ordinary Fermi statistics, which deals with of certain quantities , such as spin , which
only one group of particles , not more than characterize the particles . The particles are
one particle in a group may exist in a given classified in multiplets according to their
state. Parabosons differ from parafermions masses . The two lowest groupings for the
only in that any number of particles can be baryons and mesons contain 56 baryons and
in the same group and the same state . In 35 mesons. The mesons are constructed from
both cases, the number of groups determines a quark and an antiquark , which are dis
the order (k ) of the statistics . For order tinguishable . Both ordinary and parafield
k = 1 , parafermions reduce to fermions and theory will thus lead to the same results for
parabosons to bosons. mesons. (6 ) However, this is not the case for
Messiah and Greenberg (3 ) extended the baryons which are composed ofthree identical
investigations of Green by determining the quarks. The experimentally verifiable results
rules that para and ordinary particles must of this model agree best with experiment if
satisfy when interacting . The rules are as the quarks used to construct the baryons are
follows: ( 1 ) the total number of fermions and parafermions of order three .
parafermions (counting both particles and In summary, there is no conclusive evidence
antiparticles as positive) on both sides of a against the existence of particles other than
reaction must be even ; (2) for para particles bosons and fermions in nature. If they exist,
of each even order k , the total number of these other particles must satisfy certain
para particles of order k on both sides of a very restrictive rules in particle quantum
reaction must be even ; ( 3 ) for para particles mechanics and quantum field theory. From
of each odd order k , the total number of para a quantum mechanical viewpoint, no experi
particles of order k on both sides of a reac ment now possible would produce the non
tion can take any value except for odd num Bose or non - Fermiparticles . Experimental
results compiled in verification of the more ever, that describes the stratosphere's
general field quantization show that no par energy processes in enough detail to make
ticles now known are para particles.However, possible a satisfactory theoretical treatment
this does not eliminate the possibility that of stratospheric warming.
para particles do exist. The energy processes of the stratosphere ,
REFERENCES like those of the atmosphere as a whole,
mainly involve the conversion of heat into
(1) Messiah, A . M . L. and O. W . Greenberg , “ The Sym mechanical energy in the form of wind. The
metrization Postulate and its Experimental Foun
dation ,” Phys. Rev. , 136 , B248 , 1964 . reverse also occurs when friction between
(2 ) Green , H . S ., “ A Generalized Method of Field Quan adjoining layers of air, or between air and
tization ,” Phys. Rev., 90 , 270 , 1953 . the earth 's surface, dissipates mechanical
(3 ) Greenberg, O . W . and A . M . L . Messiah , " Selec energy as heat. In simplified form , the model
tion Rules for Parafields in the Absence of Para
Particles in Nature,” Phys. Rev., 138, B1155, 1965 ; which Muench derived is a flow chart showing
" High Order Limit of Para-Bose and Para-Fermi the directions in which conversion ofone form
Fields,” Journal of Math. Phys., 6, 500, 1965 . of energy to another takes place. In this way,
(4 ) Greenberg , O . W ., " Spin and Unitary-Spin Inde the correctness of themodel can be checked
pendence in a Paraquark Model of Baryons and by determining how well the observed inputs
Mesons, ” Phys. Rev. Letters, 13, 598, 1964 .
(5 ) Brown, L . M ., “ Quarkways to Particle Symmetry, " and outputs of energy balance. The model is
Physics Today, 19, 44 , 1966. similar to the classical model of the entire
(6 ) Greenberg, O . W ., preprint of report on " Parafield atmosphere as a ' heat engine" that uses solar
Theory"' from the Conference on the Mathematical energy to drive atmospheric circulations.
Theory of Elementary Particles held at theMIT The main difference between Muench ' smodel
Endicott House, September 1965 .
and others is that his model takes into account
certain ' boundary conditions " that indicate
the transfer of energy between the strato
explosive warming in the sphere and the troposphere below it. Such
boundary conditions involve vertical air cur
stratosphere rents which transfer heat, momentum and
METEOROLOGY LABORATORY, AFCRL gravitational potential energy . With the help
of this model, Muench concluded that explo
In January 1952, a German meteorologist sive warming of the stratosphere is caused
observed that the temperature of the strato by a disturbance propagating upward from
sphere over Berlin rase 30 degrees C in less the troposphere across a somewhat ill
than 2 weeks. Comparable changes in tem defined stratosphere -troposphere boundary.
perature in the atmosphere' s bottom layer, This conclusion appears to be so reason
the troposphere, are common ; but this was able that one might wonder why there was a
the first time such a rapid , or " explosive " problem in the first place . To understand the
warming had been observed in the strato difficulty meteorologists have had explaining
sphere. Meteorologists were puzzled because explosive warming, let's look at the dif
this region of the atmosphere, extending ferences between the physical processes in
roughly from 10 to 60 km ., was thought to be the troposphere, familiar as weather, and
extremely stable, with wind and temperature those in the stratosphere. Perhaps the pri
patterns persisting for months with little mary difference between the two layers lies
change. Since that time, a number of explo in their stability . The troposphere, acting
sive warmings in the stratosphere have been like a heat engine, tends to make disturbances
observed , and themeteorologist is confronted originating in it grow . The stratosphere, on
with the problem of explaining them . the other hand, acts like a brake, to damp out
One obstacle to such an explanation is the disturbances. This damping action results
inadequacy of present models of the strato from the fact that, in the lower stratosphere,
sphere' s thermodynamic characteristics . An temperature remains fairly constant over a
AFCRL meteorologist, Dr. H . StuartMuench , wide range of altitudes, then gradually in
has developed a mathematical model, how creases with altitude in the upper strato
sphere. This thermal structure tends to pre lectures each are scheduled. They are to
vent the turbulent rising of warm air and emphasize particular problem areas of Air
falling of cold air which is the primary way Force interest and application .
thermal energy is converted into the me To date , two sessions have been held in
chanical energy of relatively small - scale , the areas of control theory and dynamical
transient disturbances such as tropospheric systems. The lecturers in each area have
storms. (In the troposphere, temperature been G . B . Dantzig , S. Lefschetz and L .
decreases rapidly with altitude. ) Thus, any Markus, and W . Gottschalle, S. Kakutani
sudden change in the stratosphere's and L . Auslander , respectively. Interested
"'weather " - - a rapid rise in temperature, individuals and organizations can receive
for instance- -must, in someway, have over announcements of future sessions upon re
come the damping effect of the stratosphere . quest. In addition , the papers delivered at
Muench believes that only a disturbance each session will be available as AFOSR
propagating upward from the troposphere scientific reports in limited quantities at the
could overcomethe stratosphere ' s resistance conclusion of the series .
to change . The first report on control theory, sum
Associated with such explosive warmings , marizing the presentations of Professors
which have been observed to occur on the Dantzig , Lefschetz and Markus , has already
average of about once every three years, is appeared . Professor Dantzig 's paper illus
the disruption of the circumpolar westerly trates how mathematical programming, in
winds which constitute the stratosphere's particular a generalized linear program , can
predominant wintertime circulation pattern . be applied to a linear control process . The
During an explosive warming, the tempera " problem " takes the form of minimizing the
ture in large regions of the stratosphere " cost" of moving an " object" from one con
generally increases from around - 60 degrees vex domain to another by proper choice of a
C to - 30 degrees C in less than a week. The control vector and boundary conditions.
warmings have occurred most often in mid Professor Lefschetz 's paper deals with the
January, and so far have been observed only Lurie problem on nonlinear controls , i.e., the
at northern latitudes. Since the firstobserved determination of necessary and sufficient
warming in 1952 , their occurrence has been conditions such that all solutions of a set of
rather sporadic- - in 1957 , 1958 , 1963 and 1965 general nonlinear control differential equa
(the last one observed in March 1965 over tions are absolutely stable . This means that
the U .S .). Otherwise, the only changes in the all solutions are asymptotically stable in the
stratosphere are the slow , large - scale sea large whatever the choice of the admissible
sonal shifts in temperature and circulation (function ) characteristic of the control.
that repeat themselves year after year. * . Professor Markus discussed the " bang
bang " theory of control as a physical con
LECTURE SERIES cept and as a collection of precise mathe
matical theorems. The bang- bang principle,
IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS of course, states that any response of a con
DR . R.G . POHRER trolled system which can be achieved by an
Directorate of Mathematical Sciences , AFOSR arbitrary controller varying over the total
control domain can be equally well achieved
The Mathematics Division, AFOSR , in by a controller restricted to the extreme
conjunction with the Graduate Consortium values of the control domains. Theorems
of America - - Catholic , Georgetown , George presented relate both to linear and non
Washington and Howard Universities of the linear control processes.
District of Columbia , and the University of Copies of this report are available and
Maryland - - is sponsoring a Lecture Series have been distributed to each participant in
in Differential Equations in the greater the session . A limited number of additional
Washington area during the academic years copies are available upon request to the
1965- 66 and 1966 -67, Eight sessions of three Mathematics Division , AFOSR .
The Contribution of Hydrogen - Dislocation
Interactions to the Embrittlement of Iron &
Steel ATTWELL M . ADAIR , Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL
The catastrophic failure of high - strength the inverse square root of the grain di
steel parts in service has been of particular ameter (d- 1 / 2 ). For a range of grain sizes,
concern to the aircraft and aerospace industry the resultant plot yields two significant
for many years . Most of the failures en parameters: Oo, which is a measure of the
countered could be attributed to hydrogen resistance of the lattice to moving disloca
embrittlement- - either as slow - strain - rate tions; and ky , which is a measure of the rel
embrittlement (dynamic loading ), or as de ative ease of initiating macroscopic plastic
layed failure (static loading). Most scientists deformation. Specimens having five different
and engineers have tended to classify both grain sizes were compared in each of three
types of embrittlementunder the simple head conditions: (1) cathodically charged with
ing of hydrogen embrittlement, and the re hydrogen, (2) uncharged, and (3) cathodically
sults of research investigations into the charged with hydrogen and evacuated to re
mechanism of one type have generally been move the hydrogen . The resulting Petch plot
extended to the other. is shown in Figure 1. Upon hydrogen charg
Many different workers have investigated ing, there is a substantial reduction in the
slow - strain - rate embrittlement. Most of them slope (ky) and a substantial increase in the
conclude that hydrogen atoms escape from intercept (0 .). The reduction in Ky and the
solution and combine to form hydrogen gas increase in 0 essentially remain when the
at areas where voids or low - energy inter hydrogen is removed . The ductility , how
faces (such as an inclusion ) exist. The gas ever , is very dependent on the presence of
exerts sufficient pressure within these hydrogen . Figure 2 shows the per cent
cavities to cause premature crack propaga elongation plotted versus d - 1/ 2 (for con
tion when relatively low levels of external venience only). A significant improvement
stress are applied . in ductility results upon hydrogen removal,
Most of the research on the delayed -failure and complete recovery of ductility is ex
mechanism has been conducted by Professor perienced by the two finest grain sizes .
A . R . Troiano and his many students . In their Since the parameters which reflect hy
research on a number of other materials drogen -dislocation interactions ( 0o , ky ) are
with a variety of solutes in addition to much more dependenton the fact thathydrogen
hydrogen , they found a quite reasonable cor was introduced cathodically than on the
relation between strain aging and delayed presence of hydrogen , and since the opposite
failure behavior, leading them to conclude is true for the ductility, any contribution to
that hydrogen is damaging through a lattice embrittlement by hydrogen - dislocation inter
effect. Since strain aging is exemplified by actions is a very minor effect. These re
interactions between solute atoms (generally sults tend to support the gas - pressure theory
interstitials) and dislocations, and since for slow - strain - rate embrittlement and, in
rather conclusive evidence exists for a yield view of the excellent correlation between the
point in iron and steel due to hydrogen , one delayed -failure behavior of the variety of
further contribution to embrittlement could materials studied and a mechanism based on
be hydrogen - dislocation interactions which lattice effects, these results further suggest
favor crack propagation . that the delayed - failure process and the
The above consideration was the basis for slow - strain - rate embrittlement process are
a recently completed study at ARL . Hydrogen different in kind rather than degree . This
dislocation interactionswere investigated in a seems reasonable since slow - strain - rate
zone - refined iron by means of the Petch re embrittlement results after relatively large
lationship , OLY = 00 + ky d 1/ 2, where the amounts of plastic strain , whereas delayed
lower yield stress (OLY) is plotted versus failure generally does not.
 LOWER YIELD STRESS VS. 0 -
170
ISd
01x.
17.x TEST TEMP. - 31°C

- UNCHARGED
- HYDROGEN CHARGED
--- 4 -- HYDROGEN CHARGED
& EVACUATED

Ś456
o imm
Figure 1.

PCT ELONGATION VS. 0 - 3

BOL TEST TEMP. -31°C
ELONGATI
PCT ON

UNCHARGED

- HYDROGEN CHARGED
& EVACUATED

- HYDROGEN CHARGED

otmm
Figure 2.
heat-transfer measurements utilizing instrumented
Four test panels, each 3 X 3 X 1 / 4 inches,
honeycomb panels were manufactured from type 321 stainless
steel. Two of the panels had cover sheets of
CAPTAIN KARLHEINZ O .W . BALL 0 .010 - inch thickness , while the other two
Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL
rs
had sheets of 0 .019- inch thickness as the
The study of flow separation at hypersonic panel outside cover and 0 .010- inch thick
speeds represents a major research effort ness as the panel inside cover. In each of
of ARL ' s Hypersonic Research Laboratory . these two sets of panels, one of the panels
A segment of this program is directed at was ofhoneycomb- sandwich construction with
a cell cross section having a dimension of
measuring the aerodynamic heating rates to
a compression corner model at a Mach num 0 . 25 inch and a web thickness of 0 .0015
ber of 12 and stagnation temperature up to inch. The second panel of each set did not
1900°R . Stainless- steel honeycomb- sand have the honeycomb, but the front and rear
wich panels are to be utilized for the sheets were separated by 0 .25- inch spacers
instrumented sections of the model. at each corner . The honeycomb material was
This note describes the work done to de also of 321 stainless steel. A sluggishly
termine the response to heat flux of a honey flowing silver alloy with a low thermal con
comb- sandwich panel and an unsupported face ductivity was used as the brazing alloy for
sheet. Heating rates up to 5 BTU /ft2 - sec the honeycomb to cover sheet joints . Each
were encountered at a time of 1.5 seconds honeycomb cell wall contained small holes to
after exposure to temperature up to 21000R . provide pressure relief during the manu
The results are presented in terms ofheating facturing process and during testing .
rate correlation between the honeycomb In order to spot weld two thermocouples
sandwich panel and the unsupported thin sheet. (chromel/ alumel) to the rear face of the out
Several experimental techniques have been side cover sheet, each test panel had two
developed for obtainingheat- transfer rates in sections removed from the back sheet. The
wind - tunnel testing. The " thin - skin " or tran opened section in the honeycomb panel con
sient temperature method is commonly used . sisted of a 4 - cell cutout.
The method is obtained by equating the heat The heat flux was obtained from an oven
transferred to the skin , h (Taw - T ), with the having a maximum temperature capability of
heat stored per unit area, pcdcat / at), in the 2500°R . A test consisted of raising the oven
skin of thickness d . In the above, h is the to a specific temperature, rapidly inserting a
heat- transfer coefficient, Taw the adiabatic test panel into the oven manually , about 0. 2
wall temperature, T the surface temperature, second, and recording the temperature of the
p the skin density, c its specific heat, and t is oven as well as the temperature of the test
time. The more important assumption in panel as a function of time on a strip chart
herent in the ''thin - skin " method is that the recorder operating at a rate ofabout 5 inches
heat conduction is across the skin and none per second. The temperature of the test panel
is along the skin , i. e . , the temperature is was recorded on a 75°F to 2000F type scale
assumed to be uniform across the skin (6 inches ), and the oven temperature on an
thickness . In addition , the material prop 800°F to 1700°F type scale (6 inches).
erties are usually assumed constant. Ex For data reduction , the starting timewas
perimentally, the method requires that the taken at the point where heating of the test
model be constructed with as thin a skin as panel actually began after insertion into the
possible to obtain a fast response, but yet oven . This point was clearly defined on the
thick enough to maintain structural integrity . test panel temperature versus time traces .
Honeycomb- sandwich panels appear to meet The slope of the traces 1.5 seconds after
both requirements , depending of course on the the start of heating defined dT / dt. Heating
panel geometry. rates were then obtained through the use of
 O
o n
k o
A - Thermocouple
o m Imbedded
o
TU comb

o
K - * -T
oney
hfBQs-/.t®ec

Qthin - skin = 1. 07 Phoneycomb

1 2 3 5
Atbin - skine BTU / ft“ - sec

Fig. 1. Correlation of Heat Transfer.

the transient one- dimensional heating rate showed that had 2 .5 seconds been chosen for
pcd (dT /dt). For 321 stainless steel the data reduction , the temperature rates would
density used was 501 lb / ft” , and 0 .12 BTU / have been identical. It should also be pointed
1b°F was used as the specific heat. out that both thermocouples on a given test
The program was initiated with testing of panel gave identical results .
the set of test panels having 0.010 - inch With reference to Figure 1, it is seen that
thickness for the outside cover sheet. The the honeycomb panel lags the " thin -skin "
honeycomb panel of this set began to take panel by a constant 7 % . This is attributed
on permanent waviness on the outside cover primarily to conduction loss to the honey
sheet after about 10 exposures to tempera comb webs . Imbedding the thermocouple in a
tures up to 2000°R. Further testing of this silver solder just under the skin reduced
set was discontinued and no data is presented . this lag; but the distortion to the surface
The data from the tests of the setof panels caused by the high -temperature soldering
having 0 .019- inch thickness for the outside process and subsequentmachining eliminated
cover sheet was reduced to heating rates. this method of thermocouple installation .
Figure 1 presents the correlation ofmeasured It is concluded that, for the specific honey
honeycomb- panel heating rates against the comb configuration tested, other experi
heating rates measured on the unsupported , ments using the same configuration may be
''thin - skin " panel. This data represents tem corrected to obtain the equivalent, supported
perature rates measured 1.5 seconds after " thin - skin " heating rates by multiplication of
insertion of the test panel; however, the data a factor equal to 1.07.
IMPERFECT BY ONLY FIVE PARTS IN TEN MILLION !
(or long live crystal defects)
MAX SWERDLOW , Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR
The above title, at first glance, will prob In this article, we shall be concerned
ably cause the semiconductor specialist to principally with point defects. These may be
assume a smugmien and blasé attitude toward vacancies, interstitials, or antistructure de
the newsworthiness of this article. For after fects. In the latter case, atoms of one ele
all, has not germanium been freed of various ment occupy lattice sites of another . It is
chemical impurities to the extent perhaps of well known, of course, that at any tempera
five parts in ten billion or better since the ture above absolute zero there exists a cer
advent of zone melting ? . What, therefore, is tain equilibrium concentration of lattice de
exciting about parts per ten million ? Let us fects. Each of these defects often contributes
hasten to add, however, that the state ofpurity one or more charge carriers, and the prac
is far from the whole story. There are, in tical problem comes into existence when the
fact, large classes of semiconductors where, defect density is 50 large as to prevent
at the present stage of technology, the elec utilization of the desirable intrinsic prop
trical performance is limited not by the erties of the material in question . Even
concentration of impurity atoms, but rather though the device is used at room tempera
by the density of physical imperfections or tures or below , the situation is rendered
defects. * These materials are mostly com more severe by the presence of " frozen - in "
pounds and are highly useful as infrared defects resulting from preparation of the
detectors and emitters, nonlinear junction crystal at higher temperatures. As a result ,
type devices operating at low temperatures, many useful compound semiconductors , as
potentialmicrowave detectors andGunn - type normally prepared, possess donor or acceptor
oscillators, as well as certain kinds of concentrations several orders of magnitude
lasers , higher than is desired for many applica
tions . Furthermore , as is obvious from the
*By the term physical imperfections, one commonly above, no additionalpurification of constituent
refers to such atomic defects as point defects, dislo elements or compounds can reduce this
cations, stacking faults , etc . They are deviations from " residual" carrier concentration .
the regular structure and charge distribution which are Under sponsorship of AFOSR, inroads into
characteristic of the crystal structure of the solid . Ac
tually, it is the presence of specific chemical and this problem are being made by Dr. A . C .
physical imperfections which renders many materials Beer and a group of solid - state physicists
of value in a wide variety of applications. A slab of and chemists at the Battelle Memorial In
absolutely perfect germanium or silicon would be use stitute laboratories at Columbus, Ohio , The
less as a transistor or rectifier. Certain metals , if com material which has been the subject of in
pletely defect- free , might lose most of their ductility .
Thus, we see that even minor concentrations of de vestigation is gallium antimonide (GaSb).
fects can alter profoundly the properties of the host This compound is easily prepared - - having
material. The problem is to determine what imperfec a melting temperature of only 706°C , and an
tions are initially present in a crystal, and their re absence of excessive vapor pressure at the
spective concentrations, to understand the effects of
these imperfections, and their interactions, and to
melting point. Yet it is representative of a
place limits on the allowable concentrations for a spe large number of semiconducting compounds ,
cific use of the material. In other words, one must inasmuch as the maximum melting tem
characterize the material for a given application . The perature of the compound does not occur
procedure, then , is to insure that the density of un precisely at the 50 - 50 stoichiometric compo
desirable defects be below the tolerance level and,
when necessary, to introduce the appropriate concen sition . Consequently, standard preparative
tration of desirable imperfections in the correct place techniques always yield material with a
in the crystal. residual acceptor content responsible for
1 to 2 x 10 17 positive charge carriers material was compensated with tellurium
(holes ) /cm3 at room temperature, regard (donors ), eventually yielding n - typematerial,
less of the degree of purification of the Subsequent treatment of the n -type GaSb with
elements or the final compound . ( 1 - 5 ) lithium indicated that the basic interaction
between lithium and the residual acceptors
In establishing the probable nature of the
was not changed when donors predominated .
residual acceptor centers, use was made of In fact, a comparison of the electrical
information obtained by chemical, electrical, properties of n - type samples before and after
and metallurgical methods. For example, the addition of lithium led to a model for the
analysis of highly pure material by the mass residual centers, which coincided with that
spectrograph has shown essentially no chemi
cal impurities to be present in sufficiently for p - type samples.
high concentrations to account for the ob The composition of a compound which
served residual acceptor density , with the normally tends to be off from stoichiometry
possible exception of silicon , hydrogen , because of themaximum melting temperature
nitrogen , oxygen, and carbon. (6 ) Many of not occurring at the stoichiometric composi
these impurities are improbable as a result of tion may often be adjusted by growth from a
studies involving variation in preparation melt which contains an excess of the ap
procedures . Other inpurities are highly un propriate constituent- - in this case, antimony .
likely candidates as residual acceptor centers This is possible as the maximum melting
because of their known behavior in GaSb and point is on the gallium -rich side of the 50 - 50
other III- V compounds. The diffusion of composition . In the case of GaSb , however,
lithium is a powerful tool for learning more the initial application of such techniques did
about the nature of the residual centers . not produce noticeable results - -presumably
From initial studies of activation energies of because of the nature of the phase diagram
the acceptor levels through electricalmeas of the gallium - antimony system . In particular ,
urements done as a function of temperature , the slope of the liquidus deviates only slowly
it was found that the center in question was from horizontal as the melt composition is
associated with a relatively deep level (about changed from that composition which is
0 .035 ev above the valence band) and also characteristic of the highest melting point of
was capable of a second ionization - -thus the compound. With extreme differences in
precluding the existence ofmerely a simple melt composition, however, Effer and Etter
hydrogenic -type level. Small additions of found that significant results could be
lithium , by diffusion , produced a pairing with achieved. (5 ) Difficulties exist in regard to
the ionized centers, thereby extinguishing the obtaining single crystals of good uniformity
deep - lying level and producing a purely from such melts; but these problems are
hydrogenic kind of level (about 0 . 01 ev above soluble, and the Battelle group was able to
the valence band ). ( 7 - 9 ) This resulted in a use melts with antimony / gallium ratios of
substantial increase in mobility of charge nearly 3 / 1. These techniques reduced the
carriers as well as a decrease in their residual acceptor concentration by an order
density. The latter result confirms again the of magnitude and increased mobilities of the
thesis that the effect of the lithium treatment holes in the GaSb at 350°C by as much as a
is not a compensation of acceptors by donors, factor of two. Another important observation
but rather is a pairing reaction . (10 ) A is that the residual centers are character
further confirmation of the pairing reaction ized by an over -all antimony deficiency, or
was obtained from studies of the lithium gallium excess . A simple gallium interstitial,
solubility as a function of temperature , and however, would be expected to be a donor.
associating this information with the known Also , it is unlikely that a simple antimony
density of the residual acceptor centers . vacancy could act as an acceptor , especially
The ionization characteristics of the ac one capable of a double ionization. There
ceptor sites were also confirmed by studies fore, the most likely arrangement appears
of the behavior of the levels as the p - type to be a type of antistructure defect in which
a gallium atom resides on an antimony site . the structural class of materials include
Of course , an accompanying rearrangement phenomena such as kinetics ofrecrystalliza
of the lattice could be associated with the tion , fatigue, brittle fracture, etc. For these
simple antistructure. reasons, adequate characterization and
As a result of the investigations described understanding of the properties of defects is
above , it was possible to establish fine highly important, both in materials for elec
structure in the phase diagram . In Fig. la we tronic applications and for structural ap
see the phase diagram for the gallium plications- - especially where the environment
antimony system as established by may be unfavorable from the standpoint of
Greenfield and Smith. ( 11) The stable com temperature, stress, corrosive chemicals ,
position range for the zinc blende phase is or radiation effects. The techniques avail
so narrow on this scale that the solidus is able for investigating defects are becoming
represented by a straight line. From a more varied and more extensive. The
quantitative determination of residual ac case of Gasb was an example of how both the
ceptor densities by analysis of the electrical concentration and the nature of residual ac
properties of a series of samples , and by ceptor centers could be elucidated . Continued
use of the model discussed above for the application of such approaches to other ma
defect nature of the acceptor centers, it was terials will most likely be forthcoming upon
possible to establish in minute detail the application of sufficient research effort. In
behavior of the solidus near its maximum . fact, it is the complex area of defect con
This is shown in Fig. 1b . Note that the units trol which offers the exciting challenge
on the abscissa scale represent one part in a for future solid - state research , and which
million holds promise for the development of new
In conclusion , it is to be noted that the and improved properties in materials. The
characterization of a solid with respect to the impetus for such activity is on a continual
density and nature of its physical imperfec increase as modern technology places more
tions, or defects * , is in general more dif and more stringent demands on materials,
ficult than the determination of chemical especially as regards reliability and the
impurities. Nevertheless , the specification of ability to perform under increasingly severe
a material merely in terms of its impurity environments.
content is in many cases woefully inadequate ,
not only for the so -called " communication "
materials -- i.e., those which participate ac REFERENCES
tively in electronic devices - - but also for
structuralmaterials employed in many criti 1. Leifer , H . N . and W . C . Dunlap, Jr., " Some Prop
cal mechanical and thermal applications, erties of p - Type Gallium Antimonide Between
Many serious difficulties can arise from the 15°K and 925°K , ” Phys. Rev. 95 , 51, 1964.
2 . Detwiler, D . P . , " Electrical Properties of Gal
behavior of point defects, dislocations, etc., lium Antimonide, ” Phys. Rev. 97, 1575 , 1955 .
under severe operating environments . For 3. Edwards, D . F . and G . S. Hayne, " Optical Prop
example, the strength of metals and their erties of Gallium Antimonide, ” J . Opt. Soc . Am .
response to heat treatment are strongly in 49, 414 , 1959.
Boltaks, B . and Yu . A . Guterov, “ Some Results
fluenced by the action of defects. Well - known on the Diffusion of Impurities and Their Effect on
examples of the effects of defects in com the Electrical Properties of Gallium Antimonide, ”
munication materials are degradation of Soviet Phys.-Solid State 1, 930 , 1960.
minority - carrier lifetime, undesirable dif 5. Effer, D . and P . J. Etter, " An Investigation Into
fusion of foreign atoms under temperature the Apparent Purity Limit in GaSb,” J . Phys.
gradients, etc., while examples in the caseof Chem . Solids 25, 451, 1964 .
6 . Owens, E . B . and A . J. Strauss, Ultrapurification
of Semiconductor Materials, Editors: M . S. Brooks
and J. K . Kennedy, New York : MacMillan Co .,
* For a more detailed discussion of the nature and im 1962, p. 340 .
portance of imperfections in solids, the reader is re 7. Baxter, R . D . , F . J . Reid and R . T . Bate , “ Elec
ferred to References 12 - 16 . trical Properties of GaSb Containing Li, ” Bull.
 720
Temperature
720 Liquidus
b 706 °Cb ' _ - - . bb '

w Liquidus
,°C

Solidus
- - - - -

Solidus
640 640 H
49.99990 50.00000
49.99985 49.99995
Atomic Per Cent Antimony
(b )

590°C

560LILI
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Atomic per cent Antimony
(a )
Fig. 1. (a) Ordinary phase diagram for the Ga- Sb system . (b ) Greatly expanded abscissa scale reveal
ing fine structure in the solidus aa '. Due to the narrowness in over-all composition now covered by
the expanded abscissa, the deviations in the liquidus from horizontal are too small to be seen. The
data sensitive enough to delineate the fine structure were obtained by analysis of electricalmeasure
ments .

Am. Phys. Soc. 2, 646 , 1964. 12. " Imperfections in Nearly Perfect Crystals" (Proc.
of Symp. held at Pocono Manor, October 12- 14 ,
8. Baxter, R . D ., R . T . Bate and F. J. Reid , " Ion 1950, Editors: W . Schockley, J. H . Hollomon , R .
Pairing Between Lithium and the Residual AC Maurer, and F . Seitz ), New York: John Wiley &
ceptors in GaSb," J. Phys. Chem . Solids 26 , 41, Sons, Inc ., and London : Chapman & Hall, Lim
1965 . ited , 1952.
Baxter, R . D . and F . J. Reid , " Solubility and 13 . Van Bueren , H . G ., " Imperfections in Crystals, ”
Electrical Behavior of Li in N - type GaSb , ” Bull. Amsterdam : North-Holland Publishing Company,
Am . Phys. Soc. 10 , 599 , 1965. 1960 ,
14 .
For an illustration of the degrading effect of in “ Electron Microscopy and Strength of Crystals "
creased impurity scattering--which is a result of Editors: G . Thomas and J. Washburn, New York
compensation --upon charge carrier mobility, con and London: Interscience Publishers, 1963,
sult: Beer, A . C ., Galvanomagnetic Effects in 15 . Rhodes, R . G ., “ Imperfections and Active Cen
Semiconductors, Supplement 4 to Solid State Phys ters in Semiconductors,” Oxford : Pergamon Press,
ics, Fig . 16 , p . 141, Academic Press, New York ,
1963.
New York: Macmillan Company, 1964 .
16 .
Kröger, F . A ., “ Chemistry of Imperfect Crystals,”
11. Greenfield , 1. G . and R . L . Smith, " Gallium -Anti Amsterdam : North -Holland Publishing Company,
mony System ,” J. Metals, 7, 351, 1955 . and New York: Interscience Publishers, 1964.
 PROFILES

Dr. Thomos W . Myers is a visiting research associate at the

Thermomechanics Research Laboratory , ARL. He received the
B .S ., M .S., and Ph.D . degrees in Mechanical Engineering from the
University of Missouri , Columbia, Missouri, in 1961, 1963, and
1965, respectively . During his graduate studies, Dr. Myers held a
National Defense Education Act Fellowship and was an assistant
instructor. His dissertation research was concerned with a mag
netically balanced electric arc in a transverse gas flow . He is
continuing this research at ARL on the energy- transfer and aero
dynamic aspects of electric arcs in transverse gas flows and
magnetic fields. In this Review , Dr. Myers writes " On Investiga
tions of Stationary Magnetically Balanced Electric Arcs in
Transverse Gas Flows. "

Dr. Keith A . Browning is a research physicist with the Weather Radar Branch, Meteorology Labora
tory, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. He attended the Imperial College of Science and
Technology (London University ) where, in 1959, he received his B .Sc. (Special) and A . R . C . S. in
Physics, and subsequently, in 1962, his Ph .D . and D .I. C . in Meteorology. Currently, Dr. Browning is
principally concerned with the use of radar to investigate the interrelation of air motions and precipi
tation development. He is a Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society , and a Professional Member of
the American Meteorological Society . In the March 1966 issue of the Review , Dr. Browning ' s work as
editor of an AFCRL comprehensive report on a family of storms is described in the article , " Anatomy
of a Severe Storm ." .
 Captain Karlheinz 0 . W . Ball at the Hypersonic Research Lab
oratory , ARL , is currently conducting research on hypersonic
boundary - layer separation with heat and mass transfer. He re
ceived his B .S . (Aeronautical Engineering) from the University of
Alabama in 1957, his M .S . ( Aerodynamics ) from the Georgia Insti
tute of Technology in 1958, and a Certificate (Exper. Aero.) from
the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics in 1959. Captain Ball
is presently a candidate for a Ph. D . in Aeronautical Engineering
at the University of Southern California. His experience includes
18 months as an aerodynamicist with the Army Ballistic Missile
Agency, Huntsville , Alabama, and 3 years as a project officer,
3rd Stage Minuteman , AFBSD , Los Angeles, California. In this
US
issue of the Review , Captain Ball discusses "Heat-Transfer
Measurements Utilizing Instrumented Honeycomb Panels . "

Dr. Wolfgang G . Braun, Plasma Physics Research Laboratory ,

ARL, is engaged in spectrographic studies of high -energy tran
sient electrical discharges through ionized gases . He is currently
studying the flow stabilization of electrical discharges. His pre
vious work has included an experimental and theoretical investi
gation of the transients that appear in the sudden discharge of a
circular disc condenser. Dr. Braun received the M .E . degree from
the Technical University of Vienna in 1937 , and the Dr.- Ing. de
gree from the Technical University of Darmstadt in 1957. He has
been associated with the U . S. Air Force since 1948, working in
electronics and plasma physics, and has a number of publications
to his credit. His article, " Kirchhoff's Low and the Radiant
Plasma," is in this issue of the Review .

Mr. Attwell M . Adair, a physicalmetallurgist with the Metallurgy

and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL , is investigating, with
Mr. R . Ë . Hook, the effectof interstitial hydrogen on the yield and
fracture stress of zone-refined iron to determine the existence and
nature of hydrogen-dislocation interactions and the relationship of
such effects to the hydrogen -induced delay- failure phenomenon.
To gain insight into the significance of the interactions between
line and point defects in metals , Mr. Adair is studying the kinet
ics of the low -temperature yield points in metals over a suitable
temperature range . Mr. Adair received his B . S. in Metallurgical
Engineering from the University of Kentucky in 1952, and his M .S.
in Metallurgy from Ohio State University in 1954. With ARL since
1954, he is the author of a number of publications in his specialty .
His article, “ The Contribution of Hydrogen-Dislocation Interac
tions to the Embrittlement of Iron and Steel, " appears in this
issue of the Review .
15
Kirchhoff's Law & the Radiant Plasma
DR .WOLFGANG G . BRAUN , Plasma Physics Research Laboratory , ARL
Spectrophotometric measurements repre which is much less sensitive to a misalign
sent a powerful diagnostic tool for the ment of source and image than the original
determination of various parameters in a method , and yields transmission factormeas
plasma as well as for the experimental urements of uniform accuracy across the
determination of atomic properties. In gen entire source. The major component of the
eral, an experimental plasma is not homo system is a stigmatic spectrograph with
geneous and local values of the radiometric photoelectric read - out. It is needed for the
quantities must be found before such param resolution in wave length . The source in
eters as particle densities and tempera vestigated is the column of an electric arc
tures can be derived from the measure of extreme brightness ; it is imaged into the
ments. In the case of a plasma which is not plane of the entrance slit of the spectro
optically thin , additional information may be graph ; column image and slit are parallel.
obtained from absorptionmeasurements . The A simplified plane view of the optical ar
radiant- energy flux coming from a volume rangement is shown in Fig. 1. A concave
source is related to the local coefficients of mirror on the other side of the arc reflects
emission , j, and absorption , a, by an integral a beam of " probing " radiation back through
equation . The determination of the spatial the source into the spectrograph . The spatial
distribution of the coefficients from a num distribution of the absorption coefficient can
ber of co - ordinated observations across the be derived from the transmission profile of
inhomogeneous plasma (brightness profile) the column. This means that the entirecross
amounts to solving this integral equation . A section of the arc must be probed . The arc
solution is possible if the properties of the source is mounted on a table which permits
plasma display circular cylindrical sym precise lateral motion for the scanning. The
metry, as is the case with the column of an reflecting mirror is pivoted (vertical axis )
electrical- arc discharge. However , if self and tracks the moving arc so as to always
absorption in the plasma is present, the spatial reflect the radiation from the brightest
distribution of the absorption coefficient, portion of the arc (which serves as the
a (r ), in the plasma column must be found probing radiation ) back into the spectrograph .
first . A probing ray of constant high intensity not
A variation of the Double Path Method for only yields more accurate results near the
the measurement of the absorption coefficient arc boundary, but also facilitates the reduc
in a plasma has been developed at ARL tion of the data . The tracking motion of the
Reflecting Arc Condenser Spectrograph
Mirror Section Lens

Entrance
Slit

Chopper
Wheel
Scanning
Motion

Fig. 1. Optical Arrangement for the Measurement of the Transmission Factor of a Plasma Column.
16
 out + Ilx )

TRP r
- . - . - . - .

7(x ) = -out - exp [- Sa(r )(r2-x2) 3 rdr ]

I(x) = 2 857x) {(r)(12-x2) * r сoshiſaco)(02-x2 )-I pdo Idr

Fig . 2. Transmission Factor T (x ) and Brightness 1( x) of a Self-Absorbing Plasma Column.

mirror is derived from the lateral motion of proportional pulse rate which is counted for
the table with a simple but precise linkage. periods of one tenth of a second upon com
When determining the transmission factor mand by a sync signal obtained from the
of a slab of matter which radiates itself, it is chopper . Thus, digital readings of the in
necessary to subtract the emitted energy tensities are formed and subsequently re
from the total emerging amountbefore form corded on magnetic tape during the scanning
ing the transmission ratio of the probing of the arc column. This data - recording sys
intensities alone. A chopper wheel is inserted tem has the noise - suppressing character
in the mirror path which provides for the istics of a phase sensitive signal amplifier.
alternate observation of the emitted radiation
alone and the superimposed direct and re The solution to Abel's integral equation is
flected radiation . found numerically ; it is assumed that the
absorption coefficient within narrow ring
The relation between the transmission zones in the source is constant and varies
profile and the local absorption coefficient only incrementally from zone to zone. Once
can be reduced to thewell- known Abel integral the distribution of the absorption in the
equation . As the solution involves a logarith plasma has been found , the local coefficient
mic scale, rather accurate data points are of the volume emission coefficient can be
needed. These are obtained with a digital computed from the brightness profile of the
data - acquisition system , which was as column . The brightness of a self - absorbing
sembled from commercially available com plasma column as a function of the parallax ,
ponents . The current from the photomultiplier x , the normal distance of the ray of obser
in the spectrograph is transformed into a vation from the axis of the plasma column,
 Temp =

V1
18M
le«!]-W
°K

0
00
-

-?]>a[cm
1 . 104

-
moed o
1 - r[mm ] 2
Fig. 3. Distribution of the Coefficients of Emission and Absorption and the Temperature in a Hydrogen
Arc.

smoothed. The first alternative was chosen ,

and parabolas were best fitted to 10 adjacent
raw data points; the interpolated center points
I (x ) = 2V7 (x ) j ( r ) (r2 -x2) r сosh represented the smoothed profile points which
I(x)=PVFCH 1 s(7)622x2,ºrcost were subjected to the transformation .

2 2 Kirchhoff ' s law can be used to obtain the

- X 2) pdp
face) 6( P62 dr temperature distribution in the arc cross
I 'x section if Local Thermal Equilibrium pre
vails in the plasma. Kirchhoff's law states
This expression may be verified with the aid that the ratio of the coefficients of spectral
of Fig . 2 which also will clarify the notation emission and absorption equals the emission
used. If, again , the intensity values arebased of a black body which follows Planck ' s radia
on the ring zone picture, the double integral tion law . The method has been applied to a
is reduced to a double summation and the stabilized hydrogen arc at the wave length of
emission coefficient in each ring zone can be the red Balmer line, and yields the tempera
computed by recursion starting with the out ture distributions shown in Fig . 3 . The hy
ermost ring and progressing towards the drogen arc was operated at atmospheric
center . The method is extremely sensitive to pressure with a total current of 150 amps ,
noise associated with experimental data, and conditions which permit the assumption of
either the input or the results must be Local Thermal Equilibrium .

18
EARTH -SPACE
MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
MICROWAVE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
The question is not whether the use of the space vehicle approaches the horizon be
millimeter waves is feasible in earth - space cause the signal must then pass through a
communications. It is one of defining system larger segment of the lower atmosphere .
limitations and parameters . With the in The performance of an earth - space milli
creasing demand for band width in thealready meter - communications system is thus seen
crowded spectrum of lower frequencies, there to be heavily dependent on atmospheric con
is no way of satisfying needs except in the ditions, on the angle of the space vehicle
millimeter region . After three years of with respect to the observer, and on trans
planning, equipment accrual and tests, mission frequencies. These are the features
Dr. Edward E . Altshuler and his group at that Dr. Altshuler and his groupwill measure
AFCRL have recently begun a program to in the investigation of the characteristics of
define limitations and parameters for earth earth -space communications paths. Em
space communications. phasis will be given to two frequencies, 15
The AFCRL program centers around a and 35 gc.
high -precision paraboloidal antennadesigned To make these measurements, one of the
to operate at 35 gc - -or at higher frequencies system terminals- - either the receiver or the
with reduced efficiency. The reflector con transmitter - -must be above the atmosphere
sists of 30 precision segments , each in in space . Until a satellite transmittingmilli
dividually adjustable to an over- all surface meter waves is placed in orbit, the AFCRL
accuracy of about 0 .012 inch of a true group will use such natural radio sources as
paraboloid . The antenna is located in the Sun , Venus , Jupiter and Taurus A . Be
Waltham , Mass . cause these sources emit incoherent radia
Millimeter -wave communications for tion , the 29 - foot antenna will operate with a
earth - space systems offer two prime ad radiometer instead of a conventional
vantages, One is the unexploited wealth of coherent-signal receiver. But without a
band width. Large band widths are needed millimeter -wave transmitting satellite, it
for high - rate data transmissions - - such as will not be possible to derive true system
television photos . The overcrowded spectrum performance- -particularly band -width infor
below the millimeter region now places a mation . For this , a coherent signalis needed .
serious constraint on the ambitions of those
instrumenting space vehicles. The second This limitation will be mitigated somewhat
advantage is that high gain and resolution by using point- to - point transmissions over a
are possible with antennas ofmoderate size 10-mile path between two ground terminals .
With this path it will be possible to derive
and these, together with compact system com information on the effects of temperature,
ponents , are important considerations in
pressure and relative humidity , and resultant
space- vehicle construction .
refractive- index gradients. Also , it will be
Against these advantages there are, of possible to investigate such related effects
course, disadvantages. Millimeter waves are as signal scintillation and multipath effects ,
strongly attenuated by atmospheric gases,by Multipath refers to a situation where 2 or
clouds and by rain . Other problemsare at more components of the transmitted wave
mospheric noise, atmospheric refraction and arrive at the receiver over different paths .
multipath effects resulting in signal fading . When this happens, wave interference results
All of these disadvantages are enhanced as and signal fading occurs .
how NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS form
SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY , AFCRL
Noctilucent clouds, which four years ago (Some have recently been sighted in the
presented a host of mysteries, may be pretty Southern Hemisphere. ) Occurring at altitudes
well explained. If the theory which Dr.Robert of 80 km .- - above 99. 9 per cent of the earth 's
K . Soberman of AFCRL discussed at the atmosphere- - they are by far thehighestofall
Noctilucent Cloud Symposium held lastMarch clouds . But why do they occur only at high
in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic latitudes , and only during the local summer ?
(U . S .S .R .) is correct, some of the residual What is their composition ? In the past,
mystery - -namely , the mechanism of their scientists tended to discount the presence of
formation - -will have been cleared up . water vapor at the extreme altitudes where
These glowing clouds are seen at un the clouds were observed.
predictable intervals during the summer in The first step toward explaining these
the high northern latitudes - -across Alaska , clouds was a series of rocket flights con
Canada, Scandinavia and the Soviet Union . ducted from Sweden by Dr. Soberman in 1962.

24 HOUR DAYLIGHT TI CLE RCE

REGION PAR SOU
S
ott att bestJ EARTH 'S
LOUD W ED HERE Ho SHADOW
C IEEW
5 VVI ., ld
ड
ड CTIONS Her
ड CONVE DR
WN AF
RD
SOWA
Ezewan E TRATION
SHEAR USE
A
MESOP

SE

R
AU

ONSHEA
ION

STRATORI OP

?
REG

REGI
MESOS

-
-

Photo 1. This schematic depicts the mechanism of noctilucent cloud formations as explained by
Dr. Soberman 's theory .
201
 Photo 2. Noctilucent clouds form at an altitude of about 80 km . and are made visible by sunlight
formed below the horizon. This photo was taken during Dr. Soberman's expedition to Sweden in 1962.
These rockets , with extendable collecting The reason is that only under these con
surfaces, were flown into the clouds and ditions does the atmosphere undergo the con
gathered samples of noctilucent cloud par tinual heating by the sun necessary to sustain
ticles for later analysis. Flights during sub an updraft persisting for weeks. It is only at
sequent summers (the last being in 1965 or near the poles during the local summer
from Ft. Churchill, Canada ) established the that months of continuous daylight make this
fact that noctilucent clouds were composed possible,
of meteoritic dust particles which , in some At lower latitudes, on the dark side of the
cases, were covered with ice . earth , there would be a corresponding down
With this fact established , the chief re draft caused by the falling of the air cooled
maining problems were explaining what in the earth 's shadow . Thus , a closed system
processes could produce concentrations of of circulation , much like a storm cell , would
this dust at such extreme altitudes , and why exist between 50 and 80 km . The sunlit up
noctilucent clouds form only at high latitudes drafts of this cell would keep the meteoritic
in summer . dust from falling, but would not be strong
The mechanism proposed by Dr. Soberman enough to lift this dust " over the top " and
provides an explanation of these character into the downdraft in the earth ' s shadow
istics and a number of other aspects of unless acted on by some outside disturbance ,
noctilucent -cloud behavior aswell. Basically , Hence, the dust would collectand concentrate
Dr. Soberman ' s idea is that a small updraft in the updraft until such a disturbance oc
between 50 and 80 km , keeps meteoritic dust curred . When this happened the particles
from drifting to earth . Over a period of days. would be raised from around 50 km . to about
or weeks a large concentration of the dust 80 km ., the altitude at which noctilucent
accumulates in this altitude region. An up clouds are seen .
draft lasting long enough for such an ac
cumulation to take place, however , could Since this altitude change involves a cor
occur only under certain conditions. These responding temperature drop from a few
conditions , summer and high latitude , are degrees above zero (centigrade) to - 100
exactly those under which noctilucent clouds degrees C ., any water vapor present would
occur. freeze on the condensation nuclei provided by
21
the meteoritic dustparticles. They would then
be carried along the top of the convection ON INVESTIGATIONS OF
cell from the sunlit side into the earth 's
shadow . These particles , illuminated by the
sun 's rays coming from far below the ob BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS
server's horizon , would be seen from the
ground as noctilucent clouds as they pass IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS
through the twilight region . * DR. T. W .MYERS, Thermomechanics
Direct observation of this circulation Research Laboratory, ARL
pattern is unlikely since updrafts of less The interaction of a gaseous electrical
than half a meter per second are required to conductor , such as an electric arc , with a
keep meteoritic dust particles (which are a gas flow in the presence of a transverse
few tenths to a few hundredths of a micron magnetic field is currently of considerable
across ) from falling . However, the mecha technological interest. The arc- type dis
nism for noctilucent- cloud formation charge in crossed convective and magnetic
proposed by Dr. Soberman makes testable fields is common to a number of magneto
predictions. One of these, that the clouds fluid -mechanic devices, e.g ., J x B accel
should move from southeast to northwest in erators and arc heaters using magnetically
the Southern Hemisphere because of the ef rotated arcs. The configurations which may
fect of the earth ' s rotation on the circulation be used to study this threefold interaction
pattern , has already been verified. Another may be basically reduced to two types; those
way of testing Dr. Soberman 's hypothesis in which the arc is moved along electrodes
would be to track the clouds by means of through a stationary gas by an externally
laser radar during the daytime when they applied transverse magnetic field ; and those
would be otherwise invisible. A number of in which the arc is held stationary with
researchers are presently setting up laser respect to the electrodes by a transverse
experiments to make this test. magnetic field of suitable strength to balance
the aerodynamic forces on the arc caused by
the gas flow past the arc . (1) It has been
PROCEEDINGS OF 1964 found that, in many cases, the motion of an
AMD SYMPOSIUM arc along electrodes may be influenced by
processes within the anode and cathode
AVAILABLE regions of the arc. This renders fundamental
studies of the interaction between the arc
The proceedings of the Third International Sym column, the gas flow and the magnetic field
posium on Bioastronautics and the Exploration very difficult. Therefore, the magnetically
of Space, sponsored by the Aerospace Medical balanced stationary - arc configuration , with
its stationary electrode roots , appears more
Division , AFSC, at the Granada Hotel, San An attractive and was chosen for experimental
tonio, Texas, 16 -18 November 1964, have been re
investigations of the interaction phenomena ,
ceived from the printer and are being distributed . The balanced -arc configuration shown in
Thirty - three presentations by scientists represent
ing the U .S . Air Force, U .S . Navy ,NASA, and var Fig . 1 was used with a 20 - to - 100 - ampere
arc in a rectangular test section through
ious civilian institutions, both national and inter
which argon gas was flowing at approxi
national, are collected in this publication . Topics
range from the life support of the astronauts to mately atmospheric pressure and velocities
astrophysics, astronomy, and primordial organic up to 300 ft / sec , Magnetic - field strengths
up to 30 kilogauss were required to stabilize
chemistry . Qualified individuals may obtain copies the arc in the argon stream . This study
of these proceedings by submitting their request
to DDC ( AD 627686 ). Others may obtain them from proved the feasibility of holding an arc sta
the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Tech tionary in a subsonic transverse argon flow ,
nical Information . * Dr. Myers is a visiting research associate at ARL .
 CATHODE
and showed that the balancing magnetic field ,
B , was proportional to the square of the gas
velocity , V , as shown in Fig . 2. The same
relationship would be obtained by equating the
aerodynamic force on a cylindrical conductor
GAS FLOW VELOCIT AR
POSITION OF with the magnetic balancing force at constant
FIES UJ CURRENT / POLES
CURRENT
current. This balance of forces gives
IB = CRPV2,
where Cd is the coefficient of drag, R is an
arc radius, and p is the free- stream gas
JZINSULATOR density . By the experiments, no dependence
ANODE on the arc current, I, was found. Due to
Fig. 1 limitations of the experimental configuration
Sketch of test section showing orientation of arc of the electromagnet and the gas- flow channel,
current,magnetic field, and argon-gas velocity it was only possible to make over - all meas
3. 0

2. 5
Balancing
magnetic
/m, ebers
wfield

ARGON
P = 19 + 1.5 psia
1oy AI < 30 amperes
0. 5 E OI = 35 £ 5 amperes
DI> 40 amperes

0 2 4 6 8 10
Sec.
( Argon velocit
Fig . 2 Dependence of the balancing magnetic field on the square of
the argon velocity for a 5 /8- inch electrode spacing
23
 urements on the balanced arc; only the arc pected . If in first approximation the
current and voltage, and the gas properties resistance of the discharge in the electrode
at stations considerably upstream and down vicinity may be considered independent of
stream of the arc, could be measured. The current and magnetic field, the indicated
arc diameter could not be measured and, trend reflects the expected decrease of the
therefore, the drag coefficient could not be resistance with increasing current (arc diam
directly determined from the experiments , eter) and temperature and reflects an in
Thus , the observed independence of the other crease of the resistance due to a frequently
variables on the arc current could be due to observed increase of arc length . Since arc
compensating changes in the arc diameter length , arc diameter or temperature distri
or the drag coefficient. bution throughout the arc column are not
Measurements of the over - all electrical known , values of the plasma conductivity
resistance of the investigated arcs are indi cannot be deduced from these experiments .
cated in Fig . 3 for various levels of current The follow - up research program at ARL
and magnetic- field strength . The values will be concerned with such questions as:
shown are integrated over the arc cross How much flow passes around the arc, and
section and the arc length , including the elec how much passes through it ? How is the arc
trode sheaths for which considerable devia column conductivity affected by the combined
tions from the integrated values may be ex presence of the magnetic field and the gas
3.0
LEGEND
AB = 0.51w /m .
OB = 0.92w /m .
VB = 1. 31w /m .
OB = 1.64w /m .
resistance

DB = 1.99w /m .
OB = 2. 31w /m .
,ohms

B = 2.61w /m .
Arc

OB = 2. 84w /m

On
040 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Arc current, amperes
Fig . 3 Dependence of arc resistance on arc current at different constant magnetic fields for a balanced
argon arc at a static pressure of 19 psia with a 7/8 -inch electrode spacing
24
flow ? How efficient is such a magnetically transmission - line theory . Coupling exists
balanced arc device for adding energy to a when power can be transferred from one
gas stream ? How does thedrag exerted by the line to another .
arc on the gas stream compare with that of Sethares ' model consists of two coupled
a solid cylinder ? How do the arc diameter transmission lines, one for themagnon mode ,
and currentdensity depend on the flow velocity the other for a phonon mode. This model is
and magnetic - field strength ? What is the believed to be the first of its kind . The unique
effect of the electrode regions on the inter feature of the model lies in the choice of
action of the arc with the flow and magnetic variables used to describe magnon wave
fields ? How do the electrode effects differ propagation . The variables are chosen in
in the balanced - arc configuration from those analogy to those for phonon wave propaga
when the arc moves over the electrode sur tion . Phonon waves are generally described
faces ? The answers to these questions will by force and velocity fields, proportional,
give a greater degree of fundamental under respectively, to spatial and temporalderiva
standing to the present empirical procedure tives of displacement. The product gives the
necessary in the design of devices where this energy density carried by the phonon .
threefold interaction is present. Magnon waves may also be described by
REFERENCE two vector fields , proportional, respectively ,
to spatial and temporal derivatives of mag
( 1) Myers, T . W ., C . N . McKinnon andJ. C . Lysen, " Ex netization . The product of the fields gives
perimental Investigation of a Magnetically Balanced
Arc in a Transverse Argon Flow , ” ASME Preprint the energy density carried by the magnon .
65- WA /ENER - 1. Voltage and current along the transmission
lines are taken to be proportional to the
PHONONS, MAGNONS AND spatial and temporal derivatives ofmagneti
zation and displacement. Distributed induc
COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINES tive and capacitive couplingmay existbetween
lines.
MICROWAVE PHYSICS LAB . , AFCRL One of the benefits of the model is that it
A new insight into magnetic -wave propa permits the microwave physicist to draw
gation in single- crystal materials has been from known results of coupled transmission
described by James C . Sethares of AFCRL . line theory and to apply these known results
Sethares' model involves a coupling process to the prediction of new magnetoacoustic
phenomena .
between the magnetic and acoustic waves in
an energized ferrite crystal, Essentially , the The generation , detection, amplification ,
model provides a more convenient mathe control, and propagation of magnons and
matical method for calculating the energy phonons is a relatively new and rapidly
density of magnetic waves . evolving field of investigation . The physicist
The quantum terms for magnetic and working in this field enjoys the best of the
acoustic waves are magnons and phonons, two worlds of science and technology. As a
respectively. Only microwave magnons and scientist, he finds himself in a relatively
phonons are of interest in the Sethares study- - uncrowded field with new analytical tech
wave lengths on the order of 1 to 10,000 niques for exploring the internal forces and
angstrom units. When magnon and phonon energies of matter in the solid state. But if
waves are of equal length , energy exchange he is at the same time associated with a
between them is possible . Because of the mission - oriented laboratory (as most
small wave lengths involved, a very large scientists in fact are),he sees a readymarket
number can be accommodated in a single for the application of the new knowledge in
crystal specimen an inch or so long . The electronic devices and equipments. The work
crystal can thus be considered a transmis has high potential for improved delay lines,
sion line. Propagation conditions ofmagnons pulse compressors, and for the generation of
and phonons in the crystal are found to be coherent radio energy well beyond the 50 - gc
similar to those encountered in coupled range .
25
 TO OUR READERS
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Addresses are as follows:

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Attn : ORR
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority.”

301.696 , 5 "

research review
A RCH
FIC O ERUPACE ESEA
E F S R
S SOFFICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
OAR : The Research Agency
of The United States Air Force
JAN 20 1967Y
RAR
IB

JER
SIT
VOLUME V NUMBER 40 JUNE 19880 UNCA

Y
INFORMATION SCIENCES , 1965 1966
ROWENA SWANSON, Directorate of Information Sciences, AFOSR ENGINEERIM
L IBRARY
The information sciences, as embodied in objective for the information sciences in the
the program of the Directorate of Informa- coming years. " Also, ''information," as
dion Sciences, AFOSR , and in the programs Claude Shannon and others have demon
of several other agencies ( e . g ., Office of strated , has its quantitative aspects . Signals
Naval Research and Advanced Research Proj of various sorts can be measured and, once
ects Agency) , aim toward the specification a determination has been made as to what is
of systems of men and machines that opti to constitute a signal, methods can be devel
mize the acquisidon , processing , and use of oped for optimizing the transmission and
information . Products of the information reception of signals embedded in noise. The
sciences are methods of manipulating and methods can be very innovative and in
using information and designs for systems corporate routines that automatically adapt,
and hardware to implement the methods. The based on input and feedback . When , how
information sciences are exploiting, or trying ever , the question is , " What is to be meas
to exploit, not only computers but also all ured ? " or " What is the significantbit of infor
devices or machines that can be used to mation in a given context? " - - answersare too
quantify , store, and transmit information . frequently qualitative and subjective. It is this
The information sciences, thus, encompass realm that must be emphasized in research .
(or are expected to encompass) not only The information sciences draw on knowl
areas concerned with classifying and storing edge from many of the more traditional
information , but concerned also with tech sciences to study problems connected with
niques for processing this information and information . Classification systems and in
making effective use of it . dexing methods derive from library science
The nub of the problem in the information and documentation. How man learns and proc
sciences is the definition or meaning of the esses information is an inquiry of the be
word, " information . " As Oliver Selfridge has havioral scientist and the educator. How man
said, "Clarification of the concept of infor and other living systems code and store
mation may be the single most important information is being increasingly examined

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE , OAR + LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE , OAR
by the neurophysiologist and the molecular vide knowledge for future Air Force systems,
biologist in one dimension , and by a newly and the Directorate ' s assessment of the
developing corps of information specialists range and scope of this new field of science .
in another. Mathematicians, logicians, and As stated in the introduction , the program
a newly forming group of programmers are does not include all of the areas of the in
exploring theories and methods of repre formadon sciences, both because of budget
senting information and procedures by which limitations and because of overlap with other
machines can solve problems, and learn , and AFOSR and Air Force laboratory programs.
be creative in ways peculiar to algebraic and However , the coverage does attempt to high
symbolic manipulation as well as in ways light fundamental areas where research is
peculiar to man . The common thread is the needed. These include: information- system
relevance of these efforts to the identification organization , classification and indexing
and handling of information . methods, methods of transmitting informa
The annual report of the Directorate of tion , methods of representing adaptation and
Information Sciences, AFOSR , Information learning, models and measures for language,
Sciences, *1965, (1) summarizes 68 research and systems of logic that could lead to new
efforts that constituted the Directorate' s machine designs and new ways of describing
program in calendar year 1965. It exempli and processing information . The annual re
fies both what the Directorate considered port includes a statement of research ob
significant for sponsorship in order to pro jectives, a summary of research results ,

EXPLORING OPTICS THEORY WITH MICROWAVES

research review Microwave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL . . . . . .
MODEL FOR SCINTILLATION
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH Dr. Jules Aarons. . . . . .
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of ANOMALIES IN ELECTRON -DENSITY PROBES CAN
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Hq Of. BE CAUSED BY ROCKET OUTGASSING
fice of Aerospace Research, USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard, Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL. . . . . 14
Arlington , Va. 22209. The objective of this publication is to
make a positive contribution to the exchange of information HIGH -ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research
activities. Dr. ErichWeigold .... .... ... 15
JACOB SEIDEN
Editor BALLOON DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHICLE
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL ..... 17
INFORMATION SCIENCES, 1965 AIRBORNE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Rowena Swanson . . . . . . .
Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL .......... 18
NEW PRESSURE GAUGE FOR HIGH VACUUMS
Microwave Physics Laboratory, AFCRL . . .. . . . . . .. AFCRL SATELLITE MEASURES CHARGED - PARTICLE
PHOTOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA DISTRIBUTIONS OUT TO 3 ,090 NM
Dr. Peter L . Land . .. ... .. .. .. 4 Space Physics and Upper Atmosphere Physics
Laboratories, AFCRL.. ... .. . . .
BOUNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA ACCELERATORS
AND GENERATORS NONLASER OPTICAL RADAR
6 19
Dr. Demetrios G . Samaras......... Optical Physics Laboratory ,AFCRL ........ . . . . . . .

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D . C. 20402 - $ 2.75 per year domestic, 75 cents additional for
foreign mailing. 25 cents per single copy and 15 cents per Annual Index,
Back Issues will not be furnished,
and citations to published reports and papers experimental apparatus used by Rayleigh and
for each effort. A total of 144 publications is Fraunhofer to measure refractive indices.
reported . The conventional Michelson interferometer
A recent paper in the Air University Re produces a series of rings called interference
view complements the annual report. (2) It fringes when one light path length is greater
considers, briefly , the Air Force investment than the other. Such fringes will also be pro
in computer - based information systems, duced if the path lengths are the same; but
and discusses several areas of research and the index of refraction of the gas in one light
exploratory development that are expected to path differs from that in the other. To deter
contribute to future military and civilian mine the index of refraction of gas, a sample
systems. Ongoing work is reviewed concern in an appropriate test chamber is placed in
ing document and data systems, management one of these optical paths , A characteristic
and command systems, programming lang fringe shift occurs for a given index of re
uages , and man -machine interaction . fraction .
Qualified requesters may obtain both of
these documents from the Directorate of The pressure gauge designed and tested by
Information Sciences, AFOSR , or from the Herskovitz takes advantage of the principle
Defense Documentation Center. that the refractive index is directly related to
gas density, or pressure. However , to derive
REFERENCES pressure values, the temperature and gas
composition must be known , togetherwith the
(1) Swanson, Rowena, Information Sciences , 1965,
Jan . 1966 . [AFOSR 66 -0130 ] fringe shifts associated with gas of a certain
(2 ) Swanson , Rowena W ., "'Information Sciences: Some temperature and composition .
Research Directions," Air University Review , Vol.
17, No. 3, 56 -67, Mar-Apr 66 . [AFOSR 66 -0632 ] Herskovitz has calibrated temperature with
nine pure gases and several binary gas mix
tures. Simple visual observations of fringe
new pressure gau for shifts permit measurements of atmospheric
gas pressures with an accuracy of about one
torr over all pressure ranges. More sophis
high vacuums ticated read- outusing photometric techniques
MICROWAVE PHYSICS LABORATORY permits greater accuracy ; but such read -out
AFCRL has not been attached to the AFCRL system .
Because the system has no mechanical or
A new type of pressure gauge, based on a thermal inertia , this optical approach to
technique first applied by Rayleigh and pressure measurement can respond to in
Fraunhofer in the late 1800 's for measuring stantaneous pressure variations,
refractive indices of gases , has been devel
oped by Sheldon B . Herskovitz of AFCRL . The gauge built by Herskovitz consists
simply of a conventional optical interfer
The pressure gauge uses as its basic com ometer, plus a small Pyrex test cell leading
ponent an inexpensive, commercially avail from the vacuum system across one of the
able optical interferometer of the Michelson light paths. Thus only the test cell, con
type . It is useful in the pressure range of 10 structed entirely of Pyrex , must be added to
torr or greater. Portable and extremely any vacuum system . Pyrex is used because
rugged , the gauge weighs less than 10 pounds . the residual gases found in all materialsmay
Its simplicity and relatively low cost give contaminate the gas of interest. To prevent
the pressure gauge distinct advantages over this, the material from which the test cell
other gauges operating in the same pressure is constructed must be baked to remove these
ranges. residual gases. Thus Pyrex, which can resist
high baking temperatures, serves as an
Essentially, the gauge is comparable to the excellent test-cell material.
 PHOTOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA
DR. PETER L .LAND , Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL
Since many properties of materials are end. The detailed description of the prop
determined by the presence of specific point erties of a defect when it alone is respon
imperfections (defects ), it is desirable to sible for most of the observed photoelec
identify these defects and to study their tronic processes is illustrated in Fig. 1 ,
properties so that the knowledge gained can which is taken from a recent publication
be utilized in the interpretation and eventual reporting studies of Zns:Ci single crys
control of the properties of the bulk material. tals. (1 )
Progress toward this end requires the assim The energy levels of electronic states
ilation of various experimental results, such which participate in radiative transitions are
as those of spin resonance, dielectric loss, determined from the wave lengths of radia
internal friction, diffusion , conductivity, and dion emitted or absorbed . Further charac
polarized luminescence. By co -ordinating terization of the observed levels and transi
such measurements, this laboratory is en tions requires measurement of the spacial
deavoring to contribute to a broader under distribution and polarization of the radiation
standing of selected metal oxides. Studies of which depend on the spacial orientation of
thermoluminescence, thermally stimulated the defects and their electronic states . The
current and fluorescence, which can be trap energies are deduced from the shape
carried out with the same basic experi and position of peaks in the thermolumines
mental apparatus, are useful toward this cence or thermally stimulated current versus

- - -(5 )- - - - - - -
CONDUCTION
IoT BAND
TRAPS
)ENERGY

III
(EV

of (2) (3) (4)

E

- o'
A tatá (6) Cov- - Cs
VALENCE BAND
07 / TTTTTT77777777777777/ TTIINTIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII77777777777
• ELECTRON
O HOLE
Figure 1 . A model of the energy -level scheme for the photoelectronic processes in ZnS:CI crystal at
77 K . Arrows drawn with solid or broken lines represent optical or thermal transitions of
electrons, respectively . The luminescence transitions (1 ) are caused by the host excitation
(2 ) or by the characteristic excitation ( 3 ) or (4 ). Process (5 ) represents trapping and thermal
ionization of electrons in the trap levels, which is responsible for the thermoluminescence
and glow currents.Infrared quenching process is assumed to be the hole transitions (6 ) from
the ionized center into the valence band .
dme observed while heating at a known rate. or impurities probably occupy sites in the
A detailed study of the photoelectronic crystal, each of which has a unique sym
behavior of Y20g has been started . Single metry axis as is required to produce the
crystals are cut into thin sections with effects. Even if the measured polarization
faces parallel to crystallographic planes effects cannot be interpreted from simple
and optically polished . These sections in dipole models , they should beuseful in estab
turn are placed in an optical cryostat, lishing relationsbetween charge sources such
cooled to liquid -nitrogen temperature, and as A1 and centers such as E .
irradiated with ultraviolet light of known In accordance with the objectives stated at
intensity, spectral distribution and polariza the beginning, an attempt will be made to
tion for a measured time. ( This " excitation " correlate data from these experiments with
causes the occurrence of processes such as data obtained by other means. The experi.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, shown in Figure 1.) Upon ments described will be performed on crys
heating at a constant rate , the total light tals as received , in an oxidized state and in a
emission (thermoluminescence resulting reduced state, in order to attempt identifica
from processes 1 and 5 ) is measured as a tion of the defects responsible for the high
function of time. The spectral distribution temperature semiconductive properties of
and polarization of the thermoluminescence nonstoichiometric Y203 which were obo
are measured by inserting filters and a served by other measurements made in this
polarizer between the crystal and detector. laboratory. ( 2 ) In addition , nonstoichiometric
To supplement the information gained from and doped crystals will be subjected to com
the thermoluminescence measurements , bined thermoluminescence - spin resonance
transparent electrodes will be fixed to the studies being conducted at the Franklin Insti
crystal sections which will then be treated as tute under an Air Force contract. ( 3 )
above , except that a constant voltage will be The continued study of yttria is considered
applied to the electrodes and thermally stim to be of practical interest to the Air Force
ulated current (glow current), rather than because it is representative of a class ofma
thermoluminescence , will be measured as a terials which have potential use as lasers (4 )
function of time, Peaks in the observed cur and as efficientphosphors. ( 5 ) Yttria may also
rent would correspond to electronic transi be of use in the future as an inert infrared
dons from traps to the conduction band window material; it is already an important
(process 5 ). Absence of a current peak when structural material for nuclear reactions. ( 7 )
compared with thermoluminescent peaks Furthermore, as a result of the increased
would suggest that the undetected trap is a interest in yttria , the growth of larger and
nonradiative state associated with a lumines higher - purity crystals for continued study can
cent center. be anticipated . (8 )
The polarization and spectral distribu REFERENCES
dion of fluorescence resulting from exposing (1) Koda, T. and S. Shionoya, Phys. Rev., 136, No.
2A , A541, 1964.
crystals to ultraviolet of known spectral (2) Tallan , N . M . and R . W . Vest, " Electrical Prop
distribution and polarization will bemeasured erties and Defect Structure of Y207, " submitted
at selected temperatures (processes 1, 2 , 3 , to J . of Am . Ceramic Society .
and 4 ). (3 ) AF 33 (615 )-3594, “ Defect Studies in Ionic Crys
Quenching effects will be investigated by tals by EPR and NMR ."
exposing the crystals to visible and infrared (4 ) Chang, N . C ., J. Appl. Phys., 34 , No. 12, 3500,
1963.
radiation . Thermoluminescence and glow (5) Bril, A ., W . L . Wanmaker and C . D . J. C . de Latt,
current peaks may be quenched if the radia J. Electro . Chem . Soc., 112, 111, 1965.
dion empties traps which were filled by (6 ) Wickershein , K . A . and R . A . Lefever, J. Opt. Soc.
stimulation at an earlier time, while proc Am ., 51, 1144 , 1961.
esses such as (6 ) in the figure may quench ( 7 ) Marlowe, M . O . and D . R . Wilder, J . Am . Ceramic
Soc ., 48 , No. 5 , 1965.
thermoluminescence and fluorescence . (8 ) AF 33 (615 )-3369, " Growth of Single Crystals of
Yttria should exhibit polarized lumi Doped and Undoped Y203 and Yttrium Aluminate
nescence since interstitials , metal vacancies in a Hollow Cathode Zone Refiner . "
BOUNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA
ACCELERATORS AND GENERATORS
DR . DEMETRIOS G . SAMARAS, Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR
Certain general laws are valid for all 49(638 )758 , under the guidance of Professor
branches of fluid dynamics, including aero Frank Marble of the California Institute of
dynamics and plasma (ion flow ) dynamics; Technology, was to investigate certain as
others are valid only for a specific branch . pects of boundary layers between plasmas
To extend the validity of a law from one and electrodes as well as between plasmas
branch to another, drastic changes in the and side walls . These boundary layers appear
law are sometimes needed . For example, in direct- current machines, such as plasma
the concept of the " boundary layer, " a accelerators and electrical- power genera
fictitious , discrete transition region first tors ,
applied in aerodynamics , has been extended Professor Marble' s early experiments in
to plasmadynamics , though not without con dicated that the assumption of a single fluid
siderable modification . having a local equilibrium temperature could
The boundary layer, so named by Ludwig not account for the lower heat transfer and
Prandtl , is the transition region between the higher electrical conductivity observed .Con
surface of a solid and the main flow around sequently, a mixture of two or three compo
the solid ; it has the important characteristic nent fluids was necessary to account for the
wherein the forces of interaction between observed heat transfer and conductivity . In
fluid and solid are transmitted through it. this model, the temperature of the electrons
In aerodynamics , the boundary layer re was considerably higher than that of the ions
lates to the viscosity of the fluid . Thus its or neutral atoms.
structure depends both upon the geometry As the presence of electricity considerably
and the Reynolds number . modified the boundary layer, the voltage cur
In plasmadynamics, the boundary layer rent characteristics were measured. These
relates to more dissipation phenomena than experiments showed that two differentmodes
is the case in aerodynamics. These phe of operation exist for a steady - state current
nomena include viscosity , electrical and conduction between high - temperature elec
thermal conductivity , and the diffusion of trodes in a potassium - seeded argon plasma.
various particles. It should be emphasized In both modes of operation, the electron
that, in most cases, the flow consists of a emission from the cathode was caused by
mixture of three or more component fluids , thermionic emission . With tungsten elec
such as electrons, ions, and neutral species . trodes at an average temperature of 17000K ,
In addition , the solid walls carry electric the steady- state current densities measured
currents and produce sheaths in the flow were over 2 megamp/m2.
with more- or - less steep voltage gradients . In the first or normalmode of operation ,
As early as 1929, Irving Langmuir dis the current density measured was smaller
covered that a plasma flow does not approach than that corresponding to the thermionic
the wall unaltered but forms space charge emission limit. However, in the second or
regions. Subsequently , it was established current- limited mode it was equal to the
that a unipolar layer forms close to the limit. Again , in the first mode, the cathode
wall, and that a transition layer appears sheath potentials were on the order of a few
between it and the main plasma flow . This kB Tw (where kB = Boltzmann 's constant
generation of space charge layers may be and Tw = wall temperature), whereas in the
attributed to the fact that one of the charged second mode they were considerably larger .
species components diffuses faster than the Dr. Marble 's achievement brings us a step
other . closer to the attainment of nuclear space
The initial objective of contract AF propulsion .
 that arises in optical experiments is simply
exploring optics theory that optical wave lengths are so short that
that optical wave lengths are so short that
the apertures (pinholes) in the experimental
apparatus must be correspondingly micro
with microwaves scopically small - -much too small to be easily
MICROWAVE PHYSICS LABORATORY fabricated . But when the experiments are
AFCRL conducted atmicrowave frequencies, the wave
lengths are long enough so that the apertures
A classic experiment in optics is the can range in size from six inches to a foot or
" two- pinhole" experiment first performed so , and a variety of aperture geometries of
around the beginning of the 19th century . precisely known dimensions can be used .
This experiment demonstrated the wave The experimental apparatus used by the
nature of light. In the experiment, light three AFCRL scientists to conduct the micro
passes through two pinholes placed side wave studies does not differ in essence from
by side, and is projected onto a screen . that used in the optical pinhole experiments.
Where the light diffracted from each of the There is an emitter of incoherent radiation
two pinholes overlaps, a series of inter and, depending on the particular study, a
ference fringes or bands appears on the shield containing one or two apertures at
screen . The contrast between the light and some distance from the source . Instead of a
dark bands is closely related to the co screen , two moveable microwave horns are
herence of the light. Thus, interference is used. Signals from these horns are combined
simply another way of looking at coherence. and fed into amplifying and filtering devices .
AFCRL scientists J. L . Poirier, W . Rotman By moving the horns farther apart or closer
and R . A . Shore have repeated the classic together, the experimenters are able to map
pinhole experiment- - but at microwave fre the interference fringes as a function of the
quencies. The AFCRL experiment is an horn spacing. The intensity variations are a
important bench mark in the new and rapidly measure of the degree of coherence, Aper
growing field of microwave optics. This tures of differing sizes and geometries can
hybrid field combines and , in many instances, be used to obtain radiation of any desired
makes interchangeablemicrowave and optical coherence. Close agreement was found
theories . between the experimental results and what
Superficially related experiments with had been predicted by optical theory .
microwaves have been carried out for many The key to the experiment, however , was
years . But in all cases , themicrowave radia finding an extended source of incoherentradi
tion was coherent. The AFCRL group is the ation atmicrowave frequencies . Such a source
first to use an extended source of incoherent exists in standard fluorescent tubes- - butuntil
microwave radiation , Only when the source the AFCRL experiment, no one had any
is incoherent do we have a macroscale thought of applying this source to the study
replication of the optical situation . And only of microwave diffraction . The source , in the
with such an incoherent source of micro AFCRL experiment, consisted of a 1.22
wave radiation is it possible to demonstrate meter -square array of fluorescent lights.
experimentally the validity of applying the ( The light emitted is of no interest to the
well - developed body of optical- diffraction experimenters .) Before the Poirier, Rotman
theory to microwaves- - and to examine and Shore experiment, the only way to obtain
experimentally certain aspects of diffraction incoherent microwave radiation from an ex
theory itself. tended source was to heat a metal plate. How
One area of interest is to extend diffrac ever, the radiation from such a source is not
tion theory developed from cases in which much greater than the thermal background
apertures are much larger than the wave noise .
length of the diffracted radiation to cases This research is of interest to the Air
in which the apertures are of the sameorder Force because of the new insight it provides
of magnitude as the wave length . Theproblem into the behavior of antenna systems. This
insight could in turn result in improved de the- horizon scatter communications and, in
signs for use in such areas as radio astron short, any microwave system that involves
omy, airborne reconnaissance radar, over the properties of partially coherent fields.

In photo # 1, one of the two horns used to detect microwave radiation is shown facing an aperture
placed before an array of fluorescent lights (photo # 2).
8
 The AFCRL study shows that it is possible
model to derive information on the dimensions of
ionospheric irregularities by using a single
for scintillation receiver if the angular diameter of the source
is known .
DR . JULES AARONS In passing, itmight be noted that different
Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL investigators have estimated the mean size
of ionospheric irregularities as ranging from
Stars scintillate (that is, they twinkle ), but about 0 .5 km to 7 .5 km or greater . The size
planets do not. Radio signals from satellites varies with latitude, season , ume of day,
and from radio stars also scintillate, but solar cycle , and even with the direction in
some radio sources scintillate more than which the observer is looking . The AFCRL
others. Why ? measurements showed the irregularity size
Scientists from the AFCRL Radio Astron to average about 1.1 km .
omy Branch, using the 1000 - foot radio tele
scope at Arecibo , Puerto Rico, have shown Why sources with small angular diameters
that scintillation of both optical and radio
scintillate, while those with large angular
diameters do not, can be explained equally
sources is primarily a function of the angular well by diffraction theory and by scattering
diameter of the source. By angular diameter concepts . Using diffraction theory, we can
is meant the apparent size- - or, more pre consider a small - angular- diameter source
cisely , the angle of two lines extending from as consisting of one or a limited number of
either side of the source and converging at pinholes through which electromagnetic
the point of observation .
The AFCRL study shows that the smaller energy passes. Phase interference produces
a series of interference fringes on the
the angular diameter of the source, the ground. If the ionosphere were stable and
greater the scintillation . Thus , stars with
small angular diameters twinkle; planets uniform , no scintillation would be observed .
But because it is not stable and uniform , the
with larger angular diameters do not. The energy passes through a medium whose index
study also indicates that the rate of scintilla
of refraction is continuously varying, thus
tion does not in general vary with frequency. causing a continuous oscillation in the dif
Eight signal sources above the atmosphere
were studied , Angular diameters ranged from
fraction pattern . This produces the amplitude
variations that we know as scintillation . A
less than one second of arc to 29 minutes of large extended source, on the other hand, can
arc . Observations were made with radi be considered as consisting of many point
ometers operating in the 22. 3 to 38 .75-Mcps sources of radiation . The addition of shadows
range ,
from each of these many discrete points
There would, of course, be no scintillation
averages out the amplitude variations, there
regardless of the angular diameter of the
source if the signal did not pass through the by cancelling scintillation .
uneven and irregular layers of the ionosphere. However, scattering concepts can explain
It is possible, therefore, to learn something the phenomena equally well- - and scattering
of the dimensions of ionospheric irregulari concepts are in fact more useful in deter
ties by ar.alyzing scintillations- -and, in fact, mining ionospheric irregularities. Under
many researchers have done just that.Usually scattering concepts we can imagine the
this has involved a number of receivers opposite edges of an extended source as
spaced over a large area on the ground . vertices of scattered cones of radiation ,
Because scintillation itself is nothing more The correlation of the scintillation pattern
than variations in the amplitude of the from extreme parts of the source will
received signal, it is possible to compare the diminish if the phase - path differencebetween
signals received at these spaced receivers the length of the generator of one cone and
and to derive information on ionospheric that included by the other measured along the
irregularities. same path length exceeds one radian .
 PROFILES

Dr. Edward E . Altshuler,Microwave PhysicsLaboratory, AFCRL,

whose work was described in the article , " Earth -Space Millimeter
Wave Communications" in the May 1966 issue of the Review , is
presently supervising research programs to determine the effects
of the lower atmosphere on millimeter-wave propagation for poten
tial applications in the areas of earth -to -space and re- entry com
munications and high-resolution radar systems. Dr. Altshuler
received the B . S. in Physics from Northeastern University ( 1953),
the M . S. in Physics from Tufts University, Medford, Mass. (1954),
and the Ph. D . in Applied Physics from Harvard University , Cam
bridge, Mass. ( 1960). After graduation from Harvard , he engaged
in research on antenna arrays and spherical antennas as an elec
tronics scientist in the Radiation and Reflection Branch, Electro
magnetic Radiation Laboratory, AFCRL . From 1961 to 1963, he
wasmanager of research and developmentwith Gabriel Electronics,
Millis, Mass. Since 1963, he has been Chief, Transmission Branch
at AFCRL' s Microwave Physics Laboratory .

Mr. James C . Sethares, a research physicist with the Micro

wave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL, is investigating magnon- phonon
interactions in ferrimagnetic single crystals. His interest in this
area began in 1962 when he came to AFCRL . He has a B.S. in
Electrical Engineering from the University ofMassachusetts ( 1959),
and an S. M . in Electrical Engineering from the Massachusetts In
stitute of Technology ( 1962). He has written a number of publica
tions and is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers . One of his current interests was described in the May
1966 issue of Review in the article, " Phonons, Magnons and
Coupled Transmission Lines."
10
 Mr. Sheldon B . Herskovitz, a supervisory research physicist with the Plasma Electromagnetics
Branch , Microwave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL , is currently directing research dealing with the in
teraction of matter and energy with ionized gases. Ofmajor interest is the production of plasmas and
the determination of the properties of ionized media . Mr. Herskovitz received the B .S. in Chemistry
from M .I. T. (1951), and the M .A . in Chemistry from Harvard University (1955 ). He served as an officer
in the Air Force from 1951 to 1953. After separation from the Air Force, he was employed as a research
and development engineer with Microwave Associates, and later joined theRadar Laboratory of AFCRC
(now AFCRL ). Mr. Herskovitz is a member of the Institute of Radio Engineers, the American Physical
Society, the Association of Harvard Chemists , and the Scientific Research Society of America. An
article on Mr. Herskovitz 's " New Pressure Gauge for High Vacuums" appears in this issue of the
Review .
 Dr. Peter L . Land, a research physicist with the Metallurgy
and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL , is the author of the
article, “ Photoelectric Processes in Yttria," which appears in
this issue of the Review . His current research is part of a pro
gram for understanding and controlling the influence of defects
on electrical, mechanical, and optical properties of single- crystal
and polycrystalline nonmetallic materials. Dr. Land received his
B . S . (1958 ), M . S . (1960 ), and Ph . D . (1964 ) from the University of
Missouri. From 1951 to 1955 he served in the Navy as an aviation
electronics technician. In the summer of 1960 he worked as a phys .
icist in the Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Branch at ARL.
During the summers of 1961 and 1962, he was employed in the
Solid State Physics Division of Brookhaven National Laboratory .
He has been in his present position at ARL since October 1964.

Dr. H . Stuart Muench, research physicist with the Upper Atmosphere Branch, Meteorology Laboratory ,
AFCRL , is presently studying the circulation of the stratosphere. In particular, he is interested in the
effects of tropospheric disturbances on stratospheric circulation, and the effects of solar heating and
infrared cooling. Dr. Muench received his B .S . (1952) and M .S. ( 1956 ) in Meteorology from M .I. T . From
1961 to 1963, he studied and taught meteorology at the University of Washington, Seattle, Washington,
receiving the Ph . D . in Atmospheric Science from that institution in 1964. While an Air Force weather
officer assigned to Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D . C ., from 1952 to 1954, Dr. Muench served
for several months at the Analysis Center of the Weather Bureau. He is a member of the American As
sociation for the Advancement of Science and of the American Meteorological Society . An article on
Dr. Muench ' s work , “ Explosive Warming in the Stratosphere , " appeared in the May 1966 issue ofthe
Review .
 Dr. Robert E . Riecker, Wave Propagation Branch, Terrestrial
Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL, is engaged in a program to de
termine the physical and mechanical properties of rocks and min
erals, under geophysically realistic conditions of high tempera
ture and pressure, in order to learn more about the phenomenology
of earthquake sources and to develop data useful for distinguish
ing between natural earthquakes and underground nuclear explo
sions, as part of the Advanced Projects Research Agency's VELA
UNIFORM Project. Dr. Riecker received the B . A . cum laude in
Geology (1958 ), and the Ph.D. in Geology (1961) from the Univer
sity of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. He holds membership in the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Phi Beta Kappa,
Sigma Xi and other organizations. An article describing his work ,
" Earthquake-Triggering Mechanisms, " appeared in the April 1966
OAR Research Review .

Mr. James F . Morrissey , Chief of the Direct Sensing Techniques

Branch, Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL , is con
cerned with the development ofmeteorological sensors for balloon,
rocket, and aircraft use. These include types sensitive to tem
perature, pressure, humidity, density, and index of refraction. An
article concerning Mr. Morrissey' s work on a system formeasuring
wind speed and direction at various altitudes appeared in the
April 1966 issue of the Review under the title , “ Method for Meas
uring Vertical Wind Profile from Aircraft.” Mr. Morrissey received
his B. S. degree from the University of Massachusetts in 1956 .
From 1956 to 1960 , he was associated with the Crosley Research
Laboratory, Boston,Mass., and from 1960 to 1961 with AVCO Cor
poration in Wilmington, Mass. As a systems design engineer with
AVCO , he was concerned with the design of electronic and elec
tromechanical instrumentation and systems integration for the
Titan and Minute Man missiles. He joined AFCRL at the end of
1961.

13
Anomalies in Electron -Density Probes
Can Be Caused by Rocket Outgassing
UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
Contamination of the ionosphere by rocket effects were the result of rocket outgassing .
outgassing - -the leakage and diffusion of left Since that time, they have developed a theory
over fuel after burnout- - can be a major to account in detail for the outgassing effect,
source of error for electron - density probes and have instrumented a number of probes to
according to J . C . Ulwick and Dr. W . Pfister test their theory and to determine which
of AFCRL . In a recent article in Radio rocket- vehicle types are most susceptible
Science, they show how rocket outgassing to outgassing.
explains some puzzling anomalies that have In the Aerobee- 150 rockets which Ulwick
appeared in ionospheric sounding data ever and Pfister used extensively in their iono
since the early V - 2 flights when rockets were spheric studies , the oxidizer (nitric acid ) is
first used extensively to probe the upper used up before the fuel (a mixture of aniline
atmosphere, and furfural alcohol). Outgassing occurs when
These anomalies generally showed up as the residual fuel escapes through the valves
discrepancies between the electron density which are left open after burnout. As the
measured at a given altitude on the upward liquid fuel passes into the near- vacuum of
portion of a probe's trajectory, and that the ionosphere, it is vaporized and diffuses
measured at the same altitude during the around the vehicle. The free electrons in the
downward leg. In early experiments , in which ionosphere become attached to themolecules
the delay times of radio pulses transmitted of vaporized fuel, while the positive ions re
from the rocket were used to measure elec main unaffected . This accounts for the local
tron density, delay times on the upward leg reductions in electron densities that are
would be smaller, indicating a reduced elec observed .
tron density. When this effect was first ob Since this " hole " is somewhat directional - -
served , it was interpreted as evidence that that is , it becomes more pronounced toward
the ionosphere' s E layer was actually two the rear of the rocket- -the measured effects
layers, with a sharp minimum in electron are different on the upward and downward
density between them . Later, this effect parts of the trajectory . Outgassing effects
was reinterpreted as having been produced occur primarily above 100 km . At lower
by local irregularides in the ionosphere; but altitudes, the surrounding air is dense enough
the man -made nature of these irregularities so that the outgassed fuel is swept com
was not recognized until rockets were in pletely behind the rocket.
strumented with probes for measuring am
bient electron and ion densities directly. Once the effect of fuel outgassing was dis
covered , it was fairly easy to correct in the
When such probes were flown , the surpris case of the Aerobee 150 . A valve that simply
ing result was that the data telemetered back shuts off the flow of fuel after burnout was
indicated a local deficiency of electrons, while activated . And, in fact, this solution is appli
the positive ion count remained unaffected . cable to any liquid - fuel sounding rocket. But
In addition , the electron count on the downward what about solids ? Residual vapors may or
portion of the trajectory was less than that on may not be left inside the combustion chamber
the upward leg , though both were less than after burnout, depending on thetype ofmotor;
electron densities obtained from ionosonde but stopping solid motor outgassing when it
measurements . In 1961, Ulwick and Pfister does occur may prove a more difficult
first recognized the likelihood that these problem than with liquids.
14
 Outgassing-- leakage and diffusion of fuel remaining after burnout--in rockets such as this Aerobee
150 has been found by AFCRL scientists to contaminate the ionosphere and to be a major source of
error in electron -density probes.

Ulwick and Pfister are currently studying Fortunately, the 4 -stage (all- solid ) Blue
data from solid - fuel sounding rocket flights Scout rocket, which is used extensively for
to determine which vehicles show outgassing. measuring charged particles in the radiation
So far, they have found it occurs with the belts, showed no indication ofoutgassing .Data
Astrobee 200, a solid - fuel rocket similar to from flights of a number of other solid - fuel
the Aerobee 150 in performance, and the sounding rocket types (particularly the Nike
Black Brant, a single- stage rocket used boosted series ) have not provided conclusive
to loft heavy pay loads to moderate altitudes . evidence one way or the other .

HIGH-ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA

DR . ERICH WEIGOLD , Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR

A supernova is a star which explodes There appear to be two types of supernovae .

catastrophically with a sudden release of a Type I, such as the Crab , is brighter and
large fraction of its energy. It is brighter has larger explosive velocities than Type II.
than any but the largest galaxies. Unfor In 1957 Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler and
tunately, supernovae are rather rare and are, Hoyle (1) developed the idea (2) that the
therefore, difficult to study. In historical roughly exponential decrease in the light
dme, the only supernovae observed in our output observed after the first 100 days
Galaxy occurred in 1054, 1572 and 1604. The following a Type I supernova is due to the
remnants of the supernova of 1054 are still energy released by the spontaneous fission
visible as an irregular expanding nebula of Cf254 . The half life for that process is
known as the Crab Nebula , consisting of about 55 days, in rough agreement with the
matter propelled outwards from the star by observed half life for the early luminosity
the explosion . of a Type I supernova . In somemore recent
15
papers Hoyle and Fowler elaborated on this sented at a recent meeting of the American
theme and made some modifications to the Astronomical Society held at Langley ,
theory . More recently, however , Hoyle, Virginia . A fuller account is to be published
Fowler, Burbidge, and Burbidge ( 3) proposed in the Journal of Geophysical Research .
an alternative explanation for Type I super Haymes and Craddock find that the X - ray
novae, which is based on gravitation rather flux at the top of the atmosphere can best
than nuclear energy . With the theory in such be approximated by a single exponential over
an unsettled state, it is up to experiment to the entire energy range. The expression for
decide, if possible, which of the two alterna the flux is 1. 1 exp (- . 119E ) photons Cm - 2
tive sources of energy in supernovae ismore Sec - 1 Kev - l , where E is expressed in Kev .
nearly correct. As a rule , it is assumed that the X rays
With this in mind, Professors D . D . Clay emitted by stellar objects areproduced either
ton , R . C . Haymes and W . L . Craddock (4) of by the synchrotron mechanism , or as a result
Rice University calculated the nuclear of bremsstrahlung from a hot gas. The
gamma- ray spectrum to be expected from synchrotron mechanism is based on the idea
supernova remnants if the Cf254 hypothesis that relativistic electrons moving through a
is correct. These calculations, supported by magnetic -field region are deflected from
the Nuclear Physics Division, AFOSR , linear motion and , therefore, are accelerated .
demonstrated that a detectable amount of Since accelerated charged particles emit
radioactivity should be present in supernova radiation , these electrons emit radiation
remnants such as the Crab Nebula, and sug which is known as synchrotron radiation . The
gested that an experimental test of the higher the energy of the electrons and the
californium hypothesis may be made by higher the magnetic field , the higher the
searching for the gamma- ray lines associated energy of the emitted photons. In the case of
with the anticipated trans - bismuth radio the Crab, in order to provide the high
activity . Although the calculated gamma- ray energy X rays observed in the experiment,
line spectrum is complex , almost all of the the synchrotron source would require an
radiation should be in the energy range 50 active source of extremely high- energy (ap
KeV to 400 KeV , and photons of these proximately 1014 eV ) electrons if one as
energies can penetrate to balloon altitudes sumes the reasonable values of 10- 4 gauss
without serious attenuation , Professor for the magnetic field . It is difficult to see
Haymes, with supportprovided by the Nuclear how an active source of such high - energy
Physics Division , AFOSR , designed an ex electrons can exist in the Crab . Further
periment to search for these lines . Back more, the synchrotron mechanism would
ground considerations made it obvious that a produce a power - law energy spectrum in
gamma- ray telescope of small solid angle disagreement with the observed exponential
and very good energy resolution would be spectrum .
required . Furthermore, the telescope must Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation ) is the
completely reject other forms of radiation , radiation emitted by a charged particle when
such as charged particles . it is decelerated on passing through an
On October 19, 1965, Dr . Haymes launched absorber . The bremsstrahlung spectrum ex
a balloon at Palestine, Texas. The 800 pected from a hot gas is exponential, in agree
pound pay load contained a carefully de ment with the observed X - ray energy spec
signed gamma- ray telescope which fulfilled trum . The temperature of the hot gas can be
the necessary requirements of sensitivity , deduced from the shape of the energy
energy resolution , and angular resolution . spectrum , and the result for the Crab is 108
degrees Kelvin .
Although the analysis for possible gamma Haymes and Craddock also postulate a
ray lines has not been completed, a rela mechanism for generating such high tempera
tively large flux of X radiation with photon tures. The expansion velocity of the Crab
energies up to 80 keV was observed. The Nebula is observed to be approximately
analysis of this X - ray spectrum was pre 1100 km / sec . A plasma streaming at this
16
velocity will encounter shock waves wherever a parachutist feels on hitting the earth .
there are obstacles to the plasma flow (such The balloon platform constitutes a stable
as the interstellar medium and the filaments drop tower without the impediments of a
in the Crab). In the earth 's magnetosphere, tower structure itself . The test bed also
for instance, where the solar -wind velocity approximates a moon environment in that it
is approximately 400 km / sec, the shock re satisfies the need for a short drop with insuf
sults in temperatures (5) of 107 degrees ficient time for atmospheric drag to build up
Kelvin . around the lunar lander. The precise posi
This balloon flight is the first of a series tioning of the balloon at a fixed altitude also
to be undertaken by the Rice University provides maximum visual coverage and a
group . Future flights, at somewhat higher reasonable measure of safety for participat
altitudes, will be undertaken to study the ing personnel. The tethered balloons used
gamma- ray spectrum from the Crab in more in the tests are 66 feet in diameter .
detail as well as to observe other interesting
stellar objects in the high - energy X - ray and To achieve the stable platform and to
nuclear gamma- ray region . allow the Surveyor vehicle to be dropped free
of any possible entanglement with tethering
REFERENCES lines and to impact within 50 feet of ground
zero , 3 winch - equipped trucks are em
( 1) Burbidge, E .M ., G . R . Burbidge, W . A . Fowler and ployed. The tether lines form a triangle
F . Hoyle, Rev. Mod. Phys., 29, 547-650, 1957. and are secured to the bottom - end fitting
(2 ) Burbidge, G . R ., F . Hoyle , E . M . Burbidge, R . F . of the balloon . The Surveyor vehicle is sus
Christy and W . A . Fowler, Phys. Rev., 103, 1145
1149, 1956 . pended beneath an open parachute which is
(3) Hoyle , F .,W . A . Fowler, G . R . Burbidge and E .M . also tied to the same bottom - end fitting .
Burbidge, Ap. J ., 139, 909 -928, 1964 .
(4 ) Clayton , D . D ., and W . L . Craddock, Jr., Ap. J., After the Surveyor vehicle is preflight
142 , 189-200, 1965. tested , the balloon and its payload are
(5 ) Bridge, H ., A . Egidi, A . Lazarus and E . Lyon , ready for release and reel- up . Following
Space Research V , Amsterdam : North Holland Pub
lishing Company, 1965, p. 969. inflation and release from roller arms, the
balloon is restrained through the use of an
explosive-type release device at the end of
a crane boom . When the release is fired ,
Balloon Drop Tests of the balloon rises to about 100 feet and then
is restrained by the 3 tether lines. At the
Surveyor Vehicle command of the field - test director, winch
AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION operators begin the reel-up . As this is being
LABORATORY, AFCRL done, a precise positioning technique is used
to place the system over ground zero . With
When NASA 's Surveyor lunar vehicle lands the balloon and lander at 1,500 feet, the
on the moon in 1967, its rocket- cushioned operation is turned over to the NASA Sur
descent will have been well rehearsed , Ex veyor project manager.
tensive balloon -borne drop tests of the ve
hicle have been made by AFCRL scientists With all of the lander's systemsoperating,
to perfect the soft - landing technique. the vehicle is dropped . At 800 feet, vernier
More than 70 tethered balloon ascensions rockets begin firing . They cut out at 500
to an altitude of 1, 500 feet for vehicle drop feet. From that height, the parachute re
tests have been conducted by AFCRL at its covery system brings the vehicle to the
permanent field site at Holloman AFB , New ground at a rate not exceeding 20 feet per
Mexico, over the past 3 years to test the second on inflated air bags fitted to the legs
Surveyor spacecraft's retrofire descent and of the lander. Following the completion of
impact capabilities. Surveyor is supposed to a drop test, the area is cleared and the
land on the moon with no more of a jolt than balloon lowered for a repeat performance , t
Airborne Geological Survey in The
Middle East TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES LABORATORY, AFCRL
soil, and its exact location and boundaries
An airborne geological survey over several are unknown. Excavation is difficult because
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern countries the buried site is below the water table ,
to collect data on dry lake beds for natural It is hoped that the AFCRL survey using
landing areas has been undertaken by AFCRL the nine- lens camera and the thermal infra .
scientists. They are also investigating the red system will help delineate the boundaries
geology of river valleys and volcanic geo and other features of the lost city .
thermal areas. The month -long survey got The main object of the survey is the loca
under way this past May, using instrumenta tion of large, dry, flat areas with soil suf
tion aboard a C - 130 aircraft. ficiently compact to support aircraft. During
The key instrument aboard the aircraft is the past four years, AFCRL has made exten
a nine- lens camera system for taking simula sive studies of dry lake beds in the western
taneous photographs atnine differentnarrow United States , and has identified and cata
band regions of the visible andnear- infrared logued scores of such natural landing areas
spectrum . By studying the tonal contrasts of suitable for emergency operations. The air
the photographs, characteristics of the borne survey will help identify such areas in
terrain can be determined . In addition to the the Middle East,
nine- lens camera , a thermal infrared optical The nine- lens camera was developed by
mechanical scanner and a conventionalaerial the Itek Corporation , Lexington, Mass., and
camera is being used . the IR scanner by Michigan University , both
The survey is being made over Libya, Iran under the direction of Carlton E . Molineux of
and Jordan . As an adjunct to the survey , AFCRL . 1st Lt. Richard S . Williams, Jr.,
AFCRL , at the request of the Italian Govern is the project officer for the aerial survey . *
ment and Dr. Froelich Rainey of the Uni
versity of Pennsylvania Museum , is using the AFCRL Satellite Measures
instrumented aircraft to examine the Plain of Charged -Particle Distributions
Sybaris on the southern coast of Italy in an
attempt to locate the lost city of Sybaris , the out to 3 ,090 NM SPACE PHYSICS
richest of the pre -Golden Age Greek cities. AND UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS LABS
Another feature of the survey is an attempt AFCRL
to locate geothermal areas which can serve An AFCRL satellite, instrumented to meas
as natural- energy sources for steam
ure the angular distribution and energies of
electric- power generators. Such generators charged particles in the earth ' s magnetic
have been in use in Italy for a number of field and upper ionosphere , was launched
years . The thermal infrared scanner is being
from Vandenberg AFB, Calif ., 22 April 1966 .
used for this survey which is being made in The OV3- 1 (OV for orbiting vehicle) satellite
the Larderello area. The area around Mt. was boosted into a polar orbit by a Blue Scout
Vesuvius is also being mapped . rocket with an apogee of 3,090 nauticalmiles,
Although the search for Sybaris began as a perigee of 192 nautical miles , a period of
early as 1878 , it was not until 1960 that an 151 minutes, and an orbital inclination of
all - out effort was made to find the city . This about 80 degrees .
city of 300 ,000 was the wealthiest settlement The specific objective of the launch was to
in the Greek world some 2,500 years ago. determine the distribution of energetic
Archeologists generally agree that they have charged particles (electrons and protons) in
located the Port of Sybaris; but the city the earth 's magnetic field . AFCRL scientists
proper lies beneath nearly 30 feet of sandy are primarily interested in the pitch angle
18
of the particles (angle of the particles with However, Dr. Fischer 's system offers a
respect to the magnetic field ) . number of advantages over both conventional
The satellite carried a spherical electro and laser radars for short- range applica
static analyzer for measuring low - energy tions . The advantages over conventional
ionospheric charged particles, and two radars are resolution of small objects and
curved - plate electrostatic analyzers for more accurate ranging . Other advantages are
measuring high - energy radiation belt elec its small size, low power requirements, low
trons and protons up to about 100 Kev . Two cost and ruggedness- - advantages which it
other instruments , an electron spectrometer also has over laser systems. The Fischer
and a proton spectrometer , were aboard to system requires only a small, battery
obtain the energy spectra of particles up to operated power supply . A system weighing
an energy of a few Mev . Also , a Geiger just a few pounds could be built.
counter was used to measure the radiation The operating characteristics of the
counts in order to compare radiation - in Fischer system also offer advantages over
tensity data with that obtained in previous the laser for short- range optical radars.
AFCRL satellite measurements made be One of these characteristics is a rapid
tween 1960 and 1963 . pulsing capability. The Nanolite is capable
All of the instrumentation was directional of firing up to 10 ,000 evenly spaced pulses
except for the spherical electrostatic of high - intensity light per second. This
analyzer and the Geiger counter, which were pulsing capability is inherent in the device
omnidirectional. Two sets of standard aspect itself and does not require any external
magnetometers were also on the satellite for pulsing system . This pulse rate is greater
determining the orientation of the directional than that of pulsed laser systems, and can be
instruments with respect to the magnetic used to provide a continuous tracking capa
field . bility . The Nanolite also has a broader beam ,
AFCRL scientists Don F . Smart and Rita C . making target acquisition much easier.
Sagalyn are in charge of the project.
The Nanolite is the brightest nonlaser light
source yet developed . Itsmost intense flashes
nonlaser optical radar have a brilliance exceeding 30 million candles
OPTICAL PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL per square centimeter, produced by passing
thousands of amperes through an arc channel
A short- range, nonlaser optical radar a tenth of a millimeter in diameter .However ,
system , having a number of advantages over the duration of these flashes is so short (a few
laser devices, has been demonstrated by nanoseconds, or billionths of a second) that
Dr. Heinz Fischer of AFCRL. This system , very little electrode heating and erosion
which uses a small but extremely intense occur, giving theNanolite a long lifetime. Both
arc- lamp called the Nanolite , has been suc the Nanolite and the unique inductance- free
cessfully tested on targets 100 feet away. coaxial capacitor used to store energy for
Dr. Fischer believes a more sophisticated discharge through the arc - channel were de
version will be able to detect and range veloped by Dr. Fischer .
objects as far away as 1500 feet, with an Interesting enough, the Fischer optical
accuracy of a few inches . radar fulfills a requirement established a
Basically , Dr . Fischer' s system consists decade ago by the Air Force for an optical
of the Nanolite, a collimating lens , a photo radar system . The initial work under the
electric detector, and an electronic timing requirement led to increasingly effective
device . A pulse of light sent through the lens capacitors, and rapid capacitor- discharge
is detected as it leaves the device, and then techniques. These capacitors were subse
again after it returns on reflection from the quently used by Dr. Fischer for ultrahigh
target. The travel time of the pulse is then temperature plasma studies, and to power
converted into range. This is , of course, the light sources for ultrahigh- speed photog
basic principle of all radar systems. raphy.
19
SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH -SUPPORT
EQUIPMENT AT ARL

AMPLITUDE
DEGREES
CEMNT

RUN NO. 5 , CIRCULAR ROD -FLEXURE

)

MACH PAB POTAL TOT FREQ LOG

NO HLBS / N " RAD / SEC DECREMENT
OLO 51.
0 000228
1425 - 414 1940 535 000779
010 51.
0 000228

100 200 300

NUMBER OF CYCLES

DYNAMIC STABILITY RIG

The dynamic stability characteristics of re-entry vehicles, whether manned or unmanned, are of
utmost importance to the Air Force. For example, a manned capsule has marginal dynamic stability
characteristics during the re- entry phase.
The hypersonic wind tunnels of ARL are very well suited for the study of the dynamic stability char
acteristics of various manned and unmanned configurations because they are of the blowdown type
with relatively long running times.
A dynamic stability test rig using the small amplitude free-oscillation method was developed by the
Hyper sonic Research Laboratory for the 20- inch hypersonic wind tunnel. In this method, the model
must be suspended on elastic flexures which have extremely low structural damping in order thatmean
ingful differences in the dissipation energy may be obtained for the " wind on " and "'wind off ' condi
tions. This characteristic was obtained in the present balance, and several tests were made with a
slender cone model of a Mach number of 14 at an extremely low reduced frequency. Results with dif
ferent flexures were repeatable .
20
 24 " reflector telescope used in satellite tracking. ARL's General Physics Research Laboratory is
conducting research delineating the shapes and sizes of satellites by their light reflection .
11

Instron testing machine used by the Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory , ARL, in the
study of flow and fracture characteristics of metals over a wide temperature range.
21
 TO OUR READERS
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Attn : ARI
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Attn : SRGL
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USAF Academy, Colorado 80840

OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
Holloman AF Bose, New Mexico 88330

Request for further information from institutions and individuals in Latin America should
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U . S . EMBASSY
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 research review
OFFICE OF AERESOPSACE RESEAR
L FICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
1667 OAR : The Research Agency
JUL 1966 of The United States Air Force
JAN 20 19A67RY ENGINEERI
LIBR NG
ORARY
VOLUME V NUMBER 5 " JUL94966
THE BAND - TO - BAND TRANSITIONS IN Zno
and THEIR PRESSURE DEPENDENCE ARY
DR . D . W . LANGER and R . L . KNELL,* Solid State Physics Research Laboratory, ARL
It is generally accepted that compound the other Zn compounds would lead to a value
crystals composed of elements of distinct of 4 .5 eV for Zno . This deviation from the
groups of the periodic table are similar and trend of the sequence might suggest that the
related by common properties. Examples band -to -band transitions of minimal energy
are the alkali halides , the III - V compounds, in Zno are not completely analogous in terms
and also the IIb -VIa compounds , i. e., the of band symmetry or transition point in
tellurides, selenides and sulfides ofmercury, k -space to those in similar II- VI compounds.
cadmium and zinc as well as zincoxide, which Our measurements reported here for the
are all commonly of zinc blende or wurtzite pressure coefficient of the fundamental ab
structure, Interband Faraday rotation experi sorption edge of ZnO up to 10 kbars at 77°K
ments , e . g., gave evidence that the band - to show a further dissimilarity between Zno
band transitions in the II - VI compounds , and otherwise similar II - VI compounds ,
Cds, CdTe, ZnTe, ZnSe, Zns, and Zno are Paul, sometime ago , drew attention to
similar, namely direct and allowed. ( 1 ) The experimental evidence ( 2 ) based on correla
trend given by the order of the elements in tions of the pressure coefficients of energy
the columns of the periodic table usually is gaps in Group IV and Group III - V compound
followed by a similar order in the electronic crystals. He pointed out that, within a given
band structure. The band gaps, in the sequence crystal structure, the pressure coefficientof
of Cd compounds CdTe, CdSe, and Cds , a transition is determined by the symmetry
increase monotonically in the order of in of the bands and of the points in k - space
creasing ionicity . The band gaps , in the between which the transition occurs rather
sequence of Zn compounds ZnTe, ZnSe, ZnS than by the chemical composition of the
and Zno , also increase in order of increasing crystal or the width of the energy gap. It had
ionicity, except for Zno . The experimental been shown that this rule might also apply to
values are roughly 2 .2 , 2 .6 , and 3. 7 , respec II - VI compounds ( 3 ).
tively, and 3. 3 for Zno . An estimate based We measured the pressure coefficients of
on the trend of the electronegativity given by ZnO and related II - VI compounds. We shall
* Field Engineer of Malaker Corp. show that, on the basis of Paul's rule, there

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The FRANK J . SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE , OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE , OAR
are further reasons to believe that the funda - from the values indicated by the dashed lines
mental band -to -band transition in Zno does in Fig. 1, are 2.67 and 2.78 x 10 -6 eV /bar + 2 %
not occur toward the same type of conduction for the maxima near 3 .385 and 3 .425 eV ,
band or to the same point in k - space as in respectively.
other II -VI compounds. In our experiments , The pressure coefficients of the band gaps
we are using the reflectivity maxima near of II - VI compounds , which have been reported
3 . 385 eV, observable with Ec, and 3 .425 eV , by other authors ( 5 ), were mostly obtained
observable in both modes of polarization , at through the shift of a constant absorption
770K as indications of the separation of the value as a function of pressure. The middle
conduction band with the upper two levels of value of the pressure shift of Zno , found
the valence band. Similar to that of other thusly by Edwards , is 0.6 x 10 -0 eV /bar in
II-VI compounds of wurtzite structure, the the pressure range of 1 to 10 kbars. This
valence band is split threefold due to the spin discrepancy, as compared to our results ,
orbit and crystalline field interaction . might be due mainly to an inability to obtain
When hydrostatic pressure is applied (the hydrostatic conditions in this pressure region
apparatus has been described previously) (4 ), with his experimental technique. Wealso feel
the shape of the reflectivity structure is that the reflection maxima, which coincide
largely unchanged , but it is shifted toward with high absorption coefficient values, are a
higher energies. Figure 1 shows 3 typical more reliable indication of the absorption
measurements out of 53 made between 10 edge in II -VI compounds than the normally
kbars and atmospheric pressure at 77°K . used comparatively low values of the absorp
The pressure coefficients , as determined tion edge, which might be influenced by

SUNSPOTS AND SOLAR ROTATION

... .. . 5
Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL
research review WAVES OF IONIZATION IN LOW -PRESSURE GAS
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH DISCHARGES
Dr. A . Garscadden and Dr. D . A . Lee .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . 6
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of.
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Ha Of. CONTROL OF UNSTABLE MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard , Captain John F. Schaefer .. ... .. . . . . . . . 11
Arlington, Vo. 22209. The objective of this publication is to
make o positive contribution to the exchange of information ELECTRON -PARAMAGNETIC -RESONANCE STUDIES
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research IN THREE CRYSTALLINE FORMS OF CADMIUM
activities. SULFIDE
Donald R . Locker. . . . .. . .. •. 12
JACOB SEIDEN
Editor OPTIMIZATION OF HYPERSONIC LIFTING BODIES
Dr. Wilbur L. Hankey and Captain Lawrence J.
Schroeder . . . . . .. . . . . . . 17
THE BAND - TO - BAND TRANSITIONS IN ZnO AND THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL
THEIR PRESSURE DEPENDENCE DEFORMATION
Dr. D . W . Langer and R . L .• Ni
Knell.
ell . . .
. . .. 1 Dr. Rollin E . Hook . .. .................
METALLIC IONS IN THE LOWER IONOSPHERE PROJECT " WINDY ACRES"
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory ,AFCRL...... 4 Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL ..................

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U .S. Government Printing Office

Washington , D . C . 20402 - $ 2,75 per year domestic, 75 cents additional for
foreign mailing, 25 cents per single copy and 15 cents per Annual Index,
Back issues will not be furnished,
 ).UREFLECTANCE
(ARB NITS

- - 7 - 2 . 7 . 10 N / bar
8kbar

6kbar

20 2.78 -10 @ov/ bar ----

/latm

Zno
770K

OL
3575 3600 3625 3650

WAVELENGTH (Å )
Figure 1 . Typical unpolarized reflectance spectra of ZnO at 77°K and various pressures. The coefficients
are determined by the intersectionwith the dashed lines. They are 2 .67 meV/kbar for peak A (El c) and
2 .78 meV /bar for peak B (Elc and E || c).
impurity or strain broadening. ZnTe and CdTe are of zinc- blende struc
We determined , similarly , at 77°K and up ture, and their pressure coefficient is of
to 5 kbars , the pressure coefficient of the about the same magnitude as that of transi
1 . 7 eV maximum in wurtzite case. The tions of the ri point of the conduction band
pressure coefficients and those of other II - VI in III- V compounds of zinc -blende structure ,
compounds, determined previously (3 , 6 ) by which is in agreement with Paul' s rule, Cds,
the same method, are listed below for com CdSe, ZnS and ZnO are of wurtzite structure
parison with the coefficient of Zno : (the ZnS samples were stack - faulted ) and
should be expected to exhibit , similarly , a
Pressure Coefficients of the Fundamental
common pressure coefficient for conduction
Band Gap in II- VICompounds (in 10 - 6 eV /bar) band minima of the same symmetry. The
coefficients for cds, CdSe and ZnS seem to
agree fairly well with each other , i. e . , within
Zno 2.7 CdS 4 .5 Wurtzite the range of scatter usually observed between
ZnS 6. 3 cdse 6 Structure different compounds ( 2 ). The pressure co
efficient of Zno , however , is remarkably
Znte 11.3 cdte 8.0 Zinc blende lower than that of the other wurtzite II - VI
compounds . On the basis of Paul's rule , this
furnishes independent reasons for the suspi composed entirely of metallic ions .
cion that a conduction band of different These are the results and implications of
symmetry or transitions to different points rocket data collected and analyzed by Dr.
in k - space might be involved in the electronic R . S. Narcisi, A . D . Bailey, and L . Della
transitions at the fundamental band gap of Lucca of AFCRL. Their investigations were
Zno . reported in three separate papers presented
at the Seventh Annual Space Science Sympo
REFERENCES sium in Vienna , Austria , on 12 and 17 May
1966.
( 1) Ebina, A ., T . Koda and S. Shionoya, J . Phys. These three papers covered different
Chem . Solids, 26 , 1497, 1965.
aspects of two rocket flights that took place on
Balkanski, M ., E . Amzallag and D . Langer, J . 16 and 17 November 1965 during the annual
Phys. Chem . Solids, 27 , 299 , 1966 . Leonid meteor shower . The two Nike-Cajun
rockets carried unique and highly precise
(2) Paul, W ., J. Appl. Phys., 32, 2082, 1961. mass spectrometers to sample the compo
(3 ) Langer, D ., Proceedings of the VIIth International sition of the D and lower - E regions of the
Conf. on Physics of Semiconductors, Paris , 1964 ionosphere. It is in these regions, which
(Dunod & Cie , Paris , 1964 ), p . 241. extend from about 50 to 110 km ., that atmos
pheric friction heats and vaporizes mete
(4 ) Langer, D . and D . M . Warschauer, Rev. Sci. Instr., orites , Metallic ions of meteoric origin were
32, 32, 1961.
found to make up a sizeable portion of the
(5 ) Edwards, A . L ., T. S. Slykhouse and H . G . Drick content of the lower ionosphere.
amer, J. Phys. Chem . Solids, 11, 140, 1959. During the 1965 Leonid shower, Narcisi,
Bailey , and Della Lucca found that at altitudes
Edwards, A . L . and H . G . Drickamer, Phys . Rev .,
122, 1149, 1961.
between 85 to 100 km ., the positive ions of
sodium , magnesium , aluminum , calcium ,
(6 ) Langer, D . W . and W . R . Lauterbach , Bull. Am . ion , nickel, and silicon - - all substances found
Phys. Soc ., 6 , 111 , 1961. in meteorities - -constituted 30 to 50 per cent
of the total ionization (the remainder being
ions of nitric oxide and molecular oxygen ).
In addition , the AFCRL scientists found that
METALLIC IONS IN THE metal- ion concentrations were much lower
between 100 and 110 km ., the altitude im
mediately above that at which maximum
LOWER IONOSPHERE meteor vaporization occurs ,
UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS Data from the 17 November flight, made the
LABORATORY, AFCRL night after the shower, also proved signifi
During meteor showers , metallic atoms cant. On this flight, using a rocket-borne
from vaporizing meteors are subsequently mass spectrometer, sporadic - E layers were
ionized by the normal photochemical and sampled - -the first time such a feat has been
collisional processes of ionospheric forma accomplished. The two layers of sporadic E
tion . The addition of these ions may greatly so sampled were found to be composed ofthe
alter the composition ofthe lower ionosphere. positive ions of iron , magnesium , calcium ,
In fact, this addition may be correlated with and nickel- -again , metals found in mete
increased sporadic - E activity. * For example, orites .
in one series of rocket flights into sporadic Although some metallic ions were first
E layers , it was shown that sporadic E was detected in the lower ionosphere by other
experimenters , the AFCRL scientists were
* Sporadic E is a highly localized layer of increased
the first to identify the ions of all seven
electron and ion density sometimes a fraction of a major metals normally found in meteors , and
km . thick , occurring at unpredictable times, and to measure their altitude distributions as
having a pronounced effect on communications. well.
SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL

SUNSPOTS
& SOLAR
ROTATION
The sun rotates once every 27 days - -more groups slow down ,
or less. Actually , the rate varies from about The validity of using sunspots as tracers
25 days at the equator to about 31 days at of velocity might be questioned on several
the poles. But at any given latitude, we points. One factor is that the sunspots are
don 't know the exact rotation rate with continually exchanging material with their
decimal-point precision because no one has surroundings and , therefore, do not neces
come up with a completely satisfactory way sarily move with the velocity of the ambient
to measure it . fluid. Since there may be variations in the
A simple and widely used method of velocity of this ambient fluid , sunspots may
measuring the rotation rate is to observe be particularly associated either with fluid
the movement of sunspots. But the problem in relatively rapid motion or with fluid in
is that a given sunspot at a given solar relatively slow motion . Still another un
latitude does not necessarily move with the certainty in the use of sunspots as tracers
same velocity as another sunspot measured of solar - rotation rates involves thedetermi
at a later time at the same latitude. nation of the center of gravity of a sunspot
A host of difficulties and uncertainties group . During the early stages of formation ,
crop up in the use of suns pots to measure this center of gravity shifts counter to the
rotation rates . These uncertainties are ex direction of rotation . In the decay stage, the
amined in a recent paper , " The Determination center of gravity shifts in the opposite di
of the Solar Rotation Rate from the Motion rection . The center of gravity itself is dif
of Identifiable Features ," by Dr. Fred Ward ficult to compute because it is not always
of AFCRL . In this paper, Dr. Ward reviews possible to observe very small sunspots with
the many past studies of others who have at in a group, or around its periphery .
tempted to derive solar - rotation rates from After his examination of themany problems
sunspot data and re - examines data on sun in using sunspots as tracers of the sun 's
spot movements going back almost 100 rotations , Dr. Ward concludes that the un
years . certainty in measuring the rotation rate is
These measurements show that sunspots an order of magnitude larger than previously
near the solar equator have an averagemove assumed . This uncertainty is between 0 . 1 and
ment of about 14. 5 degrees of longitude each 0 . 2 degrees per day . Because of thesystematic
day, while those in the latitude region of 30 errors that arise from previous methods of
to 35 degrees have a relatively slower move measurement, Dr. Ward proposes that the
ment, about 13 .7 degrees each day. It is solar- rotation rate be derived simply from
shown, however, that sunspot groups which the day -to -day motions of a random selection
have long dimensions many times their short of sunspot groups . With this relatively simple
dimensions move as much as 2 per cent approach , he finds that the solar - rotation
faster than groups of roughly circular shape; rate is about 1 per cent higher than that
this difference is independent of latitude. arrived at by Newton and Nunn whose cal
Also , small sunspot groups move faster than culations of rotation rate are presently the
large groups - - this implies that " mature " accepted values.
waves of ionization
in low -pressure gas discharges
DR . A. GARSCADDEN, Plasma Physics Research Laboratory , ARL and
DR . D . A . LEE , Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory , ARL

Electrical discharges in gases at low pres structures are visible near the cathode end ,
sures have been of interest to physicists and and there may be irregularities very close to
others for nearly 200 years. They have pro the anode. In their most common pattern ,
vided much of the experimental basis of our these irregularities are called anode spots .
knowledge of atomic physics , especially The major portion of the discharge appears
through spectroscopy. Today they are studied to be a homogeneous glow and is referred to
with these aspects still in mind, as well as as the positive column. This region of the dis
newer interests such as electromagnetic charge has usually been considered to be an
wave propagation through the gas - discharge ideal plasma and to be in equilibrium , i. e .,
plasma, plasma instabilities , the properties the rate of ionization is equal to the losses
of the solar and interplanetary plasmas , by ambipolar diffusion and by recombination,
and , more recently , gas lasers. and there is only a very small excess positive
Let us consider a glow discharge in a long charge (hence the nomenclature). It is nor
cylindrical tube having two plane electrodes mally assumed that quantities such as the
at its ends and filled with a pure atomic gas electric field and the ion and electron densities
at low pressure (0.5 to 20 torr ). The dis are independent of longitudinal position along
charge may carry a current in the range of the tube,
10 milliamperes for a cathode- anode potential However, although the positive column of a
difference of the order of a few hundred volts low - pressure glow discharge may appear
depending on the length and radius of the tube, visibly homogeneous , very often , when the
the gas used and the cathode material. The light emitted is examined with methods
discharge regime considered is characterized capable of time resolution , the light is found
by a constant voltage across the tube as the to be fluctuating at frequencies in the order
current is increased. To an observer this of kilocycles . These fluctuations are in the
discharge has the appearance shown sche form of waves travelling in the anode - to
matically in Fig. 1. Some bright and dark cathode direction with velocities typically of

ASTON CROOKES FARADAY

CATHODE DARK SPACE DARK SPACE / DARK SPACE ANODE

CATHODE NEGATIVE POSITIVE ANODE

GLOW GLOW COLUMN GLOW

Figure 1. Features of the glow discharge (not to scale).

Figure 2. Smear record ofmoving striations in a Hg-A low -pressure discharge. Time (ordinate) increases
downward. Cathode of discharge is at the left, anode at the right. Phase velocity of the striations is 50
meters/ second.
the order of a few hundred meters/second. The moving striations usually occur spon
The intensity fluctuation (amplitudemodula taneously in rare - gas discharges at pressures
tion ) of the light may approach 100 per cent. above 0 .5 torr, and exist for moderate
Although these waves , termed moving stria currents up to pressures of about 10 torr.
tions, have been known and studied for over a There is a high current density cutoff; this
century, it is only in recent years that their has been termed the Pupp limit after the
description and nature have been put on a scientist who described it in detail. The
quantitative basis . diagnostics we used to investigate these
An intensive study of the phenomenon and waves included smear camera , photomulti
its applications has been made in the Plasma plier and spectrographic methods , Langmuir
Physics Research Laboratory of ARL . The probes and , more recently , image converter
results have been of considerable interest techniques. A typical rotating -mirror (or
because the ionization waves have been found smear camera ) record ofmoving striations in
to have unusual properties , and may occur in a Hg -Argon glow discharge is shown in
gas lasers and influence the laser output. (1) Fig . 2. The striations were travelling in the
direction anode to cathode with a velocity of remarkable feature about this instability is
50 meters / sec , Additional probe and micro that, although the moving striations move in
wave measurements were used to determine the direction anode to cathode , the wave of
the profile of the moving striations in terms disturbance which creates the striations
of the changes in electron density and elec moves in the direction cathode to anode
tron temperature, as well as in light intensity (Fig 4 ). In other words , these moving stria
(Fig . 3). As can be seen , the electron tions are an outstanding example of a back
density variation along the column within a ward wave , so -called because the phase
wave length is almost an order of magnitude, velocity (Vo = W70 ) and the classical group
and the electron temperature changes by velocity (Vi = / do ) have opposite direc
almost a factor of two. Such large variations tions. (Here w = 2 f is the angular frequency,
make the analysis of the phenomenon dif 0 = 27 / is the wave number, 1 is the wave
ficult ; for many years the erroneous inter length and f is the frequency). We also con
pretation was made that, since the striations firmed this result in other ways , e . g., by
most often observed travel in the direction frequency pulling an oscillation with an ex
anode to cathode, the commonly occurring ternal driving oscillator and directlymeasur
anode spot oscillations were the source of the ing the dispersion .
moving striations . However , more recently ,
thanks to an interpretation advanced by L . The instability has been interpreted by
Pekarek of Czechoslovakia , our understand Pekarek as arising from the axial ambipolar
ing of the phenomenon and its effects has diffusion field. This can create a wave of
improved considerably . ionization in the following manner . It is pos
We have been particularly concerned with sible to show that the ionization frequency at
the dispersion of a pulse applied to a steady a point in the positive column is a function of
nonoscillating positive column because the the local electron temperature which in turn
propagation can be studied under small depends on the local longitudinal electric
perturbation conditions , Alternatively , if this field . If , because of a noise perturbation , an
condition is not feasible, the study of the applied perturbation , or an electrode insta
development of the glow discharge under bility, etc., there is an increase in plasma
pulsed conditions of initiation assists in de density over a small region , after a very
fining the origin of the instability. A record short time an axial ambipolar space charge
of this latter experiment is shown in Fig. 4 field will be created at its edges due to the
in which image converter methods were used density gradients . To the anode side, this ad
to obtain spatial and time resolution . The ditional field will act in the opposite direc

_ - 71

- T - -

Figure 3 . Profile of the moving striations. I is light intensity , Ne is electron density ( cm ),

electron temperature (electron volts), T is period of one wave.
Figure 4. Image converter records of the initiation of a glow discharge. The exposure time of each of
the 30 frames is 1 microsecond. The first frame (at the top left) is at switch-on; then there is a 1.05
millisecond delay between the first and third frames (advancing downward ). Subsequent frames are at
100 microsecond intervals.

tion to the discharge electric field. This will charge electric field and thus create a new
then reduce the electron density to the anode region with increased electron density. Thus ,
side of the original disturbance. However , by this mechanism the disturbance propa
this region of reduced electron density will gates .
create an axial ambipolar space charge field Our experimental results have been com
to its anode side which will add to the dis - pared with the results of calculations derived
9
 from a solution of equations using the above the direction of the onset of the constriction
model, Rather good agreement has been ob being in the direction of the group velocity
tained. ( 2) The onset of the instability , its of the striations. We are continuing our
frequency, wave length and velocities are all studies to describe experimentally and
obtainable from the basic parameters of the theoretically the onset of the striations as
discharge (gas pressure, electric field , elec there appears to be a causal relationship
tron temperature, and the electron ionizing between the onset of the constriction and the
efficiency for the gas utilized). The theory high -pressure band of moving striations. *
gives the dispersion relation shown in Fig.
REFERENCES
5 . Recently, at higher pressures, we have
found a type of moving striations which ap ( 1) Garscadden , A ., et al, “ Moving Striations in a
pears to correspond to the forward wave He-NeLaser," J.App . Phy., 35, 3432, Dec. 1964 .
branch of the diagram . We have observed
that these oscillations are associated with the
(2) Lee, Wave Nature of 1966
(2 ) Lee, D . A ., A . Garscadden and P . Bletzinger,
“ The Wave Nature of Moving Striations, ” J . App .
onset of radial constriction in the discharge , Phys., 37 , 377 , Jan . 1966 .

FORWARD BACKWARD !
FREQUENCY

WAVES WAVES
STRIATION

- APPROXIMATION WO : CONSTANT
W

- -- --

W : C20
- - -- --

C2 o
-

0,2 + O2
-
: -

0 : a,
L

STRIATION WAVE -NUMBER O

Figure 5 . Dispersion relation for moving striations. (Notations are defined in Reference 2. )
10
CONTROL OF UNSTABLE
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
CAPT JOHN F . SCHAEFER
Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL

Unstable mechanical systems constitute a

class of dynamical systems which have been
of increasing interest to control- theory engi
neers over the past decade. The most note
worthy example of such a system is a steer
able rocket vehicle during its launch phase.
Aerodynamically unstable at low speeds, such
a vehicle requires a sophisticated control
mechanism to insure that it follows the de
sired trajectory. The present tempo of suc
cessful launches and missions indicates that
sufficiently sophisticated controllers have
been designed for today 's vehicles ; but it is
not clear that contemporary techniques will
suffice for the future.
For example, the continuing stress on
maximizing the payload /booster mass ratio
indicates that future missiles may be signifi
cantly more flexible than those presently in
use. This eventuality would seriously com
pound the controller problem , for then the Figure 1.Limber Beam Controlled Experimentally
guidance system must not only maintain
vehicle attitude and adherence to the desired the beam vertically . Such a device is in
track , but must also control the complex
herently unstable and imposes controller re
interbody motions allowed by flexibility. quirements quite similar to those generated
A study ( 1) was made of the effects and by the flexible booster discussed above.
ramifications of extreme flexibility of a rela This experimental study , conducted at the
tively simple unstable mechanical system on Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL ,
the control and controllability of that system , yielded several significant results. Among
In this study, the device shown in Figure 1 them was the realization that a control
was constructed and operated for extended thruster (cart motor) of limited output could
times. The model consists of a motor -driven not only balance the beam , starting from suf
cart to which is hinged a highly flexible ficiently small initial conditions, but could
beam . The cart motor is controlled so as to also dampen motions due to an arbitrary num
drive the cart horizontally and thus balance ber of the beam ' s bending modes . Systematic
techniques for synthesizing a feedback from one material to another with the same
control law to actively control any number of paramagnetic impurity, or from one im
such modes were developed . purity to another with the same material.
A portion of the analysis was devoted to a Only in a few cases has one been able to
study of the behavior of the experimental keep the same material and alter the sym
system as thebeam 's structural stiffness was metry. Thanks to thework ofGale and Kulp ( 1)
(mathematically) varied. It was found that,at of our Laboratory, it is now possible to study
certain low values of structural rigidity , the a paramagnetic ion in as many as three
assembly could not be controlled , regardless different symmetries of cadmium sulfide,
of the horizontally directed thrust levels Ordinarily , cadmium sulfide is available only
available. This result is readily extendible in its hexagonal crystal form called Wurtzite.
to the problem of controlling the bending However, by a hydrostatic compression to
motions of a flexible missile, and indicates about 30 ,000 atmospheres, it may be largely
that certain combinations of structural stiff converted to the cubic form of ordinary
ness and longitudinal accelerations must be table salt. Usually, when the pressure is re
avoided if lateral stability is to be achieved moved , the structure undergoes a change to
by thrust - engine gimballing alone . another cubic form called zinc blende. At this
point, Kulp made a real contribution by cor
REFERENCES rectly surmising that, if the pressure vessel
( 1) Schaefer, J. F . and R . H . Cannon , Jr., " On the could be constructed so that it could be cooled
Control of Unstable Mechanical Systems, ” Pre in liquid nitrogen before the pressure was
sented at the 1966 meeting of the International released , the second phase change might be
Federation of Automatic Control, London , Eng stopped and the " table- salt " phase made
land, June 1966 .
available for observations at ambient pres
(2 ) Schaefer, J . F ., " The Control of Unstable Me sure. Now , by starting with cadmium sulfide
chanical Systems,” Proceedings of the OAR Re doped with various paramagnetic ions , one
search Applications Conference, April 1966 , pp . can observe these ions in three crystalline
131- 139 . forms without changing to another compound.
Figure 1 shows a section of the pressure
bomb used by Gale and Kulp to produce the
ELECTRON -PARAMAGNETIC transition . The sample is placed in the center ,
sandwiched between two cleaved discs of rock
RESONANCE STUDIES IN salt. When the two pistons are forced in by
THREE CRYSTALLINE FORMS a hydraulic press, the salt flows, by plastic
deformation , to achieve a somewhat hydro
OF CADMIUM SULFIDE static pressure in the region of the sample.
After cooling in liquid nitrogen , the pres
DONALD R . LOCKER
seal
sure is released, the bomb disassembled ,
Solid State Physics Research Laboratory and the sample removed while still immersed .
ARL The sample is then transferred in a small
In a previous issue of the OAR Research vessel of liquid nitrogen to the Dewar of an
Review (Vol IV , No. 5 , Jul 65 ), a phenome electron - paramagnetic - resonance spectrom
nological description was given of Electron eter . If the sample contains manganese, one
Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR ) of centers in observes the spectrum of Figure 2 . The
diamagnetic host materials . As stated before , spectrum is given at two microwave powers
the EPR spectrum of some paramagnetic ion to show that these are really two manganese
contained in a crystal lattice is, in many spectra involved . If the sample is allowed
cases , quite sensitive to the symmetry ofthe to warm up to room temperature and re
electric fields about it. Because of this , a cooled, one gets the spectrum presented in
large number of studies have been made in Figure 3 . This represents only onemanganese
years past of parameters involved in going spectrum , and is associated with the remain
 W Bob

CARDOLOY

OMEGA STEEL
A BRASS
4140 STEEL
Warga hp
K 4340 STEEL
Figure 1. A section of the pressure bomb used to Figure 2. CdS:Mn + +
produce the phase transition Sample as removed from bomb
Spectrum at 77°K
ing zinc -blende structure. The one which has 500 Gauss at 3270 mc
disappeared was that due to the ''table - salt "
phase which is not stable at room tempera
ture. Six major lines are present in a Mn + 7
spectrum due to the six possible orientations
of the nucleus. Usually , as is true in the case
of Mn + t , the interaction between the electron
spin and the nuclear spin is greater when -500 –
the crystal is more ionic in character .
In this example, the more ionic situation of oppupupune
the " table - salt " form of cadmium sulfide has
given the expected larger interaction , which
is manifested in a larger splitting for the
six lines . The other smaller lines are the
result of electron flips accompanied by nu
clear flips . These transitions are forbidden
and do not occur in the high symmetry of the
" table - salt " phase, -224 - IWiWiWin
The work described here for manganese
doped cadmium sulfide has been expanded at
ARL. Currently, work has been done on the
paramagnetic ions, chromium , and vanadium
at liquid -nitrogen and liquid -helium tempera
tures , Figure 3. CdS:Mn+ +
REFERENCE Sample after anneal at room temperature
Spectrum at 77°K
( 1) Gale, K . A . and B . A . Kulp , Bull. Am . Phys . 500 Gauss at about 3270 mc
Soc ., Ser II, Vol 11, AH 7 .
PROFILES
Dr. Dietrich Langer , senior physicist, Solid State Physics Re
search Laboratory, has been with ARL since September 1957 . As
leader of a group concerned with pressure effects in semiconduc
tors, he is responsible for giving broad general direction to the
research in that field . Dr. Langer attended the Technische Uni
versitat in Berlin where he received the “ Diplom - Ingenieur" de
gree in 1957. Under the “ paperclip " program , he then immigrated
into the United States, later to join ARL . Having completed the
necessary course work leading to the Ph.D . at Berlin , Dr.Langer
worked on his thesis while at ARL and, in December 1960 , re
ceived his doctorate at the Technische Universität of Berlin .
Dr. Langer is a member of the American Physical Society and is
well known to the national and international scientific communi
ty for his work . He is author or coauthor of some 20 technical
reports and journal articles in his field . In this issue of the Re
view , he discusses“ Band-to -Band Transitions in ZnO and Their
Pressure Dependence. "

Mr. Donald R . Locker, an ARL scientist with the Solid State Physics Research Laboratory, is cur
rently working on Electron Paramagnetic Resonance. Hehas perfected electron-paramagnetic-resonance
equipment with superior characteristics, and is using this with a new electron -bombardment cavity to
assess radiation -damage centers in ZnSe. Mr.Locker has a B . S. and M . S. (1960 ), both from the University
of Washington . He has several publications to his credit. He writes in this issue of the Review on
" Electron -Paramagnetic-Resonance Studies in Three Crystalline Forms of Cadmium Sulfide. "
14
 Captain John F . Schaefer was assigned to the Aerospace Me
chanics Division , Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory , in March
1965. Prior to this assignment, he attended Stanford University
where he received the Ph. D . degree in Electrical Engineering
(1965 ). Captain Schaefer is a member of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers, and is the author of the article , " Con
trol of Unstable Mechanical Systems, " which appears in this
issue of the OAR Research Review .

Captain Lawrence J. Schroeder, a member of the hypersonics

group at ARL , is currently investigating the optimization of re
entry lifting bodies. In this connection, a computer program has
been developed which has produced solutions of optimal lifting
bodies. In addition, an experimental study is being planned to
determine the aerodynamic characteristics of these configura
tions in the ARL hypersonic wind tunnels. Captain Schroeder
obtained his B . S. (Aerospace Engineering ) from lowa State Uni
versity, 1956 , and his M . S. (Aerospace Engineering ) from the
University of Oklahoma, 1964 . His experience includes: aero
dynamicist, McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (1956 - 1957 ); student,
University of Oklahoma, AFIT -CIP (1962-1964); and engineer,
Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL , from 1964 to the present.
Captain Schroeder joins Dr. W . L . Hankey in discussing " Opti
mization of Hypersonic Lifting Bodies" in this issue of the Re
view .

Dr. Rollin E . Hook, a scientist with the Metallurgy and Ce

ramics Research Laboratory, ARL, writes in this Review on
" The Role of Elastic Anisotropy in Bicrystal Deformation ." He
has a B .Sc. in Metallurgical Engineering from Purdue University ,
West Lafayette, Indiana (1956 ), an M . S. in Metallurgical Engi
neering (1959) and a Ph. D . in Metallurgical Engineering (1966 ),
both from O . S .U ., Wright-Patterson AFB , Ohio . From 1956 to
1957 , he was employed as a metallurgist with the Dow Chemical
Research Laboratory , and from 1957 to 1960 served as a 1st Lt
in the USAF. He is a member of several professional societies,
and received the Outstanding Achievement Award for 1962, Day
ton Area National Engineers Week.
15
 Dr. David A . Lee is currently working on a statistical theory
of inhomogeneous turbulence. He is investigating properties of
the second -order two-point velocity correlation tensor in steady,
inhomogeneous turbulence, with particular attention to the ulti
mate decay of eddy energy in a stratified turbulence. Dr. Lee re
ceived his Ph .D . (Mechanics ) from the Illinois Institute of Tech
nology (1963 ), his Sc. M . (Applied Mathematics ) from Brown Uni
versity ( 1961), and his B. S. (Electrical Engineering) from the
University of Missouri (1950). He was an engineer with Westing
house Electric Corp., Baltimore , prior to joining ARL as a re
search mathematician and an officer on active duty. He is now
in civilian status. Dr. Lee is coauthor with Dr. Garscadden of
the article , "Waves of lonization in Low -Pressure Gas Dis
charges," which appears in this issue of the Review .

Dr. Alan Garscadden is currently concerned with the investi

gation of departures from equilibrium , in particular of oscilla
tions and transients in low- pressure, low -energy discharges. He
received his Ph . D . in Physics (1961) and his B . S . (Honours ) in
Physics (1958 ), both from Queen' s University of Belfast, Ireland.
Since February 1962, he has been a research physicist in ARL ' s
Plasma Physics Research Laboratory . Prior to then , he served
as a research assistant to Professor K . G . Emeleus, Queen ' s
University of Belfast, working on plasma radiation and plasma
oscillations. Dr. Garscadden has written numerous papers. In
this issue of the Review , he and Dr. D . A . Lee discuss " Waves
of lonization in Low -Pressure Gas Discharges."

Dr. Wilbur L . Hankey, Senior Aerodynamicist with the Hyper

sonic Research Laboratory, ARL , conducts basic research in
the general field of fluid motion, emphasizing hypersonic inves
tigations. As Research Group Leader, he supervises the tech
nical effort of several aerospace engineers conducting analytical
and experimental hypersonic investigations. This includes hy
personic pressure distributions, skin friction , heat transfer, and
flight mechanics associated with re -entry configurations. Dr.
Hankey received his Ph .D . (Aeronautical and Astronautical Engi
neering) from Ohio State University , 1962; his M .S . (Engineering)
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1953; and his
B . S. (Engineering ) from Pennsylvania State University , 1951. He
has received two ASD awards for the “ Most Distinguished Engi
neering Paper," one in 1962, and the other in 1963. In this issue
of the Review , Dr. Hankey and Captain L . J. Schroeder describe
" Optimization of Hypersonic Lifting Bodies."
16
 OPTIMIZATION
DR . WILBUR L . HANKEY and OF HYPERSONIC
CAPTLAWRENCE J . SCHROEDER
Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL LIFTING BODIES

The first successful recovery of objects combination of constraints . (1 ) Some of the

from space has been achieved by means of results will be presented here.
ballistic devices . This pure drag scheme
offers the simplest and most efficientmethod The primary mission of a lifting body is
of re - entry ; however , the recovery site is to enclose a prescribed payload ( volume re
restricted to lie in the orbital plane since no quirement) with minimum structural weight
ability to produce lateral range exists . In (wetted - area limitation) and produce the
order to attain lateralmaneuverability during highest possible hypersonic L / D . A geomet
re- entry to permit recovery of spacecraft at ric quantity which represents this payload
some preselected landing site , one is led to to - structural-weight ratio is volumetric ef
investigate lifting as well as drag re- entry. ficiency (n ). This is a dimensionless ratio
The USAF and NASA have been developing of a volume- area parameter referenced to a
the technology for lifting vehicles for several sphere.
years. One of these investigations is being
conducted in the Hypersonic Research Labo OVT
ratory at ARL . This study is concerned with A w 2
the optimization of lifting configurations . The
objective is to determine the vehicle shape
that will produce maximum hypersonic lift A sphere then possesses an n of unity and
to - drag ratio , L /D , (which then produces all other closed geometric shapes have values
maximum lateral range) for various physical less than one (unfortunately , a sphere pos
constraints .
sesses an L / D of zero ). Upon command to
Classically , the mathematical technique maximize hypersonic L / D with only a con
designed to solve such problems is the cal straint of volumetric efficiency, the computer ,
culus of variations. This technique is quite after some struggling , produced configura
restrictive, however, and its use has provided tions of the type shown in Figure 1 . This
only limited success for this particular body possesses a sharp wedge- shaped nose
problem . The use of crude numerical tech that evolves into a conical shape with a
niques on elaborate digital computers has hemispherical base. This configuration must
proved much more successful. A generalized be viewed as a classical shape with minimum
surface with a finite number of geometric constraints since, for example, it obviously
degrees of freedom (for example 16 ) was cannot survive heating . It serves as a goal
programmed for the IBM 7094. which a practical vehicle can only approach
in the limit . Application of a heating con
Equations were written in termsof geomet straint along with the command to again
ric quantities to constrain parameters such maximize L / D for a prescribed volumetric
as volume, surface area, skin friction ,aero efficiency produced a similar configuration
dynamic heating rate, stability, etc . A tech with the addition of a blunted leading edge.
nique was developed for systematically ex The performance characteristics of this con
amining each degree of geometric freedom to figuration are shown in Figure 2. Hypersonic
ascertain the optimum value which would L / D is plotted versus the heating- rate ma
produce maximum hypersonic L / D for any terial limit of the nose. Note that for a heat
17
 5 :4 TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW
LEFT SIDE VIEW

Fig. 1. Typical Optimized Lifting Body

Yw = 9 16 / Ft3

n = 0 .606

3 .5

‫وال‬

3 .0

1 = 0 .679

2 .5
1000 2000 3000
/ BTU
BT U )
Ft2 sec /

Fig. 2. Heating Constraint Influence on LID

ing rate of about 1,000 Btu / ft2 sec the clas Work is continuing in the investigation of
sical optimum is essentially attained . the influence of additional constraints on the
Unfortunately, the present state - of-the-art characteristics of lifting configurations . *
for nonablative nose caps is about 200 Btu / ft2 REFERENCE
sec . However , one can anticipate material (1) Hankey , W . L . and Capt. L . J. Schroeder, “ Opti
improvements in the future which someday mization of Lifting Re-Entry Bodies,” 12th An
can essentially render the heating constraint nual Air Force Science and Engineering Sympo
negligible in hypersonic vehicle design , sium , Vol. 1 , 1965 .
18
THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN
BICRYSTAL DEFORMATION
DR . ROLLIN E . HOOK
Metallurgy and Ceramics Research
Laboratory, ARL
The research program on the deformation single crystals has an identicalaxialorienta
of bicrystals was discussed in the October tion (the Z axis ), and each is oriented for
1965 QAR Research Review . This research single slip on a (111) { 110 } primary slip
has now come to a conclusion . One interesting system , i. e ., a {110% - type crystallographic
aspect of the results of this work concerns plane is oriented at 45° with respect to the
the importance of elastic anisotropy. Z axis , and a (111) slip direction in this plane
Three isoaxial-type bicrystals investi is oriented at 45° with respect to the Z axis.
gated , produced by the diffusion bonding of the symmetric bicrystal, Figure la, is
single crystals of an Fe- 3 % Si alloy , are crystallographically symmetric with respect
shown in Figure 1. Each of the six component to the XZ grain boundary plane, that is , the

X 0, * ‫ܕܗ‬
la ) (b ) (c )
Figure 1 . Illustration of Isoaxial Bicrystals Investigated Showing Primary Slip Planes ana Elastic Strain
Compatibility Due to Anisotropy: (a ) Symmetric Case, (b ) Pseudosymmetric Case, ( c ) Pseudoidentical
Case .

19
 HHHHHHH

Figure 2 . Schematic Illustration of Operative Slip : ( a ) Symmetric Case, (b ) Pseudosymmetric Case ,

( c) Pseudoidentical Case .
crystal lattices are mirror images across a compressive stress, 02 , the elastic strain
this plane. For the pseudosymmetric bi components exo ty , tz . Yyz ,Yxz ,7 xy which
crystal, Figure lb , the (111) {110 } primary result in response to the application of this
slip systems in each component crystal are simple stress state can be calculated from
symmetric with respect to the grain boundary anisotropic linear elasticity theory. The
plane , but the crystal lattices arenot. For the strain components of importance regarding
pseudoidentical bicrystal, Figure 1c, the deformation of the XZ grain boundary plane
primary slip system in one component crystal are ex, ez, and Yxz . These elastic strains
is continuous with the primary slip system in must be equal for the A and B component
the other component. crystals of a bicrystal if they are to be
When each of the bicrystals is subjected to elastically compatible. The results of the
20
 2 _ x _ - Exz ^ / /

Figure 3. Schematic Illustration

Showing Stresses Arising Due to
Elastic Incompatibility Yxz:

- -

elastic strain calculation show that the rxz 's on the primary slip system in each com
are of considerable magnitude and, further ponent crystal. The bulk slip behavior of the
more, that these strain components are other two bicrystals was also characterized
compatible for the symmetric case but are by single slip on the primary system in each
not compatible for the other two cases , as component but, in addition , secondary slip
indicated in Figure la - c. occurred at the grain boundary at and near
Each of these bicrystals is plastically the lateral bicrystal faces as shown in
compatible; that is , plastic deformation can Figure 2b and c. This secondary slip was
occur solely by slip on the primary slip homogeneously distributed along the entire
system in each component crystal since the length of boundary on the lateral bicrystal
resulting plastic strain components éx, z . surfaces and occurred on slip systems on
Yxx are equal for both component crystals in which the applied resolved shear stress
each bicrystal. There is no requirement for alone was insufficient to cause this slip . This
the operation of additional slip systems in the secondary slip is satisfactorily explained in
vicinity of the grain boundary plane in order terms of a self -stressed condition arising
to satisfy plastic deformation compatibility from the elastic incompatibility in Yxz . This
requirements . kind of incompatibility results in a twisting
Each of the bicrystals were deformed in of the bicrystal about the Z axis as it is
compression to a plastic strain of about elastically compressed along the Z axis .
0 .001. The slip that occurred was then This leads to the development of shear
examined by a dislocation etch - pitting tech stresses + Tyz which are at a maximum at
nique following an annealing treatment at the grain boundary at the lateral bicrystal
160°C for 1 hour which allowed carbon surfaces , Figure 3 . These additional stresses
impurity atoms in the alloy to segregate to assist the applied stress in causing plastic
the slip dislocations, rendering them as pre deformation to occur on the observed
ferred sites for formation of etch pits during secondary -slip systems. An analysis of the
electrolytic etching of the sample. The slip way in which the stresses + Tuz are resolved
which occurred is shown schematically in onto all the possible slip systems for these
Figure 2a -c . two bicrystals is consistentwith thesecondary
Slip occurred in the symmetric bicrystal slip actually observed.
21
METEOROLOGY LABORATORY, AFCRL

project “ WINDY ACRES "

This fall AFCRL meteorologists will again between the earth and the atmosphere. These
carry out a series of microscale meteoro processes can be understood best by examin
logical observations under their " Windy ing air turbulences near the ground.
Acres " program . This program was started A large body of information is available
in the summer of 1965 to investigate the struc on turbulence in wind tunnels , but not so
ture and properties of turbulence in the first much on turbulence in the real atmosphere.
100 feet of the atmosphere . The experiments Studies in the atmosphere are complicated
last year were conducted in southwestern not only by the existence of a wide range of
Kansas in a flat, levelwheat field where natu eddy sizes , but also by a wide range of
ral turbulence can bemeasured without inter temperature variations in space and time,
ference from trees , buildings , and terrain The most fruitful approach to this problem
irregularities. The program uses a computer is the application of statistical concepts de
controlled data -acquisition system for rapid veloped in the fields of fluid mechanics and
handling and processing of data from various aerodynamics. A detailed systematic study
micrometeorological sensors atthe field site . of this type involves the recording, proc
This system , called the Mobile Micro essing , and analyzing of enormous volumes of
meteorological Observation System (MMOS), experimental data .
was developed by AFCRL scientists. Experimental field programs in the past
Phenomena occurring in the first hundred have been hampered by the inability to handle
INITIE

feet of the atmosphere are of considerable large amounts of data in the field . This
importance to micrometeorologists . It is here difficulty however, is now overcome through
that heat and water vapor are transferred the use of MMOS, which automatically con

View of experimental site in Kansas

trols all the operations required in an ex tape. A printed real- time display of some of
periment. the important statistical parameters is also
In each experiment, the computer -con provided to keep the operator up - to - date on
trolled system scans and reads the outputs the state of the atmosphere. The system is
from a predetermined number of sensors capable of sampling sensor signals at rates
(measuring wind, temperature, etc .) located up to 50 times a second, which is faster
on a 100 -foot tower, edits and processes than the normal requirement for turbulence
the data, and records the results on magnetic analysis.

Close-up of tower at site

23
ARL' s 2 -MeV Van de Graaff Accelerator
An important part of the fundamental knowledge of the structure of matter is that which pertains to
the structure of the atomic nucleus. In turn , progress in fundamental understanding of nuclear struc
ture and the basic nuclear forces depends in a critical manner upon the availability of experimental
data on such nuclear properties as the energy, total angular momentum , parity, lifetime (or width ), and
decay properties of excited quantum states. These and other related data on nuclear parameters, when
considered in relation to firmly established physical laws, are leading to major advances in the diffi
cult problem of the nature of the atomic nucleus.
The ARL Nuclear Structure Group (General Physics Research Laboratory) has been primarily en
gaged during the past year in the acquisition ofdetailed data of the type mentioned above forexcited
states of selected nuclei in the region between oxygen-16 and calcium -40 in the periodic table of ele
ments. The principal tool in this investigation has been a 2 -MeV Van de Graaff accelerator. During
this period, the accelerator has been used to provide beams of protons and deuterons with which nu
clear reactions were induced in the appropriate target materials. The radiations emitted from the target
as a result of these nuclear reactions were detected and analyzed by means of large Nal(Tl) gamma
ray and solid -state charged particle detectors. Computer techniques were used, where possible, in the
analysis and theoretical interpretation of data so obtained.

The 2-MeV Van de Graaff particle accelerator operated by ARL' s General Physics Research Laboratory
Control panel and instrumentation consoles for the 2-MeV Van de Graaff particle accelerator
25
New OAR center of activities

THE ARCHITECTS BUILDING , NEW HOME OF HQ OAR AND AFOSR IN ARLINGTON , VIRGINIA .
Near the Virginia ends of Francis Scott Key Bridge and Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, the building over
looks the Iwo Jima Memorial in Arlington and is opposite Georgetown University across the Potomac.
26
 TO OUR READERS
Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
(except for those from Latin America ) .

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
Laurence G . Hanscom Field , Bedford, Massachusetts 01731

AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : ARI
Wright- Patterson Air Force Base , Ohio 45433

AIR FORCE OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Attn : SRGL
1400 Wilson Blvd, Arlington, Va. 22209

THE FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

USAF Academy, Colorado 80840

OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
Holloman AF Base, New Mexico 88330

Request for further information from institutions and individuals in Latin America should
be addressed to :

LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE AEROSPACE RESEARCH

U . S . EMBASSY
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Detailed documentary reports may be obtained from :

CLEARINGHOUSE
U . S . Department of Commerce, Springfield , Virginia 22151

DEFENSE DOCUMENTATION CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Cameron Station, Alexandria, Virginia 22314
Qualified requestors
OAR (RRYC) POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 D301.696.5

O ch review
researROSPACE

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AN
O RESEARCH

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ER E

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FICE OF AESRPOSA

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OAR : The Research Agency

SEP 6 1966 of The United States Air Force
AUG 1966
ENGINEERING

VOLUME V NUMBER 6 LIBRARY AUGUST 1966

A COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR OPTIMUM TRAJECTORY

AND OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEMS
CAPT RINALDO F . VACHINO , Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL
There are many problems in the field of computational procedures aimed at solving
trajectory optimization and optimal control these problems have been developed. One of
that are of Air Force interest. One such these techniques is called the method of
problem concerns aircraft performance steepest ascent ( 1 ) and is particularly adapted
where the objective may be to maximize to digital- computer solution of these prob
range, or minimize the time-to -climb of an lems. This method generates a sequence
aircraft within selected constraints. Another of approximations to the optimum solution
concerns injection of a payload into a given which , in general, is a continuous function
orbit while minimizing the propellant. For of time.
such a problem one must determine the best The Aerospace Mechanics Division , Frank
programming of the angle of thrust, the J. Seiler Research Laboratory, has been
optimal time to initiate coasting, and the investigating extensions of the method of
length of the coasting intervals. steepest descent. Recently published results
These and other problems in many other ( 2) show that the preceding theory is appli
fields can be formulated in identical mathe cable to a number of realistic problems that
matical terms. The resulting mathematical have limitations on the controls. Such a class
formulation is amenable to treatment by the of problems is said to have inequality con
calculus of variations or by the recent straints on the control variables. In the
theory of the maximum principle. However, presence of these constraints, a wide class
in general, these theories do not lead di of problems has optimum solutions which
rectly to a solution of the original problem . are no longer continuous functions of time;
Instead they lead to another, nearly equiva instead, they are composed of a finite num
lent problem , the two- point boundary - value ber of segments or functions , each of which
problem . is continuous, and joined together according
In the past, these problems have usually to given rules. The times at which the con
been solved by methods of trial and error. trol function switches from one to another
Within the last few years, a number of of these adjacent segments are called switch

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * TheFRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES * AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES * EUROPEAN OFFICE , OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE. OAR
ing times. Each of these segments is called positions of orbiting satellites, of tactical
a subarc . air -to - air interception , of returning from
The present research shows that the method an interplanetary flight and landing at a
of steepest ascent described in Reference (1) predetermined position on the earth , and of
may be extended to solve two generalclasses the optimization of the flight path of a
of problems. The first class comprises those multistage vehicle.
problems whose optimum solutions are com
posed of a known number of subarcs, each REFERENCES
of which obeys known differential equations
and constraints. The second class includes ( 1) Bryson, A . E . and W . F . Denham , " A Steepest As.
cent Method for Solving Optimum Programming
those problems whose optimum solutions are Problems,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, TASME ,
composed of an unknown number of subarcs, Series E , 29, 247-257, June 1962.
each of which must obey differential equa (2) Vachino , R . F ., “ Steepest Descent with Inequality
tions that belong to a certain class of Constraints on the Control Variables, " SIAM Journal
on Control, 4 , 245- 261, 1966 .
equations. (3) Vachino, R . F ., " A Computational Procedure for
The results have been found useful for Optimum Trajectory and OptimalControl Problems,”
practical Air Force application ( 3) in prob Proceedings of the OAR Research Applications Con
lems of the short- term prediction of the ference, 5 April 1966, pp. 1- 9.

RADIO OBSERVATIONS OF 20 MAY ECLIPSE

Space Physics and Upper Atmosphere Physics
research review Laboratories, AFCRL...... .. . 7
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH SOME ASPECTS OF ELLIPTIC DIFFERENTIAL
OPERATORS
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of Capt John F. Gander..........
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Hq Of.
fice of Aerospace Research, USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard , PREDICTING WHERE BALLOONS WILL BE
Arlington , Va. 22209 . The objective of this publication is to Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL... .. 11
make o positive contribution to the exchange of information
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research SENSITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION
activities . UNDERGOES TESTS
JACOB SEIDEN Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory,AFCRL .......... 13
Editor
RADAR DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE
A COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR OPTIMUM Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL . . . . .. .
TRAJECTORY AND CPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEMS COMBUSTION OF METAL VAPOR
Capt Rinaldo F. Vachino .... . . . .. .. 1 Lt Col Cornelius J. Donovan .. ..
ENHANCED SURFACE - LAYER DIFFUSION
Dr. H. C. Graham and Dr. N . M. Tallan ... HEAT - INDUCED DISTORTION IN LASER RODS
Optical Physics Laboratory , AFCRL.......... ...
THE STUDY OF NUCLEAR EXCITED STATES BY
MEANS OF THE (p,y) REACTION HUGE BALLOON LAUNCHED BY AFCRL
1st Lt Anthony K. Hyder.... . .. 6 Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL... .. 22

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 alkali halides and oxides that there exists
enhanced surfac a region just below the surface where the
movement of the larger, normally slower
diffusion DR. H. C. GRAHAM and ion is greatly speeded up. Since this phenom
enon was originally observed in polycrystal
DR . N . M . TALLAN , Metallurgy and line samples, (1) it is generally mislabeled
Ceramics Research Laboratory , ARL " enhanced grain boundary diffusion ." While
the mechanism for this enhancement is not
fully understood, it is clear thatthe enhanced
Frequently in nonmetallic compounds the movement is not on the surface of the grain
cation defect is faster moving than the anion boundary but in a layer adjacent to the sur
defect. This makes the movement of the face. This conclusion has been reached in
anion defect rate - controlling for any process several careful studies of the phenomenon
which requires the bulk diffusion of both which have shown that the enhanced move
ions. Since, in most nonmetals , the bulk ment in the subsurface layer requires the
diffusion coefficient of the cation is generally same activation energy as movement in the
two or more orders of magnitude greater bulk , and is not a new energy characteristic
than the anion ' s , any mechanism which will of surface transport. For example, the re
increase the anion diffusion coefficient will sults of Laurent and Bénard for NaCl (Figure
correspondingly speed up these processes. 1) show that, as the particle size decreases ,
It has been shown (1 , 2 , 3) for several the activation energy for Clº movement re

2. C

0
1 -
- - - Dif.de Nat o X
- Dif.de ci A tX o
650 X
X
X
X

X
^
X

700 X
.

X
Xx Xx + Monocrist
*
-
X

n
1. 0 o Diam moyen 1000 m
-

x
- A " " 110 u
750 o x ox X
Xx
Polycrist
X X X
- 04 " 50 u
X X X

U
o
1040 D, cm² sec
23 - logo
Figure 1. Diffusivity for Nat and Cl- in NaCl as a function of particle size and temperature (after
Laurent and Bénard ').
mains constant, i.e., the slopes of the curves In any fabrication process which requires
for various particle sizes are parallel. the bulk diffusion of both ions, the elapsed
Autoradiographic measurements showed the time to equilibrium may be drastically re
movement of the anion to be primarily in duced just by decreasing the particle size
the grain boundary region . This layer is of the compact. The shorter time at ele
deep compared to the interatomic spacings vated temperatures , in addition to saving
and has been estimated at one hundred to tens time and reducing cost, also has the added
of thousands of atom layers , depending on the benefit ofdecreasing grain growth - - a process
material. which is normally detrimental. Also, the
The difference in the energies of forma ultimate density of a material may be in
tion of the positive and negative defects creased. Since the removal of pores trapped
may be responsible for the formation of within grains requires the bulk diffusion
the layer . ( 4 ) For Schottky disorder the of both defects to a sink, the presence of
energy of formation of the cation vacancy a large volume per cent of enhanced mate
is generally less than the anion ' s . There rial will increase the volume in which rapid
fore, for a pure material, the number of transport of the slowermoving ions occurs.(6 )
cation vacancies in this layer will be greater As a result, a fine grained compact will
than the equilibrium concentration found reach a given density in this last- stage
in the bulk far below the surface. This of densification process much faster than a
course, in turn , drives the anion vacancy large grained compact.
concentration below its bulk value. Im The fact that a surface layer of single
purities, both on the surface and in the crystal or polycrystalline material may
lattice, will modify the distribution of de equilibrate with the atmosphere much more
fects within this layer. rapidly than the bulk has been shown to lead
Normally , the total diffusion flux for a to quite significant changes in the electrical
polycrystalline material is the sum of con properties of the material. ( 7)
tributions from the bulk , the surface, and It is also obvious that the possible con
from the presence of grain boundaries . tribution of enhanced surface - layer diffusion
Since the contribution of any mechanism must be considered in the region of basic
will be proportional to the product of the research dealing with the intrinsic prop
defect mobility and the number of defects erties ofmaterials . (8 )
in that region , the volume per cent of each REFERENCES
region is important. In Figure 2 the increase
in the anion diffusion coefficient is shown ( 1) Laurent, J. F . and J . Bénard, " Autodiffusion des
lons dans les Halogemures Alcalius Polycristal.
to be directly proportional to the decrease lius, ” J. Phys . Chem . Solids, 7, 218 , 1958 .
in particle size for several alkali halides. (2) Cabané J., “ Intergranular Diffusion and the Struc.
Assuming a constant layer thickness, this ture of Grain Boundaries in the Alkali Halides,
would correspond to an increase in the Part 1: Method of the Study of Intergranular Diffu
sion Sintering, Part 2: Diffusion ," J. Chem . Phys,
volume per cent of the region of enhance 59, 1123, 1962.
ment. Recent electrical polarization meas (3 ) Paladino, A . E . and R . L . Coble, " Effect of Grain
urements on Naci have confirmed this de Boundaries on Diffusion -Controlled Processes in
pendence . (5 ) Several oxides have likewise Aluminum Oxide," J . Am . Ceram . Soc., 46 , 133,
1963.
been observed to have processes requiring (4 ) Lehovic, K ., “ Space-Charge Layer and Distribution
bulk movement of both ions, such as sintering of Lattice Defects at the Surface of Ionic Crystals, "
and creep in which the rate -controlling step J . Chem . Phys., 21, 1123, 1953.
is the movement of the normally faster cation (5 ) Graham , H . C ., “ Particle-Size Dependence of the
defect. ( 3 ) Electrical Conductivity of NaCl," Thesis , Ohio
Recognizing now that solids may have sub State University, Columbus , Ohio, 1965 .
surface layers which have different transport (6) Burke, J. E., “Role of Grain Boundaries in Sinter
ing ;” J . Am . Ceram . Soc ., 40 , 80 , 1957.
properties than the bulk material, there are (7) Tallan , N . M . and H . C . Graham , “ Interfacial
several immediately obvious consequences Polarization and Electrical Conductivity in Sap
of such layers. phire, ” J . Am . Ceram . Soc., 48, 512, 1965.
( 8 ) Graham , H . C . and N . M . Tallan , " Enhanced Sur Technical Report ARL 66 -0058, Aerospace Re
face-Layer Diffusion in Nonmetallic Compounds,” search Laboratories , February 1966 .

Accroissement de Da

1 / dans KI

dans KBr

ci dans Na CI
Cl" dans KCI
ci dans Cs CI
X X
X

Cs dans CS CI
+X

300 200 150 100 80 60diam . moyen des

I grains
0 50 100 150 S, cm2
Figure 2 . Diffusivity increase for ions in several halides as a function of particle size (after Laurent
and Bénard ).
The Study of Nuclear
Exited States By Means of the (p,y ) Reaction
IST LT ANTHONY K . HYDER
General Physics Research Laboratory , ARL

A theory of nuclear structure that is proton that happens to enter the target
successful in predicting all eigenvalues for nucleus would not be able to pass through
nuclear states ( energy levels ) is still not without undergoing some kind of strong
at hand. While a list of the eigenvalues interaction with the other nucleons . As the
necessary and sufficient to describe the incident proton continues further into the
nuclear eigenstates must await the arrival nucleus, it will continue to lose energy
of the complete theory itself, there are at through subsequent interactions until the
least three quantum numbers that must proton and target nucleus merge into a
appear in any theory . These are the energy , compound nucleus. It is now in terms of the
spin , and parity of the nuclear state. Much " virtual states" (i.e., those nuclear - energy
of the effort of the Nuclear Structure Group levels from which nucleon emission is ener
of the General Physics Research Laboratory getically possible) of this compound nucleus
at ARL has been directed toward experi that the resonance phenomena in the capture
mentally determining these three quantities cross section can be viewed .
for excited states of nuclei in the medium When an incident proton , A, is captured
mass region (25 < A < 40) of the periodic by a target nucleus, a, a certain amount of
table, using the methods of gamma- ray energy is made available to excite the re
spectroscopy . sulting compound nucleus , B *. This excitation
The spin and parity of nuclear states can energy , Ex, is just: (See also Fig. 1)
be obtained using the rather complicated
method of measuring the angular correla Ex = Q + EA ( 1)
tions and polarization of the gamma rays
emitted when nuclei de -excite to lower - lying where EA is the kinetic energy of the proton
energy levels. The determination of the in the center - of -mass coordinate system , and
energy of excited states, however, is rela Q is the binding energy of the proton in the
tively straightforward, and the methods in compound nucleus and can be calculated from
volved are more amenable to a short dis the mass excess, Q = Ma + Ma - Mpe .
cussion .
The energy of a nuclear state is most
often determined at the same time that VRTUAL ENERGY LEVEU

the existence of the level is discovered.

ENERGY

OTROY
FOTO

There are a number of experimentalmethods

available by which these energy levels might
be located. One such method is the resonant
proton capture reaction with the subsequent
emission of gamma radiation , i. e ., the (p , y )
reaction. TARQET NUCLEUS
PLUS
YULD
CURVE
To view the mechanism of the (p , y ) re INCIDENT PARTICLE
action, we can use the concept of the " com
pound nucleus" first proposed by Bohr. If COMPOUND NUCLEUS
the average distance between nucleons in a
nucleus is of the same order of magnitude Figure 1. Energy Level Diagram Indicating the
as the range of nuclear forces, an incident Resonance Condition
 If the excitation energy, Ex, happens to SCALAR 3
correspond to the energy of some virtual
state in the compound nucleus, the capture

YCOULOMSS
cross section for the incident proton sharply

COUNTS
000
increases, allowing that particular nuclear

)/1( 440
SGALAR 2
energy level to be excited. The nụcleus is
now free to de- excite by emitting either
nucleons or gamma rays, or both . Consider
ing de -excitation by gamma-ray emission
only, we observe the following phenomenon :
if a beam of energetically homogeneous - SCALANT

protons of slowly increasing energy is al

lowed to strike a target, a rapid increase
in the gamma radiation from the target is
observed at certain values of the incident
proton energy . This increase in radiation
indicates the formation (and decay ) of a POO 1000
1000
1100 1200 1300 MOO
PROTON ENERGY BEM
OO
1500 1600 1700 OC

compound nucleus in some virtual energy

state; by measuring the proton energy at Figure 2. 536 (p.Y) C137 Yield Curve
the time, the energy of the excited level is
easily determined by eq. (1). Ey > 2.8 MeV, Ey >4 .3 MeV , and Ey > (7.8 +
Ep) MeV.
A continuous plot of v -ray counts versus Efforts are now being directed toward
proton energy, a yield curve, shows the detailed study of some of these resonances
resonance phenomena at these selected proton to obtain information about spins, branch
energies. Fig . 2 shows the results of a recent ing ratios, and gamma-ray multipolarity
investigation of the 536 (p , y)C187 reaction mixings related not only to the resonance
in which approximately 90 energy levels in level, but also to those lower -lying levels
c14 were found. The three curves corre through which the resonance level might
spond to yields of gamma rays with energies de- excite .

Radio Observations
of 20 May Eclipse
SPACE PHYSICS and UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS LABORATORIES, AFCRL
During a solar eclipse, as the sharp edge spot ? Does the intensity of emission at
of the moon moves across the face of the different frequencies vary with sunspot age ?
sun , smaller and smaller areas of the sun Are hot localized radio regions not asso
are isolated for radio observation . If sun ciated with sunspots found on the solar
spots are present during the eclipse , it is surface ? Is the radio sun , like the visible
then possible to observe radio emissions sun , circular ? If not, to what extent is its
from a single sunspot. By observing emis circularity distorted ?
sions from localized regions on the sun This is the background for AFCRL ' s expe
at several radio frequencies, it is possible dition to Greece recently to observe the
to derive information that may lead to a solar eclipse of May 20th . This eclipse took
better understanding of solar dynamics. place across the eastern Mediterranean and
For example, at what frequencies are the Grecian mainland, and was observed by
radio emissions from sunspots most pro - AFCRL scientists from AFCRL 's KC - 135
nounced ? Does the intensity of emission ionospheric aircraft, and from a temporary
vary with frequency from sunspot to sun ground site near Olymbos, Greece.
 The AFCRL KC - 135 aircraft was equipped
with a variety of instrumentation for looking
at the ionosphere. During last year' s Pacific
eclipse, measurements made with this air
craft showed that, during the brief period
of the eclipse, there is a marked decrease
in ionospheric density in the lower regions
of the ionosphere. The airborne measure
ments this year in Greece were under the
direction of Dr. George Gassmann of AFCRL.
On the ground, five AFCRL astronomers
and technicians participated in the program
under the direction of John P . Castelli. Two
equipment trailers , shipped to Greece from
AFCRL , were used. The AFCRL scientists
were particularly interested in determining
the sizes of small intense radio regions,
their heights in the solar atmosphere, and
an estimate of the magnetic - field strengths
found in or near the sources of radio emission . Photo # 1. An annular eclipse showing a thin
The eclipse last May 20th was an annular ring of solar light exposed . The eclipse observed
eclipse, which means that the moon does 20 May was of this type.

AIR
FORCE
CAMBRID SOLAR ECLIPSE
GE STUDYwith
RESEARC NATIO
H NA
OBSERVAT L
LABORATOR ORY
IES
ATHENS

Photos # 2 and # 3 . AFCRL astronomers and technicians with their equipment. Photo # 2 shows four
people standing beside the equipment trailers used for the expedition to Greece. These are, from left
to right, John P . Castelli, Director of the expedition, Vernon Remillard, Carl Ferioli,and Ronald Straka .
Photo # 3 was taken inside the equipment trailer and shows Ronald Straka on the left, and John P .
Castelli on the right.
not completely cover the visible solar disk sources of radio noise can provide the
and thus leaves a thin ring of solar light foundation on which physical models can be
exposed. But this fact did not alter the basic postulated to explain the mechanisms for
purpose of the measurements because even the generation of radio noises.
in a total eclipse the radio sun is never In the data analysis , AFCRL will be
obscured by the moon. The size of the radio collaborating with the Greek , Italian , British,
sun increases at lower frequencies . Dutch , French, German and other American
Measurements were taken using an 8 - foot scientific groups who also made measure
diameter radio telescope. Changes in solar ments of this eclipse. Preliminary results
radio noise during the eclipse were moni obtained by AFCRL have already been pre
tored simultaneously at 4 frequencies- - 1,415 sented to part of the scientific community
Mcps ( L band), 2 ,695 Mcps (S band), 4,995 through the NATO Advanced Study Institute
Mcps (C band), and 8,800 Mcps (X band). on Solar Eclipses and the Ionosphere held
Knowledge of the spectra of the localized in Athens the week following the eclipse. ☆
 corners, or that the coefficients have singu
SOME ASPECTS OF ELLIPTIC larities, or that the boundary -value problem
DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS is of an unconventional type . Hence , the re
searcher is left to his own devices. However,
CAPT JOHN F . GANDER the general theory points out the way. It shows
Directorate of Mathematical Sciences,AFOSR what methods one may use, what results are
A statement to the effect that science is to be expected , what is likely to happen , and
continually becoming more mathemtical sur what seems plausible in the present state of
prises no one who is in tune with current knowledge.
events. Indeed, modern physics is highly The mathematician's job is to supply the
mathematized. And the other physical researcher with a rich mathematical theory .
sciences, as well as the social and life Recently , Shmuel Agmon (1) of the Hebrew
sciences , are utilizing mathematicalmethods University , Jerusalem , with the support of
more and more . A thorough grounding in the Mathematics Division , AFOSR , completed
mathematics is already an essential pre an extensive study on some aspects of
requisite for fruitful work in any field of elliptic differential operators. Utilizing the
the physical sciences, and is rapidly be close connection between the asymptotic
coming a necessary prerequisite for work properties of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions
in the social sciences and the life sciences of elliptic problems, and the asymptotic be
as well. Thus, this relationship of mathe havior of the corresponding Green 's functions,
matics with science bears directly on its Professor Agmon describes a method of
importance in modern civilization . estimating Green 's kernels which has the
We can say that mathematics is human advantage that it yields, pointwise, esti
reasoning on the highest level. Every field mates which hold uniformly in all space
of investigation, be it political, economic , variables. Moreover , his method uses very
or military, has felt its influence andmodeled little of the properties of elliptic differential
itself on mathematics to some extent. How operators and applies to a general class of
ever, one should not conclude that mathe integral operators which need not be con
matics gives its all to the sciences and nected with differential problems.
receives nothing in return . Indeed, the funda As an application of the estimates derived,
mental concepts of many branches of mathe Agmon establishes the formula of the asymp
matics are the ones suggested by physical totic distribution of positive (and of negative )
experiences. For example, the theory of eigenvalues for very general self -adjoint
elliptic partial differential equations is a elliptic problems whose spectrum may ex
discipline of mathematics which developed tend to infinity on both sides of the real line.
under the influence of, and in intimate The corresponding asymptotic results for
connection with , mathematical physics. the eigenfunctions (spectral function ) are
Elliptic differential equations occur in mathe also established .
matical physics either in their own right, The results of Agmon 's paper could, of
e . g ., the all-too - familiar Laplace equation course, also be used to study the eigenvalue
and its nonhomogeneous form , the Poisson distribution of nonself - adjoint problems.
equation , or in connection with hyperbolic Using the methods outlined in Agmon 's paper,
and parabolic equations, since these equa it is possible to estimate the remainder
tions usually involve an elliptic operator. term in the asymptotic formula for the
Solving an elliptic , in all but the classical eigenvalue distribution of very general
text- book examples, more often than not higher -order self -adjoint elliptic problems.
proves to be a major task . In most cases,
REFERENCE
a problem of real physical significance will
be too specialized to satisfy the broad re ( 1) Agmon, Shmuel, " On Kernels, Eigenvalues, and
quirements considered in the general theory . Eigenfunctions of Operators Related to Elliptic
The difficulty might be that the domain con Problems, ” Communications on Pure and Applied
Mathematics, Vol. XVII, 627 -663, 1965.
sidered is unbounded, or that the boundary has
 Basic to the method is a comprehensive
historical record of winds atvarious altitudes
over the U . S. This record (Statistics of
Vertical Resultant Winds), compiled by the
U .S. Weather Bureau and the Sandia Corpora
tion , consists of 5 - year daily recordings of
winds at 15 pressure altitudes over the
continental U .S . up to 10 millibars, or the
equivalent of about 100 ,000 feet altitude.
Within this altitude regime, the wind changes
direction many times, and varies in velocity
and persistence with altitude - - the jet stream
being an example of strong persistent winds
over a broad altitude stratum .
The report is concerned with just two
predicting where altitude regimes - -60,000 feet and 100 ,000
feet- -these being representative balloon
balloons will be float altitudes. The procedures give the
balloon - launch crew a probabilistic estimate
AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION that the balloon , when it reaches float altitude ,
LABORATORY , AFCRL will be located within a well -defined geo
graphical area . They do not provide a plot
of the trajectory taken by the balloon to get
there.
When a balloon is launched, it is at the The first step in accomplishing this is
mercy of the winds . This doesn 't mean that to reduce the statistics of the Weather
the launch crew crosses its fingers and Bureau - Sandia study to a form that could
hopes for the best. Predictions can be made be treated probabilistically. The product of
with a high degree of accuracy as to just this work is 12 isopleth charts for each of
where the balloon will be when it reaches 2 altitudes - -60,000 and 100 ,000 feet. The
altitude. This must be known for several charts give lines of equal value for 3 basic
reasons: air safety, positioning of recovery factors to be used in making probability
crews and ground -support equipment, and the estimates. Although Nolan 's report deals
determination of the probable line- of -sight primarily with the meaning and use of these
angle above the horizon when the balloon factors, they will only be noted here. They
is at altitude. To make predictions, data are: mean ascent trajectory components,
are gathered on upper -atmosphere winds angle of rotation of major axis of distribu
and computations are made. But data are tion of ellipse, and standard deviation of
not always available when needed , and the major and minor axis components of the
computational work is difficult. ellipse . These values change with season ;
In an AFCRL report (AFCRL -66 -98), therefore, separate charts for each of the
" Balloon - Ascent Trajectory Dispersion Over 3 factors for each of the 4 seasons are
the United States at 60 ,000 Feet and 100 ,000 necessary .
Feet," George F . Nolan of AFCRL presents In using the charts to plot dispersion
a new and simpler method for obtaining patterns at different parts of the U . S ., some
probabilistic estimates of balloon dispersion . interesting , but not totally unexpected infor
This method , based on a series of reference mation was uncovered :
charts plus the constants and procedures 1. The geographical disperson pattern is
developed by Nolan , can be used to obtain always in the form of an ellipse inclined
dispersion probabilities for balloons launched in a northeast direction .
anywhere in the continental U . S . during any 2. The center of the ellipse dispersion
season . pattern is always east of the launch point
11
and, in most cases, is both north and east AFCRL launches more high - altitude , con
of the launch point- - on the order of 50 to stant - level balloons than any other agency
100 miles from the launch point. in the country. AFCRL ' s 2 principal launch
sites are at Holloman AFB, New Mexico ,
3. The mean ascent trajectory increases and Chico , California. Other major users
in stability (resulting in a smaller dis of large research balloons are the National
persion area ) with decreasing latitude during Center for Atmospheric Research, with fa
all seasons. A ridge of maximum stability cilities at Palestine, Texas, and the Air
is located along longitude 110 degrees (which Weather Service' s balloon group at Good
crosses Arizona), with minimum stability fellow AFB, Texas. Together, these 3 groups
occurring in the northeast and northwest launch more than 500 large research bal
U . S . Greatest stability over the U . S . occurs loons each year.
during the summer months. Tropospheric Nolan 's study of balloon -ascent trajectories
winds are probably responsible for most of will be of great value to all balloon -launch
the instabilities. groups .

Each year, some 500 high -altitude, constant-level research balloons are launched in the United States.
AFCRL, from its permanentlaunch sites atHolloman AFB, New Mexico , and Chico , California ,launches
about 175 of these. Other major users of research balloons are the National Center for Atmospheric Re
search , and the AirWeather Service, both of which have facilities in Texas.
12
SENSITIVE
AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION
UNDERGOES TESTS
ments for aircraft position , speed, flight
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES LABORATORY direction , and horizontal and vertical ac
AFCRL celerations.
Aboard the test aircraft were three air
borne gravimeters- - a La Coste - Romberg ,
an Askania -Graf, and a miniaturized quartz
meter. These were mounted on precision
stabilized platforms that kept them in true
vertical position regardless of aircraft
attitude. These units measured changes in
The most sensitive and complete airborne the vertical component of the gravity field
gravity -measuring instrumentation ever as as small as one part in one million .
sembled was tested recently in a month - long The present instrument-evaluation pro
series of flights over the North Central gram began in 1965 . Since then , the AFCRL
United States. For these tests, a KC - 135 flying laboratory has flown more than 500
aircraft, highly instrumented by AFCRL hours over selected test areas in the United
scientists, was flown from Ellsworth AFB, States and over the North Atlantic . A second
South Dakota .
ary goal of the AFCRL program is to estab
Although the AFCRL tests were concerned lish the optimum altitude for making airborne
with the development and evaluation of air gravity surveys. In this program , about 10
borne gravity instrumentation , they were flights of approximately 7 hours ' duration
part of a broad goal to establish world - wide were flown at 25 ,000 feet. On each flight,
gravity coverage. Such coverage will con the KC - 135 flew in an east-west,north - south
sist of a system of gravity profiles related grid configuration of one -degree spacing.
to reference stations on the ground. Further If the earth were a perfect sphere and its
in the future is a graphic representation mass distributed uniformly throughout,
showing lines of equal gravity intensity all gravity values would be the same the world
over the world . over. But because the earth bulges slightly
at the equator, gravity is slightly lower
World -wide gravity surveys have lagged in the lower latitudes. Superimposed on
because of the lack of international stand this general situation are many gravity
ards and an absolute reference system .
Another reason has been theneed for reliable anomalies caused by the uneven internal
distribution of the earth ' s mass .
airborne gravity survey instrumentation to From the analysis of the data acquired on
make essential surveys over isolated land the AFCRL airborne gravity flights and
masses and ocean bodies. the development and evaluation of gravity
AFCRL has steadily improved airborne meters of increasing precision , it is hoped
gravity instrumentation since its program that techniques and standards will be set
began in 1958. One obvious difficulty in for precise measurement of the external
making airborne gravity surveys is that of gravity field of the earth .
correcting for aircraft motion . Very slight The airborne gravity -measuring program
vertical accelerations, for example, register is directed by Bela Szabo of AFCRL , Robert
strongly on gravity meters. An airborne Perry, also of AFCRL , is flight director
computer is used to plot and make adjust- for all the aerial tests.
13
 CA

Photo # 1. These two 60 -foot antennas at Wallops Island, Virginia , are being used by AFCRL sci
entists in experiments to detect clear air turbulence (CAT). The antenna in the foreground serves 2
radars . The 34-foot solid center of the dish is illuminated by the 3. 2-cm radar, and the entire dish by
the 71.5-cm radar. The 10 .7 -cm S-band radar antenna is seen in the background.
14
 Experiments that may lead to a ground
based radar network for clear -air - turbulence
(CAT) warning are being conducted by AFCRL
scientists. Radar echoes from clear air
under a variety of atmospheric conditions,
including one instance in which an aircraft
actually encountered moderate turbulence
near an echo layer observed at 27,000 feet,
have been detected .
The experiments are being conducted at
the joint Air Force -NASA radar facility at
Wallops Island, Virginia . Instrumented air
craft are being used to obtain correlations
between radar echoes and atmospheric con
ditions. Working with AFCRL in these studies
are the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns
Hopkins University, the MITRE Corporation ,
and the Naval Research Laboratories .
One curious result was the detection under
RADAR cloudless - sky conditions of bands ofcircular
cells with echo- free holes in their centers
DETECTION at altitudes of 5, 000 - 6 ,000 feet. This was
the first time such phenomena had been ob
served. Although these cells were invisible
OF to the eye, on the radar scope they had the
appearance of certain types of cells fre
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE quently observed in alto - cumulus and strato
cumulus clouds.
Previously , Dr. David Atlas, Kenneth
METEOROLOGY Glover, and Dr. Kenneth R . Hardy of AFCRL ,
LABORATORY and Isadore Katz and Thomas Konrad of
AFCRL Johns Hopkins University, had detected the
tropopause using the Wallops Island radar.
This was also significant because they be
lieve that the tropopause , the boundary layer
between the atmosphere' s lowest layer (the
troposphere ), and the stratosphere must
have been mechanically turbulent at the
time- -meaning that it contained regions of
hazardous CAT.

In these experiments , two 60 - foot antennas

(with 71. 5 - cm and 10 .7 - cm wave lengths)
and a 34 - foot dish (3 . 2 cm ) were used . The
most successful results were obtained with
the 10 . 7 - cm ( S -band) radar which had a beam
width of 0 .48 degrees, and a power output of
3 megawatts .
The AFCRL experimental program is not
only concerned with CAT detection , but with
15
obtaining a general understanding of the feasible would be barely able to detect the
atmospheric processes which result in radar most reflective CAT at a distance of 10
echoes from clear air. This understanding nautical miles (sufficient to give a minute ' s
can, in turn, provide a theoretical basis warning to a jet traveling at 600 knots). One
for approaching the CAT -detection problem . of the biggest limitations of airborne sys
tems is antenna size , which is limited to
One of the most important conclusions of about 3 feet. Major advances in receiver
this study is that ground -based radar and sensitivity would be required to bring most
forward -scattering techniques may be a CAT within the detection capabilities of
better approach to CAT detection than an airborne radar.
airborne system . (Most proposals for CAT By using ground -based radars , antenna size
detection systems have centered around the does not become a problem . With many of
latter type.) Atlas, Glover and Hardy point the large steerable antennas now available,
out that even the best airborne radars now present receiver sensitivity should be enough

310

290

240

Photos # 2 and # 3. The clutter seen in these radar-scope photographs is a reflection from clear air.
Not a cloud was in the sky at the time these photographs were taken . In the scope photographs there
can be seen a very interesting band structure of the clear air off the Virginia coast. The range was
about 50 miles, the altitude about 6,000 feet.
to detect the more reflective regions of in the direction of another antenna. Any
CAT . One suggested radar -network con - CAT in the air corridor between the two
figuration would have ground stations spaced antennas would cause some of the energy
about 100 to 200 miles apart. The beam from one antenna to be reflected to the
from one antenna would scan at a low angle other.

17
Combustion of Metal Vapor
LT COL CORNELIUS J. DONOVAN
Directorate of Engineering Sciences High -speed streak and framing records
AFOSR of the expanding metal vapor indicate that
it is completely opaque even when expanded
to near- atmospheric density . The combus
A unique investigation of the combustion tion reactions are highly luminous owing to
of metal vapor is now in progress at the the radiation from excited species and from
United Technology Center Division of United hot metal-oxide particles. Emission spectra
Aircraft Corp . under contractwith the AFOSR of metal- vapor combustion show strong con
Propulsion Division . The study focuses at tinuum radiation with the atomic lines of
tention on the reactions occurring at high the metal in absorption and well-defined
pressure between metal vapors and various bands of the diatomic metal oxides in emis
oxidizing gases to form condensed metal sion . These diatomic oxides, BeO and A10 ,
oxide particles. Primary interest is in are the only intermediate species thatappear
beryllium and aluminum because of the use in the spectra.
of these metals as high -energy rocket - fuel Samples of condensed Al, O , particles
ingredients. This work represents the first formed by the combustion of aluminum vapor
study of the combustion of metal vapors at have been collected and photomicrographed.
high pressure. These particles are observed to be spherical
Specific objectives of the investigation with diameters ranging from 0 .01 to 0 . 6
are to determine over - all reaction rates, micron . This is somewhat smaller than
significant metal- containing or oxidizing A1, 0 , particles collected from the com
species that act as reaction intermediates , bustion chamber of a rocket burning an
and the mechanism of the combustion re aluminized solid propellant. These particles
action . The effects of different oxidizing have a mass median diameter of 0.7 to 0 .8
atmospheres such as oxygen , water vapor, micron . The average particle size increases
carbon dioxide, and inert diluents in vari at higher oxygen concentrations and when
ous mixtures are being investigated as well water vapor is present, but is insensitive
as the effect of total pressure up to about to total pressure.
15 atmospheres. The study includes both Beryllium -oxide particles have been found
theoretical and experimental work. to be regular hexagonal prisms rather than
Electrically vaporized wires are used in spheres. This surprising result is not well
the experiments as a source of high -tem understood at present, but agrees with re
sults obtained for beryllium - oxide particles
perature, high - pressure metal vapor. The collected from rocket -motor exhausts . It
apparatus is capable of vaporizing 1 gram appears that these particles must be formed
of aluminum or 1 / 2 gram of beryllium in
less than 20 microseconds by the rapid by a direct gas -to - solid reaction , or re
verse sublimation process, in which the
discharge of a 15 -kilojoule low - inductance particle temperature is less than 28000K ,
capacitor bank . Peak currents during the
discharge are of the order of 2 x 10 amperes , the melting point of beryllium oxide. It is
planned to test this hypothesis by measuring
and peak power input to the wire is of the the particle temperature using a spectro
order of 10 ' watts . Following the discharge,
scopic technique.
the metal vapor expands, mixes with the
oxidizing atmosphere and burns. Combustion Studies based upon the classical theory
reactions are observed optically using high of nucleation of condensed phases indicate
speed photography and total emission spec that a minimum stable particle size exists
troscopy. for metal-oxide particles. A critical diameter
18
of the order of 0.01 micron was predicted at which the very large heat of condensation
for both BeO and AL 0g, which agrees with may be transferred away from the growing
the smallest- size particles produced in the particle, or by the rate of surface reactions.
experiments. Theoreticalconsiderations have The regimes in which each of these effects
led to a model for the combustion process is important are being further investigated .
in which the over -all combustion rate is This study of metal-vapor combustion is
controlled by the rate of formation of the
condensed metal- oxide products Bed and of great importance in the prediction of
AL0g. A theoretical description of the rate rocket performance losses resulting from
of formation and growth of the condensed incomplete combustion and from the presence
metal- oxide particles has been developed. of metal- oxide particles in the rocketexhaust.
The research may also point out ways in
Experimental verification of the theory is which rocket performance may be improved
now in progress.
through greater combustion efficiency and
Results obtained so far in the study indi by controlling metal-oxide particle size.
cate that the over -all combustion process Such information is needed by the Air Force
is controlled by the rate of formation of in the development of high -energy propellant
the condensed oxide product. The rate of systems employing light metal ingredients
nucleation and growth of the oxide particles whether as metallic particles , as slurries,
is, in turn , controlled by either the rate or as metallic compounds.

HEAT-INDUCED DISTORTION IN
LASER RODS
OPTICAL PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
When a solid -state laser is energized , tortion pattern in any two rods differs
heat momentarily distorts the laser rod . to some slight degree.
In operating high - power lasers, the induced Dr. C . Martin Stickley and Richard Lee
strain may contribute to fracture or to Townsend, Jr ., of AFCRL are investigating
Chipping of the laser- rod faces. But even this distortion phenomenon . These studies
when no permanent damage to the rod oc have led to at least one method of com
curs, the distortion greatly decreases the pensating for distortion effects , and have
efficiency of the laser. Among the effects suggested other methods for alleviating these
are frequency shifts , uneven emission of effects and thus increasing the efficiency of
radiation from the laser face , loss of co lasers. The AFCRL studies have important
herence in the emitted energy, and increased implications for many high -power laser ap
beam divergence . plications- -optical radars, range finding ,
The sequence of thermal events in a laser welding , and communications.
system leading to rod distortion is complex .
The sequence differs in degree - -but not in Specifically, the AFCRL study deals with
kind--for different laser - rodmaterials. Even the changes that take place in optical length
for laser rods of the same material, the and in distortion as a function of pump
patterns of distortion differ significantly. energy and radius of the solid - state laser
For example, thermally induced distortions rods . Many different rods have been tested
are much more severe (when averaged over to date, although they consisted of only two
the whole cross section ) in a highly polished basic types - - ruby with polished sides, and
ruby rod than they are for ruby rods with a ruby with ground sides. A neodymium - in
ground surface . But even when wetry to make glass rod with polished sideswas also studied .
rods of exactly the same material and Purpose of the study is to determine what
geometry , we find that the induced dis solid - state laser materials are least sus
ceptible to heat - induced distortions, to find During the pump pulse there is general
the optimum geometries of the laser rod expansion throughout the rod. But the ex
itself, and to devise methods for reducing pansion is not completely uniform because
the effects of distortions, of the uneven illumination of the flash pump.
To measure the distortions that take place After the flash , the surface of the rod is
during and after the pump flash , the AFCRL heated by residual infrared radiation propa
scientists used a Twyman -Green interfer gating from the flash pump. Because the
ometer to produce fringes , the fringe move surface is heated faster than the center, the
ment being correlated with changes in optical rod ends show a concave curvature . Most
length . Movement and distortion of fringes of the distortion occurs after the pumppulse.
were observed using a multiframe image When the laser is repetitively pulsed , the
converter camera . distortion persists from pulse to pulse .
Although the most pronounced distortion
effects occur on a dime scale measured in The AFCRL study points up several
milliseconds, some distortion of the rod due methods of dealing with these problems. The
to absorbed heat energy remains for as long first problem of distortion during the pump
as five minutes after the pump flash . During flash can be helped by using rodswith ground
the flash, the laser rod shows an equivalent surfaces ( to scatter the pump illumination )
convex curvature. After the flash , the ends and designing rods that compensate for or
show an equivalent concave curvature . minimize the effects. The second problem of
The heat which induces the distortions has distortion after the flash can be helped by
two distinct sources , according to the model filtering out the infrared energy resulting
derived by the AFCRL scientists. First, from the flash pump, designing pumping
during the pump flash , heat is absorbed by schemes that minimize heat transfer by
the doping agent in the rod, then by radiation conduction and convection , or by immersion
and conduction from the flash tube and sur of the rod in an index -matching, infrared
rounding air . absorbing fluid.

Typical fringe pattern of the type used by AFCRL scientists to measure distortions in laser rods.
This photo shows a fairly uniform fringe pattern .
 PROFILES

TE
ET
EA H
O
TR
S
E

TE
O
13 T
1
S
N

19
81

Captain Rinaldo F . Vachino, Aerospace Mechanics Division, FJSRL , and GeorgeLommel, a researcher
from the von Karman Institute ofBrussels, Belgium , are shown discussing the results of a jointresearch
project conducted by them at the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory. The two spent a month recently
translating problems involved in returning a lunar probe to the earth into a computer program . The re
search reported in this issue of the Review by Captain Vachino in the article, “ A Computational Pro
cedure for Optimum Trajectory and Optimal Control Problems," formed the basis for this computer pro
gram . Captain Vachino is a research associate at the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory . Prior to
his transfer to FJSRL,he worked with the Synthesis and Analysis Division ,Directorate ofEngineering,
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, where he participated in studies of the stability and control of winged
andre-entry vehicles, operational evaluationsofSTOL and VTOL aircraft, and B -70 penetration studies.
He received his B .S. in Electrical Engineering from the Newark College of Engineering, and his M .S.
from the Air Force Institute of Technology. He is a Ph.D . candidate at the University of Michigan .
21
 Dr. Henry C .Graham is a research physicistwith the Metallurgy
and Ceramics Research Laboratory , ARL , and is currently con
ducting research on the measurement of the dielectric loss and
capacitance of ceramic materials at 102, 10 %, 10 , and 105 cycles
per second over the temperature range from - 195°C to 1 ,000°C.
These materials include both single-crystal and polycrystalline
samples. Dr. Graham has a B . S . in Ceramic Engineering (1956 ),
and an M .S . in Ceramic Engineering (1958), both from Alfred Uni.
versity. In 1965 he received his Ph. D ., also in Ceramic Engineer
ing, from Ohio State University .He has several publications to his
credit. In this issue of the Review , Dr. Graham coauthors the oro
ticle, " Enhanced Surface-Layer Diffusion ."

First Lieutenant Anthony K . Hyder, Jr., attended the University

of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana where in June, 1962, he re
ceived the degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics. He was
named a Distinguished Military Graduate in the Air Force Reserve
Officers Training Corps and was commissioned a Second Lieuten
ant in the Air Force Reserve . His first assignment was to the Air
Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base ,
Ohio where, in August 1964, he received the Master of Science de
gree in Space Physics. He was then assigned to the Aerospace
Research Laboratories in the Nuclear Structure Group of the Gen
eral Physics Branch . In January 1965 he received the permanent
grade of First Lieutenant. Lt. Hyder 's present research involves
the experimental study of the structure of medium - light nuclei. In
this issue of the Review , he presents " The Study of Nuclear Ex
cited States By Means of the ( p. 7) Reaction."

Dr. Norman M . Tallan is a research physicistwith the Metallurgy

and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL . He has been with the
Aerospace Research Laboratories since 1959. Currently , he is in
vestigating the electrical dissipation factor and dielectric con
stant of nonmetallics as a function of temperature and frequency,
and as a reflection of defect mechanisms.He is also investigating
the electrical conductivity of nonmetallics as a function of tem
perature, frequency, and deviation from stoichiometry . In addition,
he is looking into electricalpolarization as an indication of trans
port numbers for electrons and ions. Dr. Tallan has a B . S. in
Ceramic Technology from Rutgers University (1954), an M . S. in
Ceramic Engineering from Ohio State (1955), and a Ph.D . in Ce
ramics from Alfred University (1959). He has a great number of
publications to his credit. In this issue of the Review , he is co
author of the article, “ Enhanced Surface-Layer Diffusion ."
22
HUGE BALLOON
LAUNCHED BY AFCRL
AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY, AFCRL
The largest balloon ever made- -one twice 800 feet long prior to infladon - - was fabri
the size of any previous balloon - - was cated by the G , T . Schjeldahl Company. In the
launched by AFCRL on 18 July 1966 . The huge future, other balloons will be launched to a
balloon was used to carry a 1 ,700- lb . test similar altitude (approximately 130,000 feet)
payload to an altitude of 129,000 feet. The where atmospheric density will permit simu
largest balloon previously launched , one of lation of the entry of the Voyager vehicle into
13 . 5 million cubic feet, was sent up by AFCRL the Martian atmosphere .
in January 1965. NASA 's Langley Research Center, Hamp
The balloon was launched from the AFCRL ton , Virginia , manager of the Voyager entry
balloon - launch facility atHolloman AFB, New program , plans to make 5 or 6 flights - -
Mexico . The huge balloon system - -more than involving as many balloons - - to evaluate dif

THIS MOTORIZED CRANE HOLDS THE 815 - FOOT BALLOON IN VERTICAL LAUNCH POSITION
23
INFLATING THE LAUNCH BALLOON
24
ferent experimental parachute systems. The
vehicle will be released by radio command
and accelerated horizontally by 12 rocket
motors to test parachute deployment. The
tests are a prelude to the ultimate goal of
landing a survivable instrument package on
Mars . Such a landing is scheduled for 1973.

In addition to its size, the balloon system

has other distinctive features . During infla
tion , it consists of two interconnected bal
loons, a main balloon surmounted by a small
launch balloon. Its unique design enables the
large main balloon to remain reefed in a
protective sleeve during the critical inflation
and- launch period. The two - balloon system
also enables easy handling and control of the
extremely large balloon train . During pre
launch operations , the top bubble can be
tethered near the ground. Just before launch ,
the entire system is allowed to stand erect,
held to the vertical by cables. The main
balloon , still reefed at this point, presents a
minimum profile to ground winds. Once the
launch begins, an anchoring cable attached
to the reefing sleeve pulls a rip panel from
the sleeve, in a zipper fashion , freeing the
main balloon . As the entire system ascends,
gas from the upper balloon expands into the
main balloon .

The fabrication of the balloon was possible

because of improved balloon materials which
greatly increased strength - to-weight ratios.
The balloon was made of an extremely light
weightmaterial 1 / 3 mil (.00035 inches) thick ,
consisting of a lamination of Mylar and
Dacron fibres. This material was fabri
cated on a special loom , called the Flying
Thread Loom , which continuously varies the
angle of weave and the density of thread
pattern to achieve maximum strengths at
points of the balloon 's surface where the
greatest stresses occur . This material has a
tensile strength 30 times that of polyethylene,
the most widely used balloon material,

THE 815 -FOOT VOYAGER BALLOON SYSTEM

INFLATED AND IN LAUNCH POSITION
VOYAGER BALLOON SYSTEM

Launch Balloon
Inflated Diameter
84 Feet

Voyager
Balloon Main Balloon
815 Feet Inflated
Washington Diameter
Monument 456 Feet
555 Feet

100 Foot Diameter

Cargo Parachute
COR

! !

Height at Launch Height of Inflated Balloon System

Launch Balloon 75 Ft Launch Balloon 75 Ft
Voyager Balloon 570 Voyager Balloon 375
Parachute Train 145 Parachute Train 145
Load Bar & Capsule 25 Load Bar & Capsule 25
815 Ft 620Ft
 TO OUR READERS
Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
(except for those from Latin America ).

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
Laurence G . Hanscom Field , Bedford , Massachusetts 01731

AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : ARI
Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433

AIR FORCE OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Attn : SRGL
1400 Wilson Blvd, Arlington , Va. 22209

THE FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

USAF Academy, Colorado 80840

OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
Holloman AF Base, New Mexico 88330

Request for further information from institutions and individuals in Latin America should
be addressed to :

LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE AEROSPACE RESEARCH

U . S . EMBASSY
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Detailed documentary reports may be obtained from :

CLEARINGHOUSE
U . S . Department of Commerce , Springfield , Virginia 22151

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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 @ research review
RCH OFFICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
OFFIC O AERSOPASCE RESEA FO
E F AN
ST

CRSITY
OAR : The Research Agency
of TheUnited States Air Force
Y
7 R O
JAN 20 196 ENGICN T 1966
A
P

EERIN
G
1
VOLUME V NUMBER 77 HOR
ARY SEPTEMBER 1966

SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH

DR . BERNARD T. WOLFSON , Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR
The occurrence of destructive combustion tion instability has the express purpose of
pressure oscillations is frequently respon obtaining better fundamental understanding of
sible for the failure of a rocket system this phenomenon .
through burnout or physical rupture of the Toward this end , under AFOSR sponsor
combustion - chamber wall or other parts of ship , a small group of scientists headed by
the rocket engine. This is due to the ex Professor Percival D .McCormack, formerly
cessively high temperatures , pressures and at Trinity College, Dublin , Ireland and now at
rates of heat transfer to the injector face the Thayer School of Engineering Sciences ,
and walls of the thrust chamber and nozzle Dartmouth College, has been carrying out a
which accompany this phenomenon . In addi comprehensive investigation ( 1-3 ) of the ef
tion , even if complete destruction of the rocket fect of severe mechanical vibration of the
does not occur, combustion instability can injector plate on liquid and gas fuel jets .
play havoc with sensitive control and servo Their main interest in this investigation lies
systems which are not designed to accom in the possibility of this mechanism ' s acting
modate the violent mechanical vibrations to initiate high - frequency combustion in
which also occur. stability in the rocket engine - - either on
In order to improve understanding of the the ground test stand or in flight.
fundamental processes of combustion insta The sensitivity of jets, gas or liquid , to
bility, to provide realistic criteria for a mechanical vibration of the orifice is an
priori design of new rocket motors , and to area to which very little attention has been
eliminate as much as possible the expensive given since the days of Lord Rayleigh around
cut- and -try methods frequently employed in the end of the last century . This is surpris
rocket development, AFOSR has supported for ing in view of the prevalence of vibration in
a number of years research efforts in various mechanical systems and in view of the pos
aspects of the complex phenomenon of un sible effect on combustion or fluid jet ampli
stable rocket combustion . One important fler operation .
phase of this work involving the investiga In the case of a laminar liquid jet, Profes
tion of various mechanisms which can act to sor McCormack found that - - provided the
initiate or trigger and sustain rocket combus wave length of the disturbance on the jet is

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES * AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE , OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
less than the circumference of the jet -- The phenomenon of plate or disc formation
transverse vibration of the (circular) orifice on a mercury jet had been demonstrated by
can drive instability of the capillary type, J. Hartman in Denmark around 1933. He
first analyzed by Rayleigh (4) and then by modulated the jet velocity electromagneti
Weber (5). In fact, Professor McCormack cally, and the liquid " bunching " that ensued
was able for the first time to check the produced remarkable discs. By applying
validity of the Rayleigh -Weber theory. With vibration with extremely high " g" values
in the context of first-order disturbance (over 200 ), Professor McCormack was able
amplitude, he found that the theory accurately to produce similar disc formation on laminar
described this type of instability . liquid jets. The discs were not so large as

IONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC

SHOCK TUBE
research review Major Russell G . Langlois ..... .......... 12

OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA BY

OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ), Ha Of. Major Morton Reitman, USAFR ...... ....... 14
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF , 1400 Wilson Boulevard ,
Arlington , Va. 22209. The objective of this publication is to
COMPUTER SELF -DIAGNOSIS
make a positive contribution to the exchange of information
Major Joseph P. Martino .......................... 15
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research LOW -VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZnSe : Mn
activities .
Dr. Dietrich W . J. Langer and
JACOB SEIDEN Dr. Robert N . Euwema . . . . . . . . . 18
Editor
SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER
PILOT
Data Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL ..................... 23
SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH
Dr. Bernard T. Wolfson .....
From the Editor:
RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR ELLIPTIC
EQUATIONS The July 1966 Review carried an article by Captain
Capt. John F . Gander................ ............ 3 John F . Schaefer of FJSRL entitled “ Control of Un
stable Mechanical Systems.” This article referred to
LARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF SELENIUM an experimental study conducted by Captain Schaefer
Max Swerdlow ...... at FJSRL's Aerospace Mechanics Division . Actually ,
the experimental study and much of the theoretical
work discussed in the article were conducted by Cap
APPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL INTER tain Schaefer at Stanford University , Since coming to
FEROMETER TO ARC-HEATED PLASMAS the Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL , Captain
Paul W . Schreiber .......... Schaefer has continued his research in the control of
uns table systems, has obtained further computer ver
PHONETIC THEORY ification of his original theories , and has written papers
Office of Assistant Executive Director, A FOSR .......... 11 on them for publication .

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those obtained by Hartman, but were very shortly . Besides its direct significance in the
pronounced . They suffered bybeing subjectto field of combustion , a thorough investigation
atmospheric shattering and bending of the of this phenomenon can throw considerable
liquid around the edges of the discs . The light on the transition to turbulence from
only explanation for this phenomenon is that laminar flow .
the vibration was causing modulation of the The implications of Professor McCor
jet velocity at the injector . This mechanism mack 's research in the combustion - instability
at low ' g " values acts as a trigger for the area have already turned out to be quite
capillary - type instability, satisfying the significant. The results obtained recently
rationally symmetric criterion laid down by enabled one of the prominent rocket-engine
Rayleigh. manufacturers to diagnose quickly and elimi
In the case of a high - velocity atomized nate an unanticipated instability during the
jet, Professor McCormack and his col development of one of the Lunar - Excursion
leagues have shown that, while the capillary Module engines .
type instability has no meaning in this REFERENCES
context, high " g " vibration still induces
velocity modulation and the mass concentra (1) McCormack , P . D ., "' A DrivingMechanism forHigh
tion in the spray varies periodically at the Frequency Instability in Liquid -Fuel Rocket En
applied vibration frequency . gines,” Joumal of the Royal Aeronautical Society ,
Work on gas jets has revealed an interest Vol. 68, No. 465, 1964, pp. 633-637.
(2 ) Crane, L ., S . Birch, and P . D . McCormack , “ The
ing analogy with liquid jets. At low, vibration Effect of Mechanical Vibration on the Breakup of
acceleration values, provided the frequency a Cylindrical Liquid Jet in Air, ” British Joumal
is correct, vortex shedding can be driven . of Applied Physics, Vol. 15, 1964 , pp. 750-763.
At high acceleration values, vortex shedding ( 3 ) McCormack , P . D . , L . Crane, and S. Birch , “ An
can be driven at any frequency. In either case Experimental and Theoretical Analysis of Cylin
drical Liquid J ets Subjected to Vibration , ” British
the result is a considerably augmented rate Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 16, 1965 , pp.
of mixing. A fluid - jet classical closed solu 395 -408 .
tion for the case of mixing in the presence (4) Rayleigh , Lord, Proceedings of the London Mathe
of a periodic source of vorticity atthe orifice matical Society, 10, 4 , 1878 .
has been obtained and will be published (5) Weber, C., 2. angew .Math . Mech., 11, 136 , 1931.

RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR

ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS CAPT JOHN F. GANDER
Directorate ofMathematical Sciences, AFOSR

The theory of elliptic partial differential Today the theory of nonlinear elliptic
equations can be divided into two main equations is a collection of results,methods,
areas. The first area deals with linear ideas, and points of view . Recent contribu
problems. The second area , more closely tions to this steadily growing store of knowl
associated with physical reality, deals with edge on nonlinear theory were presented at
nonlinear problems, Nonlinear equations give the American Mathematical Society ' s sym
a more accurate mathematical representa posium entitled " Applications of Nonlinear
tion of the world we live in than do their Partial Differential Equations in Mathe
linear counterparts . However, they are in matical Physics," (1) jointly supported by
comparably more difficult to solve. Atpresent the Army Research Office and the Mathe
there are many powerful tools and penetrat matics Division of AFOSR .
ing theorems for dealing with nonlinear It is now well established that the ex
equations, yet we are nowhere close to tremals of multiple integral variational prob
formulating a general theory , lems of a suitable form are the solutions of
a particular class of nonlinear elliptic equa LARGE SINGLE
tions. Also, existence and differentiability of
solutions of this class of equations has CRYSTALS OF
recently been brought to a certain degree of
completeness . Very little effort,however, has SELENIUM
been spent in determining the type of singu
larities which solutions may have. MAX SWERDLOW
One of the significant contributions on this Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR
subject was presented at the symposium by
Professor James Serrin of the University of There will be few readers of this article
Minnesota, a principal investigator in a re who do not realize that the science of single
search program supported by the Mathe crystal preparation is one of the mainstays
matics Division of AFOSR . Professor Serrin ' s of our materials- research effort. Our
paper , entitled ''Singularities of Solutions of present- day electronics and space technology ,
Nonlinear Equations, " deals with thebehavior with its spectrum of semiconductor products,
of solutions of nonlinear elliptic equations depends ultimately upon the preparation of
near isolated singularities . Themain theorem single- crystal semiconducting material. The
of Serrin 's paper states conditions under development of single - crystal preparation
which the solution to the equation in a suit from an art into a science has been a long
able domain has a removable singularity at and difficult process for, like the Pilgrim 's
the origin , A corresponding treatment of the way, the path of crystal growth has been
behavior of a positive solution defined in an beset with a wide variety of difficulties .
exterior domain is also included. Many of the problems are common to all
Another similar and significant contribution crystals: dislocations, lineage boundaries,
to the theory of nonlinear elliptic differential impurity fluctuations and the like. Themeans
equations is contained in a joint paper (2) by of circumventing these are usually similar,
Professor P . Hartman of the Johns Hopkins at least within a given family ofmaterials ,
University and Professor G . Stampacchia of For example, the reduction of thermalgradi
the University of Pisa , Italy. The authors ents during cooling of a grown crystal is
obtain existence and uniqueness theoremsfor always beneficial, and homogenization of the
(weak) uniformly Lipschitz continuous solu growth medium ahead of the solid interface
tions of Dirichlet boundary - value problems is a common practice. The challenge of
associated with a class of nonlinear elliptic crystal growth is always greatest when these
differential- functional equations. Existence problems are first encountered , for then the
theorems for the solutions of certain non task appears as an intrinsic property specific
linear functional inequalities are also estab to the crystal being grown. At this stage the
lished , and a priori estimates for quasi demands may be more than science alone
solutions are developed . One of the novel can meet, and one looks to the art of crystal
features of the results of the paper is the growth for the initial solution .
fact that the equations considered involve
nonlinear functionals rather than functions AFOSR has recently cosponsored a re
of the unknown function . search program with Westinghouse Research
Laboratories , part of which included a study
REFERENCES of the crystallization of selenium , an ele
mental semiconductor which fails to grow at
( 1) American Mathematical Society, “ Applications of adequate rates under conventional laboratory
Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations in Mathe conditions. The selenium molecule in the
matical Physics,” Proceedings of Symposia in
Applied Mathematics, Vol. XVII, 68-88, 1965. liquid has polymer - like properties and, what
(2 ) Hartman , Philip and Guido Stampacchia, “ On Some ever the method of crystallization , the ex
Nonlinear Elliptic Differential-Functional Equa perimentalist must deal with the fact thatthe
tions, ” Acta Mathematica , Vol. CXV , 271 -310, molecules in the medium ahead of the crystal
1966 . may be in the form of chains of varying
lengths and varying degrees of kinkiness, or figuration in the liquid would increase , and
in the form of closed rings of eightSe atoms. obtained polycrystalline ingots with a maxi
In order to grow a single crystal, the inter mum grain size of about 0.5 cm in diameter.
face must be able to select the appropriate These still had to be pried or cut loose
molecular - entity length from this mélange. from the mass , and were so damaged that
At room temperature the selection process little meaningful data could be obtained
is sluggish and the crystal growth slow , from them . The crystal growth rate was
whatever the means. The purpose of the re some three orders ofmagnitude higher than
search was to develop a means of growing that experienced at atmospheric pressure ,
really large selenium crystals at reasonable thus providing the first insight into themeans
rates, and to make these available for study. of accelerating the growth of this elemental
For selenium is , at present, one of the least semiconductor .
known elemental semiconductors.
The culminating step in this story was the
production of single crystals of selenium ,
Prior to the work at Westinghouse Re 1 cm in diameter and 10 cm long, at West
search Laboratories, the largest selenium inghouse under the cosponsorship of AFOSR .
crystals that had been grown were 1.5 x For atmospheric pressures, it is experi
. 7 x .6 cm over all , in the form of imperfect mentally not too difficult to make the transi
hoppers . These were prepared by the Russian tion from a polycrystalline ingot to single
investigator, P . T . Kozgrev (1), from the crystal growth . The furnace is adjusted to
vapor phase, taking two months to grow to have gentle temperature gradients , and the
this size. Because of the long time of growth ingot mold is made with a tapered end so
and the poor habit, Kozgrev turned to melt that a single grain may predominate over the
growth . At one atmosphere , selenium melts many that are initiated there. The optimum
at about 217° C ; but the liquid is a glass rate of normal freeze is then determined .
former and may be readily undercooled The final important condition in the growth
several degrees below themelting pointwith of the resulting single grain is that the
out any visible sign of nucleation . If the interface remain more or less planar , and
undercooled liquid does nucleate, or if it is that supercooling be avoided in the liquid .
deliberately seeded, the growth rate of the If supercooling does occur, stray grains
resulting solid is exceedingly slow . Kozgrev nucleate ahead of the interface, either in the
found that, to controlmelt growth , he had to body of the melt or in the walls of the con
allow it to proceed at the same rate as the tainer . To grow selenium , these same criteria
vapor process , about a quarter of a milli had to be met, not at 1 but at 5 ,000 atmos
meter a day. Even at this low rate he was pheres pressure.
unable to obtain single- crystal ingots , al
though occasionally large grains could be
separated from the solidified mass . The dif Fig . 1 shows the apparatus developed by
ficulty in this procedure is that selenium is Dr. D . E . Harrison and W . A . Tiller (3) for
very susceptible to mechanical damage, the growth of large crystals. Selenium was
slipping readily on the {1012} planes. From contained in an open quartz vial within a
the sluggish rate of melt growth , Kozgrev Stellite pressure bomb. The system was
rightly deduced that the limitation lay in pressurized by pumping argon at 2,000 kbar
the nature of the molecular configuration into this bomb (and a second bomb, not
presented for attachment to the freezing shown) which was cooled to liquid - nitrogen
interface. Nasledov and Kozgrev (2 ) then temperatures to liquify the argon. The second
tried to grow selenium under pressure, to bomb was then warmed to evaporate the argon ,
take advantage of the increase in the freezing driving the pressure to its operating value
point with increasing pressure. They reasoned and maintaining it there for the duration of
that, with increasing temperature , the prob the experiment. During this time, heaters
ability of finding the correct molecular con (B - B ') and a water- cooled quench tank (C )
 were moved slowly up the first bomb. These
initially carried a constanttemperature zone,
some 30° C above the melting point, through
the selenium , melting the sample. This was
followed by a region in which the tempera
ture dropped about 45° C / cm . The rate of
growth was typically10- ) cm /sec, with the
growth front essentially planar.
Fig . 2 shows large ingots of single -crystal
selenium . For the top ingot, initial growth
(B ') was from the tapered end and was poly
crystalline; but single - crystal growth pre
vailed over the bulk of the ingot. The growth
direction was 10 to 40 degrees off the
rhombohedral " C " axis , and detailed obser
vations have shown that a certain amount of
lineage structure is present. Although X -ray
rotation photographs about the " c " axis gave
well- defined layer spots, " a " axis rotation
showed considerable (4) streaking . The small
pits on the sides of the ingots were caused
by bubbles of the high - pressure medium ,
argon . The selenium melt was outgassed
(H ) prior to each experiment to avoid other
100
DOD0:

extraneous bubbling . There seems to be

little question but that the success of this
Motor Drive process can be ascribed to the very careful
control of the thermal environment. These
crystals have been made widely available,
and it is expected that we shall soon see a
considerable number of papers in the litera
ture on their properties .
There remains, then , the basic problem of
the marked increase in the rate of solidifi
cation as the pressure and temperature
Fig. 1. Apparatus for melt-growth of selenium are raised . The theory of Eisenberg and
single crystals under high pressure . Tobolsky ( 5 ) describes the structure of the
liquid by considering the reversible reaction
The Stellite bomb (A ), which contains selenium involving the breaking of the 8 - atom selenium
in a quartz tube, is subjected to 5 ,000 atmospheres rings and the attachmentof ringmaterial onto
argon pressure through inlet (1). Heaters B and chains . Since this ring - chain equilibrium can
B ' raise the selenium temperature above its melt be related to viscosity, Harrison was able to
ing point; then a controlled temperature gradient deduce the average chain length from pres
is passed through the molten sample, causing .it sure- viscosity data taken in a novel high
to solidity . The combination of fins on (A ), heater pressure viscometer. (6) He found that the
( B ) and water bath (C , E , F, G and H ) produces a average chain length near the melting point
thermal gradient of ~ 45°C/ cm . The gradient is is about 800 units of Seg, while at 3420 C the
moved by drive motor (D ) lifting ( B , C, G ) upward chain length is nearer 100 of these units .
around fixed bomb ( A ). Under these conditions, Now , the viscosity of the melt falls with
crystals of selenium about 1 centimeter in diam increasing temperature. At constanttempera
eter and 10 centimeters long can be grown at0. 15 ture, the viscosity rises with pressure, but
to 0. 4 cm /hr. at such a rate that the net viscosity at the
Fig . 2 . Large crystals of selenium . The two top crystals have been grown parallel to the “ c”' axis , the
topmost crystal from a subdiameter seed , and the middle crystal from a full-diameter seed. Note
thewhiskers (needle -like crystals)at the left end of the middle crystal (top end during growth ).
A section which has been cut from a crystal and cleaved parallel to the " c " axis appears with
the inch -scale marker.

freezing point decreases with higher pres possible candidate , Single crystals of poly
sures and temperatures. Since the ring ethylene may be grown from solution ; but
chain equilibrium and chain length are but their size is such that they must be ex
little affected by pressure, the selenium melt amined in the electron microscope . Their
in these growth experiments is notonlymore dimensions are thought to be related to a
fluid at 342° C , but also has simpler, shorter chain - folding process occurring in attach
chains than selenium liquid at its melting ment to the solid , the chain - folding length
temperature at ambient pressure, Crystal determining the thickness of the lamellae
lization is thus faster . that form the basic structural unit of these
The selenium melt, with its ring - chain tiny crystals, Westinghouse has recently at
equilibrium , is essentially polymeric in char tempted to crystallize polyethylene in the
acter ; in common with other polymer melts, high - pressure apparatus . A transition from
selenium may crystallize as spherulites at spherulitic to extended grain growth has been
atmospheric pressure. This spherulitic observed , suggesting that the freezing process
growth may be entirely suppressed at high has been substantially altered . Of course,
pressures. It thus seems likely that a pres the chain length in polyethylene and related
sure variable may be useful in obtaining compounds is considerably greater than that
crystals of other materials with polymeric of selenium , and the problem of growing
melts. Polyethylene, for example, may be a large single organic polymer crystals is
 thus much more formidable; but it does ap scientists concerned with basic structure
pear that the use of elevated pressures is a sensitive properties of materials now have
step in the right direction. Polymer crystals pure single crystals of ample size on which
would be widely welcomed for they would they can perform reproducible experiments
make possible the determination of accurate and controlled measurements of the elec
bulk properties, quantities which at present tronic structure and the semiconducting prop
are not known with any precision . erties of selenium ,
Crystal growth from the melt at high
pressures is still in the very early stages REFERENCES
of development. Although it is tempting to (1) Kozgrev, P . T., Sov. Phys. Tech. Paper, 28, 470,
speculate on the possibilities, we must, as 1958 .
always, await the outcome of our experi (2) Nasledov, D . N . and P . T. Kozgrev, J . Tech . Phys.
ments . Nevertheless, the achievement of the (USSR ), 24 , 2124 , 1954 .
Westinghouse researchers' in the field of ( 3) Harrison, D . E . and W . A . Tiller, J . Appl. Phys.,
crystal growth and of solid - liquid kinetics is 36 , 1680, 1965.
(4 ) Harrison , D . E ., J. Appl. Phys., 36 , 3154 , 1965.
a signal demonstration of progress in 15 (5 ) Eisenberg, A . and A . V . Tobolsky, J . Polymer
years of growing semiconductor crystals by Sci., 46 , 19 , 1960 .
well - established techniques. Solid - state (6 ) Harrison , D . E ., J . Chem . Phys. , 41, 844 , 1964 .

APPLICATION OF
THE DIFFERENTIAL INTERFEROMETER
TO ARC -HEATED PLASMAS
PAUL W . SCHREIBER , Thermomechanics Research Laboratory, ARL
The major problem associated with the ometer. In addition , setup and alignment
evaluation of energy - exchange processes in may be accomplished in a very short time,
plasma- flow systems is obtaining detailed usually several hours. A simplified optical
information on the state of the plasma and diagram of the interferometer is shown in
its surroundings . The desired information Figure 1 . In operation, rays from a high
may include temperature and particle- density pressuremercury source are plane- polarized
distributions as functions of space and time. and focused on Wollaston prism 1 . As shown
Although laser and Mach - Zender interfer for the sample ray in the diagram , this
ometers are available, these instruments prism , when properly oriented , splits an
are expensive and require considerable effort incident ray into two diverging rays of equal
to set up . In addition , the laser - type interfer intensity with electric - field vectors at right
ometer requires lateral scans and stable angles to each other (see Reference 2 ). A
operation of the plasma system for long spherical mirror , located very near the
periods of time. Because many engineering arc plasma, focuses the two rays back on
plasmas are time-dependent, temporal as Wollaston prism 1 which lies at themirror' s
well as spatially resolved measurements are center of curvature. The two rays emerge
required. For these reasons, an in - house as a single ray with a difference in phase of
experiment, in conjunction with the Physics the E vectors . This difference in phase ,
Department of the Air Force Institute of combined with the lateral distance (Ax)
Technology, was initiated to study the ap between the two rays as they pass through
plicability of the differential interferometer the plasma, gives a measure of the lateral
to plasma diagnostics. (1) gradient in the optical path of the plasma
The interferometer developed was con source. This information is sufficient to
structed from component parts, and is much determine the index of refraction as a func
less expensive than a Mach -Zender interfer tion of the arc radius. This is explained in
 POL ARIZER
WOLLASTON
HALF - AL , MIRROR PRISM I

ARC

SOURCE

CONDENSING 1
LENS + FOCUSING LENS 2
SPHERICAL
FILTER MIRROR

WOLLASTON
PRISM 2
ANALYZER
ANALYZER
CAMERA LENS
CAMERALENS II
FILM PLATE

Fig. 1. Schematic of the Wollaston Prism Differential Interferometer.

more detail in Reference (1). determined by using an axially symmetric

In order to measure the phase difference helium object near room temperature. The
in the E vectors, a second Wollaston prism symmetric helium object was obtained by
and analyzer are used . A half-aluminized flowing helium from a l- inch - diameter tube
mirror and lens 2 focus the emerging rays into room air. Steel wool in the tube served
from prism 1 parallel to the optical axis so to straighten the flow after the helium had
that they are incident perpendicular to the passed through a copper coil immersed in a
surface of prism 2. Prism 2 is oriented so water bath maintained at room temperature.
that the two emerging rays corresponding to The resultant fringe pattern is shown in
each incident ray lie in a planeperpendicular Figure 2, and the reduced data (index of
to the plane of Figure 1. These rays, after refraction minus one) obtained by using a
passing through a narrow band - pass filter computer code based on the Nestor- Olsen
(8Ă half- width ) and analyzer, are focused by method of solving the Abel- type integral
lens 3 along with the arc image on a screen equation is shown in Figure 3 (Reference 3).
or photographic plate where they interfere . The published value for the helium index of
At this plane, a fringe pattern is formed .With refraction is 1 .0000319, while themeasured
no plasma present, a series of horizontal value obtained ranged from 1.000031 to
fringes is observed . The details of the for 1.000033 . Thus, for a steady source, one
mation of this fringe pattern may be found may expect to measure indices of refraction
in Reference 2 . With a plasma or other object, with an error of approximately + 10 - 0 . These
the fringes shift in the vertical direction ; data show that the differential interferometer
the vertical displacement is a measure of is a reliable instrumentformeasuring indices
lateral gradient in the opticalpath through the of refraction for axially symmetric objects.
plasma. Following the helium measurements, the
radial distribution of the refractive index of
The combined accuracy of the interfer an arc - heated argon plasma wasmeasured at
ometer and data - reduction technique was a single wave length . In addition , thetempera
 smaller by two orders of magnitude for the
temperature range investigated . The results
obtained confirm the assumptions used in the
calculations.
In addition to checking dispersion theory ,
the interferometer may be used as a diagnostic
tool. The results indicate that electron
densities greater than 1016 electron / cm3may
be measured if 2 wave lengths are used
with 1 wave length in the near - infrared .
Also, the interferometer provides an ex
cellent technique to measure the tempera
ture and number density distribution from
Fig. 2. Interferogram of room -temperature helium 8,000°K to room temperature. This is im
flowing into air. portant for some applications because the
lower limit of spectrometric measurements
ture distribution in the argon arc was deter is approximately 8 ,0000 K .
mined from the measured radial distribution Future plans include making a more de
of the continuum radiation . A comparison of tailed study of arc-heated argon and helium
the results, based on a reference tempera plasmas by using a number of narrow - band
ture of 8 ,800° K , is shown in Figure 4 . The filters at different wave lengths as well as
calculated curve in Figure 4 is based on the testing the feasibility of using the differential
contributions to the refractive index by interferometer in conjunction with a spec
ground - state atoms and ions and free elec trometer to measure the dispersion of spec
trons. The effects caused by the lowering of tral lines as a function of wave length . *
the ionization potential and the excited - state
atoms were not considered in the calcula
tions. However , calculations based on known Argon Flow - 0 , 5 10 /hr .
• 1 -
argon transition probabilities indicate that II 124 . Amps
• 5463 A
the effects of the excited states are probably
1x)-(n 00

26 .51
25 .
Date the
7. 61003
Tots • 23 .3°C - 2, 41013
The • 22 .4°C 41014
4 . 41005
P . 748 mm Hg
Relative Humidity ma 50%
Calculated values ! 1. 2. 3.
ny. - 1 - 3 . 19 x 10 "
narr -1 • 26 .48 x 10°5 Arc Radius ~ mm

Fig. 4. Measured and predicted refractivity of the

arc core .
(n−1)x 05

Dashed curve is the theoretical prediction based

upon temperature measurement.
REFERENCES
( 1) Lamb, Jimmy D ., The Application of a Differential
Interferometer to an Axially Symmetric Arc -Heated
13.1 to 33 Plasma, Master's Thesis , Air Force Institute of
Technology , March 1966 .
(2) Jenkins , F . A . and H . E . White, Fundamentals of
0 25 50 75 1.0 Physical Optics, New York : McGraw -Hill Book
r/ R Company, Inc., 1937 , pp. 329, 361.
(3 ) Nestor, O . H . and H . N . Olsen , “ NumericalMethods
for Reducing Line and Surface Probe Data , " SIAM
Fig . 3. Measured refractive index of helium . Review , Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 200-207, 1960.
PHONETIC
THEORY OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR , AFOSR *

For a number of years, AFOSR has been membership of ASHA (American Speech
supporting work on phonetics and acoustics and Hearing Association ). It is probable
by Drs. Gordon E . Peterson and June E . that the combined presentation of ' A
Shoup at the University of Michigan . A Physiological Theory of Phonetics' and
great deal of important research has flowed ' The Elements of an Acoustic Theory of
from this work . In the March 1966 issue of Phonetics' with their associated 'Glos
the Journal of Speech and Hearing Research sary of Terms' will constitute an impor
(JSHR ), Drs. Peterson and Shoup published tant theoretical and practical phonetic
a group of three articles, summarizing milepost. It seems both appropriate and
their work to date . These were " A Physio mandatory that they be published together
logical Theory of Phonetics, " " The Ele and made available to the entiremember
ments of an Acoustic Phonetic Theory," and ship.
" Glossary of Terms from the Physiological " The 'Physiological Theory of Pho
and Acoustic Phonetic Theories ." netics ' incorporates much thathaswith
To describe the significance of these stood the tests of time, and amalgamates
articles, the Chairman of the Publications that information with newer concepts
Board of JSHR, Dr. Paul Moore of the De that have come from recent research and
partment of Speech , University of Florida, investigations. The physiologicalparam
wrote a foreword which is reprinted below with eters of descriptive phonetics have been
the permission of both Dr. Moore and JSHR . recast within the concepts of modern
linquistics to form a consistent theory
FOREWORD that can serve as a base for instruction
and research . The presentation is de
"Histories of the sciences and aca tailed and meticulously complete ; it
demic disciplines contain numerous ex relates theoretically to all probable
amples of discoveries and theoretical language sounds and to their production.
functions that have become recognized It is not easy reading, but it is essential
as reference points in the development reading and forms a background for the
of the field to which they belong . Some meaningful study of the acoustic theory
times these events lie dormant until set forth in the second article .
later findings reveal their significance;
sometimes they gradually infiltrate the " Acoustic theories of phonetics as well
field; and sometimes they are heralded as physiological theories have been
at their inception for their recognized available for various purposes for a long
potential contribution and are put to use time; but, as the authors point out, the
immediately . It is my opinion that the relationships between these two ap
phonetic theories presented in this issue proaches have not been closely drawn
by Peterson and Shoup add significantly and, in fact, have notbeen clearly identi
to the essential knowledge of all fields fied . The philosophy of the writers con
concerned with oral communication , and cerning the distribution of the acoustic
that they should be specifically recog theory and its relationship to thephysio
nized for their potential worth to the logical information is clearly revealed
in the following statement from the
* Contributed by Major Joseph P . Martino, AFOSR . second article . 'It is hoped that this
11
 present paper will show the extent to down . A discontinuity appears between the
which the acoustical characteristics of flow conditions upstream and those down
speech can be used as a basis for de stream . This discontinuity is called a shock
scriptive phonetics . In this sense the wave, and has been studied extensively by
paper is concerned with the essential authors too numerous to mention . Because
properties of a general acoustic pho of their relevance to blast effects and the
netic theory. Such a theory is needed design of aircraft and spacecraft, shock
for many purposes, but it cannot stand wave phenomena up to hypersonic speeds
independently of a physiological pho have been thoroughly investigated . This leads
netic theory. In fact, a physiological us from the developments in what might be
theory must provide the basic reference called classical shock waves to a new kind
for an acoustic phonetic theory. As the called the strong ionizing shock wave.
following pages suggest, it is not likely Since a shock wave is the transition area
that an acoustic phonetic theory can be between two vastly differing regions in
constructed independently , without ref space, it can be expected that, as its speed
erence to physiological phonetics .' increases, major physical changes will occur
" The simultaneous presentation of two across the shock front itself. The shock front
distinct but related papers enables the is the region of very steep temperature
authors to focus separately upon the gradients separating the cold gas (preshocked )
unique features of the physiological and from the hot gas (postshocked ). It is usually
acoustics concepts, and concurrently to a few mean free paths thick . As the Mach
indicate the interrelationships that exist. number increases, the temperature of the
There can be little doubt that the avail postshocked gas increases roughly as the
ability of both papers within the same square of the Mach number until about Mach
issue not only increases understanding, 5 . (See Fig. 1 ). Using hydrogen , dissociation
but will also enhance the usefulness of begins at this point, and the hydrogen be
the theories. comes 100 % dissociated at speeds of Mach
"'It is hoped that this publication will 20. At this latter Mach number ionization
constitute a significant service to the begins, and if the Mach number is increased
membership ." further to Mach 56 , the gas will consist
only of electrons and protons. Increasing the
Mach number still further will provide enough
energy to the particles to produce nuclear
reactions. About Mach 20, therefore, the gas
ionizing shock waves becomes a conducting plasma; and it is here
that electromagnetic (EM ) effects become
in an electromagnetic important. In the ordinary gas dynamic shock
tube, pressure forces drive the shock front.
shock tube In the EM shock tube, the ionized plasma
may be considered as a conductor, and the
MAJOR RUSSELL G . LANGLOIS shock is driven electromagnetically . (See
Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR Fig. 2 ) Two kinds of shock waves should
be distinguished at this point, Shock waves
The propagation of waves in gases has that ionize the gas and make it a conductor
been studied as early as themid - 19th century as they pass through it are called ' ionizing
by Stokes and Challis. They learned that shock waves ." Shock waves that propagate
sound waves or acoustic waves propagate at through a gas already ionized and conducting
a characteristic velocity, and can be de are called magnetohydrodynamic (MHD )
scribed as a small disturbance in a com waves,
pressible fluid . As the amplitude of the Research sponsored by AFOSR at Columbia
disturbance becomes large, the wave front University has been centered on generadng
becomes steep, and the simple theory breaks ionizing shocks using an electromagnetic
12
 110 dielectric medium in front and a highly
(1 B . V )
Initial State: Hydrogen conducting plasma behind , the ionizing shock
102LP : 0.10 Torr wave behavior would be a mixture of an
T : 273°K ordinary gas dynamic shock (no conductivity
8 :1,38 W /m2 Thermonuclear
on either side of the shock ) and a pure
En:3.50x10 cm ? Shock 710 ? magnetohydrodynamic shock (high electrical
0 =1,25x10 m /sec conductivity on both sides). This is not quite
0 :3.58x10 m /sec the case, since the electric field ahead of an
J : 10
Relativistic
Electrons
(1 MeV ) ionizing shock influences the shock behavior
Optically
Thin
Radiative
markedly . The source of the electric field
Shock originates in the ionizing shock structure . In
Temperature

Temperature
Reflected
pursuing the theory further, four new features
Shock which distinguish ionizing shocks from MHD
OK

shocks were uncovered . These are:

eV
J=10 ' amp/m
a ). For ionizing shocks, one cannot arbi
trarily specify the preshock electric field .
Dissociation

b). The ionizing shock -wave solutions are

Ionization

J= 109 bounded for a given electric field and, below

a certain speed , there are no steady- state
- Optically Thick solutions.
Radiativo Equilibrium
Shockt c). The postionizing shock temperature is
E,:6x10 V/m 80=104
higher than the zero electric - field case,
ampm d). Above a certain electric field , thereis
E ,- 07
no steady solution for slow ionizing waves.
Professor Gross has also obtained switch
AJ:10 amp/m Switch - on on shock behavior with ionizing waves at
L Shock 1
sub - Alfvénic speeds . A switch - on shock is one
in which a magnetic field and a component of
ge o 6 0 momentum , tangential to the flow direction ,
u, meters /sec are generated by the shock. In MHD shocks,
micrometeorites solar wind during solar flare
switch - on waves occur in the speed range
meteorites
calm day solar windd
magnetic storm
in 10 cm ) greater than the Alfvén speed ( characteristic
velocity of an electromagnetic disturbance in
Fig. 1. A plot of temperature vs. shock speed. a conducting gas). In recent experiments,
Miller (2) of Columbia has clearly identified
shock tube. Professor RobertGross,principal ionizing switch - on shock waves by means of
investigator, has found rather striking dif magnetic- field probes . Under some condi
ferences between ionizing shocks and MHD tions a uniform gas sample behind the shock
shocks. (1) One might expect that, with a has been obtained; however, there appears

- HOT COLD
+
I
+

STRONG IONIZING SHOCK

Fig. 2. An electromagnetic shock tube.
 to be a considerable divergence in results understand the behavior of shock waves at
among several investigators doing similar these temperature regimes, where radiation
work . and relativistic effects play an important
Most of the research in high - temperature role ,
plasmas is motivated by controlled thermo REFERENCES
nuclear applications and aimed at solving (1) Gross, R . A ., "ioStrong Ionizing Shock Waves,” Re
astrophysical problems. The shock heating of 965, pp: nPhysics,
view 1ofModem
view izing ShocVol.
k Tu37be, Number 4 , Octo
plasmas to temperatures required for nuclear ber 1965, pp. 724 -743.
(2 ) Miller, B ., " Ionizing Shock Studies in an Electro
ignition appears to be a valid concept. How magnetically Driven Shock Tube,” Columbia Uni
ever, much more research is required to versity , New York , AFOSR 66 -0300, June 1965.

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

OF BACTERIA
BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
MAJOR MORTON REITMAN , USAFR , Life Sciences Division , Hq OAR *
In the event of a biological-warfare attack , unique compounds which might serve as an
a method of rapidly detecting and identifying additional or rapid means for establishing
viable micro- organisms in a background the presence and classification of bacteria .
containing a large number of nonviable agents
and nonbiological materials may prove to be Excretory metabolities from growing cul
very useful for defense measures . Under the tures of bacteria have been analyzed by gas
sponsorship of AFOSR , a study to assess the chromatographic methods , and chromat
feasibility of detecting and identifying bacteria ograms representing a signature or finger
by an investigation of their metabolic products print for each bacterium have been obtained .
was initiated in October 1964 by Dr . Y . These chromatograms could be used to dis
Henis , Dr. M . Alexander and Mr. J. R . tinguish the bacterial strainsfrom one another
Gould of the General Electric Company . simply by considering thepresenceor absence
of peaks, or by the quantities of the various
The methodology employs the selectivity products formed .
of the gas chromatograph in conjunction with
ultrasensitive detectors, such as the elec In order to facilitate identification of the
tron - capture detector and the flame- ioniza volatile metabolites, a number of known
tion detector, for the analysis of gases, products of bacterial metabolism were ex
volatile products, or other products ofmetab amined . Results suggest that it is possible
olism that can be converted into volatile to detect quantitatively as little as 22 pico
derivatives . Many volatile compounds are grams (1pg = 1 x 10 - 12 grams) of diacetyl
synthesized by micro -organismsduring their and acetoin . E . coli, B. circulans, and B .
growth . Through the use of sensitive instru megaterium , organisms classified as acetoin
ments, the presence of small numbers of negative, generated products which were
bacteria may be determined by detecting the identified by gas chromatography as diacetyl
formation of specific bacterial products . In and acetoin . In view of the frequency of
addition , because of the sensitivity ofcertain these two products in bacterial cultures and
detectors employed with the gas chroma the extreme sensitivity of the electron
tograph , it may be possible to devise a capture detection unit to them , one of the
method for the detection of as -yet - unknown most effective methods for detecting the
presence of micro -organismsmight well be
*Maj Reitman was on active duty at Hq QAR when to examine for diacetyl and acetoin forma
he wrote this article . tion .
14
 The results of this study indicate that this the Joint Services Electronics Program , has
techniquemay not only be useful in determin been investigating the problem of computer
ing the presence of small numbers of organ self - diagnosis. Drs. E . Manning and D .
isms by detecting the formation of specific Compton of that Laboratory have devised a
products , but that such techniques may also procedure for self -diagnosis of digital com
have application in the clinical laboratory . puters, based on the CSX - l computer de
A physician may no longer have to wait two veloped at CSL . This procedure has been
to three days for a laboratory report on a tested and shown feasible.
causative disease agent, but may be able to
obtain this important information in a matter In operation , the self- diagnosis procedure
of hours. consists of a short program which is loaded
into the computer and started running . If the
program runs to completion , this is a neces
COMPUTER SELF-DIAGNOSIS sary and sufficient condition that there are no
failures in the system (i. e., that if any ele
MAJOR JOSEPH P. MARTINO ment has failed , it has been supplanted by a
Office of the Assistant Executive Director redundant back - up element), and that there
AFOSR fore the computations of the computer are
correct. In the event of a failure of the
program to run to completion, a fault is
present in the computer . The computer
operator then determines the contents of the
program registers of the computer (this is a
simple print- out process), and consults a
handbook which provides a manual pro
cedure to be implemented on the computer .
Execution of this manual procedure will per
mit diagnosis of the fault .
The procedure for self - diagnosis was tested
In any computer system , it is vitally neces by simulating the CSX - 1 computer on a Con
sary to be able to determine whether or not trol Data Corporation 1604 computer , with
the computer is functioning correctly. Fail failures of some of the elements included in
ures in one or more elements may permit the simulation . (This was a simpler proce
the computer to continue to operate but, by dure than introducing genuine element failures
producing erroneous computations, make the in the CSX - 1.) The experiments showed that
results of that operation worthless. This can self - diagnosis was feasible, and that the
be of particular significance in computers execution hardware could be checked in a
used in aerospace vehicles for such func fraction of a second, with at most a few
tions as bombing and fire control, and for minutes of additional time required for the
attitude and trajectory control. If a computa fault - locating procedure if , in fact, the
tion is in error, the result can be complete diagnosis showed that the computer was not
failure of the mission, or even loss of the fault- free. The techniques used for self
vehicle , Thus, a rapid method of locating diagnosis and fault location appear to be ap
computer malfunctions, and of diagnosing the plicable to a variety of computers ; but, be
cause of these malfunctions, would be ex cause of differences in hardware and design ,
tremely valuable in improving the reliability each computer will require a different self
and capability of computers used in aerospace diagnosis program . Successfuldemonstration
applications. of the program on the CSX - 1 , however , pro
The Co- ordinated Science Laboratory vides considerable confidence that similar
(CSL ) of the University of Illinois, supported procedures can be devised for computers
by the Electronics Division of AFOSR through which will be used in aerospace vehicles . *
15
PROFILES

Mr. Paul W . Schreiber, an ARL scientist with the Thermome

chanics Research Laboratory , is currently doing research con
cerned with the application of experimental and theoretical plasma
physics to electric arcs. This work includes developing experi
mental and analytical techniques to determine the special dis
tributions of emitted radiation , absorbed radiation , temperature
electron den sity, and ion density in alternating- current and di
rect-current arcs as a function of time. Mr. Schreiber has a B . S.
from the University of Dayton (1950 ) and an M . S. from Ohio State
University ( 1956 ). He has also completed 40 semester hours be
yond the M .S. degree at the University of Cincinnati. He has a
number of publications to his credit. In this issue of the Review ,
he discusses " Application of the Differential Interferometer to
Arc -Heated Plasmas. "

Dr. Robert N . Euwema, an ARL research physicist, is with the

Solid State Physics Research Laboratory . Currently, he is mak .
ing crystal field theory calculations in collaboration with the ARL
high - pressure group headed by Dr. D . W . J. Langer. Also , he is
carrying out an investigation of the energy band structure of 11-VI
compounds with Dr. T . Collins. Dr. Euwema has a B .S . from the
Pennsylvania State University (1954), and an M . S . (1956 ) and
Ph . D . ( 1959) from Princeton University . He was formerly an in
structor at Princeton University , and an assistant professor at
Swarthmore College. He has several publications to his credit.
Dr. Euwema and Dr. Langer are co -authors of the article , " Low
Voltage Injection Luminescence in Zn Se:Mn," which appears
this month in the Review .
16
 Dr. Philip Lieberman, of the Speech Research Branch, Data Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL , has con
ceived and developed a " System for Detecting Ground Fire by Helicopter Pilot," described in this
issue of the Review . He received his B .S. and S .M . degrees in Electrical Engineering ( 1958 ) and his
Ph. D . in Linguistics ( 1966 ) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Dr. Lieberman served as
a lieutenant in the Air Force from 1958 to 1962, and has been associated with AFCRL since 1958. He
is a member of the Linguistic Society of America and of the Accoustical Society of America. He was
elected to Sigma Xi in 1958 and to the Technical Committee of Speech Communication of the Acousti
cal Society of America in 1963. Dr. Lieberman has published and presented more than 20 papers in the
field of speech production, speech perception, and linguistics.
 LOW -VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZnSe :Mn
DR. DIETRICH W .J. LANGER and DR . ROBERT N . EU WEMA , Solid State Physics Research
Laboratory, ARL

Properties of manganese luminescence tion with similar but more pronounced data
centers have been studied extensively in the in Zns:Mn, (3 ) this structure may be inter
past, but the major emphasis has been on preted in terms of phonon -assisted tran
powders in sulfide and silicate compounds . ( 1 ) sitions and zero - phonon transitions within
The present report deals with some char the Mn + + ion , at a site of cubic symmetry.
acteristics of Mn in a ZnSe single- crystal The resulting crystal field terms have been
host lattice. fitted by least squares to the centroids of
The spectral distribution of the lumines the observed Mn absorption bands in ZnSe.
cence of a 1 % Mn sample at 4 .2° K is shown The relevant constants thus can be derived
in Fig . 1 An identical distribution is obtained and the best fit furnishes the values F2 =
from excitation either by UV light or current 55454, F4 = 34520 , and Dq = 405 cm - l . The
injection . At lower Mn concentration ( < 0 .1 % ) , Stokes shift between the 41, - a , zero
structure can be detected at the short- wave phonon line and the centroid of the emission
length edge of the emission band (Fig . 2) . is approximately 825 cm - l in ZnSe.
When considered in connection with cor Electrically, ZnSe:Mn ( 1 % ) shows a sur
responding absorption data (2 ) and in conjunc prisingly low resistivity both at room
(ARBITRARY
)EMISSION

EMISSION
UNITS

1. 0
Zn Se:Mn
4 .2°K

6200 6000 5800 5600

WAVELENGTH (Å ) .
Fig . 1. Spectral distribution of the luminescence of ZnSe:Mn at 4 .2°K.
 temperature and at liquid - nitrogen tempera istic for a typical sample at 77º K , with the
ture. This is probably due to the high devia n - type contact made of indium and the p
tion from stoichiometry usually observed in type of silver epoxy. Measurements were
melt- grown crystals. The dashed line in made with pulses 10 to 300 usec long to avoid
Fig . 3 shows the voltage- current character excessive heating . Light emission with the

100 ZnSe :Mn

4 .2°K
INTENSITY
).UEMISSION

75
(ANITS
RB

19,.5-'cm8025
8005cm
8647
.Å,1—5554

K 67 (TA )
- 158cm *'(LA )

5600 :5575 5550

WAVELENGTH (Ă )
Fig . 2 . The zero -phonon line corresponding to the “ T , → A , transition in Mn * at 18 .025 cm - l in
ZnSe. The energy differences between this and other lines ( TA = 67 and LA = 158 cm - ') corre
spond to energies of the transverse acoustical (TA ) and longitudinal acoustical (LA) lattice
vibrations of the host lattice.
19
 POWER (WATTS)
2 3 4 5

80 s

INTENSITY
EMITTED
(ANITS
).U RB
VOLTAGE
(V)

ZnSe:Mn
77°K

20 40
CURRENT (mA)
Fig. 3. Dashed Line: Voltage- current characteristic. Solid Line : Emitted intensity as function of injec.
tion level. Dot-dash Line: Emitted intensity as function of input power.
20
 LUMINESCENCE DECAY
ZnSe :Mn
).( NITS
UA RB
INTENSITY

77°K

300°K

50 100 150
TIME (MICROSECONDS )
Fig. 4. Decay of the luminescence of ZnSe:Mn at different temperatures .

spectral distribution of the Mn emission was were made on an approximately parabolic

observed at points on the p -type contact at sample with a p - type contact of about 0 , 5
voltages as low as 20 volts across a 5 mm mm2 area . Measurements at room tempera
wide crystal. The intensity of this light, as a ture gave an efficiency of about one order of
function of injected carriers, is plotted as magnitude lower . Different arrangements of
the solid curve in Fig . 3. When plotting the p- type contacts , such as electroplated Cu,
total intensity as a function of input power, were also used , but without consistent
a linear relation was found (dot- dash line in improvement. The efficiency increased with
Fig. 3). Unfortunately, the - type contact increasing Mn content, up to a concentration
usually deteriorated with higher injection of 1. 5 % Mn. The more highly activated
current densities . The calculated quantum crystals had lower efficiencies and were
efficiency was 10 - 4 when measurements not as perfect in appearance ,
 Measurements of the rise and decay char
acteristics of the luminescent pulses showed
that the rise time in all crystals , independent
of concentration and temperature, was of the
order of 2 . 8 usec . The luminescent decay , scientific NOTES
however, did not follow an exponential law ,
as one would have expected if the lifetime Hailstorm Modification Program : AFCRL ' S
of the excited state of Mnhad been the decay C - 130 meteorology aircraft recently flew to
rate -determining -factor. Fig . lumi: South Dakota with six people of the Cloud
nescence decay curves of a 1 % Mn sample at Physics Branch of the Meteorology Labora
room temperature and also at liquid - nitrogen tory, under the direction of Dr. Robert M .
temperature . Even for the long - time decay , Cunningham , to participate in a new national
no exact match for an exponential decay was program on hailstorm modification . The study
possible . Qualitatively , however , both a long is being sponsored by the National Science
time component and a short- time component Foundation . Participating in the program are
seem to exist in the decay , with the initial a number of agencies working in various
short - time component being nearly tempera fields of weather modification - - the National
ture independent (I = 1o/ e after 3 to 4 usec ) Committee on Atmospheric Research, the
and the long - time component being strongly Navy, Army, EnvironmentalScience Services
temperature dependent. Their relative con Administration (Dept. of Commerce), and so
tribution varies slightly between crystals and on , each of which has developed specialized
depends also on the injection level . equipments for making various types of tests.
The AFCRL group assisted in formulating
As long as one is convinced that the a multiagency experimental program that
decay of the excited Mn+ + states has to will lead to a better understanding of the
follow a monomolecular (i. e ., exponential) mechanisms of hailstorm growth and de
characteristic, one has to conclude that the velopment- - and ultimately, perhaps , to the
lifetime of the 4T, state of Mn+ + is equal to modification of these destructive storms.
or shorter than the fastest component of the (Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL)
decay time (i.e., equal to or shorter than Javelin Rocket Measures Electron Density :
about 3 usec at all temperatures.) The long A Javelin rocket carrying an AFCRL ex
decay -time components, then , have to be periment to measure the variations in elec
associated with the process of replenishing tron density in the ionosphere between 100
electrons and holes in the bands from traps, and 500 km from earth was launched in
after the primary excitation through injection June from Wallops Island, Virginia , Project
has stopped . scientist was James C . Ulwick . Launched at
The apparent value of 3 usec (or less) is an angle of 80 degrees , the 4 - stage, solid
remarkably low for the lifetimeof the excited propellant Javelin rocket carried the 150
Mn in ZnSe, when compared with the values pound payload to an altitude of about 500 km .
formerly reported for the lifetime of Mn in Experimental data were telemetered to the
silicates, sulfides or fluorides , which are ground. (Upper Atmosphere Physics Labora
consistently one to several orders of magni tory, AFCRL )
tude higher . AFCRL Experiment Aboard NASA 's OGO
Satellite: NASA's Orbiting Geophysical Ob
servatory (OGO ), launched on June 6, carried
REFERENCES an experiment designed by Rita Sagalyn , of
(1 ) See, e. g., CURIE , D ., Luminescence in Crystals,
the Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , to
New York : Wiley & Sons, 1963. measure charged particles . In the highly
( 2 ) LANGER, D . and S . IBUKI, Phys. Rev., 138, A809, elliptical orbit of OGO , Sagalyn 's experi
1965. ment passes through the entire range of the
(3 ) LANGER , D . and H . RICHTER , Phys. Rev., 146 , magnetosphere, (Upper Atmosphere Physics
554. 1966 . Laboratory , AFCRL )
SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE
BY HELICOPTER PILOT DATA SCIENCES LABORATORY, AFCRL

A helicopter pilot often doesn 't know he' s An ingeniously simple system that enables
being fired on from the ground until his heli air- crew members to hear and to determine
copter is hit. If the hit isn 't vital, he then the direction of ground fire has been de
begins to take evasive action . The problem veloped and field - tested by AFCRL scientists .
is that the noise of the helicopter masks the It is illustrated by block diagram in Figure 1.
sound of the small - arms ground fire. With this system , the pilot can begin evasive

Preamplifier
and Filters

Aerodynamic
Microphone
" Head "

Balance
Connecting and Level Control
Cable
Output
Amplifiers
Microphone Preamplifier
and Filters

Binaural
Headphones
Fig. 1. Block diagram of ground-fire detector. Two microphones are mounted in the aerodynamic head
at normalhuman interaural spacing. The head also houses two preamplifiers and two high-pass
filters. A cable supplies power to the aerodynamic head and connects it with the control unit
containing level and balance controls and output amplifiers . The user listens through binaural
headphones.
maneuvers - - or take offensive action against signal-to -noise ratio approximately 30 db for
the source of ground fire- - as soon as he most helicopter and certain fixed -wing air
knows he's being shot at. The concept was craft .
conceived and largely developed by Dr. Philip Through either electronic or acousticmix
Lieberman . ing, the pilot and air crew can monitor the
The system consists basically of two ground - fire detector and the aircraft inter
microphones, positioned beneath the heli com simultaneously. Electronic mixing in
copter (or aircraft) , and a high - pass filter . volves channeling both inputs into a single
Figure 2 shows the main components of the binaural headset. Acoustic mixing involves
prototype. Critical to the system is the use of the wearing of two headsets and requires no
an artificial head. The microphones are modification of existing equipment. Tomoni
mounted in either side of this head, thus tor the ground - fire detector by the latter
simulating human ears. (Actually a teardrop method, the user inserts into his ears small
configuration for the head has proved most binaural phones of the hearing -aid type, and
effective.) The signal from each microphone wears an intercom headset or a normal fly
is channeled separately to each phone of the ing helmet over them .
pilot' s binaural headset. This gives the pilot The detection system has been tested in an
natural directional information . H - 13 helicopter, a C - 47 , and liaison air
Signals received by these microphones are craft at Fort Devens, Mass., Eglin AFB ,
high - pass filtered at 3. 5 kc. The filtering Florida, and at Camp Edwards, Mass. It was
removes the major frequency components of found that the position of a 7 .62- mm machine
the helicopter noise, leaving half ofthe sound gun firing short bursts of live ammunition
energy of gunfire, which is then amplified. could be located from the helicopter at
This amplification enhances the gunfire altitudes that ranged from 100 to 400 feet,

Fig. 2 . First prototype of ground-fire detector. Left to right: binaural headset; aerodynamic head con
taining two microphones, one on either side; and control unit.
24
and at distances up to 200 yards during unit. It will be especially useful for heli
normal combat maneuvers. Figure 3 shows copters, C - 47s, and forward air -controller
the detector head installed on an HU - 1B aircraft. It should prove to be of value in
helicopter . almost any aircraft engaged in low - level
The detection system is rugged , self flight over hostile forces.
powered , and uncomplicated . Its electronic The system was conceived , designed and
components can be miniaturized to less than built, laboratory - tested , and field - tested
10 cubic inches, if desired . The system can within the remarkably short period of two
be produced at a cost less than $ 100 per months.

Fig. 3. Ground- fire-detector head installed under nose of HU-1B helicopter.

25
 TO OUR READERS

Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
( except for those from Latin America).

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 Tresearch review
RCU
OFA SPACE RESE
A S OFFICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
www

CE EROS
OAR : The Research Agency
of TheUnited States Air Force
NOV 1966
ENGINEERING
EERII
| VOLEME V NUMBER 8 LIBRARY OCTOBER 1966
15 1966
N
ASMA RELAXATION
LIBRA MICROWAVE PHYSICS LABORATORY, AFCRL
When radio energy is propagated through interparticle collisions. This is themecha
a plasma, part of the energy is absorbed nism by which part of the electromagnetic
by the plasma. This absorption of energy field energy is deposited into the medium .
can lead to the plasma's modification , Just Continuing with the 10 factors described by
how such modifications come about is a Papa, the 3 relaxation times describing col
nonlinear process of great complexity . lision processes are : (4 ) the Maxwellianiza
Absorption of electromagnetic energy by tion time which relates to the self- interaction
the plasma is another way of saying that the of electrons; ( 5 ) the momentum - relaxation
plasma particles are heated. An approach time, which is the time it takes the drift
to understanding the heating mechanisms velocity of the electrons to decay when the
involves the study of the basic relaxation electromagnetic field is removed; and (6 ) the
time- - that is , the time it takes perturbed energy - relaxation time which is the time it
plasma to revert to its unperturbed state , takes for energy transfer between the dif
Robert J. Papa of AFCRL has recently ferent constituents comprising the plasma.
completed a study of the basic plasma Now if we send a strong radio signal
relaxation processes. He shows in this study through the plasma, we then change the
that a very wide class of interactions of distribution in velocities of the electrons .
electromagnetic fields with plasmas may be This change in the density and spatial dis
described in terms of 10 basic relaxation tribution of the electrons requires the con
times . sideration of three more relaxation times :
The three fundamental factors in all elec ( 7 ) a total density - change relaxation time,
tromagnetic - field interactions with plasmas and (8 ) a characteristic diffusion time. If
are : ( 1) the radio -wave period , or roughly , ionization by electron impact on neutrals
the reciprocal of the signal frequency; ( 2 )the and attachment are significant processes ,
plasma oscillation period; and ( 3) theLarmor then it is important to consider (9 ) the rate
period, which concerns the motion ofcharged of ionization and attachment.
particles in magnetic fields. Finally, if the plasma is exposed to the
Next, interparticle collisions must be con high - power electromagnetic field for only
sidered. The electromagnetic field itself is a finite length of time, then (10 ) an exposure
coupled to the plasma through the process of time must be considered. This of course is

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES + AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE, OAR + LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
important in cases where the electromagnetic temperature. The magnitude of some of the
field is pulsed . relaxation times can be greatly altered by
Papa points out that seldom is it neces raising or lowering the electron temperature,
sary , when studying electromagnetic - field Altering the relative order of magnitude of
interactions with plasmas , to consider all the relaxation times can change the nature
of the 10 factors . Furthermore, their effects of the response of the plasma to a strong
vary in relative magnitude. Contrary to what radio - frequency field .
might be expected from the standpoint of
understanding plasma absorption mecha The Papa study is important in that it
nisms, a physical process associated with a classifies the types of nonlinear interactions
particular relaxation time becomes more of electromagnetic fields with plasmas . This
important when this relaxation time is classification gives the plasma physicist a
smaller than the relaxation times of other clearer understanding of the exceedingly
competing processes. One of themost impor complex pattern of events that take place
tant single factors in the many processes in a plasma during and immediately after
of excitation and relaxation is thatof electron the absorption of radio energy .

research review
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of. ON THE GKD METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR
fice of Scientific and Technical Information (RRYC ) , Hq Of. BOUNDARY- LAYER EQUATIONS
fice of Aerospace Research, USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard, Capt. Howard E. Bethel ........
Arlington, Vo . 22209. The objective of this publication is to
moke o positive contribution to the exchange of information HYPOTHESIS BY A MARTIAN ASTRONOMER
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL. .
activities . LOGICAL PATTERNS IN LANGUAGE
Rowena Swanson . . . . . .
JACOB SEIDEN
Editor VAPOR -SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Max Swerdlow .. ... .. . . . . . . .
13

SATELLITE ATTITUDE -SENSING SYSTEM BASED

ON POSITIVE - ION DETECTION
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , AFCRL . . .. 20
PLASMA RELAXATION
Microwave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF A
DETONATION WAVE IN A FLOWING COMBUSTIBLE
OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC MIXTURE
STRUCTURE OF METALS Lt. Col.William W . McKenna . . . . .
Major Joseph P. Martino ... ..
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN SOLID -STATE
ANNA AND PROGENY FORM
Owen W . Williams . .. . .. . " Solid State Sciences Laboratory,AFCRL ......... 24

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 untested theories. It has been only within
the last decade that large amounts ofreliable
data have become available. Much of the
data has not yet been fitted into a theoretical
framework ; nor has the existing framework
been able to explain many apparent anomalies
OPTICAL PROPERTIES in the data ,

and In an attempt to bring together experi

menters and theoreticians in the field of
the optical properties of metals, an AFOSR
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE sponsored Symposium on Optical Properties
and Electronic Structure ofMetals and Alloys
was held in Paris from 13 - 15 September
OF METALS 1965. The Symposium was attended by ap
proximately 160 participants, with most of
MAJOR JOSEPH P . MARTINO them coming from the United States, England
Office of the Assistant Executive Director and France , in that order. However, a total
AFOSR of 15 countries were represented, with some
participants coming from Australia and
Japan , as well as from most countries of
The optical properties ofmetals have been Western Europe. Fifty - seven papers were
studied for over a hundred years. Scientists presented, with the vast majority being
of the early and mid -nineteenth century reports of experimental results . Fourteen
observed and measured the reflectivity of papers were given by AFOSR - supported
various metals , the absorption of various scientists .
wave lengths of light by particular metals ,
and the transmission properties of thin The Symposium was highly successful in
films of metals . The development of a bringing about an interaction among experi
theoretical structure to explain the results , mentalists , as well as between experimen
however, came later . talists and theoreticians . Many new and
ingenious experimental techniques were
With the development of Maxwell's equa reported, which had made possible the col
tions, which described light as electromag lection of data with a reliability not previ
netic waves, it became possible to describe ously possible. The Symposium also provided
in mathematical form the interaction of light renewed impetus to studies of the optical
with metallic conductors. Thus there evolved properties ofmetals and alloys .
a theoretical framework which could predict
certain optical properties ofmetals , Later , The ability of optical measurements to
with the discovery of the electron , and the provide information about the surface and
recognition that certain properties of metals bulk properties of metals and alloys is of
are due to the ability of electrons to move particular significance to related fields of
about inside metallic conductors , the theo science, especially to programs ofan applied
retical framework was further developed . nature. This is particularly true with regard
Finally , with the elaboration of the quantum to electronic structure, including the pres
theory, the stage was set for a complete ence of impurities . Continued research in
theoretical explanation of the optical prop this field will lead to a better understanding
erties ofmetals. of the nature and behavior of metals and
alloys, and to better nondestructive testing
Unfortunately, the development of a theo techniques for analyzing metals and alloys .
retical explanation was hampered by the lack Proceedings of the Symposium are avail
of reliable experimental data which could able from the Interscience Publishers, New
confirm or refute various plausible but York City .
Micrometeorite Package on Gemini 9
Approximately three square inches of collecting surface were exposed for AFCRL on the recent
Gemini 9 micrometeorite experiment. It was this micrometeorite package that was brought into the
Gemini 9 capsule by Cernan during his space walk . The collecting surface was given to Dr. Robert K .
Soberman and his group at the Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL. Photo # 1 shows a hole in the bottom
layer of a three-layered plastic film . This is an aluminum -coated nitrocellulose plastic film of 400
angstroms' thickness . In photo # 2 the dark spot is simply a flap of plastic created after the meteorite
had passed through the film .

lu
 2 separate tests carried out in June 1966
ANNA from AFCRL 's Balloon Launch Facility at
AND PROGENY Holloman AFB, New Mexico , balloons with
flashing strobe lights were sent to altitudes
OWEN W . WILLIAMS as high as 100,000 feet. The results of these
Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL tests indicate that the balloon -borne strobe
light technique will provide a means for
With the launch of the ANNA geodetic accommodating this middle range. In the
satellite in 1962, geodesists for the first AFCRL tests , a 3 -million -cubic - foot balloon
time had an effective means for measuring was used to transport the flashing beacons .
distances between widely spaced locations Three PC - 1000 stellar cameras located in a
on the earth ' s surface, AFCRL has been a triangle, with approximately 150 -mile sides ,
major participant in the satellite geodetic photographed the flashing light against the
programs that have taken place since then , stellar background for approximately 4 hours
including participation in the latest of these during each of the 2 tests, Exposures were
programs which centers around NASA 's taken simultaneously at the 3 stations every
PAGEOS satellite launched in June 1966 . 15 minutes. Tracking of the strobe light at
With these satellites , distances are deter 100 , 000 feet presented no problem either with
mined by triangulation methods from infor a theodolite or with field glasses. The time
mation obtained by photographing the satellite of each flash was recorded on a dual- channel
against a background of stars. tape recorder , with the National Bureau of
When distances to be measured are large - - Standards ' Station WWV providing the real
a thousand miles or so - - satellites are ideal. time standard. Recovery of the lamp and its
But when we want to measure distances on associated electronics package was made by
the order of a hundred miles , we find our parachute with a minimum of damage. Both
selves in an awkward range where thedistance were in working order upon recovery and
is too short for satellite triangulation and were readied for flight within a few hours .
too long for conventional ground surveys. Preliminary examination of the data shows
This has led AFCRL to test a new tech that a balloon -borne beacon can be a rela
nique (or, more precisely , a new configura tively inexpensive and effective tool for mak
tion of the satellite phototriangulation tech ing geodetic surveys at intermediate ranges
nique) for measuring shorter distances. In and in accessible areas.

ON THE GKD METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR

BOUNDARY - LAYER EQUATIONS
CAPT HOWARD E . BETHEL
Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL
The laminar boundary - layer equations have historical background and some of the find
largely defied exact solution. Consequently , ings of this study are given in the following
the quest for approximate methods has been paragraphs.
going on since the early 1920 's. One of the
approximate methods which seems to hold The Method
great promise is the Galerkin -Kantorovich
Dorodnitsyn N - parameter method of integral The GKD method can be briefly summa
relations . The utilization of the GKD method rized as follows: Let the given partialdiffer
for the solution of the laminar boundary ential equation be denoted in operator notation
as
layer equations was recently studied in depth
at the Hypersonic Research Laboratory
(Ref. 1). The basic idea of this method, the F ( u (x, y ) ] = 0 (1)
with suitable given boundary conditions on techniques developed by W . Ritz (1908,Ref. 2)
u (x , y ). An approximate solution is taken in to evaluate the form of a function , u (x , y ),
the form such that an integral, say I[ u ( x , y ) ], was a
minimum . Ritz assumed an approximating
function of the form
u (x, y) = ūn (x , y)
N
(2)

= a; (x) ° ; (x, y) u (x, y) ~ ūn (x, y) = > ky v ; (x, y) (5)

j = 1
where the kj' s are constants. These con
stants are then determined to minimize the
where the assumed functions ; (x , y ) satisfy integral; that is, the constants kj are deter
the given y - boundary conditions for all values mined from the condition
of the parameters a ; (x ). Further , the func
tions øj (x , y ) are taken to be the first N a I[ WN (x, y) ]
members of a complete set of functions, - = 0; j = 1, 2 ,. . . , N (6 )
that is, the ; (x , y )' s are such that in the a ki
limit of large N , the approximating function
ūn (x , y ), is equal to the function u (x , y ): Galerkin (1915, Ref. 3 ) divorced the method
from the calculus of variations by noting that
lim ūn (x, y ) differential equations could be solved by
N + 00 assuming an approximating function of the
N (3) form (5 ) and determining the constants from
the equations
lim S = (x) + (x, y ) = u( x, y) .
N - 00 ey ,
j = 1
X2
Hj(x,y)F [ ūn (x, y)] dydx =0
The parameters a ; ( x ) are determined by (7)
requiring that j = 1 , 2, . . . , N
Kantorovich (1934 and 1942, Refs, 4 and 5 )
H ; (y) F [ūn (x, y) ] dy demonstrated that improved solutions could
5 yi (4 ) be obtained with the Ritz and Galerkin methods
if the approximating function was taken of
= 0; j = 1, 2, . . . , N the form ( 2), viz.
where the weighting functions , H ; (y ) , are any N
set of linearly independent functions. The
set of N linearly independent equations repre u(x,y) ūn (x, y)= a; (x) $; (x,y) (2)
sented by equation (4 ) will be ordinary dif j= 1
ferential equations for the a ; ( x )' s and will The advantage of this procedure is that the
be nonlinear when the operator F [ u (x , y ) ] function u (x , y ) is explicitly approximated
is nonlinear . only in one independent variable ; the be
havior of the solution in the other variable
Background of the Method is determined by the particular characteris
tics of the problem .
The present method is an outgrowth of the L . S . Leybenzon (1935) and V . V . Golubev
work of B . G . Galerkin , L . V . Kantorovich (1936 ) constructed countably infinite systems
and A . A . Dorodnitsyn . The earlier work of integral conditions from the laminar
was largely motivated by the approximate boundary - layer equations (Ch , 3 of Ref, 6 ).
However, these investigators made no at classes of weighting functions was estab
tempt to solve the resulting systems ofequa lished . (A class of weighting functions is a
tions, A , A , Dorodnitsyn (1956 , Ref. 7 ) applied group of sets of weighting functions which
the Kantorovich formulation of the general yield identical solutions when employed with
ized Galerkin method to solve thehypersonic the GKD method .) Then an optimum class of
blunt- body problem , In 1960 he published sev weighting functions was found. The optimum
eral solutions of Golubev' s boundary - layer class is that which is composed of ' sequen
formulation after employing a simple, but tially complete" sets of weighting functions ,
significant, transformation of the dependent that is , sets with
variable (Ref. 8).
Findings of Present Study
H, (y) — y ' - ' 1 = 1, 2, .. ., N (8)
Several of the results found in Reference 1 Armed with an Nth -order solution technique
are summarized in the following paragraphs. and an optimum class ofweighting functions ,
Since the objective of the study was to develop the exactness and convergence of the GKD
the computational technique and not to inves method could be investigated in a meaningful
tigate solutions to specific problems, the manner. Since exact solutions exist for the
incompressible laminar boundary -layer similar flows, these were used as the basis
equations were considered . In this way the for the investigation of the convergence of
particularities of the method could be noted the method . The wall shear stress values as
without having the results complicated by a function of the order of approximation for
the necessary peripheral assumptions asso stagnation - point flow are given in Figure 1.
ciated with compressibility , chemical effects , Note that, although the first -order solution
or turbulence. Also , the method could be is 15 per cent in error, after the third order
directly compared with the exact and numeri of approximation the error is less than 0. 1
cal solutions available for the incompressible per cent and the solution converges uniformly .
laminar boundary - layer equations .
The practical consideration of how to The function which is represented by an
formulate the approximate solution by the approximate expression with Nundetermined
GKD method has been a barrier to the wide coefficients is the inverse of the velocity
use of this method . Previous investigators
formulated each order of approximation as gradient y = 0 . This inverse slope is
a separate entity. The equations for each inversely proportional to the shear stress
order were independently derived and pro
grammed. This procedure is slow and tedi 0 - 1 -1 (9 )
ous and limits the extension of the method
to the first few orders of approximation .
Consequently , an Nth -order solution tech and accordingly evidences a singularity as
nique was devised. With this technique a u 1 and , at the separation point, as
single equation is programmed which yields u ~ 0 . Dorodnitysn utilized an approxi
the necessary coefficients for the determina mating function of the form
tion of the solution for any desired order
of approximation Solutions for the first 10 On ~ (1 - u) - 1 ( 10 )
orders of approximation were obtained for
several similar flows.
Although the set of weighting functions
was originally taken as an arbitrary set of which does not make provision for the
linearly independent functions, it was found singularity at the separation point; however,
that the accuracy oftheGKD method depended he was aware that, at the separation point
upon the particular set chosen . In the inves
tigation of this finding, the existence of Onu - 1 /2 ( 11)
 Abbott (Ref. 9) first suggested an approxi tion of Terrill in Table 1 . The error in the
mating function which would satisfactorily fourth -order GKD solution is less than one
handle the separation point per cent throughout the entire flow field .
In conclusion , the GKD method seems to
(12) hold its greatest possibility as a standard
On,a ~ [(1 - u) Ja (x) + u ]. computation technique which can be readily
applied to given external flow fields and
will yield a solution in the fourth order of
and Neilsen, et al. (Ref. 10) made computa approximation which is in error by about one
tions with this form . In Reference 1 it was per cent or less.
found that the approximating function of the
form (12) could not be employed in the ac REFERENCES
celerated flow region. Consequently, for a
flow which proceeds from a stagnation point (1) Bethel, H . E ., On the Convergence and Exactness
of the Laminar Boundary -Layer Equations Using
to separation , the form (10 ) must be used in the N -Parameter Integral Formulation of Galerkin
the accelerated flow region , and the form (12) Kantorovich -Dorodnitsyn , Ph . D . Dissertation ,
in the retarded flow region . A procedure for Purdue University, 1966. A vailable as
changing from the form ( 10 ) to the form (12) ARL -66 -0090.
(2 ) Ritz , W ., " A New Method for Solving Variational
was devised and tested for the external flow Problems ofMathematical Physics, ” (In German ),
U = 2 sin ( x / L ). The resulting solutions are Journal für Reine und Angewandte Mathematik ,
continuous within the accuracy ofthemethod. Vol. 135, pp. 1-61, 1909.
These solutions for the first few orders of
approximation are compared with the solu (CONTINUED ON P. 10)

1.0000
"W.WAL
STR
VSHE ESS
necoAR
L
pua

0.8735

0 .8730

0 .8725

0 .8720

EXACT - a
0 .8715 LIT
5 7 8 9 10
ORDER OF APPROXIMATION , N
Figure 1. Wall Shear Stress Values for Stagnation Point Flow .
 GKD Method
Terrill
Ref. 11 Order of Approximation
_ 3 2
xg / R 1 . 823 1 . 82349 1 . 82322 1 . 81116

TWY 0. 3569 0 . 35674 0 . 35644 0 . 35723

O,VRBOVZ = 0.6595 0.65962 0 . 65870 0 .65602

= 0 . 2971 0 . 29685 0 . 29678 0 . 29946

0 . 5 0 . 5575 0 . 55730 0 . 55680 0 . 55806

0 . 6813 0 . 68138 0 .68042 0 .67754
0 . 3061 0 . 30582 0 . 30573 0 . 30850
0 . 7550 0 . 75 471 0 . 75390 0 . 75570
0 . 7408 0 . 74092 0 . 73984 0 . 73648
0 . 3303 0 . 32991 0 . 32977 0 . 33276
120
0 . 7979 0 . 79760 0 . 79662 0 . 79868
0 . 8057 0 . 80602 0 . 80481 0 . 80114
0 . 3560 0 . 35 548 0 . 35528 0 . 35848
1. 2 0 . 7611 0 . 76076 0 . 75965 0 . 76228
0 . 9031 0 . 90349 0 . 90208 0 .89877
0 . 3927 0 . 39220 0 . 39191 0 . 39538
1. 5 0 . 5520 0 . 55169 0 . 55074 0 . 59122
1 . 1685 1 . 16913 1 . 16790 1 . 17362
0 . 4826 0 . 48202 0 .48153 0 . 48616

1 .6 0 . 4396 0 . 43908 0 .43929 0 . 43003

1 . 3241 1 . 32395 1 . 32354 1 . 41808
0 . 5281 0 . 52733 0 . 52775 0 .61683
1 . 8 0 . 1049 0 . 1058 0 . 10707 0 . 06621
2 . 0326 2 . 02603 2 . 03807 2 . 10732
0 . 6628 0 . 66192 0 . 66269 0 . 75269

Table 1. Approximate Solution of the Circular Cylinder Flow U = 2 sin ( x / R ).

(3 ) Galerkin, B . G ., " Series Solutions of Some Prob (8 ) Dorodnitsyn , A . A ., " On a Method of Solving the
lems of Elastic Equilibrium of Rods and Plates, " Laminar Boundary -Layer Equations,” (In Russian ),
(In Russian ), Vestnik inzhenerov, Vol. 1, pp. 879 . Prik . mate . i. tekh -fiz ., Vol. 1, pp. 111- 118 ,
908, 1915 . 1960 . See also Dorodnitsyn, A . A ., “ General
(4 ) Kantorovich , L . V ., " Method of Reduction to Method of Integral Relations and Its Application
Ordinary Equations,” (In Russian ), Doklady to Boundary -Layer Theory,” Advances in Aero
Akademii Nauk SSSR , Vol. 2 , pp . 534 -536 , 1934 . nautical Sciences, Volume 3, New York : Pergamon
(5 ) Kantorovich , L . V ., “ Use of the Idea of the Galer Press, 1962.
kin Method in the Method of Reduction to Ordinary ( 9 ) Abbott, D . E ., “ Investigation of Flow Separation
Differential Equations, ” (In Russian ), Prik . mate . Phenomena at Hypersonic Speeds , " Second
mekh ., Vol. VI, pp . 31-40, 1942. Monthly Technical Progress Report, US Air Force
(6 ) Loytsyanskiy , L . G ., Laminar Boundary Layers, Contract AF33(615)-1591, Vidya Division , Itek
Gosudarstvennoye Izdatel'stvo, Moscow , 1962 Corporation , 1964.
( Translation available as Foreign Technology (10) Neilsen , J . N ., L . L . Lynes, F . K . Goodwin and
Division Technical Translation FTD -TT63-749.). M . Holt, Calculation of Laminar Separation with
( 7 ) Dorodnitsyn , A . A . , “ On a Method of Numerical Free Interaction by the Method of Integral Rela
Solution of Certa in Nonlinear Problems of Aero tions, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory
ore 18 , 1958
Hydromechanics,” Proceedings Third A11-Soviet
Ma thematical Congress 1956 , Volume III , Iz
Technical Report, AFFDL - TR -65- 107, 1965.
(11) Terrill, R . M . , “ Laminar Boundary -Layer Flow
datel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR , Moscow , 1958
( Translation available as Atomic Energy Commis Near Separation With and Without Suction , ” Phil.
sion Translation UCRL -Trans-993 (L ).) . Trans., Vol. A253, pp. 55 -100 , 1960 .

hypothesis by a Martian astronomer

The extraterrestrial observer would find
METEOROLOGY LABORATORY, AFCRL that the earth spots have an average longi
tudinal motion of about 27 degrees during
A Martian astronomer, looking at the their usual lifetime of about 5 earth rota
earth through a telescope , might very well tions. He would also observe that the bright
conclude that the earth is not entirely solid , spots would move poleward -- about 2 degrees
but that a portion of it is a fluid in rotation of latitude during their lifetime- -while the
relative to the solid portion . If he had to dark spots would meander equatorward about
rely only on his telescopic observations of 1 to 2 degrees.
the motion of earth " spots," without the While we on earth cannot, of course, ob
complementary observational and analytical serve these movements directly, we can
techniques available to the earth - bound ob nevertheless derive the information from
server , he could cite strong evidence to surface weather maps quite easily . The
support his hypothesis. observations just discussed were actually
What would lead the Martian astronomer the result of a study of daily displacements ,
to his conclusion is the pattern of light and over a 2 - year period, of all closed cyclonic
dark areas ( earth spots ) moving across the and anticyclonic pressure centers appear
observable disk of the earth . The light areas ing on northern -hemisphere surface weather
that he should observe are associated with maps . During the period of the study, 20 ,545
large cyclonic cloud systems. The dark areas such centers were plotted at 1200 hours
are anticyclones where there is an absence Greenwich time, and were analyzed ,
of clouds and, hence, less reflected sunlight, The study was done by Norman J. Mac
By measuring the daily displacements of donald of AFCRL, and was undertaken to see
these bright and dark areas (assuming the if the gross circulation and mechanics of the
solid earth is not visible ), the observer earth ' s atmosphere could be deduced by
would note that the earth would appear to measuring the daily displacements of the
rotate faster in the middle latitudes than earth spots . Such a study of the motion of
near the equator. sunspots has led some solar physicists to
conclude that the mechanics of the solar of sentences, but that they could also be
atmosphere are similar, in the grossest used to represent the deep structure of
sense, to those observed in the terrestrial sentences. He started by designing a language
atmosphere. Macdonald concludes that the he calls English I, whose grammar is essen
sunspot-movement techniqueused to measure tially that of elementary logic itself, based
the solar circulation has some support from on the thesis that the tasks performed by
his measurements of the terrestrial atmos elementary logical notation represent, in
phere . The longitudinal and latitudinalmotion fact, a linguistically based repertoire. He
of the earth and sunspots are correlated in then proceeded to construct languages that
such a way as to indicate the presence of an were progressively more English - like by
organized eddy structure in the motion of specifying exact definitions of sentencehood
both atmospheres . in terms of particular auxiliary concepts .
The latest of the English - like languages
that he considered in the report is called
logical English II (previously called Logos IV ) .
Computer programs are described that rec
patterns in ognize the grammaticality of English - I and
English - II sentences , and can translate Eng
language lish II to English I. The programs were
written in the string -manipulating language
ROWENA SWANSON SNOBOL 3 . ( Translation to logical symbolism ,
Directorate of Information Sciences, AFOSR parenthesis or Polish notation , is a dic
tionary operation .)
In November 1962 the DirectorateofInfor
mation Sciences , AFOSR , began partial spon Dr. Bohnert's report gives the results of
sorship of the research of Dr. Herbert his examination of the natural - language cor
Bohnert at IBM 's Thomas J. Watson Research relates of the logical concepts of degree,
Center, Yorktown Heights , N . Y. The work grouping, quantification , and scope. He has
statement read, in part, as follows: " Estab embodied in a single , machine - parse system
lish logical structures implicit in portions several long -standing suggestions of logi
of natural English and construct artificial cians. Reichenbach , for example, suggested
languages whose rules permit an explicit that the logical concept of predicate degree
statement of those structures in terms of might be the basis for a unified understand
symbolic logic . " This sponsorship actually ing of the role of cases , prepositions, transi
enabled Bohnert to continue his work , which tive- intransitive distinctions, active- passive
he had begun several years earlier. relationships, and related phenomena. Am
Dr. Bohnert's final report on Contract plification of the concept of degree led
AF 49(638 ) - 1198 is a clear summary of his Bohnert to identify a concept he calls a
work and reflects some of the effort that " placer " which he characterizes as " a basic
has been involved in fulfilling the above work grammatical function category as yet little
statement. (1) The report has been so written recognized by grammarians." It refers to
as to be readable by linguists and logicians , words and phrases that function in a par
as well as by persons in the computer ticular way in a particular context, for
sciences and those interested in philosophi example, adverbially , though they may usu
cal language analysis . It contains, also , ally belong in another category . Bohnert's
examples of fascinating foibles of language English I, like logic , has no compound
that may be discoverable only when computers subjects or predicates . It uses " not, " ''both , "
are given the task of analyzing language " either ," and " if " like Polish groupers;
structure. however, this leads to clumsy, though un
Dr. Bohnert sought to demonstrate notonly ambiguous pile-ups of groupers. Bohnert
that logical formalisms could be used to devised a precedence system that assigns
systematize discussion about the structure groupers to English II which , like natural
11
language, can have connectives unaccom well- formed sentence if it were not defective
panied by groupers. To avoid pile- ups , the in certain argument positions. Bohnert has
precedence scheme has two connectives , added a further grammatical unit , the " ap
" or else" and " and furthermore," that are parent fragment," and a technique for group
weaker "or's " and " and 's." The longer ing these into minimal distribution units ,
phrases that result are viewed as counter He discusses a calculus of " demand " com
parts to pauses in the spoken language and putation that accounts for ways of combining
the use of pause - like terms ( e . g . , "'further and analyzing fragments ; the term " demand"
more," "'moreover " ) in the written language. refers to values assigned to predicates by
Thus , for the phrase, " p and q and r or t," the dictionary . Bohnert anticipates that the
the new connectives enable direct distinction calculus may be a valuable paradigm for
between (p . q ) . (r v t) and p . (( q . r) v t). analyzing a broad class of natural and
artificial grammars. He also observes that it
Russell, Quine and others have commented is not known whether a general rule could
that "any" in " any p' behaves logically like be given , even for a simple language, that
an unquantified variable restricted to the would accommodate every possible unambig
domain p . Bohnert has developed rules that uous factorization . He sees further signifi
make variations of quantifier scope a pri cance in abandonment of the sentence in
mary consideration in natural- languageanal favor of lists , tables , etc., when iterations
ysis. He notes that the translation of general grow very large .
terms into expressions involving quantifiers Bohnert has shown that syntactic ambig
and variables " raises the question of the uity need have little relation to semantic
order of quantification in a way little sug ambiguity for a machine if the machine 's
gested by traditional grammar itself." His read - parse algorithm incorporates adequate
scope rules , and a rule for quantifying resolution rules. (It should be noted that he
according to a left- to -right order, give considers the association of numbers , such
correct interpretations of the use of " any" as degree and precedence, with elements of
and " every " in the context of a string , and vocabulary as syntactic information. ) He
of active - passive transformations when gen observes that the embodiment of parsing
eral terms rather than names are used. algorithms in a computer program " is an
Thus, his program would find that " every almost indispensable heuristic procedure. "
boy likes no girl" is not the equivalent of Program runs repeatedly revealed subtle
"'no girl is liked by every boy." English II algorithmic errors that could not have been
includes dependent clauses introduced by analyzed manually. The program runs also
the relative pronouns "who ," "whom ," and provided suggestions as to possible simplify
" which ." Bohnert's present procedure would ing paraphrases . These results indicate that
produce redundant clauses for the indefinite the logic of natural grammar is a fruitful
pronouns " something ," " everybody," etc. area for theoretical linguistics. Of practical
Since English II does not contain third -person significance is the relevance of logic - based
personal pronouns, it has less expressive English - like languages to the design of arti
power than English I and the predicate cal ficial languages , to computer - assisted in
culus. However, the exact class of formulas struction programs, to information retrieval,
that English II can paraphrase has not been to the development of machine inference
completely determined . techniques, and possibly even to progress
Natural- language factoring (e.g., "George in logic itself,
runs or walks") can produce compounds that
correspond to no traditional grammatical REFERENCE
category (e . g . , "George sent the card and
Tom wired the bouquet to Joan '). Bohnert ( 1 ) Bohnert, H . G . and P . O . Backer, Automatic
English - to -Logic Translation in a Simplified
introduced the concept of " fragments " to Model - A Study in the Logic of Grammar, March
handle factoring in general. A fragment is 1966 ; final rept. , IBM Thomas J. Watson Research
defined as an expression that would be a Center, Yorktown Heights , N . Y ., AF 49 (638 )- 1198 .
 vapor-solvent growth
of
semiconductors
MAX SWERDLOW
Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR vent, and tungsten chloride (WC16) is the reac
tion product. The reaction is made to run
As modern technology imposes more and from left to right at, say , 750°F , thus pro
more stringent requirements on the physical ducing tungsten chloride. This is then led
characteristics of solid - state components , into contact with a tungsten seed kept at,
the science of material preparation faces an say, 2500°F , where the reaction runs from
increasing number of new and difficult prob right to left. Tungsten is therefore deposited
lems. The materials are often required in the onto the seed and the latter grows. We see ,
form of single crystals. The problem is to then , that superficially the process resembles
grow such crystals with sufficient perfection that of sublimation or distillation . However ,
of the lattice, with the specified level of the material to be transported (tungsten in
purity , and in the most economical way. our example ) has an extremely low vapor
Among the several known methods of grow pressure, and could not bemade to sublime
ing crystals (growth from the melt, growth at the operating temperatures , It is, instead ,
from liquid solutions, growth from a sub chemically transported. Thus , the vapor
limed vapor, etc .), a very old one has ac solvent technique bears the same relation
quired increasing importance in recent years ship to the growth technique from a sublimed
because of its often unique inherent advan vapor phase as the growth from liquid solu
tages . This is the method known as vapor tions to the growth from themelt .
solvent growth , or simply vapor growth . Now what are the advantages, if any, of the
Basically , the method consists in inducing vapor - solvent-growth technique with respect
a solid substance to react, at a given ele to others ? * One advantage is that this tech
vated temperature T , , with a gaseous agent nique allows us to grow crystals that are
(also called a solvent). The reaction products, either difficult or impossible to grow by
which are also gaseous, are then led into other means. This advantage is clear from
another region of the apparatus that is main the example that we have given above . Tung
tained at a different temperature T2 (T2 could sten melts at temperatures higher than 6000° ,
be lower or higher than Tj, depending on the and it is indeed difficult to grow crystals of
characteristics of the reaction involved ). At it from the melt. In fact, this is also the
this temperature, the reaction products are case for other refractory metals (Mo, Ta ).
less stable and the net result is that the Presently, a variety of materials (GaP , Sic ,
original reaction now runs backward , thus B ) are grown by means of the vapor -solvent
precipitating the originalmaterial either on technique, and more efficiently and more
the container walls or on a suitably located
seed . As an example, we may consider the * Before we consider the advantages, it may be fair to
chemical transport and growth of tungsten by mention the major disadvantage of vapor growth ,which
means of the reaction originally studied by is the sometimes unwanted inclusion of solvent atoms
Langmuir and subsequently exploited by van into the grown crystal. This is the second of two ar
ticles dealing with the preparation of single crystals
Arkel, viz.: for solid -state research . In the first article (OAR
W (solid) + 3Cl 2(gas) = WCl 6 (gas) Research Review , Sept. 1966 ) , we have seen that the
vapor-phase method proved to be impractical for the
In this case, tungsten (W ) is thematerial that growth of large single crystals of selenium -- an ele
we wish to " transport" and eventually grow mental semiconductor. The problem was solved by
crystals of, chlorine (C1 ,) is the vapor sol growing from the melt in a high - pressure apparatus.
13
conveniently than by other means. Another Suppose, at first, that the collector is only
advantage of vapor growth is that it allows lightly doped (with , say, about 1 ppm of phos
one to achieve impurity distributions in a phorus ), as indicated schematically in Fig . la .
given material, and therefore to make struc Since, for optimum performance of the tran
tures that are difficult to obtain by other sistor, the base - collector junction should be
means. This is particularly important in reverse-biased with about 10 volts , light dop
the semiconductor field for electronic com ing would be good. It would be desirable also
ponents that must meet a number of speci. because it would make the junction capaci
fications , tance Clow , as desired for high - speed
Perhaps the most illuminating example operation . But the conductivity of the bulk
of the importance of vapor growth is found collector region would also be low ; i. e., the
in silicon transistor technology. It may be electrical resistance R would be high . This
worthwhile, therefore, to devote some atten would be undesirable because high resistance
tion to this problem . For the sake of simpli means high Joule 's heat (IPR ) loss and also
city, let us consider only one type of device , slow speed of switching due to high RC . So
the N - P -N transistor. This terminology we see that light collector - doping would give
means that one portion of the crystal (called favorable junction characteristics but un
the emitter ) exhibits N -type conductivity , favorable bulk properties. If , on the other
the adjacent portion (called the base ) has hand , we were to dope the collector heavily
P - type conductivity , and the rest of the (with , say, 100 ppm of phosphorus), as
crystal (called the collector ) has again N -type depicted schematically in Fig . 1b , the re
conductivity . verse would be true. We would get low bulk
We can make a silicon crystal an N -type resistance R (and hence small 12R losses
conductor by doping it with phosphorus, i.e ., and low RC values ); but we would also get
by diffusing phosphorus into it. Phosphorus high junction - capacitance C and low break
has more valence electrons than silicon, and down - voltage at the junction , which could not
therefore its introduction into the silicon then withstand the 10 volts desired for
lattice makes electrons available for the optimum performance. The requirements are
conduction of electricity. Since electrons obviously conflicting. The problem can be
have a negative charge, one speaks in this solved only by heavily doping ( ~ 100 ppm ) the
case of N - type conductivity (N for negative). bulk of the collector region and lightly doping
The higher the doping level (i. e., the more (~ 1 ppm ) the interface layer of the collector ,
phosphorus we diffuse into the silicon ), the as shown schematically in Fig . lc . The
higher the conductivity.
P -type conductivity , on the other hand,
can be achieved by doping with boron . This
element has less valence electrons than
silicon; therefore , its incorporation into the
lattice gives rise to a deficiency of electrons
and the current is carried by electron holes
(positively charged, hence P - type ). In an
N - P -N silicon transistor, the emitter is
very heavily doped with phosphorus, and the
base is moderately doped with boron. Doping, (a) ( b) (c )
as we said above, can be achieved easily
by diffusion , which is a good inexpensive Fig . 1. Schematic representation of the emitter
method of achieving desired impurity con base -collector region in an N -P -N tran
figurations and is well adapted to oxide mask sistor. E = emitter, very heavily doped,
ing. The problem that arises in the N - P - N N -type. B = base, heavily doped, P -type.
transistor is this: what should be the doping C = collector, N -type, lightly doped in
level of the collector for best operation of ( a ), heavily doped in (b), optimized for
the device ? bestperformance in (c).
14
former makes the collector- resistance low , One might say that almost all silicon
and thus reduces the time required to charge transistors used today are manufactured in
up the capacitance of the base- collector the way outlined above. This fact alone is
junction . It also reduces resistive heating sufficient to emphasize the importance of
effects so that devices can be packed closer vapor - solvent growth in modern technology .
together. The latter optimizes the proper It is because of this importance that F . Jona
ties of the junction by allowing it to sustain and R . F . Lever , atthe IBM Research Center ,
an appreciable reverse bias ,and by providing have undertaken a series of fundamental
for a low junction -capacitance. studies of the vapor - growth process (2 - 7 )
This collector configuration cannot be under AFOSR sponsorship. We shall discuss
achieved by diffusion , however , because the here some of the results obtained from their
diffusion process yields a highly non investigations .
uniform distribution of dopant which is ob The actual process for vapor growing a
viously undesirable in this case, At present, thin layer of silicon onto a silicon seed was
the only way to achieve this configuration developed by Theuerer (1) at the Bell Tele
economically is to employ the vapor - solvent phone Laboratories . It involves passing a
technique. One starts with a single crystal gaseous mixture of silicon tetrachloride
of silicon that has been grown from the melt (SiC14) and hydrogen (H2) over a hot silicon
with a high concentration of phosphorus, seed . The presence of hydrogen is necessary
i. e ., a heavily doped crystal. This crystal because the silicon - tetrachloride molecules
is cut into thin wafers (about 5 thousandths would not decompose by themselves , even at
of an inch thick ) which are then suitably the fairly high temperature of theseed (about
lapped and polished. Then , by a vapor 2000°F ). What the hydrogen does is to
solvent technique discussed below , a very chemically reduce the chloride on the hot
thin layer of lightly doped silicon is grown seed surface, thus producing gaseousHCland
epitaxially onto the surface of each wafer . depositing Si onto the seed. The chemical
This layer is only about 0 . 1 or 0 . 2 thou reaction may be summarized as follows:
sandths of an inch thick . It is into this thin
layer that one then diffuses the base and Siclacos) + 2H , Los = Siis + 4 HCl,
* (gas)"
emitter regions. Figure 2 shows a schematic
cross section (approximately to scale ) of the It will be clear to any chemist that the
actual transistor . Note that the vapor - grown system actually must be much more com
layer allows one to achieve the planar con plicated than that. Doping is achieved during
figuration , as the actual collector contact is growth by introducing into the gas stream
also diffused into this layer approximately suitable concentrations of phosphine, which
one thousandth of an inch away from the is a source for the phosphorus needed to
emitter region . attain the required conductivity .
Normally , one would like to accelerate the
growth process, for obvious economical rea
1000 INCH sons. It is found, however, that if one tries
LOW -CONDUCTIVITY
VAPOR -GROWN COLLECTOR
BASE , EMITTER 7 LAYER CONTACT
Fig . 2.

Cross section through silicon planar tran

HIGH - CONDUCTIVITY BULK sistor(approximately to scale). Note that
the bulk has been cut in the drawing, but
does in actual fact have a thickness of
0 .005 inch .
to get more Si down on the seed by increasing constant (at, say, 1400°K in Fig. 3), and one
the temperature, the efficiency of the reac increases the chlorine- to - hydrogen ratio in
tion increases rapidly at first up to about the gas stream , one sees from the map that
2000°F , but then remains roughly constant one ultimately will cross the shaded contour
even if the temperature is raised up to the line that corresponds to a silicon -to - chlorine
melting point of silicon. If, on the other ratio of 0 .25, which is the value correspond
hand, one tries to keep the temperature ing to SiCl4. Above this line, the actual value
constant at, say, 2000°F, and ifone increases of the silicon - to - chlorine ratio in the gas
the concentration of SiCl4 within theH2 stream phase increases above the ratio 0. 25 , which
(i.e., the ratio of chlorine to hydrogen in can only happen if silicon goes into the gas
the gas), one finds that the rate of Si deposi phase from the seed. Hence we understand
tion increases to a maximum , but then de the etching of the seed that is observed
creases and finally becomes negative. This experimentally under the conditions de
would mean that the seed eventually etches scribed .
instead of growing. As illustrated above in the discussion of
A study by Lever (4 ) showed that these transistors , doping is a very important
experimental facts can be understood by process. Particularly important is the growth
means of chemical- equilibrium considera of suitably doped materials by the vapor
tions. These equilibrium studies are com solvent technique. The silicon -hydrogen
plicated because there are at least nine chlorine system discussed above was con
gaseous species that are known to exist sidered much too complex, however, for
in the gas phase of the system , namely Sichy , providing the necessary understanding of the
SIHC13, SiH2Cl2, SiH3C1, SiH 4, SiCl2 , Sici, basic phenomena involved. A simpler sys
HCl, and H2. Thermodynamic data on all tem , the germanium - gallium - iodine system
these species have become available in re (where iodine is the vapor solvent, ger
cent years in National Bureau of Standards manium the material to be grown, and gallium
and Bureau of Mines bulletins as well as in the dopant), was therefore chosen , Germa
Joint Army -Navy - Air Force tables . nium crystals heavily doped with gallium
The problem was to find a suitable param are useful for the manufacture of tunnel
eter with which one could characterize the diodes.
gas phase and which could be used to provide One encounters a problem when trying to
a good criterion for the efficiency of the vapor-grow heavily doped epitaxial layers
reaction . Such a parameter was found to of germanium . One generally uses as a
be the silicon -to - chlorine ratio in the gas source material polycrystalline germanium
phase in terms of these independent vari that already contains high concentrations of
ables : pressure P , temperature T , and gallium (say, 0 .1 % ). If one uses iodine as
chlorine- to -hydrogen ratio in the gas phase. a vapor solvent (convenient because it per
The main result of the study is contained mits the growth of epitaxial germanium
in Fig. 3, which is a map displaying the layers at quite low temperatures ) , one finds
chlorine-to -hydrogen ratio as a function of that the grown material contains hardly any
temperature, the contour lines being lines gallium at all.
of constant value of the silicon -to -chlorine Extrapolating the knowledge acquired in the
ratio . It is clear from this plot that, for a growth from the melt, one may be tempted
given value of the chlorine - to -hydrogen ratio to say, at first, that this is simply a case
between , say , 10 -2 and 10 -' , the ratio of of low distribution coefficient, and that the
silicon to chlorine varies very little above problem is simply to determine this coeffi
1400°K ( 20000F). This is due to the fact cient. In the growth from the melt, in fact,
that, in this temperature range, the species it is found that the distribution coefficient- -
SiCl2 becomes increasingly important, and the ratio of the dopant concentration in the
it explains the fact that the reaction effi solid to the dopant concentration in themelt - -
ciency remains practically constant. If, on is approximately constant. Hence the required
the other hand, one keeps the temperature doping level in the solid is achieved simply
16
 202 0 . 27
0. 28
0 . 29
0 . 30
0 . 35

0 . 30
32.
0

0 . 25

0 . 20

0 . 15

0 . 10

0 .05

TOTAL PRESSURE = 1.00 ATMOSPHERE Si/CL

CI

10 - 49
/H

1800 900 1000 1100

1100 1200
1200 1300
1300 1400
1400 1500
1500 1600
1600 1700
1700

TOKI
Fig. 3. Plot of chlorine-to-hydrogen ratio versus temperature (in degrees K ). The contour linesrepre
sent constant values of the silicon -to-chlorine ratio. The total pressure is one atmosphere.
by adding the appropriate amount of dopant of gas - phase mixtures , In fact, no treatment
to the melt. It turns out, however, that the of the problem existed in theliteraturebefore
doping problem in vapor growth is different the analysis of the Ge-Ga-I system discussed
and more complex than in melt growth , here. (6 ) This analysis was made by con
since it involves both the thermodynamics sidering thermodynamic equilibrium and gas
of solid solutions and the thermodynamics eous diffusion, and was confirmed experi
17
 mentally by showing that it predicts correctly will remain available for the transport of
the concentration and growth rate of heavily germanium . In other words , the gallium
gallium - doped germanium by iodide vapor " crowds out" the germanium . One conclu
transport. sion, then, is that in order to vapor -grow
One of the results of this study is shown heavily gallium -doped germanium , one must
in Fig . 4, which depicts the mole fraction add an appropriate excess of gallium iodides
of the species present in the gas phase as a to compensate for the portion that must re
function of the total pressure of the gas in main in the gas phase under equilibrium
the system at a temperature of about 900°F . conditions , Another conclusion is that growth
The gas phase is in equilibrium with solid at low temperatures would be impractically
germanium containing about 25 ppm of gal slow . The analysis allows one to choose the
lium . The figure shows, then , that at pres appropriate independent parameters for the
sures close to one atmosphere , the gas successful growth of heavily doped ger
phase consists preponderantly of gallium manium . Experiments confirm the theoreti
bearing species . This is due to the fact cal predictions in a satisfactory way.
that gallium has great affinity for iodine and Another aspect of vapor growth that was
goes into the gas phase in the form of iodides , considered in the AFOSR - sponsored research
Consequently, the gallium atoms will tend to discussed here is the more fundamental one
remain in the gas phase bound to iodine atoms, of what is going on in the gas phase and at
leaving only little gallium available for in the surface of the growing crystal, Growth
corporation into the solid. Another conse is obviously the result of at least two proc
quence of the above fact is that little iodine esses operating in series: (A ) vapor trans
port and ( B ) surface reactions. Process
TOTAL PRESSURE (atmospheres) ( A ) literally involves the transport of gas
nos 104 103 102 10 ' 1.0 molecules from a given point (which could ,
Ga Iz of course, be the source) to the seed loca
tion . The gas phase, as we have seen in our
GAI
discussion above, is often quite complex ,
in the sense that it involves a large number
of species originating often from several
FRACTION

chemical reactions. Calculations of the com

MOLE

GeI2 position of the gas phase at the source

location are usually made under the simpli
fying assumption that chemical equilibrium
obtains between source and gas phase. This
naturally requires that the pertinent thermo
dynamic data be determined. (3) At the more
common operating pressures of closed sys
tems, the actual transport of the gas phase
to the seed location involves mostly diffusion
(7, 2), although sometimes convective effects
can play very important roles. (2) Once the
gas molecules land on the surface of the
Ge 14 seed , the actual process of reaction begins .
1064 This depends not only on the actual composi
tion of the gas phase in contact with the
Fig . 4 . Mole fractions of the various species preso seed surface, but also on the chemical,
ent in the gas phase in the Ge-Ga-l system physical and crystallographic nature of the
versus total pressure in atmospheres. The seed surface. It is clear, therefore, that the
gas phase is in equilibrium with solid two processes, (A ) and (B ), represent only
germanium containing about 25 ppm of extreme cases . In some cases, the growth
gallium at 900°F. process may be controlled preponderantly
18
by gas diffusion (one speaks, then , of diffu
sion - limited growth ); in other cases, it may
SCIENTIFIC NOTES
be controlled mostly by what happens at the
growing surface (surface - limited growth ).
In most cases , however , both limitations Surveyor Data Verifies AFCRL Studies :
interact to a certain extent. (5 ) The nature Measurements of infrared and X -ray emis
and extent of this interaction have been elu sions from the moon , the analysis of the
cidated. (7) Actually , the interrelations are effects of meteoric bombardment, of radia
fairly simple. If we call Js the growth rate tion, and of extreme temperature changes ,
in the surface- limited case, and Jp the growth and the actual study of pulverized silicates
rate in the diffusion - limited case, then the under high - vacuum conditions, all pointed to
actual growth rate J attained is given by the the existence of a hard, firm lunar surface,
equation Most lunar geologists, including AFCRL
scientists who over the past several years
conducted the range of studies noted above,
}= + predicted this . But there was nevertheless
always an element of uncertainty until the
We can conclude, therefore, that we have Surveyor I provided in situ evidence. (Space
achieved sufficient fundamental understand Physics Laboratory )
ing of the vapor -transport process and the Construction of Vacuum Telescope Begins:
way it interacts with the surface -reaction Construction has begun on AFCRL ' S 328 - foot
process to proceed to the next phase of the solar vacuum telescope at AFCRL ' s solar
inquiry . This is concerned with the surface observatory on Sacramento Peak , N .M . Be
of the solid and what, in detail, goes on over cause 200 feet of the over- all length will be
it . This phase, already in progress in sev beneath the ground , the first step in the con
eral laboratories , will require amore quanti struction is the excavation of a mammoth
tative understanding of the nature and be hole in the ground . The hole has now reached
havior of solid surfaces than we have at an impressive depth. Completion of the
present. (8 ) telescope is scheduled for July 1968. (Space
REFERENCES Physics Laboratory)
(1) Theuerer, H . C ., “ Epitaxial Silicon Films by the Rocket Measures EUV Radiation : AFCRL
Hydrogen Reduction of Sicla, " J. Electrochem .
Soc., 108, 649, 1961. launched an Aerobee - 150 sounding rocket
(2 ) Jona, F . and G . Mandel, “ Solid Transport Rate in from the White Sands Missile Range, N .M .,
the Vapor -Solvent Growth System ZnS:1 ," J . Phys . last July 19th in an experiment to measure
Chem . Solids, 25 , 187, 1964. solar radiation in the extreme-ultraviolet
(3 ) Jona, F ., R . F . Lever and H . R . Wendt, “ Chemical (EUV) region . The rocket carried a 195 - pound
Equilibria in the Germanium -Iodine and Germanium
Bromine Systems by Weight-Loss Measurements,"
payload to an altitude of 148miles .Measure
J . Electrochem . Soc ., 111, 413, 1964. ments were made between 1 ,300 and 250
( 4 ) Lever, R . F ., “ The Equilibrium Behavior of the angstroms in the extreme ultraviolet using
Silicon -Hydrogen -Chlorine System ,” IBM J. Res. a grazing incidence photoelectric monochro
Develop., 8 , 460, 1964. mator installed in the Aerobee nose cone.
(5 ) Jona, F ., " Diffusion Versus Surface Limitations The instrument was equipped with a biaxial
in Vapor-SolventGrowth of Germanium ,” J . Chem . pointing control device which locked on the
Phys., 42, 1025, 1965 .
(6 ) Lever, R . F ., “ Vapor Transport and Thermodynamic sun as measurements were made. Another
Equilibria in the Germanium -Gallium -Iodine Sys experiment on board employed a retarding
tem ," J. Phys. Chem . Solids, 26 , 1629 , 1965. potential analyzer for measuring ion and
(7 ) Lever, R . F . and F . Jona , “ Chemical Transport electron densities at that altitude, Data was
in Nonconvective Systems,” A .I.Ch .E . Journal, in telemetered to ground receiving stations ,
press, 1966 .
(8) Swerdlow , M ., “ Semiconductor Surface Studies by James E . Higgins is the AFCRL project
Low -Energy Electron Diffraction ,” QAR Research scientist. (Upper Atmosphere Physics Lab
Review , 4, 10, December 1965. oratory )
 be conducted aboard the Gemini 12 - -in a
near -circular orbit at an altitude of about
160 nautical miles, within the ionosphere's
F - region . Typical charged - particle densi
SATELLITE ties in this region vary from 104 per cubic
centimeter at night to 10 ' particles during
the day. (Neutral particles in this region
ATTITUDE-SENSING have a density of about 1010 per cubic cen
timeter .)
Although we can assume an equaldistribu
SYSTEM BASED ON tion of electrons and ions within the orbit of
the spacecraft, the AFCRL sensor is designed
POSITIVE-ION to detect only ions . Relative to the high ,
randomly oriented electron velocities , which
are ' 200 times greater than the slower
DETECTION moving ions, the spacecraft is essentially
UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS stationary . The spacecraft , however , has
LABORATORY, AFCRL a velocity 8 times that of the random thermal
velocity of ions . Thus, spacecraft velocity
Space vehicles in orbit about the earth and direction relative to the ion environment
move through a continuous stream of charged can be detected.
particles. This flow of charged particles can In measuring spacecraft attitude, what we
be detected by sensors , Sensitivity of the de want to know is the angular variation of a
tection system varies with the orientation of reference axis to a velocity vector. Now , if
the sensors with respect to the direction of we place a conducting ring perpendicular to
motion of the spacecraft . With this as a basis , the velocity vector of the spacecraft, and
it is possible to design a system that can screen out the flow of electrons, the flow of
sense and control the attitude- - the pitch and positive ions will produce a current in the
the yaw - -of the spacecraft. ring. The current will decrease in an ana
Such a system has been designed and lytically predictable manner as we rotate
fabricated at AFCRL and provided to the the ring from the maximum current - flow
McDonnell Aircraft Company for installation position , which is perpendicular to the
in the Gemini 10 (launched July 18th ) and velocity vector. But this arrangement of a
Gemini 12 spacecraft (to be launched in single ring could not tell us much about the
November). NASA has given the AFCRL spacecraft attitude.
experiment the designation , D - 10 . The sys
tem was designed by Rita Sagalyn and her A second ring on a plane 90 degrees from
group at AFCRL who , through scores of the first is needed . Now , ifweplace the 2 -ring
rocket and satellite experiments over the system so that each ring is 45 degrees from
past decade, have made major contributions the pitch reference axis of the spacecraft, the
to the understanding of ion and electron flow of current from each should be equal
densities and their variations in the upper when the reference axis is aligned to the
atmosphere. velocity vector. . When the reference axis
Two sensor systems- - one to detect pitch , is not aligned , the current flow in each of
the other to detect yaw - -were designed for the 2 rings will be different, and this dif
both the Gemini 10 and 12. Each sensor is ference can become a measure of the space
located on a boom extending out about 3 feet craft 's pitch angle. To measure yaw it is
from the spacecraft. The 2 booms are sep necessary to install another system , similar
arated by about 90 degrees near the mid in all respects, aligned about the spacecraft ' s
section of the Gemini capsule. yaw axis ,
The attitude-sensing experiment was con The actual system developed by AFCRL
ducted aboard the Gemini 10- - and will also for Gemini 10 and 12 is more complex than
20
 GEMINI VEHICLE
A , D -10 UNITS

YAW SENSOR
EXTENDED POSITION
- STOWED POSITION
- ht PITCH SENSOR
STOWED POSITION

EXTENDED
POSITION
SS
S

It- R .x.

Figure 1.
Location of D - 10 Units in Gemini Vehicle.

A-A

this , with much of the complexity centering charge that builds up on the spacecraft,
around methods for electrically biasing the which might interfere with the detector sys
system to reject electrons , enhance ion tem ,
collection , and reduce the emittances from The electronics system , consisting ofpre
grids and collectors. The sensors must be cisely balanced addition , subtraction, and
located on extendible booms in order to ratio circuits , is mounted on 5 printed cir
minimize spacecraft shadowing and the cuit boards which , in turn , can be fitted into
21
a small aluminum container measuring about tem , it would be particularly suited to dock
4 by 6 by 8 inches. ing and maneuvering in space,
The attitude- control system carried aboard The Gemini 10 astronauts devoted more
the Gemini 10 and 12 vehicles is an experi time to testing the attitude -sensing system
mental system and is not a part of the Gemini than to any other of the 15 experiments
primary control system itself. The astro carried aboard. The 16 - pound AFCRL sys
nauts aboard the Gemini vehicles are simply tem was found to be more accurate than the
testing its potential effectiveness for future Gemini 10 's 150 - pound operational gyro sys
operational systems. As an operational sys tem ,

LE

Photo # 1. This shows the two rings through which the positive ions pass, creating a current. Two
of these systems, exposed on the end of an extendible boom , were used on the Gemini 10. The same
equipments will also be used on Gemini 12. One such system is used for pitch, the other for yaw .
22
 AN INVESTIGATION OF
THE BEHAVIOR OF A
DETONATION WAVE IN
A FLOWING
LT COL WILLIAM W . MCKENNA* COMBUSTIBLE
Air Force Institute of Technology MIXTURE
The study of detonation waves that propa in the latter ) . Studies in the past have been
gate in a flowing combustible mixture is of concerned primarily with thedetonation wave
great interest today because of the occur propagating into a static mixture.
rence of such waves in some combustors , This research included a theoretical study
Studies have indicated that undesirable com of detonation parameters for various initial
bustion instability in rocket motors has conditions that corresponded to those en
characteristics of detonation . Also , it may countered in the flowing gas . It was expected
be possible that some type of a detonation that the detonation -wave velocity relative to
process could be used in supersonic com the unburned gas should be independentofthe
bustion. In both of these areas , thedetonation speed of the flowing gas, and the profile of
wave would be in an environment of flowing the wave should be altered from a planar
gas (subsonic in the former and supersonic front to a shape similar to the velocity
profile of the oncoming flowing gas .
*Lt. Col. McKenna performed this research under the A stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen and
auspices of the Fluid Dynamics Facilities Research oxygen gas was used. Flow velocities were
Laboratory , ARL , in partial fulfillment of the Ohio varied throughout the subsonic range , and
State University requirements for the Ph . D . degree . flows from Mach 2 , 3, and 4 nozzles were

AIR
(10

AIR

olnohoolihoon
AIR

AIR

o o
LEGEND
1. Stagnation Chamber 6 . Mixing Chamber
2. Nozzle 7. Transition Section
3. Tonization Probes 8 . Diaphragm Assembly
4. Flowing Gas Detonation Tube ( FDT ) 9. Initiation Detonation Tube
5. Viewing Section 10.Exhaust Duct
11. Ignition Assembly

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Detonation System .

studied in the supersonic range. The appara detonation waves that were observed in two
tus consisted mainly of a stagnation chamber , of the Schlieren photographs. The Schlieren
a flowing gas detonation tube, and a con photographs revealed little change in the
vergent - divergent nozzle (when supersonic ). planar front of the wave in the subsonic
The detonation wave was initiated in a static flow ; but there was a definite curvature of
mixture in a separate tube downstream of the the front that corresponded to the velocity
main tube. After initiation , the wave propa profile of the oncoming gas in the supersonic
gated upstream (ruptured a diaphragm at flow . The photographs revealed very clearly
the end of the initiation tube) into the oncoming the propagation of the detonation wave into
flowing combustiblemixture of gas ,Measure the boundary layer . This condition resulted
ments were made of the relative velocity of in disturbances appearing ahead of the wave
the wave by means of ionization probes that in the photograph - - but was obviously explain
fed signals to an oscilloscope with a raster able in that the wave and flow were three
modification. Schlieren photography was used dimensional.
to obtain pictures of the wave as it propa The experimental part of the study encoun
gated against the flowing gas. tered the problem of accidental detonation of
Analysis of the data indicated that the the flowing hydrogen -oxygen gas. Without
detonation wave did behave as was expected normal ignition , the gas would detonate during
for the subsonic flows, but not for the the time when the flowing gas was permitted
supersonic flows. The data indicated that the to enter the tube and when it reached a
absolute wave velocity was greater than the steady - flow condition . This accidental deto
absolute Chapman - Jouguet steady velocity . nation occurred randomly. A few times it
Thus, the wave exhibited characteristics of occurred even at low subsonic velocities ,
a strong detonation wave. This increase in but more frequently at supersonic velocities.
speed was attributed to the particular pres Although this phenomenon was thoroughly
sure environment behind the wave that was investigated , it was not possible to deter
present in the supersonic flow . Also, it is mine the cause of these unwanted ignitions,
possible that the wave was strengthened by Therefore, automatic shutdown devices were
explosions behind the wave that resulted in used to avoid damage to the equipment.

properties of materials
in solid -state form SOLID STATE SCIENCES
LABORATORY, AFCRL

Why do certain combinations of atoms in We can characterize the properties of

a particular crystal lattice result in a solid materials in many different ways - -by
material with distinctive and unique prop valence, bond strength, elasticity and com
erties ? Is it possible to predict in advance pressibility, specific heat, lattice cohesive
of the synthesis of the material what its energy, hardness, infrared spectrum , and
properties will be ? In research extending so on . What are the relationships among
over a period of 10 years , Dr. Johannes N . these methods of characterization ? If we
Plendl of AFCRL has sought answers to know the infrared spectrum of the material,
these fundamental questions . This research for example, can we derive its compressi
has uncovered many unsuspected relation bility or hardness ? The apparent absence of
ships among the properties of solid mate such relationships has been a concern to
rials - - and has given the solid - state physi physicists for many decades, Dr. Plendl has
cist a key to the theoretical prediction of provided new insights into these relation
the properties of a given material, ships which , until now , have defied basic
24
 Photo # 1 shows a single crystal of material superimposed on a lattice modelbackground.
understanding . These relationships were un brought together for the first time in a 134
covered only after the detailed analysis of page manuscript entitled New Concepts in
a massive body of experimental data on the Physics of Solids, recently submitted for
more than 100 solids. publication . The essence of the paper is in
The results of Plendl's study have been a series of mathematical formulations which
25
establishes the relationships that exist among with binary dielectric compounds , It has not
characteristic features of materials . The yet dealt sufficiently with metallic mate
manuscript brings together discrete parts of rials or with complex dielectric compounds ,
Plendl's study which have previously been But the work to date provides a point of
published in the scientific literature. Within departure for these future studies,
the past year alone, Plendl has published six The 10 - year study has a diversity of parts ,
papers on his research in such journals as Of these, the central feature is the infrared
Applied Optics (July 1965 and March 1966 ) , vibrational spectrum of the crystalline sub
the Journal of Applied Physics (August 1965), stance as a whole. This spectrum is the
the Journal of Chemical Physics (October material's fingerprint. The infrared spec
1965), Physica Status Solidi (December 1965 ) , trum of any material, however, is not amen
and the Physical Review (June 1966 ). able to mathematical analysis , A single term
is needed to represent the entire spectrum
Although Plendl's work gives the physicist of the material. In the late 1950s, Plendl
a new view of materials in the solid state , introduced the concept of a "centro
this does not necessarily mean that the frequency, " which is defined as the center
physicist can now apply Plendl's formulations of gravity of the entire spectrum . This
to the characterization of all kinds of solid centro - frequency became the basic concept
materials. The research can best be viewed around which the entire study revolves,
as a path towards an application goal that is In a step - by - step progression of mathe
still distant. But it is a goal with high matical expressions, Plendl relates the
potential reward. centro - frequency to the material's specific
Let us consider this work against the heat, and to thematerial's elastic (acoustic )
broadest possible background . Its potential spectrum . He shows the interrelation of
usefulness covers the full spectrum of specific heat to compressibility, and of
materials - -metals , semiconductors, mag compressibility to the lattice cohesive en
netic materials , and dielectrics . ergy . His equations demonstrate the key role
of harmonic and anharmonic lattice vibration
Ideally , the materials scientist would like in the material. He shows that there are
to have a body of theory from which he two types of anharmonicity of the lattice
could draw to predict the optimum stoi structure which have a very different mean
chiometry of a material for a particular ing in the atomic structure, and that these
application . He would like to predict the two types have a pivotal function in the
materials that will give optimum strength character of a material. Lattice anhar
to -weight ratios , that transport and manipu monicity, for example, is related to the
late electrons with optimum efficiency, and repulsive forces between atoms, and can
that can operate in environmental extremes be used to predict the change of compressi
of temperature and radiation . There is no bility of the solid with pressure. The rela
way - - except within gross limits and with oc tionships have led to methods for predicting
casionally brilliant intuition - - to predict the the hardness (abrasiveness) of the material,
optimum composition of a material for a given a quality that previously could not be deter
use. Materials must be synthesized on a trial mined in advance of synthesis and testing.
and - error basis , and properties defined by The formulations also make it possible to
subsequent characterization . Such charac predict the valences, bond strengths, and the
terization is a laborious, time- consuming nature of the bonding between atoms in the
task , relative to the ease of synthesizing a lattice structure. Last and more general, the
particular material. study has shed light on , but has not yet fully
With Plendl's study as the basis, it may illuminated, the forces that hold matter to
be possible to predict the properties prior gether in the solid state. For such illumina
to synthesis , and to tailor materials having tion , new underlying theories must be postu
known optimum properties. Plendl's study lated . The relationships established by Plendl
to date has been concerned almost entirely may provide the key to such theories ,
26
 PROFILES

Mrs. Rita C . Sagalyn (left) and Dr. Michael Smiddy (right), both physicists in the Upper Atmosphere
Physics Laboratory, AFCRL , have collaborated on the design of the ''Satellite Attitude-Sensing System
Based on Positive- lon Detection, " described in this issue of the Review .
Mrs. Sagalyn received a B .S . in Physics from the University of Michigan in 1948, and an M . A .in
Physics from Radcliffe College in 1950 . She has been with AFCRL since that time. From 1950 to 1958
she was engaged in an investigation of electrical phenomena in the troposphere, and received the
Guenter Loeser Award in 1958 for her work in the lower atmosphere . Since 1959 she has been studying
the electrical properties of the upper atmosphere, and the interplane tary gas. Mrs. Sagalyn has published
several papers on the results of her research .
Dr. Smiddy received a County Scholarship in Physics and Applied Mathematics to Durham University
(England), where he took his B .Sc. in Honours Physics. After serving for two years as a lieutenant in
the R . E .M . E . Corps of the British Army, he returned to Durham and received his Ph. D . there in 1958.
Dr. Smiddy has been with AFCRL since that time. Presently, he is working on direct probe measure
ments of electric field and positive- ion density in aerospace .
27
 Captain Howard E . Bethel is assigned to the Hypersonic Re
search Laboratory , ARL. He has recently completed a detailed
study of the solution of the laminar boundary -layer equations with
the Galerkin -Kantorovich- Dorodnitsyn method , and is continuing
his research on computational methods in boundary- layer theory.
His article, “ On the GKD method for the Laminar Boundary
Layer Equations," appears in the OAR Research Review this
month. Captain Bethel received a B .S. in Aeronautical Engineer US . .
ing, with distinction, from Purdue University in June 1961. He
was commissioned in the Regular Air Force at the same time, and
stationed at Purdue.While there , he received an M .S. in Engineer
ing in June 1963, and satisfied the Ph .D . residence requirements .
After coming to ARL, he completed his dissertation in absentia ,
and was awarded the Ph.D . degree in June 1966 .

Dr. Johannes N . Plendl is a physicist with the Solid State

Sciences Laboratory , AFCRL. He obtained his B. S., M . S., and
Ph.D . degrees from the Munich Institute of Technology (Germany)
where, from 1919 to 1925, he majored in electrical engineering
and physics. In Germany, from 1925 to 1946, he held many impor
tant Government positions in the field of R & D in radio, UHF, and
microwave electronics. Dr. Plendl has made major contributions
to the theories of UHF., surface., and iono spheric wave propaga
tion, and was the first to propose the name, “ ionosphere," in
1930. He came to the United States in 1947, joined AFCRL in
1948 , and became a U .S. citizen in 1956. The article, “ Proper
ties ofMaterials in Solid-State Form ,"' in this issue of the Review ,
discusses some aspects of his recent work .
28
 Lt ColWilliam W . McKenna, author of the article, " An Investi
gation of the Behavior of a Detonation Wave in a Flowing Com
bustible Mixture" appearing in this issue of the Review , was
awarded the Ph .D . in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering
by the Ohio State University in June 1966 . After four years as As
sociate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Air Force In
stitute of Technology, Air University , Wright-Patterson Air Force US US
Base, Ohio, he was recently reassigned to Headquarters, Air
Force Systems Command, Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, as
an R & D staff officer. Col McKenna received his B . S . from Pennsyl
vania State University in 1943, and his M .S. in Aeronautics ( 1953)
and Engineering degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics (1962),
both from M .I. T . The research he describes in his article was
performed at AFIT under the auspices of ARL ' s Fluid Dynamics
Facilities Research Laboratory .

Mr. Norman J. Macdonald has been a research physicistwith the

Meteorology Laboratory of AFCRL since 1961, concentrating on
the fundamentalproblem of fluid motions on rotating, differentially
heated spherical systems. He attended the California Institute of
Technology, from which he received the B . S. (1946 ), and the M . S.
in Meteorology (1947). Before coming to AFCRL , he was Senior
Scientist with the AVCO Corporation . A member of the American
Meteorological Society and the American Association for the Ad
vancement of Science, Mr. Macdonald is the author of some 16
papers on meteorological and geophysical subjects. An article ap
pearing in this issue of the Review , “ Hypothesis by a Martian
Astronomer," briefly discusses Mr.Macdonald' s study ofthemove
ments of closed cyclonic and anticyclonic pressure centers .
29
 Mr. Owen W . Williams (right), Chief of AFCRL ' s Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, is being
congratulated by Dr. A . Marussi, Chairman of the Italian Geodetic Commission, after delivering a paper
on AFCRL ' s geodesy program at a seminar on MathematicalGeodesy held last year in Turin , Italy . He
writes on " Anna and Progeny " in this is sue of the Review . Mr. Williams attended Kalamazoo College
in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pa., receiving his A . B . with
honors from the former in 1948.He also attended graduate school at The George Washington University
from 1948- 1950, and has done graduatework in Geophysics and Management at universities in the Boston
area. After naval service during World War II, Mr. Williams served as a geodesist with the Army Map
Service from 1948 to 1955. From 1955 to 1957 , he was successively Assistant Chief and Chief of the
Geoscience Branch, Aeronautical Chart and Information Center. He has been with AFCRL since 1957.
Mr. Williams is a member of several professional societies.
30
 TO OUR READERS
Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
(except for those from Latin America ).

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
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AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

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Attn : SRGL
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OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority ”

 e research review
RUD
AE PACE ESEA S OFFICE of AEROSPACE RESEARCH
OF
CE RSO R
S
OAR : The Research Agency
of The United States Air Force

INLERIN
G

VOLUME V NUMBER 9
NOVEMBER 1966
& LIBRARY
THE EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL ERIN
SURFACES ON HIGH -SPEED VEHICLESINEER G
MAJOR JOHN P . THOMAS, Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL
A study of the effect of aerodynamic con - significance for the aerospace engineers1956
trol surfaces on hypersonic vehicles has and scientists .
been in progress for some time at ARL , The Problemsare encountered in thelypersonisy
investigation encompasses various shaped speed range which have not affected vehitres
fins on a blunt flat plate, Figure 1 shows the flying at slower speeds. Some of the minor
experimental test model. The fins a3 well as problems which are present at lower speeds
the blunt flat plate were tested at different become magnified as the vehicle increases
angles , Chordwise pressure distributions its flight velocity . One of the problems
were recorded on the surface of the blunt which becomes more pronounced at hyper
flat plate for the various configurations. An sonic speeds is the separation of the flow
analytical approach to the same problem about the vehicle due to adverse pressure
was conceived , and its results were com gradients caused by shocks in the flow field.
pared to the results of the experimental If the position and magnitude of the adverse
work , pressure gradient may be estimated , then the
The need for this type of study becomes effect on the over -all vehicle performance
apparent when one realizes that the next can be approximated . The present study was
generation of re-entry vehicles, HL- 10, SV undertaken to examine the possibility of
5 , and scramjet, are lifting configurations predicting the pressure gradients caused by
with aerodynamic control surfaces for guid control surfaces as well as to gain experi
ance in the earth 's atmosphere. Figure 2 mental data needed by the designer .
gives an artist' s conception ofsuch a vehicle. The experimental work was accomplished
In addition, before too long, the USAF will in one of ARL ' s 4 - inch hypersonic wind
be flying aircraft at hypersonic speeds. With tunnels. Four different fins were tested on a
these two important advancements in flying blunt flat plate. The fin yaw angle and plate
vehicles just over the horizon, a study of angle of attack were varied during the testing.
the flow patterns , pressure distributions , Pressures at the surface of the flat plate
and heating on the vehicles caused by the were mapped for somedistance on either side
movement of control surfaces assumes great of the fin and from the leading to the trailing

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES * AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE, OAR + LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
edge of the plate. Figure 1 gives a view of x / d = 10 .2 . For the viscid case, the dis
the blunt plate with a blunt unswept fin continuity is not possible because the ad
installed. In Figure 3, the circles are the verse pressure gradient is carried upstream
measured pressures of the plate shown as through the subsonic portion of the boundary
a ratio with the free - stream pressure versus layer which exists for viscid flow . An ad
the distance aft of the leading edge of the verse pressure gradient, if strong enough ,
plate nondimensionalized by the thickness will cause the boundary layer to separate
of the plate. (Figure 3 represents data for from the surface of the plate. Downstream
a wing attack angle of0°, fin yaw angle of 0° , of the separation point the boundary layer
and a spanwise distance on the plate of 0. 1 has two alternatives, depending on the flow
inch from the fin centerline.) conditions. First, the boundary layer may
For the analytical approach to the predic remain separated downstream of the original
tion of the pressure distribution on the blunt separation point, or second, the layer may
plate, it is first necessary to establish an reattach to the plate downstream of the
inviscid solution which represents the flow separation point. In the case shown in Figure
if no boundary layer existed on the plate, 3, the experimental pressures indicate a
The results of the inviscid estimation are separation and reattachment of the flow . To
shown by the dotted curve of Figure 3. The approximate analytically the experimental
method is given in Ref. 3. Note the dis flow conditions, a method by Lees and
continuity in the pressure distribution at Reeves (Ref. 1), with simplifying assump

ELECTRON ACCEPTORS
Dr. Tapan K . Mukherjee
research review NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF THE
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH NAVIER - STOKES EQUATION
LtCol Barnett R . Agins.
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of. THE MÖSSBAUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL
fice of Scientific and Tochnical Information (RRYC ), Ha Of. MAGNETIC FIELDS
Wicusinformado (RoyBlue
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard , Max Swerdlow ..
Arlington , Va. 22209. The objective of this publication is to A STEP FORWARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE
moke o positive contribution to the exchange of information
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research
HEATER DESIGN
Norman E . Scaggs . .. .. 14
activities.
TURBULENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE
JACOB SEIDEN J. W . Goresh .. . .. .. 18
Editor
LIGHT - SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCOPY
Electronics Division, AFOSR . . . ... 21
THE EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL DOG SILHOUETTES AND OTHER ARBITRARY
SURFACES ON HIGH - SPEED VEHICLES SHAPES BY COMPUTER
Major John P. Thomas .. ... . Data Sciences Laboratory , AFCRL . . . .............
...

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 to be extended to the three -dimensional
problem of the flow about the base of the
fin . Results of the analytical approach to
the problem are shown by the continuous
curve in Figure 3 . The symbol x gives the
analytical separation point, while a shows
the reattachment location. In the analytical
method it is possible to predict whether
separation will occur or not.
With the knowledge gained from this study,
it now becomes possible to predict the pres
sure distribution on a vehicle flying hyper
sonically , and to use the pressure distribu
tion to approximate the heat -transfer
distribution . Through basic -research efforts
like this , the aerospace designer will have
better means available to him on which to
base his design concepts , now and in the
future, for USAF flight vehicles ,

Figure 1.
Photograph ofWing-Fin Wind-TunnelModel.
tions by Hankey and Cross (Ref. 2 ),wasused .
The complete method of establishing the
analytical flow field on the plate about the
fin is shown for blunt leading-edge fins with
and without sweep in Ref. 3. The procedure Figure 2.
consists of a strip method which allows the
two - dimensional Lees and Reeves approach Artist's Concept of Lifting Hypersonic Vehicle.
 O Experimental Data
- - Inviscid Equation
- Interaction Equation
X Separation Point
A Reattachment Point

15
Pwe

yo
--
ano
--- -- |

į býtoto
Figure 3. Flat Plate Pressure A = 0°, a = 0°, = 0°, y = 0.1 inch .

REFERENCES Form Solutions for Supersonic Laminar Separated

Flows, to be published.
( 1) Lees, L . and B . L . Reeves, " Supersonic Separated ( 3 ) Thomas , J . P ., Investigation of the Pressure Dis
and Reattaching Laminar Flows. I. General Theory tribution on a Blunt-Fin Blunt-Plate Combination
and Application to Adiabatic Boundary -Layer/ Shock at a Mach Number of 11.26 , Ph . D . Dissertation ,
Wave Interactions, ” AIAA Journal, 2, 1964. The Ohio State University, 1966 . ( In publication
(2 ) Hankey , W . L . and E . J. Cross, Approximate Closed as an ARL report.)

ELECTRON ACCEPTORS
DR . TAPAN K . MUKHERJEE , Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL
In recent years , research on the phenome electron affinity of the acceptors and the
nological and electronic application aspects ionization potential of the donors. When an
of organic charge- transfer complexes has acceptor of high electron affinity reacts with
greatly intensified. These complexes are a donor of sufficiently low ionization potential,
formed when an acceptor molecule reacts one electron may be completely transferred
with an appropriate donor molecule, Com from the donor to the acceptor, resulting in
pounds with electronegative substituents the formation of paramagnetic ion - radicals.
function as acceptors, whereas aromatic Electrical conductivities of solid charge
hydrocarbons, amines, etc. , with available transfer complexes and ion - radicals have
a - electron clouds or lone pairs of electrons become an exceedingly interesting property,
constitute the donors. The stability of charge especially for their potential semiconductor
transfer complexes depends largely on the applications. Although organic molecules are,
in general, poor conductors of electricity, it the 2,4 ,7-trinitro derivative (e ) and the
is now well established that the presence of 2 , 4 ,5 , 7 - tetranitro derivative (f) are found to
free - radical species causes an enhancement be strong acceptors (2 ) ( 3 ). These compounds
of conductivity . Thus, ion- radical complexes form highly colored, insoluble complexes
in the conductivity range, 10 to 10- ohm with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
cm - have been synthesized . amines, and are useful as complexing re
At the Air Force Cambridge Research agents in analytical chemistry. The stability
Laboratories, a broad program has been of some of these complexes is of such high
under way aimed at deriving a meaningful order that they can be purified by recrystal
correlation between electronic conductivity lization . These acceptors do not undergo
and molecular structure. In this study , a displacement reactions with amines or Diels
mumber of electron acceptors derived from Alder type reactions with aromatic hydro
dicyanomethylene fluorene have been synthe carbons, thus showing distinct advantages
sized . (Fig . 1) over tetracyanoethylene, a more powerful
acceptor . Dicyanomethylene 2, 4, 7 - trinitro
fluorene (e ) has been marketed by Eastman
Chemicals as a complexing reagent.
R4
Stable anion radical salts can be conven
iently prepared from the tri- and tetranitro
derivatives and suitable donors. Radical salts
with organic cations have also been synthe
sized by the metathetical reaction between
CN CN the lithium salts of these compounds and am
monium , arsonium or phosphonium iodides.
These salts show typical semiconductor propa
(a) R,,R21 = NO ; R3,R4,R5 = H erties, with conductivities in the 10
ohm -1 cm -l range.
(b) Ry,R3 = NO2; R2,RfrR5 = H In another aspect of the current research,
it has been found that these electron acceptors
(c) Ry,R4, = NO2; R2,Rz,R5 = H show variable photoconductivity. The conduc
tivity of the 2 , 7 -dinitro derivative (d ) is en
(d) Ry,R5, = NO2;R2,Rz,R4= H hanced by 4 orders of magnitude when this
material is illuminated by a 200 - watt lamp
(e) Ry,R2,R5 = NO2;Rg:R4= H from a distance of 7 cm . Contrary to the
general experience, the photocurrent maxi
mum lies considerably beyond the absorption
( ) R1,R2,R3,R5 = NO2; R4 = H maximum of the compound. This is the first
reported case of high photoconduction effi
Figure 1 çiency encountered in organic electron ac
ceptors. Its implication for the conduction
Electron affinities, relative to 2 , 4 , 7 - trini- phenomena in molecular crystals is being
trofluorenone , were determined from spectral actively investigated.
studies of the charge- transfer complexes of
these acceptors with a number of aromatic
REFERENCES
hydrocarbons as donors ( 1) . The electron
affinities of the dinitro- isomers vary ac (1) Briegleb, G ., Angew . Chem ., 76 , 326 , 1964.
cording to the orientation of the substituents . (2 ) Mukherjee, T . K . and L . A . Levasseur, J . Org .
Increasing the number of nitro groups on the Chem ., 30 , 644, 1965.
basic acceptor structure causes marked (3 ) Mukherjee, T . K . and A . Golubovic , Abs. 149th
enhancement of the electron affinity . Thus , Meeting of Am . Chem . Soc., April 1965, p . 53P .
 The walls of the channel are defined by
numerical y = + a and the inlet by X = 0 . The boundary
conditions are:
integration of
4 ( O, y) = .
the Navier -Stokes v (0 , y ) = 0
M ( x , + a ) = V(x ,+ a ) = 0 x > 0.
equation It was assumed that the velocity profile
at infinity was parabolic ; i. e ., as x + 00,
v + 0 and
LT COL BARNETT R . AGINS
Directorate of Mathematical Sciences , AFOSR
4 + 2 (a? -y²),
The motion of a disturbed viscous fluid is Integration was performed by establishing
important in many areas , such as flow about finite difference equations with boundary
aerospace vehicles in flight and flow in a conditions and using a relaxation system ,
tube or channel. The general representation The results were quite interesting , par
of this phenomenon is the Navier - Stokes ticularly with respect to the velocity profile.
equation , which is a nonlinear, elliptic , All approximate boundary - layer treatments
partial differential equation . A considerable of this problem assume a convex velocity
number of results have been obtained by profile with a maximum on the axis . For
analytic means on estimates and bounds of small values of x and finite Reynolds number,
solutions; however, for detailed results , it this is not true. For small x , the parallel
is necessary to turn to numerical methods. component of velocity k has a local mini
Working under a grant from the Applied mum on the axis y = 0 and two symmetrically
Mathematics Division , AFOSR , Prof. J. Gillis placed maxima on either side of the axis,
of the Weizmann Institute of Science hasbeen
developing techniques for the numericalsolu A physical argument can be made as fol
tion of this equation. To demonstrate his lows :
theory and obtain further insight, the
techniques were first applied to the problem
of the steady -state , two - dimensional flow of
a homogeneous, incompressible viscous fluid
in the inlet region of a straight channel. ( 1)
Values of Reynolds number ranging from 0
to 500 were used ,
The problem was formulated , using the
equations:

where y , v are the components of fluid ve

locity parallel and perpendicular, respec
tively , to the walls ; p is the fluid pressure;
p the density and v the kinematic viscosity ,
FIGURE A
both of which are assumed constant,
 Consider the straight boundary , AB, and The numerical technique was applied to the
the outer limit, AC , of the boundary layer. case of an incompressible conducting fluid in
The thickness of the boundary layer increases the inlet region of a straight channel in the
as xa where a < 1 . It follows that, in the presence of a transverse magnetic field. ( 2)
vicinity of A , the rate of increase of thick Similar results were obtained and tabulated ,
ness as a function of x is very large. This These results have been applied by Air
would cause a crowding of streamlines in the Force contractors to verify approximate
core, and a consequent increase of u in the analytic solutions to the problem , and to
vicinity of AC . Presumably , it is necessary determine the length of the unstable region
to travel some distance along the channel for the design of fluid amplifiers . In both
before the acceleration of the core, due to cases , the availability of the tabulated results
the slowing down at the walls , reaches the has saved , in computer time, many times the
axis. ( This phenomenon has been reported cost of the investigation.
as actually observed in a fluid channel. ) The REFERENCES
graph of Fig . B shows the velocity profile for
the case R = 20 ; but this situation holds for ( 1) Gillis, J. and A . Brandt, “ The Numerical Integra
tion of the Equations of Motion of a Viscous Fluid,"
all values of R investigated with no qualitative AFOSR 65 -0629, October 1964.
change, (2 ) Brandt, A . and J. Gillis , “ Magnetohydrodynamic
Numerical results have been tabulated , in Flow in the Inlet Region of a Straight Channel, "
cluding the distance to the parabolic regime. to be published.

Velocity profiles for R = 20

x=0 x3.2 x=.4 x=,6 x=.8 x=1.0 x=1.2 x=1.4 x=1.6 x=l.8 x =20
FIGURE B

THE MÖSSBAUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL

MAGNETIC FIELDS
MAX SWERDLOW , Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR
The application of the Mössbauer effect to materials not possible in zero magnetic
solid -state physics is now firmly established field . Such materials include paramagnetic
as a major new tool for probing the structure metals , salts , and alloys.
of matter. When combined with strong mag By far, the largest application of the
netic fields its versatility is greatly extended, Mössbauer effect has been to the study of
enabling studies of hyperfine phenomena in hyperfine interactions in magnetic materials.
This is a rewarding pursuit because the ex due to the surrounding charge configuration
perimental determination of hyperfine inter (quadrupole splitting ); and (3) the magnitude
actions , particularly magnetic hyperfine in of the magnetic field interacting with the
teractions , gives a measure of precisely magnetic moment of the nucleus. The detailed
those electronic quantities which are also interpretation of all of these effects , singly
intimately related to the causes of mag or in combination , is rather complicated and
netism . The use of high external magnetic will not be discussed here. The three sim
fields often plays an important role in these plest possible cases are illustrated in Fig . 1
experiments. For the study of paramagnetic where (a ) shows the effect of an isomer shift
metals , alloys, and salts, high magnetic as a displacement of the center of the reso
fields are, in fact, indispensable. Although nance line from zero velocity; (b ) shows a
nuclear magnetic resonance may be used to quadrupole splitting which results in two
obtain some of the same information as resonance lines separated by the energy of
obtained with the Mössbauer effect, nuclear the electric quadrupole interaction ; and
magnetic resonance requires the use of rf (c ) shows the six - linehyperfine pattern which
fields , which limits its applicability in super arises from a single magnetic field acting on
conductors and in manymetal single crystals . the Fe57 nucleus . In general, all three inter
For these reasons, and others , Mössbauer actions may coexist; furthermore, some
measurements will continue to be a useful essential characteristics of the spectra de
tool for solid - state studies . The mechanism pend upon the relative orientations among
of the Mössbauer effect has been discussed the electric -field gradient, hyperfine mag
previously in these pages * , and will not be netic field vector, and y - ray propagation
repeated here. direction . In order to simplify our discussion
Because iron is one of the transition ele of magnetic phenomena, we shall confine
ments having an unfilled third electronic ourselves to a consideration of the magnetic
shell, it exhibits a strong tendency toward hyperfine spectrum only and disregard the
magnetic behavior : ferromagnetic in the isomer shift and quadrupole interactions; this
case of metallic iron , ferrimagnetic in a is permissible because, in the systems we
large number of insulating compounds, anti shall discuss in detail, the quadrupolehyper
ferromagnetic in a number of substances fine interaction is small and does not appre
including a -Fe2O3below 250°K and y -Fe203, ciably distort the spectrum which is due to a
and paramagnetic in certain dilute alloys magnetic hyperfine interaction only, while the
and crystals. Since Fe (parent isotope isomer shift simply shifts the center of the
Co" ) is generally considered to be the best spectrum with respect to zero velocity .
isotope in which to observe the Mossbauer
effect, it is a natural choice for the Möss In magnetically ordered systems, there is
a magnetic hyperfine field at the FeS nu
bauer study of magnetic phenomena. cleus due to the magnetic polarization of
If a monochromatic source of the 14.4 keV some of the electrons which interact with the
gamma radiation from Co57 (Fe57) is used dipole moment of the nucleus. This gives rise
to irradiate an absorber containing Fes , an to a spectrum similar to that shown in Fig. 1
absorption spectrum may be obtained by (c ), where the magnitude of the hyperfine
velocity modulation of the source with re field (approx . 330 kOe in metallic iron and
spect to the absorber (i. e., Doppler - shifting 500 koe in most magnetically ordered Fe3 +
the energy between the two). In general, compounds ) is proportional to the splitting
three distinct pieces of hyperfine - structure between symmetric pairs of lines; thus the
information may be obtained from such a lines are sharp in the presence of a unique
spectrum : ( 1 ) the density of s - electrons at hyperfine field . The intensities of the lines
the Fe57 nucleus (isomer shift); (2) the marked B are proportional toto 3(14 +sin2 O
gradient of the electric field at the nucleus cos20)
* See QAR Research Review , Nov. 1965 , “ Surface with respect to the outer pair of lines, where
Studies and the Mössbauer Effect." 0 is the angle between the effective magnetic
 hyperfine field vector and the v -ray propa hyperfine field Hn is parallel to the y - ray
gation direction . Thus, the relative intensity direction z , the middle lines vanish as shown
of these (middle) lines tells us the direction in Fig . 2 ( a ); if Hn is perpendicular to z , the
of the hyperfine field. For example, if the six lines have relative intensities 3 : 4 : 1: 1: 4: 3 ,

1.00
(a )
RELATIVE

IK ISOMER SHIFT
COUNTING
RATE

QUADRUPOLE
SPLITTING

W 1. 00

ww
MAGNETIC HYPERFINE STRUCTURE

VELOCITY
Figure 1 . Idealized Mössbauer absorption spectra illustrating the appearance of: ( a ) an isomer shift,
( b ) a simple quadrupole interaction, and ( c ) a pure magnetic hyperfine interaction .
 о b
о o

0 . 95

0 .90 H =64 koe

W1.00 + google

20.90 H =66 koe

0

o
k
RELATIVE

o
o
o
W 0.90 - H= 67.5 koe
o d
or

O
o

p O bo
d

‫ܬ‬
0. 90 - H = 69 koe y

‫ܟ‬
‫ܘ‬
olo

o
oo

o
og

S olo
o

‫ܘ‬

1.001 Beroun o

0.95
0 .90 H = 71koe I
-12 -8 -4 4 8 12
VELOCITY (mm /sec )
Figure 2. Absorption spectra using the same source and absorber as in Fig. 1, with an applied external
magnetic field : T =80° K for all spectra ; ( a ) Ho=64kOe, (b ) Ho= 66 kOe, ( c) Ho = 67.5 kOe,
( d ) Ho= 69 kOe, ( e ) Ho -71 kOe. The sequence shows the Mössbauer patterns in going through
the spin - flop region .
 as shown in Fig . 2( b ). The 3: 2 : 1 :2 : 3 intensity at MIT , sponsored by AFOSR , Dr. Arthur J .
ratios shown in Fig. 1( c ) correspond to a Freeman , Associate Director, Dr. Norman
random (isotropic ) orientation of directions Blum and Dr. Richard Frankel, Research
for Hn . Staff Members, and Prof. Lee Grodzins, of
In materials which are not naturally mag the MIT Physics Department, have been
netically ordered, the application of an ex carrying on an extensive investigation of
ternal magnetic field produces a hyperfine these magnetic properties of solids using
spectrum by interacting directly with the Fe the Mössbauer effect and magnetic fields up
nucleus. In many substances of interest, the to 180 kilogauss.
external magnetic field H . adds vectorially The unique facilities for generating and
to an induced internal field ( in the case of using high magnetic fields at the National
paramagnetic iron ) or to the natural internal Magnet Laboratory have already been applied
field in an ordered system . The magnitude in an active program which has demonstrated
and direction of the resultant hyperfine field the usefulness and importance of high fields
Hn is measured in the Mössbauer experi for Mössbauer studies. External fields in
ments. At the National Magnet Laboratory combination with the Mössbauer effect allow
RELATIVE
COUNTING
RATE

54

(a ) HEO T = 80°K

0.954
1: 0 T : 295 °K
0 .905

4 - 10 - 8 -6 -4 -2 © ¿ 4. • 10
VELOCITY (mm /sec)
Figure 3. Mössbauer absorption spectra for an unsplit Co 57 in Cu source vs. a single -crystal a-Fe ,Oz
sample oriented so that the gamma rays propagate along the crystallographic trigonal axis:
( a ) for Ho= 0 , T = 80° K ; ( b ) for Ho= 0 , T -295° K . This shows the effect on the Mössbauer pat
tern of going through the Morin transition (Ty ~ 260 ° K ).
11
measurements to be made of the sign of the the sublattice magnetizations will suddenly
hyperfine field acting at the nucleus. It is now rotate from along the [111] direction into the
well known that it was found to be, quite sur (111) plane; this sudden rotation ofthe direc
prisingly, negative in ferromagnetic metals tion of the sublattice magnetization at the
using the Mössbauer effect. Furthermore , critical field is the spin -flop phenomenon .
the high magnetic fields also simplify the An oriented single - crystal absorber was
analysis of experiments by eliminating lines prepared from a large number of small
from Mössbauer spectra when using longi single crystals cut from a sample of natural
tudinal fields, or by changing the relative hematite . The small crystals were oriented
intensities of the lines when using transverse by X - ray diffraction analysis , mounted to
fields. Using externalmagnetic fields , a tech form a tightly packed mosaic 5 / 8 inch in
nique for determining the sign of the hyper diameter, and polished to a thickness of
fine field relative to that in metallic iron has 0 .005 inch ; the crystallographic (111 ) direc
been developed, and used to show that the tion is normal to the plane of the disk . The
fields at FeS nuclei in Cr and Cu at low Mössbauer source was the unsplit line from
temperatures are positive, that is , opposite Co ” in copper . Figure 3 shows the velocity
in sign to that in metallic iron. spectra obtained in the absence of an applied
While external fields are useful in systems magnetic field: ( a ) for T = 80°K , and (b ) for
which are magnetically ordered in zero mag T = 295°K . The splitting is due to the internal
netic field , they are indispensable when one field Hint, which is 515 kOe for T = 295°K
wishes to study systems such asparamagnetic and 540 kOe for T = 80°K . The second and
metals, salts, and alloys ; impurities; and fifth lines of the spectra are nearly absent
hard superconductors. In these cases, the in Fig. 3(a ) and appear enhanced in Fig. 3 (b ).
magnetic field produces a polarization of the This result indicates that the internal fields
electronic - spin distributions thereby produc (and therefore the sublatticemagnetizations)
ing an effective magnetic field at the nucleus are parallel (or antiparallel) to the [ 111 ]
which , in general, is larger than the applied direction in Fig. 1 (a ), and perpendicular to
field . the [111] direction in Fig . 1(b ). This is the
As a typical and fairly simple example of Mössbauer - effect demonstration of theMorin
how external fields may be used to study transition .
magnetically ordered systems, we shall de In Fig. 4 , there are a series of spectra
scribe in some detail the results for one of similar to those in Fig. 1,butwith an external
the common oxides of iron . The magnetic field Ho, along the (111) direction which
properties of hematite (a -Fe203) have been varies from 64 kOe in Fig. 2( a ) to 71 kOe in
studied extensively by various workers using Fig . 2 ( e). The absorber temperature is 80°K ,
a number of different techniques over a well below TM . In Fig . 2 (a ), at 64 kOe, lines
period of several decades. Hematite has a one and six are split into resolved doublets ,
rhombohedral unit cell containing four iron with a separation between doublet components
atoms arranged with their magneticmoments corresponding to 2H . = 128 kOe; this comes
in antiparallel pairs so that (as a first ap about as a result of half of the Fe atoms
proximation ) the unit cell has no netmoment. having an internal field parallel to Ho, and
Below the Morin transition TM = 260°K , the half having an internal field antiparallel to
moments are, respectively , parallel and Ho. Lines 2 and 5 are missing,as is expected
antiparallel to the crystallographic (111] for Hn parallel to [111];Hn is the total (net )
direction. For T > Tm the moments lie in hyperfine field . The Inner pair of lines (3
the basal (111) plane; the moments of the and 4 ) are also doublets , but are unresolved
paired atoms are not precisely antiparallel, because the splitting is of the samemagnitude
but are slightly canted towards one another as the line width . In 2 ( e ), at 71 kOe, the
in the basal plane to produce a weak ferro spectrum appears qualitatively similar to
magnetic moment (the Dzyaloshinsky mo Fig . 1 ( b ). Here there is a single Hn =
ment). Also , it is well known that, for a (Hint 2 + H . 2 )/2 which is the vector sum of the
sufficiently large external magnetic field Hc, perpendicular components , Hint and Ho; we
 see from the enhancement of the middle lines remaining spectra in Fig . 2, (b) , (c), and (d) ,
that the internal fields Hint have rotated show how the transition takes place as a
perpendicular to the [111] direction . The function of Ho; all the atoms do not undergo

1 . 00
RELATIVE
COUNTING

(a)
RATE

(Q ) (B) (y ) (y) (B) (a )

(b )
1.00

mm

VELOCITY
Figure 4 . Relative intensities of the Mössbauer absorption lines for (a) Hn parallel to z, (b ) H , per
pendicular to z , and (c ) a random (isotropic ) orientation of Ho with respect to the z -axis.
13
simultaneous rotation , primarily because of weak moment which is consistent with either
Inhomogeneities in the alignment ofthe crys a canted spin model or a nearly compensated
tals making up the mosaic . This demon ferrimagnetic model. The external - field
strates the spin flopping, which for T = 80°K Mössbauer experiments give unequivocalevi
is seen to occur at Hc = 67.5 3 koe. dence that the latter model is correct,
The spin flop may also be inferred from The Mössbauer technique may be used
the Mössbauer spectra obtained with a poly together with external magnetic fields to
crystalline absorber. In this case , a sample elucidate the magnetic structure of matter.
consisting of commercial reagent grade A simple illustration of the technique has
a - Fe2O3 was bound into a Lucite matrix been given . There are magnetic systems in
having a density of 1. 0 mg/ cm2 Fe57 . The which some of the rare earths play the domi
Mössbauer spectra at 80°K for different nant role, and some of these too may be
values of H . are all qualitatively similar studied by Mössbauer spectroscopy. The re
to Fig. 1 (b ), except that the outer lines are cent development and availability of intense
noticeably broadened. A plot of the width of field large - bore magnets at the National
the outer lines vs. Ho reveals a maximum in Magnet Laboratory at MIT have made these
the vicinity of Hc = 65 koe. A qualitative experiments feasible , Research of this nature
understanding of this behavior for a poly is essential to a detailed understanding of
crystalline sample follows from the fact that certain types ofmagnetic phenomena .
the external field broadens the outer lines
by contributing components displaced from
the line center by as much as Hint + Ho for
those crystallites having their trigonal axes
parallel to Ho. When Ho = Hc the components
a step forward
contributing the most to the line broadening
suddenly rotate by 90°, so that Hint is per
in ceramic
pendicular to H . ; the contribution then ap storage-heater design
pears centered at a velocity corresponding to
(Hint2 + H 2 ) , which is almost at the line NORMAN E . SCAGGS , Fluid Dynamics
center and contributes very little to the Facilities Research Laboratory , ARL
broadening. The middle is only slightly
broadened because the parallel component, The ceramic storage heater has been used
which contributes the most to the broadening, for many years as a device for producing
is forbidden by the selection rules governing high -temperature gases with relatively small
the Mössbauer transition . Although not as amounts of contamination . One of the more
dramatic as the single - crystal experiments , recent applications of the ceramic storage
the Mössbauer experiments with a poly heater is a source of clean high -tempera
crystalline absorber also demonstrate that ture air for use as a test medium in high
the spin flop in hematite occurs at about 65 Mach -number ground- test facilities , Initi
kOe, for T = 80°K . ally , the available ceramics were adequate
in both materials and shapes. As the require
Similar techniques have been applied to ment for air at higher temperatures grew ,
Y3 Fe5012 (yttrium iron garnet ) which is a problems began to appear in the satisfactory
ferrite having two nonequivalent magnetic design of an appropriate heater. This ar
sublattices, to KFen1017 (potassium ferrite) ticle describes a solution to one of themajor
which is an " antiferrimagnet " having four problems encountered in ceramic storage
nonequivalent magnetic sublattices , and to the heaters .
magnetoelectric compounds Ga2- x FexO3 and The most critical region in a ceramic stor
A12-xFexO3 which were shown by external age heater is the storage matrix , since it is
field Mössbauer experiments to be ferri exposed to the highest temperatures , suffers
magnetic rather than canted antiferromag the most severe thermal shock , and is
nets . These latter two materials exhibit a cycled through the largest temperature
14
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00000000

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ranges. Consequently, both the material and - 0 . 22 " Dia

the shape of the storage matrix are very

important, Originally , the storage matrix in

1
5.4 51
-
most ceramic heaters was assembled from
spheres , partly because this shape was
available and partly because the sphere is
an easy shape to manufacture. The storage
matrix is also very easy to assemble when
spheres are used . The spheres were quite
satisfactory until the ceramics were heated
to the softening temperature of the material,
At this point, the high stress on the spheres
caused them to fuse together to form a solid
mass of ceramic , thus preventing air passage
and, of course, making the heater unsatis
factory .
Due to the small area of contact between
two spheres, the slightest load produces a
very high stress at the point of contact. In
a ceramic storage heater, the load is gen
erated by the weight of the ceramics above Figure 1. Cored brick configuration.
each level in the matrix . The maximum bulk The lower portion of the heater is subjected
stress in most storage heaters is approxi to lower temperatures and, therefore, a
mately 20 psi; but, at the point of contact wider variation of materials can be con
between each sphere , this stress is several sidered for application in this region . How
orders of magnitude higher . An obvious ever, experience has shown that aluminum
solution to this problem is to utilize a shape oxide is the most efficient material to use
that provides a larger contact area . This is in this portion of the heater matrix . The
easier said than done because the shape material chosen must also be very dense to
must allow air to pass through it freely, facilitate a large amount of energy storage
must not fail from thermal shock , and must and to permit high mass -flow rates. The
have the capacity for storing a sufficient weight of the ceramics counteracts the drag
amount of energy . The shape should also of the air flow . The densities of the zir
be easily manufactured and easily assembled , conium oxide and the aluminum oxide in the
The shape that emerged from all these ARL heater are 343 lbm /ft3 and 241 lbm / ft ”,
considerations was a cored brick configura
tion as shown in Figure 1. The dimensions
respectively .
and material of the brick were determined The over - all size of the brick was deter
by the specific requirements of the Aero mined by the thermal-shock characteristics
space Research Laboratories ' heater . In the of the material and the manufacturer's size
case of the facility at theAerospace Research capability . The hole diameter and thenumber
Laboratories , an air temperature up to of holes were determined by balancing the
4 ,000°R for a duration of 300 seconds at a thermal-shock characteristics against the
mass - flow rate of 1 pound mass per second energy -storage capacity of the material.
was specified . Both the hole diameter and the number of
holes influence the resistance to air passage
The requirement for air at 4 ,000°R limits and these factors, coupled with the density
the choice of materials for the top portion of of the bricks, fix the maximum allowable
the heater matrix to two materials ; magne mass flow through the heater before the
sium oxide or zirconium oxide, Since mag bricks start to float . The bricks will start
nesium oxide slowly vaporizes in this tem to float when the drag is equal to the weight
perature range, zirconium oxidewas selected . of the bricks.
15
 Figure 2. Cored brick storage heater.

View Port Assembly

Grating and
Insulation Assembly

16
 The present configuration of the cored A specific example of an actual test on the
brick storage heater at the Aerospace Re ARL heater is shown in Figures 4 and 5 .
search Laboratories is shown in Figure 2. The heater temperature profiles before and
The top seven and one half feet of the storage after the test are shown in Figure 4 . Figure
matrix are made of zirconium -oxide cored 5 shows the variation in the air temperature
brick. The construction of the storagematrix produced during the test. The variation in
starts at the very bottom , and the holes in air temperature during this test was 40°R at
each successive layer of bricks are aligned a mass - flow rate of 0. 75 lbm / sec over a
so that finally the matrix is a cylinder of time duration of 250 seconds.
ceramic twelve and one half feet long with
air -passage holes through it . - - _Top of Storage Matrix
The operation of the heater consists of - 12
blowing combustion gases from a methane Mass Flow = 60 .75 LBM / SEC for
. 0 Minutes at 3360R
air -oxygen burner, which is installed at the
top of the heater, down through the storage
matrix where the energy is absorbed. When
the desired amount of energy is stored , the
burner is shut off and clean , dry air is blown Storage
Matrix
Height
-Feet
through the heater from bottom to top, re
trieving the energy as it progresses through After
the heater. In this manner , the air will reach Blow - Down

approximately the temperature of the top

portion of the matrix . The maximum allow
able temperature profile in the ARL heater
is shown in Figure 3. With this profile, an Before
Blow - Down
air temperature of 4 ,000°R can be achieved ,

| -- -'Top of storageMatrix
- Top of Storage Matrix

800 1600 2400 3200 4000

Matrix Temperature - 'R
Figure 4. Example ofheater performance .
Storage
Matrix
Height
F- eet

4000
Temperature

Mass Plow - 0 . 75 LBM / SEC

Heater
Outlet

3800
Air
at
-'R

3600

3400

3200

3000
50 100 150 200 250 300
300

Blow - Down Duration - Seconds

Figure 5. Example of heater performance.

0 800 1600 2400 3200 4000
Matrix Temperature - ºp The advantages of the cored brick con
figuration over spheres for the storage
Figure 3. matrix can be summarized as follows:
Maximum allowable matrix temperature profile. 1. The elimination of high stresses per
17
mits a higher maximum temperature profile able in a storage heater .
for a particular ceramic material since the 4. The lower resistance to air flow also
ceramics can be heated nearer their melting permits higher mass - flow rates through the
points without fusing. storage matrix before flotation of the bricks
2. A bonus effect results when cored occurs .
brick is used instead of spheres, since the The cored brick storage heater at the
drag on the cored brick is only one half the Aerospace Research Laboratories is the first
drag on spheres for a given mass - flow rate. of its kind at an Air Force installation . The
The low resistance to air flow reduces the performance of the heater during the short
percentage of flow through the insulation sur time it has been in operation is very encour
rounding the storage matrix , thus resulting aging . Further evaluation of this particular
in a final air temperature nearer the top configuration continues as the heater is
brick temperature, utilized to provide air at temperatures be
3 . Both 1 and 2 above contribute to a tween 3,000°R and 4,000°R for a ground -test
higher maximum air temperature produce facility .

turbulent heat transfer

J . W . GORESH , Fluid Dynamics Facilities
Research Laboratory ,ARL
The general problem of turbulent forced - of the temperature profile down the pipe, A
convection heat transfer in cylindrical pipes schematic diagram showing the coordinate
is of considerable practical interest. In system is given in Figure 1.
many cases where high - temperature gases
flow subsonically through insulated pipes ,
the engineer is often required to design
tubes which produce uniform exit
temperature profiles . This study, which con
siders the case where the wall -heat flux is Figure 1. Diagram of co-ordinate system .
zero , provides a method of finding the
minimum - length mixing tube, Tubes having
any wall -heat losses will have greatermixing We have considered the section of pipe to
lengths . the right of x = 0 , where the wall-heat flux
The fluid enters the pipe with a nonuniform is equal to zero . The flow possesses a fully
developed turbulent velocity profile and a
temperature and a fully developed turbulent
selected entrance - temperature profile at
velocity profile, At succeeding axialstations, x = 0.
due to the radial conduction and turbulent Subject to the limitations given below , the
mixing , the temperature profile will deviate
from the entering profile until a uniform steady - state energy equation is :
profile is approximately achieved.
The analysis is similar in the general p Cpu = F (rar), (1)
mathematical approach to that presented by
Latzko ( 1 ) and Fettis ( 2 ) for an isothermal where x = the axial distance of a point of the
wall. They also assumed a one - seventh fluid from the inlet,
power velocity profile, a simplified r = the radial distance of that point
eddy diffusivity, and a Prandtl number of from the center line.
unity . 0 = the temperature excess of a point
Results for selected entrance conditions over surface temperature ,
are presented which show the adjustment p = the density of the fluid ,
 Co = the specific heat at constant pres d . It is also assumed that the flow is
sure, hydrodynamically fully developed ,
u = the velocity of the fluid and The statement of the problem is com
9 . = the radial heat flux , pleted when the boundary conditions are
specified for the function (r ,x ), At the inner
In writing the energy equation (1), the surface of the pipe we have:
usual basic assumptions are adopted:
a . The fluid properties are assumed con Ooo(r , x )
kw - r
fr = R
= 9w = 0 , (2a )
stant.
b . Viscous dissipation is negligible.
c . Axial diffusion of heat is negligible where kw and 4w represent the gas con
compared to the axial convection . ductivity and flux at the wall.

Q : 00
m = 0 .53 lbs / sec
0. = 4000°R.
Qw = 0
Po = 2000 psia
7RADIUS
DIMENSIONLESS

0 .2

X /D

- 32
76

DIMENSIONLESS TEMPERATURE
Figure 2. Radial temperature profiles at different axial distances .
 The fluid temperature, at the entrance
(i.e., x = 0) is given by the following : recent
0 (r,0) = 6. f(r). (2b)
AFCRL rocket firings
The equations (1), (2a), (2b), and the im Cosmic -Ray Measurements : An Aerobee
posed condition that no infinite temperatures
exist, constitute the mathematical statement 150 sounding rocket was launched by AFCRL
of the problem . from Fort Churchill, Canada, on August 8
The method used in obtaining a solution to to study cosmic - ray nuclei as a function of
equation (1) for the specified boundary condi solar activity . The experiment was designed
to learn more about the sun ' s contributions
tions was analogous to that first used by to the flux of high - energy particles reaching
Fettis ( 2) in solving the isothermal problem the earth . The rocket carried a 240 - pound
with a uniform entrance-temperature profile.
However , to obtain a nontrivial solution to payload to an altitude of 196 km . Approxi
the present case, it was necessary to assume
mately 90 seconds after launch , 4 doors on
that the fluid entering the pipe had a non the nose cone opened to expose photographic
emulsion plates to cosmic radiation . The
uniform temperature profile. The eigenvalues
and eigenfunctions remain unchanged for any nose cone was subsequently recovered by
entrance -temperatureprofile becauseneither parachute. Specific objectives of the test
were:
depends on the initial temperature distribu
tion . In the chosen numerical example, the 1) To study primary cosmic - ray nuclei at
initial temperature distribution was repre
the very lowest energy during a period of
low sunspot number ,
sented by the following: 2 ) To compare relative numbers of low
energy cosmic - ray nuclei of differentatomic
(1,0) = 0 . f(1) = 6 , (1-5 %)?, numbers with cosmic - ray abundance.
where is the initial center -line tem 3) To determine if significant numbers of
perature and the nondimensional radius heavy nuclei are emitted by the sun during
i is the ratio of the radial variable r to pipe
radius R . quiet times .
The adjustment of the temperature from 4 ) To measure the primary flux of low
radial variation to a uniform distribution at energy protons and alpha particles .
succeeding axial stations is shown in Figure 2. Robert C . Filz is the project scientist for
The engineer is often required to design this experiment. (Space Physics and Aero
space Instrumentation Laboratories )
mixing tubes with varying degrees of wall
heat losses. Thus, these calculations pro
vide him with the length of a perfectly in Daytime Aurora : AFCRL launched an
sulated tube for turbulent flow . This is the Aerobee - 150 sounding rocket from Fort
minimum - length mixing tube, since any wall Churchill, Canada, on August 11 to study the
losses will require a greater length . Cal upper atmosphere during a daytime auroral
culations for imperfectly insulated pipes were event. The Aerobee carried a 225 - pound pay
presented in reference (3 ). load to an altitude of 210 km . Instrumenta
tion included a 1-meter Ebert instrument
REFERENCES with a photomultiplier - tube detector to
(1) Latzko, H ., NACA TM 1068, 1944, (original in measure the line- emission spectra of the
German ). upper atmosphere above 80 km . Purpose of
(2 ) Fettis, H . E ., “ On the Eigenvalues of Latzko 's the experiment was to confirm theoretical
Differential Equation , ” ZAMM , Vol. 37, Nos. 9 estimates of the intensity for several emis
and 10 , September/October, 1957.
(3 ) Goresh, J. W ., " Heat Transfer in CylindricalPipes sion lines. The nose cone was retrieved
with Fully Established Turbulent Flow and Ex by parachute. Project scientist for the ex
posed to a Uniform Temperature Environment, ” periment is Dr. Sam Silverman . (Upper
Journal of Heat Transfer, Paper No. 65 -WA /HT- 16 . Atmosphere Physics Laboratory)
20
ELECTRONICS DIVISION
ELECTRONICS DIVISION
AFOSR light-scattering homodyne
spectroscopy
In the development of a theory of liquid tion Laboratory (CRL ), supported under the
behavior, a crucial test of propositions Joint Services Electronics Program have,
occurs at and near critical temperatures . for the first time, observed and measured
These are temperatures, for given condi the frequency spectra of time- dependent
tions of pressure and specific volume, where concentration fluctuations in liquids close
(often dramatic) state changes take place - - to the critical temperature .
for example, when water changes to ice or These results were made possible by the
when liquid helium becomes superfluid . In use of a special spectrometer, the laser
pursuit of experimental ways to evaluate homodyne spectrometer , designed and built
existing mathematical models for fluids , by the CRL staff in 1963. The spectrometer
research personnel of the Columbia Radia functions with light in much the same way
that a Doppler radar functions with micro
waves . In the present form of the apparatus
He - Ne Laser (see Figure 1 ) , the output of a helium - neon
laser of wave length 6328Ă is divided by a
(6328 Å )

Bragg Cell ( Provides Doppler

Frequency Shift
of 18 mc. )
Traveling SoundWave in H ,0

Sample Container
( Thermostatically
Controlled )
Figure 1. Bench diagram of the homodyne spectrometer for measuring phase-change
characteristics in an aniline- cyclohexane mixture .
21
semireflecting mirror (M , ). Themajor beam appear and disappear in the medium . This
is given a small frequency offset of 18Mc/ sec parameter t now accessible to measurement
by reflection from traveling sound waves in may, in turn , be related to thermodynamic
water , and is then transmitted through the properties evaluated in the neighborhood of
sample under study via mirror Mg. Light the critical point. In this region some
scattered in a particular direction by the quantities - - e . g . , specific heat- - are strongly
sample is then recombined with the minor varying and poorly measured by conventional
beam (at mirror Me), which plays the part methods. By means of statistical mechanical
of the local oscillator in the analogous theory , thermodynamic quantities can be
microwave system . The recombined beams related to molecular forces. New accurate
form the input to a photomultiplier. Since data through the critical region are expected
the interference between the two beams is to provide a sensitive test for present and
modulated at the offset frequency, only that future statistical models for the liquid state.
part of the output from the photomultiplier Studies in one -component monatomic liquids
which lies in a narrow band of frequencies will provide the most tractable case for com
around 18 Mc/sec is amplified and processed parison with theory .
by the spectrometer . In effect, the spectrom
eter measures the coefficients in a plane Preliminary results on light scattered by
wave expansion for the scattered field . A pure carbon dioxide have been obtained . The
conventional spectrometer would measure program for the immediate future includes
intensity. a refinement of these measurements and
extension to the noble gases , xenon and argon ,
Light scattered from a liquid (Rayleigh or Understanding the behavior and properties
Tyndall scattering) is usually considered to
have a spectral distribution identicalwith the
of fluids is of particular interest to the Air
exciting radiation . The reason for this is that
Force, not only because our aircraft must
operate in the fluid of the atmosphere , but
the resolution required to observe the line also because the flow characteristics and
shape in such a case is about 1013 , which properties of fuels , combustion products ,
exceeds that provided by any classical spec coolants, etc., must be understood to advance
trometer. This high resolution , however, is the state -of - the- art of propulsion- system
easily attained with a laser source and
homodyne spectrometer. A successful dem
design , and because weather forecasting is
onstration of this was achieved by resolving so dependent upon understanding the phase
the spectrum of light scattered from a
changes of water .
cyclohexane- aniline mixture in a constant The homodyne spectrometer measure
temperature enclosure . The scattered light ments were made and reported by Drs. S, S.
was observed to have a Lorentzian line shape Alpert, Y. Yeh, and E , Lipworth ,members
of width proportional to the difference between of the Columbia Radiation Laboratory , which
the sample temperature and the critical is directed by Professor Robert Novick . *
temperature for the mixture. In addition , the
line width was shown to be proportional to
sin ? ( 0 / 2), where 0 is the scattering angle,
All of these observations are in qualitative
agreement with the theory first formulated REFERENCES
by Landau and Placzek. ( 1) Joint Services Electronics Program , Contract No.
Of perhaps more fundamental interest are DA 28 -043 AMC -00099(E ) .
similar measurements on single - component (2) Alpert, S. S., Y. Yeh and E. Lipworth , " Observa.
systems. The width of the Rayleigh line pro tion of Time-Dependent Concentration Fluctuations
vides a measure of a relaxation time t which in a Binary Mixture Near the Critical Temperature ,
characterizes the time scale on which spon Using a He-Ne Laser,” Phys . Rev. Letters, Vol.
taneous density or concentration fluctuations 14, 486 , 1965.
 A crude stick figure of a dog (Figure 1 ),
traced on a computer cathode-ray tube (CRT)
output - input scope with a light pen , expands
and takes shape on the tube face to become
a full silhouette of a German shepherd. An
" X " traced on the tube is transformed into a
square, a single dot into a circle, and a
DATA SCIENCES LABORATORY , AFCRL series of apparently random lines of various
lengths and curvatures becomes a meaningful
arrangement of several objects .

These transformations (actually inverse

DOG SILHOUETTES transformations because, in this case, the
AND computer had previously derived the simpler
OTHER ARBITRARY geometrics from the more complex shapes )
are being studied to define the capabilities of
SHAPES a unique pattern - recognition technique, Al
BY COMPUTER though the concept has been under mathe

Figure 1 . Shape of a German shepherd as reproduced by cathode-ray -tube computer output on a

256 x 256 -element grid. The shape was reconstructed from the transformation pattern repre
sented by the white medial axes.
23
matical investigation for several years by
Harry Blum of AFCRL , it has only been
within recent months that a computer pro
gram has been formulated for making actual
pattern transformations. The computer simu
lation program for analyzing the pattern
**
recognition technique has been developed and
carried out by Otis Philbrick , also ofAFCRL .
The computer being used is a small general
purpose digital computer (Digital Equipment
Corporation PDP - 1). The CRT images are
presented on a grid of 256 by 256 elements .
A basic advantage of this pattern - recogni
tion technique, known as Medial Axis Trans Figure 2. Aircraft shape reconstructed in the same
formation , is that it permits the recognition manner as Figure 1. Both figures repre
of patterns of arbitrary shapes ; it does not sent progress toward the reduction of
have the geometrical constraints associated complex shapes to simpler ones which
with other pattern - recognition methods . ( The a computer can analyze and process
best examples of extremely rigid geometrical automatically.
constraints are found in automatic - recogni
tion schemes requiring the stylized numbers nal object. By way of further example, we
and letters we see on our credit cards and see from the above description that a single
bank checks.) line represents a transformed V . But without
Just how transformations from a complex knowledge of the time- rate at which the line
shape to simple descriptive lines are made was drawn, there is no way to determine
is best illustrated by Blum 's grass - fire whether the V had an angle of 30 degrees,
analogy . The grass fire begins at the edge 130 degrees, or any value between .
of the pattern and spreads with a uniform Computer simulation of the technique does
velocity into the pattern , Suppose the pattern not mean that the technique is approaching
edge- -where the grass fire originates - - is a operational feasibility. But the simulation
square. At each corner of the square, the studies have shown Blum and Philbrick the
fires on the two nearest sides intersect. As potential of the system , and are helping to
the grass fire burns inward, the two fronts define parameters for an ultimate operational
continue to meet. Where they meet is the system ,
medial axis . For a square, the two inter Automatic pattern - recognition systemsare
secting fronts trace a diagonal line inward increasingly needed to process the mush
toward the center of the square, Ultimately , rooming growth of pictorial data that must
the four lines originating at each of the four now be examined by laborious manual meth
corners of the square come together at the ods. Two primeexamples are reconnaissance
center . The result is a well - defined " X " that photographs and the huge volume of cloud
has been drawn in time. photographs transmitted daily to earth by
weather satellites. But another important
The " X " is the transformation pattern of potential application is the transmission of
the square. The stick figure of the German visual data over narrow - band channels . It
shepherd , noted earlier, and the aircraft takes more band width and power to transmit
shape (Figure 2) were similarly derived. complex visual patterns than to transmit
Knowledge of the time sequence of the for - simple ones. By transmitting only the trans
mation of the residual line, or the medial formed patterns , using the Medial Axis
axis , is fundamental to the technique, Acting Transformation technique for later inverse
upon this knowledge, the computer can take transformation at the receiving terminal, the
the simple derived lines and perform the technique may providemeans for conserving
reverse transform to reconstruct the origi- band width and power .
24
 PROFILES

Messrs. Otis Philbrick ( left ) and Harry Blum (right), of the Data Sciences Laboratory , AFCRL , are
developing a unique pattern-recognition technique described in " Dog Silhouettes and Other Arbitrary
Shapes by Computer," appearing in this issue of the Review . Mr. Philbrick , an electronics engineer,
received his B .S . from M . I. T . in 1964 and his M . S. from Northeastern University in 1966 . He began
working for AFCRL while a University Co-op student, in 1962. Recently, he has been designing, de
veloping, and operating special-purpose computer programming systems to simulate and test mathemat
ical models of picture-analysis and transmission systems. Mr. Blum , a physical scientist, received his
B .E . E . from Cornell University in 1949, and his M . E . E. from Syracuse University in 1958. From 1958 to
1960, while assigned to the SHAPE Air Defense Technical Center in The Hague, Netherlands, he built
and headed a group to handle problems of ballistic-missile warning and defense. Since 1960, he has been
doing research at AFCRL on a new class ofmachines for dealingwith shape and perception that depend
on propagative processes for the interaction and organization of information .
25
 Major John P . Thomas, an aerospace research engineer in the
ARL Hypersonic Research Laboratory since August 1963, has
been studying heat transfer at the base of fins on hypersonic
model configurations. He discusses " The Effect of Aerodynamic
Control Surfaces on High -Speed Vehicles" in this issue ofthe
Review . Major Thomas was graduated from the University of
Colorado in 1949 with a B . S. in Aeronautical Engineering and a
B . S . in Mechanical Engineering. He also has an M . S . in Mechanical
Engineering (1957) from Purdue University , where he specialized
in propulsion , and a Ph. D . in Aeronautical and Astronautical
Engineering from The Ohio State University (June 1966 ). Major
Thomas entered the Air Force in January 1951 and completed his
Aviation Cadet training with a " distinguished rating. Commis .
sioned in 1952 in the regular Air Force, he flew B -29' s and B -47' s,
and was an instructor on the B -47 flight simulator. He is a mem
ber of several professional societies.

Mr. Norman E. Scaggs has been with the Fluid Dynamics

Facilities Research Laboratory, ARL , since August 1963, as Proj
ect Engineer on the ARL 30 -inch hypersonic wind tunnel. He is
responsible for the operation of the facility, and acts as.consult
ant for all aerodynamic tests performed in it. Before joining ARL ,
Mr. Scaggs was employed as a research associate at The Ohio
State University . While there, he completed almost 60 hours of
courses toward the master' s degree in Aeronautical and Astro
nautical Engineering. Previously, he had received the Bachelor of
Aeronautical Engineering degree from Ohio State , in 1957, and
served in the Air Force for three years , from 1957 to 1960, as an
Aircraft Maintenance Officer. His article, " A Step Forward in
Ceramic Storage -Heater Design ," appears in this issue of the
Review .

Mr. John W . Goresh , whose article, “ Turbulent Heat Transfer

in an Insulated Pipe,'' appears in this issue of the Review , is cur
rently assigned to the Fluid Dynamics Facilities Research Lab
oratory at ARL . His present research interests include ( 1) turbu
lentheat transfer due to hot gases flowing through small-diameter
cylinders; (2 )dissociation of gases athigh temperatures and pres
sures; and ( 3 ) reduction of model data at hyper sonic speeds. From
June 1960 to November 1962, before coming to ARL, Mr. Goresh
was at the Dyna Soar Systems Project Office. As Project Engineer
under the Dynamics Section , he was responsible for the aeroelastic
and dynamic-load design problems encountered in designing the
Dyna Soar vehicle . Mr. Goresh has a B . S. in Mathematics from
Eastern College, Quincy,Mass. His graduate studies have included
mathematics, physics and aeronautical engineering at Boston
University, Northeastern University , and Ohio State University ,
respectively .
26
 TO OUR READERS

Request for further information should be directed to the individual or laboratory of origin
(except for those from Latin America).

Addresses are as follows:

AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : CRI
Laurence G . Hanscom Field , Bedford , Massachusetts 01731

AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Attn : ARI
Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433

AIR FORCE OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Attn : SRGL
1400 Wilson Blvd, Arlington , Va. 22209

THE FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

USAF Academy, Colorado 80840

OFFICE OF RESEARCH ANALYSES

Attn : ORR
Holloman AF Base, New Mexico 88330

Request for further information from institutions and individuals in Latin America should
be addressed to :

LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE AEROSPACE RESEARCH

U . S . EMBASSY
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Detailed documentary reports may be obtained from :

CLEARINGHOUSE
U . S. Department of Commerce, Springfield , Virginia 22151

DEFENSE DOCUMENTATION CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION *

Cameron Station , Alexandria , Virginia 22314
Qualified requestors
OAR (RRYC ) POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
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“ RESEARCH - The Key to Aerospace Superiority”

 research re E view
RCHS OFFI CE of AERO SPAC RESE ARCH
WHICE OF AESRPOASCE RESEA EE
JGIN WV
OAR : The Research Agency
of TheUnited States Air Force
JAN 26 1967
R ING
ENGINEE
10000
VOLUME V NUMBER 10 D E
DECEMBER 1966
the
concerning the interaction between
science and technology
DR . WILLIAM J. PRICE , Executive Director, AFOSR
It is generally recognized that new con The report describes a recent A FOSR study
cepts and technologies important to society which has provided us with a large increase
in general, and to Dod in particular, often in specific information showing how the
depend on new knowledge and understanding Air Force has benefited from the AFOSR
generated in the scientific - research ac program . In the course of this study, which
tivities of the world ' s universities, indus included a survey conducted by contacting a
tries , and other research organizations. group of previously supported AFOSR prin
There is also a growing realization of the cipal investigators and other knowledgeable
importance of the interactions with advanced persons to obtain additional information on the
technology in achieving the internal goals of utilization of the results of the AFOSR re
science. However , the nature of these mu search programs, we collected and analyzed
tually beneficial relationships are not well information about the interaction between
understood , partly because of the diverse science and technology .
and diffuse nature of the interactions, and
partly because of the lack of attention given We find that it is helpful, both in describing
to understanding them . AFOSR and its accomplishments, and in
There are several important considera discussing the interaction between science
tions, ranging from the optimization of the and technology, to divide research - and- de
organizational arrangements for research velopmentactivity into twobroad categories- -
and - development activities to the balance of Phenomena -Oriented Science, and Tech
funds between basic research and other nology, as illustrated in Figure 1. In
RDT & E activities, which make it highly technology, creative efforts are primarily
desirable to obtain an increasingly sophisti concerned with synthesis, that is , the inte
cated understanding of this relationship in gration of previously existing knowledge
order that the best interests of the Nation components into operational capability - -for
will be represented . AFOSR recently pub example, systems, devices, processes,
lished a report ( 1) that contributes to this methods, and materials. In contrast, phe
required understanding . nomena -oriented science is more heavily

AIR FORCE OFFICE of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH * The FRANK J.SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES + AEROSPACE RESEARCH LABORATORIES
OFFICE of RESEARCH ANALYSES EUROPEAN OFFICE ,OAR * LATIN AMERICAN OFFICE, OAR
concerned with the origins of the knowledge particularly those associated primarily with
components themselves . technology. Important new knowledge, such as
Note in the figure that both applied science that being accumulated in the scientific fields
and engineering development are classified that AFOSR is helping to colonize, is known
as parts of technology . Applied science is to members of the ' invisible college ," that is,
so named because its goal is some sort of to those researchers active in a particular
application of scientific principles . Thus , segment of the research front, well in ad
the name comes from the goal. A phenomena vance of any formal written publication .
oriented scientist concerns himself with Thus, new science forges ahead, relatively
the elucidation of natural phenomena. Thus independent of an ambient technology .
his goal is the study of phenomena , and Similarly, technology usually feeds upon
consequently it is reasonable to call his technology, in the presence of an ambient
activity ''phenomena - oriented science." science. It has become increasingly clear,
As new phenomena are understood, this especially to the historians of science, that
new knowledge is made available to the technological events are usually initiated
scientific and technological communities in within technology . This means that it is
many ways. However, it is important to usually difficult to establish a unique corre
note that the new information becomes known lation between an important technological
by a scientist' s peers in the world scientific event and one within phenomena -oriented
community much sooner than by other groups , science . One well -known exception is nuclear

VAPOR -PHASE CALORIMETRY

Lt Col Edward T. Walford. .. . .. 6
research review
ROCKET TRACKING SYSTEMS FOR LAUNCHINGS IN
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE RESEARCH REMOTE LOCATIONS
Marshall B. Patterson .
OAR RESEARCH REVIEW is published monthly by the Of.
fice of Scientific and Tochnical Information (RRYC ), Ha Of. CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS
fice of Aerospace Research , USAF, 1400 Wilson Boulevard , Dr. Jacob Pomerantz . .
Arlington , Va. 22209 . The objective of this publication is to
make a positive contribution to the exchange of information HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW
concerning Air Force conducted and sponsored research STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC REARWARD
activities . FACING SURFACE STEPS
JACOB SEIDEN Dr. Max G . Scherberg. .. . .. .. 10
Editor
HYPERSONIC FLOW RESEARCH AT ARL
Dr. Robert H . Korkegi .. . .. ..
CONCERNING THE INTERACTION BETWEEN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CLIMATIC EXTREMES AND A 500 - FOOT RADOME
DrWilliam J. Price . . . .. .. 1 Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL ..... 18

DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U .S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C . 20402 - $ 2,75 per year domestic, 75 cents addidonal for
foreign mailing. 25 cents per single copy and 15 cents per Annual Index,
Back Issues will not be furnished ,
 as symbolized by the overlap in the figure.
We are impressed by both the large num
ber and great variety of AFOSR accomplish
ments that can be identified as important
contributions to the Air Force, Our success
PHENOMENA NEW in finding utilization through this study shows
ORIENTED KNOWLEDGE us that a large amount of additionalspecifics
SCIENTIFIC COMPONENTS could be accumulated , if necessary . Ex
RESEARCH amples of areas of utilization will illustrate
the great variety .
We find that a very important area of
contribution has been through helping to
colonize many important scientific areas
which have turned out to have special rele
vance to the Air Force, inasmuch as they
are generally recognized as underlying im
portant Air Force applications. Colonizing
may be described as increasing the chance
of important discovery in an area deemed to
hold promise for the Air Force by ' raising
the temperature " of the world ' s scientific
METHODS activity in that field . Through the judicious
TECHNOLOGY MATERIALS support of phenomena -oriented research and
(Applied Science) PROCESSES other activities, such as symposia , the Air
(Engineering DEVICES Force has helped to colonize the activity in
Dev .) SYSTEMS numerous research areas , with the result
that Air Force research support, amplified
by that promoted by non - Air Force funds ,
has very significantly affected the rate of
development of important scientific areas .
Concurrently, the AFOSR program hashelped
FIG . 1 immeasurably by educating many thousands
of graduate students who , later on , have gone
power, and its origin in the discovery of to work in Air Force contractor or in
nuclear fission . Our study shows that one house activities, equipped with theknowledge
and skills particularly pertinent to Air Force
does not usually find phenomena -oriented work because of their previous Air Force
research producing a new and unexpected association .
opportunity , which then stimulates a new
engineering opportunity. ( This observation
We also find that we can identify many
is consistent with those of other recent specific examples where AFOSR - supported
studies on the interaction of science and phenomena - oriented research has provided
technology [ 2, 3 , 4 ].) Instead, we find phe important support of Air Force weapons
nomena- oriented research supporting tech acquisition programs at all phases of the
nology in many other important ways. research , development, and engineering
Thus, the gross picture is that technology cycle. We find this input through new or
usually feeds upon technology, and improved manufacturing techniques, design
phenomena-oriented science usually feeds techniques, instrumentation, and weapons
upon phenomena-oriented science. However, system component concepts , to mention a
at the same time we find that there is a few cases. The MAB study ( 2 ) on research
strong important interaction (almost a sym engineering interaction has also noted a
biosis) between the two spheres of activity, similar diversity in the types of important
interactions occurring between science and might be drawn from such results is that
technology. science (especially current science ) is of
We also find thatmany scientists supported little help in the development of weapons
by AFOSR are consultants for DoD con systems. Actually , what our studies show
tractors, and for in - house research - and (and the same conclusions have been reached
development activities . In a very real sense, by other investigators of this subject) is
AFOSR support helps these persons achieve that current science is exceedingly important
and maintain their expertise while they con to the development process, but not so much
tribute direct practical help to the DoD . from the viewpoint of origin as from the
It is found that the science - technology effects of a continuous contribution of many
interactions leading to the utilization of useful items of information . It is this subject
phenomena - oriented research are usually which should be the primary object of study,
initiated by persons who, having a problem when the impact of research is to be evaluated ,
which requires new knowledge, seek this rather than the question of origin .
knowledge and the solution to their problem Similarly, it would be a mistake to try
in the results of prior research . The scien to have a large fraction of theDoD phenomena
tists who are consulted also play a very key oriented research programs arranged to
role on their side of the dialogue, providing support specified technological goals, such
knowledge and interpretation from their field . as the exploratory -development projects of
The fact that new knowledge originating the DoD . This type of programming will not
in phenomena - oriented research often has work out since its success depends on direct,
implicit in it important new opportunities rather simple relationships between the
for exploitation means that, when these can science program and technology, which do
be recognized on the research side, great not exist. For example, if AFOSR were
advantages, particularly in timing , can be to use this type of programming primarily ,
realized . This is an important area for looking back from technological needs to
increased attention by phenomena -oriented ward science, it would end up with more
research activities , towards the end that applied science (or technology, in terms of
initiative can be successfully taken by the this model). While this type of activity
scientist more frequently. would be very valuable, it would simply be
Our conclusion from these studies is that adding to the excellent applied - research
the conventional picture, which emphasizes a programs already being conducted by the
process whereby unique scientific events Research and Technology Division (AFSC )
are followed in an orderly manner by applied and others, and AFOSR would not be per
research , development, etc ., is usually not forming its assigned mission . Rather, the
borne out. Since this picture appears to be role of AFOSR is to capitalize on its strong
the exception rather than the rule, it is identity with phenomena -oriented research
misleading to attempt to elucidate the con to bring a new type of capability to Air
tribution of phenomena- oriented science by Force research - and -development activities,
studying this process primarily . In fact, thus complementing the many excellent tech
the failure to observe a large number of nological activities .
such cases could lead to a nonobjective This knowledge of the interaction between
backlash in which the real (and very im science and technology provides guidance
portant) process involving the flow of a for the emphasis of AFOSR 's mission . We
great number of items of information across find it very helpful, in thinking about our
the technology - science interface may not mission , to describe our organization as a
be recognized. ''Research Institute. " This Institute includes
Any study, for example, of a series of our AFOSR staff (the "Research Institute
weapons systems, aimed at isolating the Managers''), our various advisors and, most
points of origin (such as identifying key important of all, the people who do the re
events) will often reveal them to lie within search . The " AFOSR Research Institute "
technology. A dangerous conclusion which can be visualized as an activity which ,
because it is intimately involved with both many ways . The following are a few examples:
the scientific community and the Air Force, trips to Air Force installations to perform
provides an effective interface between these consulting services; membership on ad -hoc
two communities. AFOSR has a great ability groups to study the feasibility of various
to attract the interest of the world ' s top exploratory - development programs; state
scientific talent. This is because it is a of-the- art reviews, either oral or written ;
science- oriented organization with the well special- purpose symposia which are specifi
established reputation , in the scientific com cally designed to bring technologists and
munity, of being a good research agency scientists together ; special lecture tours ;
with which to work . At the same timeAFOSR the performance of feasibility studies on re
staff members have the mission , experience search phenomena to package them in a form
and techniques required for identifying DoD more likely to be useful; and direct consulta
problem areas, and translating scientific tion with the aerospace industries. Many
knowledge and understanding into results basic - research scientists receive great
for DoD users. In providing this interface, satisfaction and stimulation from the im
the "AFOSR Research Institute " not only portant direct contributions they make to the
accomplishes research , but also provides DoD establishment, in addition to the signifi
for communication between the scientific cant contributions they are making through
community and the using agencies. their own research .
The selection of areas in which to accom It is clear that any technology - dependent
plish Air Force- supported , phenomena organization , such as the Air Force, must
oriented research may be motivated by have the capability to receive the greatest
helping a development group solve certain possible benefits from the world 's phe
classes of relatively short- term technical nomena- oriented research activities , AFOSR ,
problems through a fuller understanding of the major Air Force science- oriented ac
the phenomena behind them - - or , as is more tivity assigned this function , meets two
common , by seeking to open new fields of special challenges of a continuing nature
science which hold high promise for the as it helps provide this capability . One is the
generation of new knowledge needed to help choosing of the appropriate areas in which
evolve future technologies. to support research - - and the other is the
The communication provided by the catalyzing of the very important interaction
" AFOSR Research Institute " is two between science and technology. Both ac
directional- -needs to the research pro tivities are strengthened through an improved
gram , and scientific information to the users. understanding of the important symbiosis
We provide this communication by engaging which exists between phenomena - oriented
in many types of coupling activities. For science and technology .
example, part of what we purchase through REFERENCES
contracts and grants is primarily designed
( 1) Price, W . J., W . G . Ashley and J . P . Martino, Re
to provide communication . This part refers lating the Accomplishments of AFOSR to the Needs
not only to the symposia we sponsor, but of the Air Force , AFOSR 66 - 2423, November 1966 ;
also to the connecting- type research which also to be published in the Proceedings of the MIT
allows us to keep abreast of a variety of Conference on Human Factors in the Transfer of
Technology, edited by W . H . Gruber.
those scientific areas largely supported by
other agencies, in which rapidly emerging ( 2) Tannenbaum , M . and Committee Members , Report of
scientific developments of possible impor the Ad Hoc Committee on Principles of Research
tance to the Air Force are taking place. Engineering Interaction, National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council, Materials Ad
visory Board , Publication MAB -222 - M , July 1966 .
activities are those which directly involve
the research scientists AFOSR has under (3 ) Price, Derek de Solla, “ Is Technology Historically
Independentof Science ? A Study in Statistical His
contract. We find that scientists around the toriography," Technology and Culture, V6 , N4,
country are very able and willing to par PP553 -568, Fall 1965.
ticipate directly in Air Force activities in (4 ) DoD Project Hindsight Reports.
 ture by bubbling an inert gas through it . A
steady state is obtained when the cooling
rate becomes constant, and there is a con
VAPOR -PHASE sistency of products . This may take as long
as 12 hours, even when reactions are run
at 250 degrees Centigrade. The heat release
CALORIMETRY is then determined from a mass measure
ment of the amount of volatile calorimeter
LT COL EDWARD T. WALFORD fluid which has been vaporized in a period
Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR of time. The necessary analysis of the
products is accomplished by gas - chromato
The use of calorimetry to determine heats graphic separation , followed by infrared
of reaction and, indirectly, heats of forma analysis. The vapor - phase - calorimetric
tion, is an old established art. The previous technique allows the measurement of heats
work was mostly in the field of bomb calo of reaction for a new and large class of
rimetry , in which the reactants are ignited reactions.
under high pressure in a container known Park and Lacher are presently concen
as a 'bomb." In this method , the entire trating their efforts on reactions which
molecule is blasted apart by violentoxidation . involve the addition of hydrogen , halogens,
As the accuracy of this method depends on or hydrohalogen acids to individual double
maintaining adiabatic conditions (no heat bonds, or which involve the simple substitu
gained from or lost to the surroundings), tion of a halogen . The reactants being studied
the reaction studied must be rapid . For for the Directorate of Chemical Sciences ,
obvious reasons, it should also be repro AFOSR , are fluorine- containing hydrocar
ducible in terms of completeness and prod bons. Many of these compounds are not
ucts. Commonly, hydrocarbons are com available in the large amounts required for
busted in oxygen to produce water and this method , and must first be synthesized
carbon dioxide. The heat released in the and purified by Dr. Park . As distinguished
combustion is then determined from the from combustion reactions, these reactions
temperature increase of the water which yield information which can be related di
surrounds the bomb. The bomb- calorimetry rectly to molecular happenings at precisely
method is restricted to a small group of located parts of a molecule . Eventually, it
reactions. In addition , the data obtained are should be possible to determine the individual
a result of the over - all reaction . bond energies at the site of the addition or
Dr. Joseph Park and Dr. John Lacher, of substitution reaction , and the nature of their
the University of Colorado , have been carry variation from compound to compound . The
ing out research in thermochemical- data next step would be to correlate this varia
determination under AFOSR sponsorship tion with their electronic environment and
since 1954. Their recently developed vapor to possibly develop a general theory for the
prediction of thermochemical data .
phase - calorimetrymethod has been described
by Dr. Guy Waddington, Director, Office This AFOSR - sponsored program has al
of Critical Tables, National Academy of ready generated significant amounts of
Sciences , as " one of surgical precision , thermochemical data for the literature.
whereas the bomb method is a butcher - like Future investigators, utilizing any of the
dismemberment. " The Park and Lacher calo many compounds studied, will benefit from
rimeter is an isothermal- flow calorimeter the painstaking work accomplished by this
in which the reactants are introduced into project. Its success is due in large measure
a tantalum reaction chamber , mixed , and to the bringing together of two quite diverse
passed over a platinum catalyst. The re scientific talents - -Dr. Park , an outstanding
action chamber rests in a heat- transfer organic chemist, and Dr. Lacher , an imagi
bath which is cooled to a constant tempera native and precise physical chemist.
rocket tracking systems
for launchings in remote locations
MARSHALL B . PATTERSON
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory,AFCRL
Most rockets are launched from estab places the regular crystal in the PM -type
lished launch sites where the range support telemetering transmitter. The ground re
needed for tracking and for receiving tele ceiving part of this system is somewhatmore
metered information from the rocket is complicated and is capable of tracking the
available. The rocket -borne portion of the received frequency to a high degree of accu
electronics system is kept simple relative racy . An ultrastable reference oscillator - -
to the larger and more complex ground in the same type as in the airborne trans
strumentation . However , trade -offs can be mitter - - is included in the receiver circuitry .
made and , with proper design of the rocket This enables a Doppler frequency component,
borne electronics, it is possible to launch which is used to compute slant range , to be
rockets from remote sites where no range extracted from the received signal. The
support is available . Only a minimum of receiver is also capable of detecting the
conventional ground receiving equipment is telemetered data .
necessary . The second system that was tested is an
In June, AFCRL tested two such rocket inexpensive solid - state oscillator that can
borne systems. The systems were flown in be frequency -modulated. This unit provides
a NIRO rocket. The tests were made to check the tracking signal for an unmodified me
the accuracy and reliability of the systems. teorological tracker , the GMD II ,which gives
One of the systems provides tracking as azimuth elevation and ranging information .
well as telemetering information in the same All systems worked very well, yielding
unit, thereby reducing the number of compo continuous tracking and telemetering data
nents and the additional weight and drag of during the entire rocket flight (100 miles
multiple antennas. This system requires zenith ). The data from the two systems have
slight modification of a standard airborne been compared and are in good agreement.
transmitter with the addition ofan ultrastable The results are being checked with those
reference oscillator which is ruggedized and obtained from the FPS- 16 radar which is
temperature- controlled . This oscillator re used for tracking rockets at the major ranges .

CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS

DR . JACOB POMERANTZ , Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR
The methods of continuum mechanics are The Mechanics Division of AFOSR has
valuable tools for solving some of the prob - sponsored a number of research efforts
lems in the rapidly growing field of bio which, although their prime purpose was to
engineering. These problems, in turn , pro apply the general methods of solid and fluid
vide a powerful incentive for the further mechanics to solving bioengineering prob
study of finite elasticity, theoretical rheology, lems, have illuminated new areas of basic
non -Newtonian flow , and the dynamics ofnon continuum mechanics. These efforts include
conservative systems. In fact, many of the an experimental study by Dr. A . H . Sacks of
advances in the solution of current bio the Itek Corporation on the flow of density
mechanical problems will constitute an en matched rigid sphere suspensions in rigid
richment to applied mechanics , cylindrical tubes at low Reynolds numbers
which , in some cases , bears a strong re recording equipment for determining the
semblance to the flow in living blood ves stress, deformation , and deformation rate
sels . (1) Another such effort is an experi of the arteries and veins of dogs tested in
mental and theoretical study by R . T . Jones a physiological bath under conditions which
of the Avco - Everett Research Laboratory assure the living state of the vessels . Typical
on the significant hydrodynamic factors af diameters of the blood vessels tested were
fecting the clotting of blood . Under study are 0 .16 cm for femoral arteries, 0. 35 cm for
such parameters as 1) the ratio ofcharacter carotid arteries, and 0.50 cm for jugular
istic flow times to chemical- reaction rate veins . The results, analyzed in accordance
times, and 2) the importance of the shear with large deformation theory, are con
associated with the non -Newtonian viscosity sidered to be the most definitive so far
of blood. Also under sponsorship are con obtained in the determination of the mechan
tracts where the portion of the work with ical properties of blood vessels . Not only
biomedical implications comprises a small the elastic properties , butalso thehysteresis
but nevertheless important part of the total response to cyclic loading were carefully
effort. In this category is the work of Pro analyzed. A complete report on the results
fessor Simon Ostrach of the Case Institute is expected to be published in thenear future.
of Technology who will investigate the effect Even though much research on the large
of gravitational convection resulting from blood vessels remains to be performed ,what
concentration or thermal gradients inside a has already been accomplished is substantial
flexible sphere. The results of this study , in comparison to the small amount of work
which couples solid and fluid mechanics done in the more difficult area of the small
and, in addition , involves diffusional phe microscopic blood vessels , the capillaries.
nomena , may explain observed pressure In analogy with the arteries and veins, the
changes in the eye , and bring to light im classical concept of the capillary blood
portant considerations concerning eye hy vessel is an elastic tube in a fluid medium ,
giene in a zero - gravity environment. The However , difficulties were encountered when
research of Dr. E . R . van Driest of North this concept was applied to explain the ex
American Aviation on the effects of surface perimental results of Baez, Baez , and Lam
roughness , pressure gradient, and free port, (7 ) who microscopically examined the
stream turbulence on stability and boundary distensibility of capillaries while the driving
layer transition (2 - 5 ) is an example of hydraulic pressure was varied over a range
AFOSR - sponsored work which , although it of 20 to 200 mm Hg. It was found that the
influenced the design of theXB - 70 , neverthe capillaries (8 to 10 micra diameter ) behaved
less is so universal that it has applications as rigid tubes. Ifthe rigidityof the capillaries
in the dynamics of blood flow . were to be explained by the tube- in - fluid
concept, then the required modulus ofrigidity
A unified approach to the above -mentioned of the wall is too high to be probable. (8 )
and other AFOSR work with biomedical An alternative hypothesis put forward by
implications will be presented at a later Professor Fung is that the capillaries derive
date . What will be described here is the work most of their support from their immediate
only of the AFOSR - sponsored scientist, surroundings which behave as a solid gel
Professor Y , C . Fung of the California capable of resisting shear strain elastically
Institute of Technology . A previous article or plastically. The capillaries would thus
in the OAR Research Review (6 ) referred to behave more like tunnels in an elastic medium
much -needed work then under way on ex of connective tissue than as tubes in a fluid .
perimentally determining the elastic prop
erties of blood vessels. Professor Fung, As a first step in testing Fung 's hypothesis ,
working together with physiologist Professor which is physiologically plausible, it ap
W . Frasher and physician Dr. Kato of the peared desirable to determine some of the
Loma Linda MedicalUniversity , designed and elastic properties of the capillary environ
fabricated a special testing machine and ment. The contribution of the surrounding
tissue to the support of the capillaries could red blood cell is in the state of a fluid or
then be calculated under the hypothesis that a solid . He showed that under theassumption
these small blood vessels are in direct con of a liquid interior there can be deduced,
tact with the tissues , Sizeable areas of the from first principles and the fact that the
mesentery of a large laboratory animal such red blood cell has a biconcave geometry ,
as a rabbit do not contain large blood vessels that 1) the pressure differential across the
and have very few capillaries , but are in all cell membrane is very small ; 2) the mem
other respects similar to the rest of the brane is unstressed at thenatural state ; 3 ) the
mesentery . For this reason, Professors positive and negative critical buckling pres
Fung, Zweifach , and Intaglietta carried out sures of the cell are very small ; and 4) a
tests on the avascular regions of the mesen great variety of shape deformations at con
tery of the rabbit. ( The results are presented stant volume is possible which do not change
in References 8 and 9.) The mesentery of the membrane stresses and the pressure
the rabbit was found to be able to resist shear differential. The pressure differential cannot
very well under a torsion test, which is be changed by varying the external hydro
consistent with the behavior of a gel rather static pressure, but can be changed by the
than a liquid . It was also found to have a effect of chemicals on surface tension and
modulus of rigidity smaller than , but of the osmosis. For example, a positive change of
same order of magnitude as, the large surface tension by the action of chemicals
arteries and veins. Its stress -strain rela will cause the biconcave cells to shrink into
tionship is nonlinear, with a strong tendency a roughly spherical, wrinkled and scalloped
to harden at larger strains. Use of the (crenated ) shape. The above theoretical pre
experimental results obtained thus far sup dictions are in qualitative agreement with
plied a natural explanation of the earlier known experimental facts . Professor Fung
distensibility measurements of Reference also demonstrated that the geometry of the
7. The hypothesis that capillaries behave crenated cells and the size and shape of the
as tunnels in a solid gel must, however , be cell at rupture can yield important informa
regarded as tentative, Professor Fung will tion with regard to the strength of the cell
test further consequences of this hypothesis membrane . He strongly recommended that
to strengthen the evidence that the capillary detailed records be made of the geometrical
bed is indeed gelled . changes that occur in crenation , disc -sphere
Another problem area in bioengineering transformation , and rupture, Formulas are
relates to red blood cells whosemechanical given which relatethe ultimate stress, strain ,
properties are not yet fully known , even and Young's modulus at the point of rupture.
though they have been subjected to physical Turning his attention to the dynamics of red
and chemical investigations. Some important blood cells in the blood plasma, Professor
questions of significance to basic science , Fung considered the random impact on a
as well as to aeromedicine, are: How are cell of the macromolecules in the plasma,
the stresses and strains transmitted in a i. e ., the Brownian motion of the molecules
red cell ? How do stresses develop in the around the red blood cell. A random os
red cell in a shear flow ? How strong are the cillation would be generated, which can be
cell walls ? How does one predict the rupture analyzed according to engineering methods.
or destruction of red blood cells with respect In particular , the lower models of vibration
to mechanical handling such as in a heart would reveal themselves. Professor Fung
lung machine? A series of quantitative in found that such a random motion had indeed
vestigations will be undertaken by Professor been reported in the literature, and that
Fung to answer these questions , this was called the " scintillation of the red
cells " under a microscope. (10 ) The phe
In his talk (9) at the Microcirculation nomenon consists in the fluctuation of light
Society , Professor Fung considered, from through the cell, which is particularly marked
the viewpoint of theoretical mechanics, the in the transparent central region . When this
question as to whether the interior of the was examined in the laboratory recently , one
of Professor Fung ' s colleagues exclaimed (6 ) Pomerantz, J., “ Mechanics of Blood Vessels .”
"'I have seen this allmy life, but all along I OAR Research Review, Vol. IV, pp . 7-8, March
1965.
thought it was something wrong with my ( 7 ) Baez, S ., A . Baez , and H . Lamport , “ Pressure Ef
eyes . " fects in Living Microscopic Vessels," Flow Prop
erties of Blood, Editors: A . A . Copley and G .
REFERENCES Stainsky, London : Pergamon Press, Inc., 1960 ,
p . 122 .
(8) Fung, Y . C ., B . Zweifach, and M . Intaglietta,
( 1) Sacks , A . H ., " Laminar Flow Regimes for Rigid “ Elastic Environment of the Capillary Bed . ” Paper
Sphere Suspensions, ” AFOSR 66 -0412 , February completed in December 1965 . To be published in
1966 . Journal of Circulation Research .
( 2) van Driest, E . R ., " Boundary-Layer Transition --
Roughness and Free-Stream Turbulence Effects," (9 ) Fung , Y . C ., “ Theoretical Considerations of the
AFOSR 4607, October 1962. Elasticity of Red Blood Cells and Small Blood
(3 ) van Driest, E . R ., " Pressure Gradient Effects, ” Vessels. " Invited paper presented at the Annual
AIAA Journal, Vol. I, pp . 1303- 1306 , June 1963. Meeting of the Microcirculation Society, Scheduled
(4 ) van Driest, E . R ., " Recent Studies in Boundary for publication in the Symposium on Microcircula
Layer Transition , ” AFOSR 64 -0589, November tion : Federation Proceedings, 1966 . (Federation of
1963. American Societies for Experimental Biology)
( 5) Radbill, J . R . and E . R . van Driest , " A New Method (10) Bessis, M ., " Cytology of the Blood and Blood
for Prediction of Stability of Laminar Boundary Forming Organs," Translated by E . Ponder, New
Layers, ” AFOSR 66-0702, February 1966 . York: Grune and Stratton, 1956, p . 248.
HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC
FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC
REARWARD - FACING SURFACE STEPS
DR . MAX G . SCHERBERG , Thermomechanics Research Laboratory , ARL
Because of the heat-transfer problems experimental pressure data with a modified
that have occurred in the base areas of Crocco -Lees theory, and also found some
rocket jets , and because of design interest relatively high heat transfers in the reattach
in separated base flows and flows over non ment region. His models were too small for
smooth surfaces , such flow structures have flow - structure measurements . It was felt
had considerable attention in recent years. that his shock -tube heat-transfer measure
The theories of Crocco -Lees , Chapman , ments should be checked in an extended -time
and Korst for the predictions of base pres wind -tunnel facility, and that an extension
sure are based primarily on the viscous in the Reynolds number range would be
mixing process in the free shear layer and useful. An ARL in -house program was
assume essentially dead air in the cavity . started to supplement the Technion program
These theories have been in need of detailed described above. This in -house experimental
experimental verification and extension , both test program was conducted in Tunnel A of
inside and outside of the flow cavity . For the Air Force Tullahoma Facility . It included
several years Dr. Rom , of the Technion in total pressure and temperature pitot meas
Haifa, has been conducting a research pro urements throughout the flow structure,
gram in this area for ARL , He measured shadowgraph pictures, and surface static
base pressures and heat transfers in sepa pressure and heat- transfer measurements
rated and reattaching flow over rearward on a cooled model providing steady -state
facing steps at Mach numbers of 2 . 25 and conditions. Also included were cavity - yarn
3.50 and step position flow Reynolds num and hot -wire measurements which , up to
bers ranging from 1 to 2 times 10 (corre this point, have yielded only qualitative
sponding to flat-plate laminar flow ) and information .
from 0 . 6 to 5 times 10º (corresponding to The program has disclosed some very
flat- plate turbulent flow ). He was able to significant and unanticipated results. In
develop some plausible correlation of his Figure 1 we see the two lip shocks , or
 L

Figure 1. Shadowgraph of two lip shocks, or separation shocks.

separation shocks , that were observed in observed in earlier works. The earlier
some of the shadowgraph pictures. The theories did not include theseparation shocks.
upper one emerges from step separation The stronger of these shocks is now pre
points and apparently is not very strong dictable as a result of the entropy variations,
since it was not detected in the pressure in the boundary -layer flow , that arrive at
probe data. It is probably generated by the the separation point. The bright line below
disturbed flow upstream of the separation the second separation shock starts at the top
point resulting from the influence in the sub of the shear layer and becomes a part of
sonic part ofthe boundary layer of the reduced the reattachment shock which realigns the
base pressure. The pressure - probe data flow towards the free - stream direction . This
would indicate that it does not have a great part of the reattachment shock is actually
influence on the flow . The second separation upstream of the flow reattachment, and has
shock emerges from the shear layer down not been observed before. In theneighborhood
stream of the separation point and is strong of the reattachment region , the shock bends
enough to be also observable in pressure through an arc and takes an attitude normally
data. At the lower Mach numbers it has observed and anticipated .
rather strong total head losses as it comes
from the shear layer ; but the losses decay Another point of interest in Figure 1 is
rather rapidly . This second separation shock the slip line which emerges at the intersec
can be important in the flow structure in tion of the second separation shock and the
volved . Single separation shocks have been reattachment shock. This flow structure has
11
 h = 0. 75
P . : 54 . 5
M = 3. 5
CONSTANT PITOT RECOMPRESSION REATTACHMENT
REGION REGION SHOCK
ATTACHED LIP SHOCK
BOUNDARY
LAYER
I(y)NCHES

Ptę /Pt, 5-973 Pte/ Pt, .674 Ptą/ Pt, -.781

p = 050 P = . 132
M = 4 . 80 V
. 093
P = .6561
P = .656 M = 3 .39
:0931Pb2.093
. 093 KW M : 3 .29

F919
:0927 TTTTTTTTTTTTTT

5699
4015
.2455
.1857

.6353
.6587

.674
095

692
73
).665
1.28

.64
CAVITY SHEAR
LAYER PROBE POSITIONS SLIP LINE
1 2 3 5 6 7
X (INCHES)
Figure 2. Some characteristics of supersonic flow structure .
rapid changes in speed and density and no (2) Scherberg , M . G . and H . E . Smith , “ On the Super
changes in pressure . sonic Flow Structure for a Rearward-Facing Step ,”
Figure 2 is a detailed illustration of some Proceedings of the Fifth US National Congress of
Applied Mechanics, June 1966 .
of the characteristics that have been deter
mined. It shows shock and shear - layer posi
tions, shock total pressure changes
(Pt2 / Pt1), static pressures andMach speeds. hypersonic flow research
For design interest it was found that, for
the higher Mach speeds (3.5 and greater), at ARL DR. ROBERT H . KORKEGI
the base pressure may be estimated from Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL
the Reynolds number based on the step
height (h ), and maximum heat transfers may The research activity of ARL 's Hyper
also be estimated from this Reynolds num sonic Research Laboratory is designed to
ber . gain knowledge about basic phenomena in
There is much more to be done, however, fluid and flight mechanics, with particular
before a complete analytical model can be emphasis on the aerodynamics and the strong
constructed . viscous effects associated with lifting and
nonlifting hypersonic vehicle configurations.
The principal areas of research are :
REFERENCES ( 1 ) Aerodynamic stability of blunt- nosed
( 1) Scherberg, M . G . and H . E . Smith , " Experimental slender bodies.
Study of the Flow Structure and Heat Transfer for (2 ) Optimization of lifting re - entry con
a Rearward -Facing Step in Supersonic Flow , " Pro figurations .
ceedings of the Eighth Israel Annual Conference ( 3) Separated flows and viscous inter
on Aviation and Astronautics, February 1966 . actions,
 ( 4 ) Rarefied gas studies . Successful wind - tunnel measurements of
The research discussed below highlights static and dynamic stability derivatives in
some of the " in - house " efforts . pitch , at various trim angles of attack and
reduced frequencies, were made possible at
Aerodynamic Stability high Mach numbers by the development of a
model support system with torsion flexures
Research on aerodynamic stability at yielding very low structural damping . The
hypersonic speeds was stimulated by ex tests , utilizing the small- amplitude free
perience with actual flight vehicles during oscillation technique, were made in the ARL
re - entry, and is co -ordinated with other 20 - inch hypersonic wind tunnel at a Mach
Government agencies, universities, and in number of 14 ( 1) . The cone model with the
dustry through the " Technical Workshop on flexures developed for the tests is shown in
Hypersonic Dynamic Stability." Fig . 1. An experimental study presently
The Laboratory ' s work in this area , under under way is designed to determine the
the leadership of Mr. O . Walchner, centers phase lag of model surface pressures for
on both experimental and theoretical studies blunt-nosed cones in pitching oscillations.
of the stability characteristics of blunted Analytical studies are directed toward
slender cones at high Mach numbers . obtaining better theoretical predictions of

2 .090
C . G . AND AXIS OF ROTATION
- .33 0

5.6 DEG.
If - - - - - -
do 3 in 1

- .0838 RAD.
- 4 .33 0 - – 4 . 200

- AXIS OF ROTATION

- - - - - 40

1 / 32 R .
.40
--- -

.026 .300 .0345 0175 0725 DIA.

FLEXURE A

Figure 1. Cone model with flexures.

13
stability derivatives than the existing ones Optimization of Lifting Re- entry Bodies
based on Newtonian flow which depart con Interest in lifting re - entry bodies centers
siderably from measured values for slender on the great potential advantage of the lateral
bodies with large nose bluntness . A semi and longitudinal maneuverability they pos
empirical analysis utilizing a tangent cone sess over the simple drag bodies such as
correction for angle of attack (2 ) has shown Mercury . Typical Air Force R & D projects in
reasonably good agreement with experiment lifting re- entry include ASSET, and START.
for static stability derivatives, but a signifi Optimization studies of lifting re- entry
cant departure in the dynamic stability de bodies are being conducted under the leader
rivatives for large nose bluntness. A new ship of Dr. W . L . Hankey. A systematic
unsteady flow analysis for blunt-nosed slen optimization study accounting for realistic
der cones in pitching oscillations, based on flight mechanical (stability , landing) and
blast-wave theory (3), has overcome the aerothermodynamic (heating , skin - friction )
previous theories ' limitations and accurately constraints is geared toward achieving an
predicts the dynamic stability derivatives efficient vehicle design with minimum struc
for the large nose- bluntness regime with tural weight and maximum hypersonic lift
excellent agreement with the experimental to - drag ratio .
results . The first phase of research has resulted
New research is planned toward studies of in the determination of configurations achiev
stability in roll and roll resonance for blunted ing the ultimate in hypersonic L / D in the
slender cones, as well as studies of the ef absence of skin - friction, heating, stability
fects of the boundary layer and ablation on and landing constraints. Results are shown
stability . in Fig . 2 in terms of volumetric efficiency,

Optimal Configuration
017

X - 20
Sphere
Asset
Gemini

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10

HYPER SONIC LIFT / DRAG RATIOS VERSUS VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Figure 2. Hypersonic lift-to -drag ratios plotted against volumetric efficiency .
a parameter which reflects the structural spherical base. The results of one phase of
efficiency of a configuration . Further studies the optimization study were presented at the
have shown that heating and stability con 1965 Air Force Science and Engineering
straints result in only minor reductions in Symposium , and led to the award for thebest
L / D , while the landing requirement appears scientific presentation .
to impose a severe performance penalty (4 , The importance of this research lies not
5 ). Theoretical predictions of L / D have been only in the development of optimum vehicle
verified experimentally for several configu configurations in an area where the weight
rations of wedge - nosed cones with hemi penalty is so great, but also in giving a

REATTACHMENT SHOCI
SEPARATION SHOCK 7

LEADING EDGE
SHOCK
- SLOT WIDTH -1
ń ,SLUGS / SEC.
PRESSURE
WALL

< > MEASURED

LINVISCID SLOT

X , DISTANCE FROM LEADING EDGE

- FULL SEPARATION : SLOT CLOSED - 0, = 0

INTERMEDIATE SEPARATION : SLOT OPEN - d2
NO SEPARATION : SLOT OPEN - d3 > d2

Figure 3 . Decrease and eventual disappearance of separation zone with increasing suction .
15
qualitative indication of the influence of each 20- inch Hypersonic Wind Tunnel of the effect
individual constraint on the vehicle configu of suction on flow separation on a wedge
ration, thereby providing much -needed prac followed by a compression ramp, for various
tical guidelines for future designs. The ramp angles . Mass suction was varied by
optimization study is being extended to in varying the gap between wedge and ramp.
clude an air - breathing propulsion system . The results of this investigation (11) show
that the separation zone decreases markedly
Separated Flows and Viscous Interactions with increasing suction , and eventually van
ishes (Fig. 3) for relatively small mass
An aerospace vehicle travelling at high suction - -about 1% of the boundary- layer
Mach numbers during any portion of its flight mass flow .
will be subjected to complex aerodynamic
phenomena resulting from flow separation Other investigations presently under way
and viscous interactions. include a study of flow on the lee side of a
delta wing at hypersonic speeds, and a de
The Hypersonic Research Laboratory is tailed study of the flow structure resulting
engaged in several experimental and theo from the interaction of a blunt fin on a flat
retical efforts designed , on the one hand, to plate boundary layer.
gain better knowledge of the development
and the structure of boundary layers and Rarefied Gas Studies
criteria for flow separation at hypersonic
speeds (of practical importance for the Flight at very high altitudes where the
prediction of aerodynamic heating and skin atmosphere is rarefied is of increasing in
friction ) and, on the other hand, to gain terest to the Air Force, particularly in con
basic knowledge of complex interactions nection with the re- entry of potential lifting
related to lifting surfaces, and stabilizing hypervelocity vehicles , and also to determine
and control components (flaps and fins) for the orbital decay of satellites. At altitudes
lifting vehicles at hypersonic speeds. This exceeding 300 ,000 feet, the atmospheric den
research is being conducted under the lead sity is so low that there arise significant
ership ofmyself and Dr. Hankey. departures from continuum flow . Shock waves
and shear layers spread out until they finally
Analytical studies include the application lose their identity in approaching the so
of Dorodnitsyn ' s N - parameter method of called " free -molecule" flow regime.
integral relations toward a generalized solu
tion of the laminar boundary - layer equations. In - house research in the area of rarefied
The objective of this study was to obtain gases is theoretical and includes studies of
computational techniques for the solution of the structure of a shock wave reflecting from
the laminar boundary-layer equations (6 , 7) , a normal wall (12) (in connection with the
which can then be applied to investigate development of shock tubes for low - density
solutions to specific problems. flow research, notably at Cal Tech and the
Two experimental studies deal with aero USAF Academy), and the solution of the
dynamic control surfaces related to hyper Boltzmann equation with a simple collision
model for the classical Rayleigh problem
sonic vehicles . One of these studies is
designed to determine the control effec
(13, 14) -- the impulsively started infinite
tiveness of flaps (8 ) , and the other encom
flat plate. The latter study has yielded solu
passes an investigation of various shaped tions for the velocity profiles, wall shear
and convective heat transfer in the transition
fins on a blunt flat plate (9, 10). region from free-molecule to continuum flow
In view of the possibility of flow through for the case where the velocity of the flat
the gap between a flap and wing from the plate is much smaller than themean molecular
compression to the expansion side, a basic velocities. It is planned to extend this work
investigation was undertaken in the ARL to the case of large plate velocities.
16
 In addition to " in - house" research , the
Hypersonic Research Laboratory supports
work in related areas through contracts with
leading universities and research organiza Scientific notes
tions, including the California Institute of
Technology, Princeton University , New York Ionospheric Attenuation of Radio Signals:
University , and the Cornell Aeronautical A Nike Iroquois (Niro) sounding rocket was
Laboratory.
launched by AFCRL from the Eglin Gulf Test
Range in Florida on 3 October 1966 to meas
REFERENCES ure attenuation of radio signals by the
ionosphere. In this experiment, a 20 x l - ft .
( 1) Walchner, O ., F . M . Sawyer and S. J. Koob, “ A toroidal (doughnut- shaped ) balloon was re
Study of Dynamic Stability Testing in a Mach - 14
Blow -Down Wind Tunnel,” Journal of Spacecraft leased and inflated 80 seconds after launch
and Rockets, Vol. 1, No. 4 , Jul-Aug 64 ; also ARL at 300 , 000 feet. A metallic strip , serving as
64 - 221. a receiving antenna, was wrapped around this
(2) Walchner, O . and J. T. Clay, “ Hypersonic Sta . balloon . Normal transmissions from a
bility Derivatives of Blunted Slender Cones,” Pensacola radio station (980 kc) and an air
AIAA Journal, Vol. 3, No. 4 , April 1965; also
ARL 65 - 150 .
craft radio beacon (200 kc) were received .
(3 ) Quinn , B . P ., “ Blast- Wave Effects on the Pitch Ionospheric attenuation of these signals was
ing of Blunt Cones. ” Presented at the 13th An measured over a vertical profile of the
nual Air Force Science and Engineering Symposium , ionosphere up to the maximum altitude of
AEDC , Sept 1966 . about 140 km . Data were telemetered to
(4) Hankey, W . L . and L . J . Schroeder, " Optimization ground receiving stations. Theproject scien
of Lifting Re-entry Bodies,” Proceedings of 12th
Annual Air Force Science and Engineering Sym tist is Richard B . Harvey ; the field director
posium , Vol. 1, 1965 . is Robert 0 . Harrison . (Upper Atmosphere
(5 ) Hankey, W . L . and L . J . Schroeder, " Optimization Physics and Aerospace Instrumentation Lab
of Hypersonic Lifting Bodies,” OAR Research oratories )
Review , Vol. V, No. 5, July 1966 .
(6 ) Bethel, H . E ., “ On the Convergence and Exact
ness of the Laminar Boundary-Layer Equations Daytime Aurora : Three rockets were
Using the N -Parameter Integral Formulation of launched on 4 October 1966 from the Fort
Galerkin -Kantorovich -Dorodnitsyn , ” ARL 66 -0090 . Churchill Research Range in Canada to study
(7) Bethel, H . E ., “ On the GKD Method for the Lam the D - region of the ionosphere during a
inar Boundary-Layer Equations, ” OAR Research daytime auroral event. A Black Brant and
Review , Vol. V , No. 8, October 1966 . 2 Sidewinder Arcas rockets were used in
(8 ) Fiore, A ., “ An Investigation of Aerodynamic the experiment. The Black Brant carried a
Controls at Hypersonic Mach Numbers,” to be is
sued as an ARL report. pay load of 465 pounds, consisting of magne
(9 ) Thomas, J . P ., “ Investigation of the Pressure tometers, a photometer , a radiometer , re
Distribution on a Blunt-Fin Blunt-Plate Combina tarding potential analyzers, a solar-horizon
tion at a Mach Number of 11. 26 ,” ARL 66 -0142. sensor , and a Gerdian condenser used for
( 10 ) Thomas, J . P ., " The Effect of Aerodynamic Con positive- ion measurements. The 2 Sidewinder
trol Surfaces on High -Speed Vehicles, ” QAR Re
search Review , Vol. V , No. 9, November 1966 . Arcas rockets were fired in a secondary
( 11) Ball, K . O , W ., ARL report in preparation . experiment to calibrate the Gerdian con
(12) Petty, J . S., “ Reflection of a Plane Shock Wave densers. For this calibration , subsonic read
from a Normal Isothermal Wall,” presented at the ings from the smaller Sidewinder Arcas
Fluid Dynamics Divisional Meeting, American rockets were compared with supersonic read
Physical Society, 22 -24 November 1965. ings from the Black Brant. The Arcas
( 13) Nagaraja, K . S., “ The Linearized Rayleigh Prob
lem in a Rarefied Gas Flow According to the vehicles reached 95 km . The Black Brant's
BGK Model,” to be issued as an ARL report. apogee was 190 km . The project scientist
( 14 ) Nagaraja , K . S., " The Linearized Rayleigh Prob for these experiments is John A . Sandock .
lem According to Kinetic Theory, ” QAR Research (Upper Atmosphere Physics and Aerospace
Review, Vol. V , No. 2, April 1966 . Instrumentation Laboratories)
 Nike Cajun And C - 130 Combine to Measure load weight for the vehicle was 75 pounds.
Sky Brightness: A Nike Cajun sounding rocket The rocket reached an altitude of about 250
was launched from the Eglin Gulf Test km . The project scientist is Dr. John W .
Range on 5 October 1966 to measure sky Salisbury. (Space Physics and Aerospace
radiance in 6 discrete spectral regions Instrumentation Laboratories)
near the visible band between 3 ,750 to
5 ,550 angstroms. The vehicle carried a
70 - pound pay load to an altitude of about
155 km . Instrumentation on the rocket con
climatic extremes and a
sisted of 6 photometers, each having a
narrow - band (75- angstroms) optical filter. 500- foot radome
One minute and 4 seconds into the flight, the AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION
nose tip was ejected, allowing the photom LABORATORY, AFCRL
eters to measure the zenith sky radiance Engineering work on a 500- foot radome
for the duration of the flight. Concurrently logically starts with data on climatic ex
with the rocket launch , an AFCRL C - 130 tremes - - snowfall, rain , winds, and so on - -
aircraft made opticalmeasurements over the that could be expected at the location of the
same spectral region for comparison with radome, Such data are more important in
the rocket measurements. The projectscien designing a radome than for other large
tist is Robert B . Toolin . (Optical Physics structures because the mass of the radome
and Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratories) must be kept at a minimum to avoid undue
Atmospheric Density: Two Nike Iroquois attenuation of radio waves passing through
(Niros) were launched from the Eglin Gulf it.
Test Range on 11 October 1966 to measure When the Cambridge Radio Observatory
atmospheric density from 95 to 140 km . The Committee, set up by MIT, the Lincoln
rockets released 3 - foot balloons at an altitude Laboratory, Harvard, and the Smithsonian
of 200 km where the balloons began a free Astrophysical Observatory, began last year
fall. Each balloon contained a 3 - axis ac to investigate the feasibility of a large, new
celerometer to measure drag deceleration . radio observatory in the Boston area, climate
Data were telemetered to the ground. On the was a major initial consideration . AFCRL
same day, AFCRL tested 2 Sparrow Arcas was asked by the Observatory Committee to
rockets as possible replacements for the supply data on climatic extremes within the
Niros on future atmospheric - density experi general commuting area of Boston ( two hours !
ments. The Sparrow Arcas rockets are surface travel) .
smaller and less costly than the Niro rockets. Norman Sissenwine and Irving I. Gringorten
The project scientist for the experiments is of AFCRL have recently completed and sub
Gerard A . Faucher . (Aerospace Instrumenta mitted a report to theObservatory Committee
tion Laboratory) on the climatic extremes for this area . The
New Rocket- Borne IR Spectrometer Used study covers extremes of rain , temperature,
for Moon Survey : An Aerobee - 150 rocket snow , hail, icing, wind and wind gusts , and
was launched on 29 October 1966 from the gives the odds that a given climatological
White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico condition will be reached or exceeded during
to obtain infrared spectral information from the 25- year expected lifetime of the radome.
the moon . Instrumentation on the rocket in Some of the findings are given below .
cluded a lunar pointing control device, and a Rainfall : The heaviest rainfall recorded
spectrometer. The spectrometer is much in the Boston area in the past 65 years for
smaller , lighter and more reliable than any any given hour was 2 .10 inches although , for
previously used. It has a device, called a a 5 -minute period , the rate was 6 .72 inches
Circular Variable Filter , mounted on a per hour. There is only a l - per cent prob
motor- driven disc in front of the lens. This ability that during the next 25 years more
feature gives much higher resolution without than 3 .09 inches of rain will fall during any
the necessity for mechanical scanning. Pay- 1 hour, or that the Boston area will witness
18
a Niagara - like torrent of a 12 - inch rate In their report, Sissenwine and Gringorten
during any 5 -minute period . devote more space to winds and to techniques
Extremes of Cold : In considering tem for their analysis than to any other aspect
of climate that might affect the radome.
perature extremes , Sissenwine and Grin
gorten used the 30 - year records of 11 New Although Mt. Washington , in New Hampshire,
was not included in their 8 - station study,
England Weather Bureau stations. Taking
the coldest period of the year , January 1
they note in passing that the strongest wind
through February 1, we find that the mean of record any place in the world occurred in
temperature for these 32 days is 25.4 de 1934 atop Mt. Washington - -a wind of 188
mph . The highest 5 -minute wind speed re
grees F . For any given year, there is a corded in the 8 - station study was 95 mph at
50 - per cent probability that the temperature
Providence, Rhode Island, during the 1938
will drop as low as minus 4 degrees F , and hurricane,
a 2 - per cent probability that it will go as low Winds are discussed in terms of 5-minute
as minus 15 degrees . But for a 25- yearperiod ,
averages . To these 5-minute winds, they add
there is a 50 - per cent probability that the a gust factor , which varies with height above
temperature will go below minus 15 degrees
F at some given time, and 2 - per cent prob
the ground . For example, if winds are
ability that it will go below minus 23 de measured at an elevation of 10 feet, the gust
grees F . factor at this altitude is calculated to be 1. 7.
Wind speeds increase with altitude, and at the
Extremes of Heat: The July average at
the 11 New England stations gives a typical same time the gust factor decreases.
station mean of 70 .6 degrees F . (Boston 's Following is a summary of the probability
readings are taken at Logan Airport, however, estimates for the maximum 5 -minute winds
where the mean is 72,2 degrees F .) In any over 25 years, averaged for the 3 coastal
given year, there is a 50 - per cent probability stations (Boston , Nantucket and Portland )
that the temperature will exceed 92 degrees and for 5 inland stations:
F (as it did in 1966 ), but only a l - per cent
probability that it will exceed 102 degrees F . Ht. Inland
For a 25 - year period , there is a 50 - per cent Coastal
Above
probability that the temperature will exceed Ground 50% 1 % 0.1% 50% 1% 0.1%
100 degrees F at least once, and a 2- per cent
probability that it will exceed 107 degrees F .
50 ft. 72 112 130 | 55 82 96
Snowfall Extremes: In 35 years, theaver 100 ft. 80 124 144 61 91 107
age heaviest- of-the - year snowfall in Boston 250 ft. 91 141 164 69 103 121
was 9.9 inches in 24 hours. In a 25 -year 500 ft. 99 153 178 75 112 132
period, however, wemightexpect a maximum
of 18 .9 inches in 24 hours, with a l - per cent
probability that during at least one 24- hour Hail and Icing: A given location in New
period there will be a 30 - inch snowfall . England is subject to a hailstorm about 1.1
Winds and Wind Gusts : Data on winds and times a year near the coast and 1 . 2 times a
wind gusts are more difficult to analyze year inland. The largest hailstones for the
statistically than other climatological data . average storm are about a quarter inch , But
Averages vary with coastal and inland areas , over a 5- year period, hailstones as large as
in cities and adjacent airports, and with 1 .5 inches have been reported 5 times; and
height above the ground . Furthermore, it is there is one report during this period of a
necessary to distinguish between persistent 3 - inch hailstone. After analyzing the icing
winds of at least five-minutes' duration and problem , Sissenwine and Gringorten conclude
gusts which last a few seconds . Yet, from that the radome engineer should design the
the standpoint of designing a low -mass ra radome to support a weight of 1 inch of clear
dome, winds are the single most important ice (56 pounds per cubic foot) on a horizontal
climatological factor. surface, and 2 inches on vertical surfaces ,
19
 PROFILES

Dr. Robert H . Korkegi, Director of the Hyper sonic Research

Laboratory , joined ARL in 1964 after almost 7 years in Brussels,
Belgium , as Technical Director of the von Karman Institute for
Fluid Dynamics. During the summer of 1956 , as a consultant to
the Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development
(AGARD-NATO ), he lectured on research in hyper sonic aerody
namics and advised on the planning of hypersonic facilities in
France and Belgium .He received his B . S . in Mechanical Engineer
ing from Lehigh University in 1949, and his M .S . and Ph. D . in
Aeronautical Engineering, both from the California Institute of
Technology , in 1950 and 1954, respectively . Dr. Korkegi has a
number of publications to his credit. His article on “'Hypersonic
Flow Research at ARL " appears in this issue of the Review .

Dr. Max G . Scherberg is presently at ARL' s Thermomechanics

Research Laboratory as an Aerospace Research Engineer. He is
currently assigned as a research leader for basic investigations
in heat- transfer phenomena , particularly under conditions of un
steady flow similar to those encountered in flight by aircraft and
missiles. In this issue of the Review ,hewrites on " Heat Transfer
and Related Supersonic Flow Structure for Aerodynamic Rearward
Facing Surface Steps."
Dr. Scherberg came to the Aerospace Research Laboratories
(then the Aeronautical Research Laboratories) in August, 1953.
He served in Fluid Mechanics, Solid Mechanics and Applied Math
ematics as a laboratory research manager until March , 1961, when
he was assigned as a research physicist in his present position .
Dr. Scherberg received his B .S . in Chemical Engineering from
Washington University in 1925, and his Ph . D . in Mathematics and
Physics from the University of Minnesota in 1931. He has a great
number of publications to his credit.

20
 Mr. Irving I. Gringorten is an atmospheric physicist with the De
sign Climatology Branch, Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory ,
AFCRL . He has been with AFCRL or its predecessor organiza
tions since 1947 , and is engaged in work on applied climatology .
Currently, he is considering the problems of extreme value statis
tics, ballistic wind estimations, applications of the Markov chain
and methods of least squares to probability distributions of mete
orological parameters such as cloud cover and types. Mr. Gringorten
has a B . A . with First Class Honors ( 1935 ) and an M . A . ( 1936 ),
both from the University of Toronto. He took advanced studies at
the California Institute of Technology from 1937 to 1940. " Climatic
Extremes and a 500 -Foot Radome,” in this issue of the Review ,
describes the results of a climate study of the Boston area by
Mr. Gringorten and Mr. Norman Sissenwine .

Mr. Marshall B . Patterson, an electronics engineer with the Aero

space Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL , is the author of
“ Rocket Tracking Systems for Launchings in Remote Locations"
in this issue of the Review . He attendedMonmouth Junior College,
Boston University, and George Washington University . From 1949
to 1955, he was with the Army Signal Corps, where he participated
in the design and development of JAN -type vacuum tubes and en
gaged in operational analysis of communications countermeasures.
From 1955 to 1958, Mr. Patterson was responsible for a complex
of operations in the central link of the Integrated Gulf Testing
Range, at Eglin AFB, Florida. Since coming to AFCRL in 1958,
he has been working in tracking, range safety , and telemetry.

Mr. Norman Sissenwine has been Chiefofthe Design Climatology

Branch and senior scientist in the Aerospace Instrumentation
Laboratory, AFCRL , since 1963. He joined AFCRC, AFCRL ' s
predecessor, in 1953, serving in responsible positions from the
very beginning. He earned his B. S. in Meteorology (1948) “with
distinction " at New York University . Mr. Sissenwine is considered
an expert on wind and density profiles as related to the vertical
flight of missile systems, and is responsible for many of the tech
niques currently used to evaluate the performance of these sys
tems. He holds severalpatents, and hasreceived a number of awards
for outstanding service to the Government. The article , “ Climatic
Extremes and a 500 -Foot Radome," in this issue of the Review ,
describes the results of a climate study of the Boston area that
was conducted by Mr. Sissenwine and Mr. Irving I. Gringorten .
21
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MAR 15 1968 INDEX
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VOLUME V - 1966
The Index of articles published in the OAR RESEARCH REVIEW , Volume V , encompasses
only 10 issues , from March 1966 to December 1966 , inclusive. This reflects a shift in the
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PART I CONTENTS OF VOLUME V , BY ISSUE

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PART IV ORGANIZATION INDEX

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Number 7 , page 15 ).

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From the Editor:

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 PART I CONTENTS OF VOLUME V, BY ISSUE
ISSUE NO . 1, March 1966 PAGE

COSMIC -RAY TRAJECTORIES

Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ... ...
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION - -HOW SPONTANEOUS IS IT ? (ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION )
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , AFCRL .........
TIME- LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT INSTALLED AT SACRAMENTO
РЕАК
Space Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ......... . . . .

ELECTROFLUID DYNAMIC WORKING MEDIA FOR DIRECT ENERGY

CONVERSION PROCESSES
Hawes , Michael, Thermomechanics Research Laboratory , ARL.....
CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCOPE TO BEGIN IN 1966
Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL......
BAND STRUCTURE OF Zno
Park , Y . S., Solid State Physics Research Laboratory , ARL ....
TOMORROW 'S WEAPONS AND BASIC RESEARCH
Ruigh , William L ., Dr., Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR.....
SOLAR RADIO NOISE : POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION
Castelli , John P ., Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ....
S U V m 414 VID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

POLYMER DEFORMATION STUDIES

Matuszko, Anthony J ., Dr., Directorate of Chemical Sciences , AFOSR ........
ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM
Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL ....
IONOSPHERIC FLYING LABORATORY UNDERGOES MAJOR MODIFICATIONS
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL .........

ISSUE NO. 2, April 1966

EARTHQUAKE- TRIGGERING MECHANISMS
Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL .... 00000000

THE OXIDATION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFACES

Haas , T. W ., Dr., Chemistry Research Laboratory , ARL .... .. .
TAILORING INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO PEOPLE
Swanson , Rowena, Directorate of Information Sciences, AFOSR ............. . . . . . . . . . . . .

THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE

King, William F ., III, 1st Lt, Data Sciences Laboratory , AFCRL .......
METHOD FOR MEASURING VERTICAL WIND PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL ......... . . . . . . .

ROCKETS, ARECIBO RADAR & SPORADIC E

Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ..... 00000000000

AFOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL PROBLEMS

Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR ..
 PAGE
THE LINEARIZED RAYLEIGH PROBLEM ACCORDING TO KINETIC THEORY
Nagaraja , K . S ., Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL . .. .. ..
MATTHIESSEN 'S RULE - -ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS
Swerdlow , Max, Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR . ... .. .

ISSUE NO . 3, May 1966

SYMMETRIZATION POSTULATE AND PARASTATISTICS

Lehman , Donald R ., 1st Lt, Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR .. .. .. ..
EXPLOSIVE WARMING IN THE STRATOSPHERE
Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL ....
LECTURE SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Pohrer , R . G ., Dr., Directorate of Mathematical Sciences, AFOSR .. 00

THE CONTRIBUTION OF HYDROGEN - DISLOCATION INTERACTIONS TO THE

EMBRITTLEMENT OF IRON & STEEL
Adair , Attwell M ., Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory , ARL .. .. .. ... ..
HEAT- TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING INSTRUMENTED HONEYCOMB
PANELS
Ball, Karlheinz 0 . W ., Capt, Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL ......
IMPERFECT BY ONLY FIVE PARTS IN TEN MILLION ! (OR LONG LIVE
CRYSTAL DEFECTS )
Swerdlow , Max, Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR ......
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW & THE RADIANT PLASMA
Braun , Wolfgang G . , Dr., Plasma Physics Research Laboratory , ARL . ... .. ...
EARTH - SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
Microwave Physics Laboratory, AFCRL .
HOW NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS FORM
Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ...............
ON INVESTIGATIONS OF STATIONARY MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC
ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS
Myers, T . W . , Dr., Thermomechanics Research Laboratory , ARL . .. .. ... 0 . 000

PHONONS, MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINES

Microwave Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ..

ISSUE NO. 4, June 1966

INFORMATION SCIENCES, 1965

Swanson , Rowena, Directorate of Information Sciences, AFOSR .. ....... .
NEW PRESSURE GAUGE FOR HIGH VACUUMS
Microwave Physics Laboratory , AFCRL
PHOTOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA
Land, Peter L ., Dr. , Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory , ARL . .. .. ...
BOUNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA ACCELERATORS AND GENERATORS
Samaras, Demetrios G ., Dr., Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR ........
 PAGE

EXPLORING OPTICS THEORY WITH MICROWAVES

Microwave Physics Laboratory, AFCRL . ... .. . 000000000000000000 0 . 000000

MODEL FOR SCINTILLATION

Aarons, Jules, Dr., Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL .............. .. ........
ANOMALIES IN ELECTRON - DENSITY PROBES CAN BE CAUSED BY ROCKET
OUTGASSING
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL
HIGH - ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA
Weigold , Erich , Dr., Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR ... .
BALLOON DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHICLE
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL ........
AIRBORNE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL ..
AFCRL SATELLITE MEASURES CHARGED - PARTICLE DISTRIBUTIONS OUT TO
3 ,090 NM
Space Physics and Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratories, AFCRL .............
NONLASER OPTICAL RADAR
Optical Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ...

ISSUE NO , 5, July 1966

THE BAND - TO - BAND TRANSITIONS IN ZnO AND THEIR PRESSURE

DEPENDENCE
Langer, D . W ., Dr, and R . L . Knell, Solid State Physics Research
Laboratory, ARL .......
METALLIC IONS IN THE LOWER IONOSPHERE
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ....
SUNSPOTS & SOLAR ROTATION
Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL ..... .
WAVES OF IONIZATION IN LOW - PRESSURE GAS DISCHARGES
Garscadden , A ., Dr ., Plasma Physics Research Laboratory, ARL and
Dr. D . A . Lee , Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory, ARL ........ .. ............
CONTROL OF UNSTABLE MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Schaefer , John F ., Capt, Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL .....
ELECTRON - PARAMAGNETIC - RESONANCE STUDIES IN THREE CRYSTALLINE
FORMS OF CADMIUM SULFIDE
Locker, Donald R ., Solid State Physics Research Laboratory , ARL . ..........
OPTIMIZATION OF HYPERSONIC LIFTING BODIES
Hankey, Wilbur L ., Dr. and Capt Lawrence J. Schroeder, Hypersonic
Research Laboratory, ARL ...........
THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL DEFORMATION
Hook , Rollin E ., Dr., Metallurgy and Ceramics Research Laboratory, ARL .......
PROJECT "WINDY ACRES"
Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL ..... . . . . . . .
ISSUE NO . 6, August 1966 PAGE

A COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR OPTIMUM TRAJECTORY AND OPTIMAL

CONTROL PROBLEMS
Vachino , Rinaldo F ., Capt, Aerospace Mechanics Division , FJSRL . .. ...
ENHANCED SURFACE - LAYER DIFFUSION
Graham , H . C ., Dr, and Dr. N . M . Tallan , Metallurgy and Ceramics Research
Laboratory, ARL ...............
THE STUDY OF NUCLEAR EXCITED STATES BY MEANS OF THE (P , y )
REACTION
Hyder, Anthony K ., 1st Lt, General Physics Research Laboratory, ARL .............
RADIO OBSERVATIONS OF 20 MAY ECLIPSE
Space Physics and Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratories, AFCRL ........
SOME ASPECTS OF ELLIPTIC DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS
Gander, John F ., Capt, Directorate of Mathematical Sciences, AFOSR . ...... ... .
PREDICTING WHERE BALLOONS WILL BE
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL .........
SENSITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION UNDERGOES TESTS
Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL . .. .....
RADAR DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE
Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL .... ... .
COMBUSTION OF METAL VAPOR
Donovan , Cornelius J., Lt Col, Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR ......
HEAT- INDUCED DISTORTION IN LASER RODS
Optical Physics Laboratory , AFCRL ............
HUGE BALLOON LAUNCHED BY AFCRL
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory , AFCRL ....... . . . ..

ISSUE NO. 7, September 1966

SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH

Wolfson , Bernard T., Dr., Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR ............
RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS
Gander, John F ., Capt, Directorate of Mathematical Sciences , AFOSR .. ... ... ..
LARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF SELENIUM
Swerdlow , Max , Directorate of Physical Sciences , AFOSR .. .. .. ..
APPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL INTERFEROMETER TO ARC -HEATED
PLASMAS
Schreiber , Paul W ., Thermomechanics Research Laboratory, ARL ... ... .. ... ... ... .
PHONETIC THEORY
Office of the Assistant Executive Director, AFOSR ............
IONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK TUBE
Langlois, Russell G ., Major, Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR ........
DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Reitman , Morton , Major, USAFR , Life Sciences Division , Hq OAR .. .
COMPUTER SELF -DIAGNOSIS
Martino, Joseph P ., Major, Office of the Assistant Executive Director, AFOSR . .
 PAGE

LOW -VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZnSe:Mn

Langer , Dietrich W . J . , Dr, and Dr. Robert N . Euwema, Solid State Physics
Research Laboratory , ARL ....
SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER PILOT
Data Sciences Laboratory , AFCRL ...

ISSUE NO . 8, October 1966

PLASMA RELAXATION
Microwave Physics Laboratory, AFCRL .......... 1000000

OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF METALS

Martino , Joseph P ., Major , Office of the Assistant Executive Director, AFOSR ..
ANNA AND PROGENY
Williams, Owen W ., Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL ...........
ON THE GKD METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS
Bethel, Howard E ., Capt, Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL ......................
HYPOTHESIS BY A MARTIAN ASTRONOMER
Meteorology Laboratory, AFCRL
LOGICAL PATTERNS IN LANGUAGE
Swanson , Rowena , Directorate of Information Sciences
vus ,, AFOSR
21 UNI .. .... ..
. . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VAPOR - SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Swerdlow , Max, Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR .............. .... .................
SATELLITE ATTITUDE - SENSING SYSTEM BASED ON POSITIVE - ION DETECTION
Upper Atmosphere Physics Laboratory, AFCRL . .. .. ..... ..
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF A DETONATION WAVE IN A
FLOWING COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE
McKenna, William W ., Lt Col, Air Force Institute of Technology ........
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN SOLID - STATE FORM
Solid State Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL

ISSUE NO. 9, November 1966

THE EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL SURFACES ON HIGH -SPEED

VEHICLES
Thomas, John P ., Major, Hypersonic Research Laboratory, ARL ..... .. .. .... . .. .... .. .
ELECTRON ACCEPTORS
Mukherjee, Tapan K ., Dr., Space Physics Laboratory, AFCRL
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF THE NAVIER -STOKES EQUATION
Agins, Barnett R ., Lt Col, Directorate of Mathematical Sciences, AFOSR ...........
THE MÖSSBAUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELDS
Swerdlow , Max, Directorate of Physical Sciences, AFOSR
VP 11 VIS . ..•••••••••••••
.. .. .. ... . . ••••••••••••
A STEP FORWARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE -HEATER DESIGN
Scaggs , Norman E ., Fluid Dynamics Facilities Research Laboratory, ARL ........
 PAGE
TURBULENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE
Goresh , J. W ., Fluid Dynamics Facilities Research Laboratory , ARL. .. ....
LIGHT- SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCOPY
Electronics Division , AFOSR ......... . . . .

DOG SILHOUETTES AND OTHER ARBITRARY SHAPES BY COMPUTER

Data Sciences Laboratory, AFCRL ...... 10 . 000

ISSUE NO . 10, December 1966

CONCERNING THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Price, William J., Dr., Executive Director, AFOSR ...
VAPOR - PHASE CALORIMETRY
Walford , Edward T ., Lt Col, Directorate of Chemical Sciences, AFOSR ..
ROCKET TRACKING SYSTEMS FOR LAUNCHINGS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS
Patterson , Marshall B ., Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL ..........
CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS
Pomerantz , Jacob, Dr. , Directorate of Engineering Sciences, AFOSR ...... .........
HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERO
DYNAMIC REARWARD -FACING SURFACE STEPS
Scherberg, Max G ., Dr. , Thermomechanics Research Laboratory, ARL ....... .. ..
HYPERSONIC FLOW RESEARCH AT ARL
Korkegi, Robert H ., Dr., Hypersonic Research Laboratory , ARL .. .. .. .
CLIMATIC EXTREMES AND A 500- FOOT RADOME
Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory, AFCRL ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PART II AUTHOR BY-UNE INDEX

AARONS, J EUWEMA , RN HOOK ,RE

4 -9 . 7 -18. 5 -19.
ADAIR , AM HYDER , AK
3-6 . GANDER , JF 6 -6 .
AGINS, BR 6- 10 . 7 -3.
96. GARSCADDEN , A
5 -6. KING , III, W - F
BALL, K OW GORESH , JW 2-6 .
3 -8 . 9 - 18 . KNELL , RL
BETHEL,HE GRAHAM ,HC 5 -1 .
8 -5. 6-3. KORKEGI,RH
BRAUN ,WG 10 -12 .
3 - 16 .
HAAS, T W LAND , PL
4 -4 ,
CAS1TEL
-15.
LI,JP 2 -3 .
HANKEY,WL LANGER ,DWJ
5 -17. 5 - 1 . 7 . 18.
DONOVAN ,CJ HAWES, M LANGLOIS , RG
6 - 18 . 1 -5 . 7.12.
LEE ,DA PATTERSON ,MB SCHROEDER , LJ
5 -6. 10-7 . 5 -17.
LEHMAN, DR POHRER, RG SWANSON, R
3-1. 3 -5 . 2-5 . 4 - 1, 8 -11.
LOCKER ,DR POMERANTZ , J SWERDLOW , M .
5-12. 10 -7 . 2- 22 . 3- 10 . 7-4 . 8- 13 . 9-7.
PRICE , W J
MCKENNA, W W 10 - 1.
8 -23. TALLAN,NM
MARTINO, JP REITMAN , M . 6 -3 .
7 - 15 . 8 -3 . 7 - 14 . THOMAS, JP
MATUSZKO, AJ RUIGH , W L 9- 1.
1-20 . 1 . 14.
MUKHERJEE, TK VACHINO, RF
9 -4 . SAMARAS,DG 6 -1 .
MYERS, T W 4 -6 .
3-22. SCAGGS,NE WALFORD , ET
9 - 14 . 10 -6 .
SCHAEFER, JF WEIGOLD , E
NAGARAJA , KS 5 - 11 . 4 -15.
2 -19 . SCHERBERG ,MG WILLIAMS, O W
10 - 10 . 8 -5 .
PARK , Y S SCHREIBER , P W WOLFSON , BT
1-11. 7 -8 . 7 -1.

PART III LABORATORY /DIRECTORATE BY-LINE INDEX

AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION LAB, AFCRL OFFICE OF ASST EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR , AFOSR
2 - 9. 4-17 . 6 -11 . 6-23. 10 - 18. 7 -11.

DATA SCIENCES LAB, AFCRL OPTICAL PHYSICSLAB , AFCRL

7 -23. 9 -23. 4 - 19. 6 -19.

DIRECTORATE OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES, A FOSR SOLID STATE SCIENCES LAB , AFCRL

2 - 13. 8 - 24 .

ELECTRONICS DIVISION, A FOSR SPACE PHYSICS LAB, AFCRL

9 -21. 1-1, 1-4, 1-10. 3-20 . 4-18 . 5 -5. 6-7.
METEOROLOGY LAB, AFCRL TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES LAB, AFCRL
1-21. 3-4, 5-22 . 6-15 . 8- 10 . 2-1. 4 -18. 6-13 .

MICROWAVE PHYSICS LAB , AFCRL UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS LAB , AFCRL

3 -19, 3-25. 4 - 3 . 4 -7 . 8 -1 . 1-3 . 1 -22. 2- 10 . 4-14. 4 - 18 . 54. 6 -7 . 8 - 20 .
 PART IV ORGANIZATION INDEX

AEROSPACE INSTRUMENTATION LAB, AFCRL HYPERSONIC RESEARCH LAB, ARL

2 -9. 4 -17 . 6 -11 . 6 -23 . 10-7. 10- 18 . 2- 19. 3-8. 5- 17. 8- 5. 9- 1. 10 -12 .

AEROSPACE MECHANICS DIVISION, FJSRL LIFE SCIENCES DIVISION,HQ OAR

5 -11. 6 - 1 . 7 - 14 .

AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY METALLURGY AND CERAMICS RESEARCH LAB ,

8 -23. ARL
3-6. 4-4 . 5-19. 6-3.
APPLIED MATHEMATICS RESEARCH LAB, ARL
5 -6 . METEOROLOGY LAB , AFCRL
1 -21. 3 -4 . 5 -22. 6 - 15 . 8 - 10 .
CHEMISTRY RESEARCH LAB , ARL
2 -3 . MICROWAVE PHYSICS LAB, AFCRL
3-19. 3-25. 4-3. 4 -7. 8-1.
DATA SCIENCES LAB, AFCRL
2-6 , 7-23. 9-23. OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE
DIRECTOR , AFOSR
DIRECTORATE OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES, AFOSR 7 -11. 7 -15 . 8 - 3.
1- 14 . 1-20. 2-13. 10-6 .
OPTICAL PHYSICS LAB, AFCRL
DIRECTORATE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES, A FOSR 4 -19. 6- 19 .
4-6 . 6-18. 7-1. 7-12. 10 -7 .
PLASMA PHYSICS RESEARCH LAB, ARL
DIRECTORATE OF INFORMATION SCIENCES, AFOSR 3 - 16 . 5 -6 .
2-5. 4-1. 8-11 .
SOLID STATE PHYSICS RESEARCH LAB , ARL
DIRECTORATE OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, 1-11. 5-1, 5-12. 7-18 .
AFOSR
3 -5. 6-10. 7-3. 9-6. SOLID STATE SCIENCES LAB ,AFCRL
8 - 24 .
DIRECTORATE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES, AFOSR
2-22. 3-1. 3-10. 4-15 . 7-4 . 8- 13 . 9-7. SPACE PHYSICS LAB, AFCRL
1.1. 1-4. 1-10 . 1- 15 . 3-20. 4-9.
ELECTRONICS DIVISION , AFOSR 4 - 18 . 5-5. 6-7. 9-4.
9 -21.
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES LAB,AFCRL
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR , AFOSR 2 - 1. 4 - 18 . 6 -13, 8 -5 .
10 -1.
THERMOMECHANICS RESEARCH LAB , ARL
FLUID DYNAMICS FACILITIES RESEARCH LAB , ARL 1-5 . 3-22. 7-8. 10 -10 .
9-14 . 9-18.
UPPER ATMOSPHERE PHYSICS LAB , AFCRL
GENERAL PHYSICS RESEARCH LAB , ARL 1-3. 1- 22 . 2-10 . 4-14. 4- 18.54.
6 -6 . 6 -7 . 8 -20 .
 PART V KWIC (KEYWORD *-IN-CONTEXT) INDEX OF TITLES
UNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA ACCELERATORS AND GENERATORS BO 4-6
ELECTRON ACCEPTORS 9.4
PROJECT WINDY ACRES 5 -22
-SPEED * THE EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL SURFACES ON HIGH 9. 1
FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC REARWARD -FACING SURFACE 10 - 10
AFOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL PROBLEMS 2 - 13
ADAR DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE R 6 - 15
DDLE EAST AIRBORNE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE MI 4- 18
ERGOES TESTS SENSITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION UND 6-13
TICAL WIND PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT METHOD FOR MEASURING VER 2-9
ESISTIVITY OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS * RULE - ELECTRICAL R 2 - 22
ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM 1-21
THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL DEFORMATION 5- 19
ANNA AND PROGENY 8 -5
CAN BE CAUSED BY ROCK * ANOMALIES IN ELECTRON -DENSITY PROBES 4 . 14
NTIAL INTERFEROMETER TO ARC-HEATED PLASMAS * OF THE DIFFERE 7 -8
CALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS * MAGNETI 3-22
ROCKETS , ARECIBO RADAR AND SPORADIC E 2- 10
HYPOTHESIS BY A MARTIAN ASTRONOMER 8- 10
ITIVE - ION * SATELLITE ATTITUDE -SENSING SYSTEM BASED ON POS 8 - 20
AND IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY 7- 14
STATIONARY MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE 3-22
LE BALLOON DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHIC 4 - 17
HUGE BALLOON LAUNCHED BY AFCRL 6 -23
PREDICTING WHERE BALLOONS WILL BE 6 - 11
BAND STRUCTURE OF ZNO 1 . 11
ESSURE * THE BAND - TO . BAND TRANSITIONS IN ZNO AND THEIR PR 5- 1
THEIR PRESSURE DEPE * THE BAND - TO -BAND TRANSITIONS IN ZNO AND 5.1
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF A DETONATION WAVE IN A 8-23
F ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL DE FORMATION THE ROLE O 5- 19
CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS 10-7
N OF HYPERSONIC LIFTING BODIES OPTIMIZATIO 5- 17
RS AND GENERATORS BOUNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA ACCELERATO 4 -6
METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS ON THE GKD 8-5
EE CRYSTALLINE FORMS OF CADMIUM SULFIDE * STUDIES IN THR 5.12
VAPOR -PHASE CALORIMETRY 10 -6
A STEP FORWARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE -HEATER DESIGN 9- 14
SATELLITE MEASURES CHARGED -PARTICLE DISTRIBUTIONS OUT 4- 18
ROBLEMS AFOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL- PP 2. 13
TION OF BACTERIA BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY * AND IDENTIFICA 7- 14
THE OXIDATION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFACES 2-3
OME CLIMATIC EXTREMES AND A 500 -FOOT RAD 10 - 18
HOW NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS FORM 3-20
ATION WAVE IN A FLOWING COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE * OF A DETON 8 -23
COMBUSTION OF METAL VAPOR 6 - 18
H - SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS EART 3. 19
TRAJECTORY AND OPTIMA * A COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE FOR OPTIMUM 6 -1
HER ARBITRARY SHAPES BY COMPUTER DOG SILHOUETTES AND OT 9 -23
COMPUTER SELF -DIAGNOSIS 7 - 15
* Each keyword appears in alphabetical order while retaining its relative position in the title.
PE TO BEGIN IN 1966 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCO 1-10
STEMS CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SY 10 -7
MS CONTROL OF UNSTABLE MECHANICAL SYSTE 5- 11
TRAJECTORY AND OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEMS * FOR OPTIMUM 6- 1
EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL SURFACES ON HIGH -SPEED VEHIC 9. 1
EDIA FOR DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES * WORKING M 1-5
COSMIC -RAY TRAJECTORIES 1. 1
PHONONS, MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINES 3-25
-ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA HIGH 4- 15
ONANCE STUDIES IN THREE CRYSTALLINE FORMS OF CADMIUM SULFIDE 5-12
LARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF SELENIUM 7-4
SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH 7.1
ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL DE FORMATION THE ROLE OF ELASTIC 5- 19
POLYMER DEFORMATION STUDIES 1- 20
ANOMALIES IN ELECTRON DENSITY PROBES CAN BE CAUSED BY 4 . 14
PILOT SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER 7 -23
M BASED ON POSITIVE - ION DETECTION * ATTITUDE - SENSING SYSTE 8-20
ERIA BY GAS CHROMATOGR * DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF BACT 7-14
RADAR DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE 6 - 15
OF THE BEHAVIOR OF A DETONATION WAVE IN A FLOWING COMBUST 8 -23
COMPUTER SELF DIAGNOSIS 7- 15
LECTURE SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 3-5
APPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL INTERFEROMETER TO ARC-H 7 -8
OME ASPECTS OF ELLIPTIC DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS 6- 10
ENHANCED SURFACE-LAYER DIFFUSION 6-3
ION IN LOW -PRESSURE GAS DISCHARGES WAVES OF IONIZAT 5-6
OF HYDROGEN DISLOCATION INTERACTIONS TO THE 3-6
HEAT-INDUCED DISTORTION IN LASER RODS 6 - 19
ASURES CHARGED-PARTICLE DISTRIBUTIONS OUT TO 3,090 NM * ME 4-18
SHAPES BY COMPUTER DOG SILHOUETTES AND OTHER ARBITRARY 9-23
BALLOON DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHICLE 4 - 17
RGY. CONVE * ELECTROFLUID DYNAMIC WORKING MEDIA FOR DIRECT ENE 1-5
ATIONS EARTH -SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNIC 3-19
EARTHQUAKE- TRIGGERING MECHANISMS 2- 1
AL SURVEY IN THE MIDDLE EAST AIRBORNE GEOLOGIC 4 .18
OBSERVATIONS OF 20 MAY ECLIPSE RADIO - 6 -7
RMATION THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYSTAL DEFO 5-19
MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS 3.22
MATTHIESSEN ' S RULE . ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME GOLD 2 -22
OR DIRECT ENERGY. CONV * ELECTROFLUID DYNAMIC WORKING MEDIA F 1-5
IZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK TUBE ION 7 -12
ELECTRON ACCEPTORS 9 -4
D BY ROCKE * ANOMALIES IN ELECTRON -DENSITY PROBES CAN BE CAUSE 4 . 14
IES IN THREE CRYSTALLI * ELECTRON -PARAMAGNETIC -RESONANCE STUD 5- 12
OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF METALS 8 -3
SOME ASPECTS OF ELLIPTIC DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS 6 - 10
TRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS RECENT CON 7.3
INTERACTIONS TO THE EMBRITTLEMENT OF IRON AND STEEL 3-6
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION - HOW SPONTANEOUS IS IT 1-3
HIGH ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA 4- 15
ORKING MEDIA FOR DIRECT ENERGY – CONVERSION PROCESSES * W 1-5
ISE : POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION * RADIO NO 1-15
10
ON OF THE NAVIER -STOKES EQUATION NUMERICAL INTEGRATI 9-6
SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS LECTURE 3-5
S TO NONLINEAR ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS RECENT CONTRIBUTION 7-3
LAMINAR BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS ON THE GKD METHOD FOR THE 8 -5
THE STUDY OF NUCLEAR EXCITED STATES BY MEANS OF THE (p - 1) . 6 -6
VES EXPLORING OPTICS THEORY WITH MICROWA 4 -7
EXPLOSIVE WARMING IN THE STRATOSPHER 3-4
THE MÖSSBAUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELDS 9- 7
CLIMATIC EXTREMES AND A 500-FOOT RADOME 10- 18
CT IN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELDS THE MÖSSBAUER EFFE 9 -7
THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE - 2 -6
EM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER PILOT SYST 7 -23
HYPERSONIC FLOW RESEARCH AT ARL 10 - 12
AND RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC REARW 10 - 10
A DETONATION WAVE IN A FLOWING COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE * OF 8 -23
ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS * MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC 3 -22
DIFICATIONS TONOSPHERIC FLYING LABORATORY UNDERGOES MAJOR MO 1-22
FOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL PROBLEMS 2-13
FICATION OF BACTERIA BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY * AND IDENTI 7- 14
IZATION IN LOW -PRESSURE GAS DISCHARGES WAVES OF ION 5 -6
TRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS * MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELEC 3- 22
NEW PRESSURE GAUGE FOR HIGH VACUUMS 4 -3
PLASMA ACCELERATORS AND GENERATORS BOUNDARY LAYERS IN
L SURVEY IN THE
4 -6
AIRBORNE GEOLOGICA
GEOLOGIC AL SURVEY IN THE MIDDLE
EAST
MIDDLE 4 - 18
LAYER EQUATIONS ON THE GKD METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY 8 -5
CAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS * RULE - ELECTRI 2-22
STS SENSITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION UNDERGOES TE 6 - 13
SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER PILOT 7 -23
VAPOR -SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTORS 8 - 13
FLOW STRUCTURE FOR * HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC 10- 10
TURBULENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE 9- 18
HEAT- INDUCED DISTORTION IN LASER ROD 6 - 19
INSTRUMENTED HONEYCOM * HEAT- TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING 3 .8
INTERFEROMETER TO ARC HEATED PLASMAS * OF THE DIFFERENTIAL 7-8
ARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE HEATER DESIGN A STEP FORW 9 -14
ETECTING GROUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER PILOT SYSTEM FOR D 7-23
LIGHT-SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCOPY 9-21
UTILIZING INSTRUMENTED HONEYCOMB PANELS * MEASUREMENTS 3 -8
THE CONTRIBUTION OF HYDROGEN -DISLOCATION INTERACTIONS 3 -6
HYPER SONIC FLOW RESEARCH AT ARL 10 - 12
OPTIMIZATION OF HYPER SONIC LIFTING BODIES 5 - 17
HYPOTHESIS BY A MARTIAN ASTRONOMER 8 - 10
MILLION IMPERFECT BY ONLY FIVE PARTS IN TEN 3- 10
RADIO NOISE: POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION 1-15
INFORMATION SCIENCES, 1965 4-1
TAILORING INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO PEOPLE 2 -5
LOW -VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZNSE : MN 7 - 18
SITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION UNDERGOES TESTS SEN 6 - 13
MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING INSTRUMENTED HONEYCOMB PANELS 3-8
ENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE TURBUL 9- 18
ATION NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF THE NAVIER - STOKES EQU 9 -6
NOLOGY CONCERNING THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECH 10 .1
11
OF HYDROGEN -DISLOCATION INTERACTIONS TO THE EMBRITTLEMENT 3-6
ION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL INTERFEROMETER TO ARC -HEATED PLASMAS 7- 8
STEM BASED ON POSITIVE. ION DETECTION * ATTITUDE- SENSING SY 8 - 20
ARGES WAVES OF IONIZATION IN LOW -PRESSURE GAS DISCH 5-6
GNETIC SHOCK TUBE IONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMA 7. 12
ALLIC IONS IN THE LOWER IONOSPHERE MET 5 -4
OES MAJOR MODIFICATION * IONOSPHERIC FLYING LABORATORY UNDERG 1-22
METALLIC IONS IN THE LOWER IONOSPHERE 5- 4
TO THE EMBRITTLEMENT OF TRON AND STEEL * INTERACTIONS 3-6
GH PROBLEM ACCORDING TO KINETIC THEORY * THE LINEARIZED RAYLEI 2 - 19
KIRCHHOFF' S LAW AND THE RADIANT PLASM 3 - 16
THE GKD METHOD FOR THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS ON - 8 .5
LOGICAL PATTERNS IN LANGUAGE 8 .11
ALLED AT SACRAMEN * TIME LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT INST 1-4
T-INDUCED DISTORTION IN LASER RODS HEA 6 - 19
HUGE BALLOON LAUNCHED BY AFCRL 6 - 23
ET TRACKING SYSTEMS FOR LAUNCHINGS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS ROCK 10 - 7
KIRCHHOFF 'S LAW AND THE RADIANT PLASMA 3- 16
ENHANCED SURFACE LAYER DIFFUSION 6 -3
R THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY. LAYER EQUATIONS * ON THE GKD METHOD FO 8 -5
IONS LECTURE SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUAT 3 -5
IMIZATION OF HYPERSONIC LIFTING BODIES OPT 5- 17
PY LIGHT -SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCO 9-21
G TO KINETIC THEORY THE LINEARIZED RAYLEIGH PROBLEM ACCORDIN 2- 19
ND COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINES PHONONS, MAGNONS A 3- 25
OR LAUNCHINGS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS ROCKET TRACKING SYSTEMS F . 10 -7
THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE 2 -6
LOW -VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZNSE : MN 7- 18
AUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELDS THE MÖSSB 9-7
THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE 2 -6
OF STATIONARY MAGNETICALLY BALANCED ELECTRIC ARCS 3-22
ES PHONONS, MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMISSION LIN 3-25
HYPOTHESIS BY A MARTIAN ASTRONOMER 8 . 10
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN SOLID - STATE FORM 8-24
TIVITY OF SOME GOLD * MATTHIESSEN ' S RULE - ELECTRICAL RESIS 2-22
HONEYCOMB * HEAT- TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING INSTRUMENTED 3-8
CONTROL OF UNSTABLE MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 5 - 11
CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF BIOMEDICAL SYSTEMS 10 - 7
EARTHQUAKE- TRIGGERING MECHANISMS 2- 1
COMBUSTION OF METAL VAPOR 6 - 18
METALLIC IONS IN THE LOWER IONOSPHER 5-4
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF METALS OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND 8 -3
RING OPTICS THEORY WITH MICROWAVES EXPLO 4-7
EARTH -SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS 3- 19
ONLY FIVE PARTS IN TEN MILLION IMPERFECT BY 3- 10
MODEL FOR SCINTILLATION 4 -9
THE OXIDATION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFACES 2 -3
C FIELDS THE MOSSBAUER EFFECT IN EXTERNAL MAGNETI 9- 7
ICAL INTEGRATION OF THE NAVIER -STOKES EQUATION NUMER 9-6
GY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA HIGH -ENER 4. 15
STRIBUTIONS OUT TO 3,090 NM * MEASURES CHARGED-PARTICLE DI 4. 18
HOW NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS FORM 3- 20
TAL PREDICT * SOLAR RADIO NOISE : POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVIRONMEN 1- 15
NONLASER OPTICAL RADAR 4 . 19
RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS 7 -3
HE (p , Y ) * THE STUDY OF NUCLEAR EXCITED STATES BY MEANS OF T 6 -6
STOKES EQUATION NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF THE NAVIER 9-6
F ELLIPTIC DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS SOME ASPECTS O 6 - 10
RUCTURE OF METALS OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC ST 8 -3
NONLASER OPTICAL RADAR 4 .19
EXPLORING OPTICS THEORY WITH MICROWAVES 4.7
OPTIMUM TRAJECTORY AND OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEMS * FOR 6- 1
CAN BE CAUSED BY ROCKET OUTGASSING * ELECTRON -DENSITY PROBES 4 . 14
Es THE OXIDATION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFAC 2-3
REE CRYSTALLI * ELECTRON . PARAMAGNETIC -RESONANCE STUDIES IN TH 5 - 12
TRIZATION POSTULATE AND PARASTATISTICS SYMME - 3 -1
MEASURES CHARGED . PARTICLE DISTRIBUTIONS OUT TO 3,090 4- 18
INSTALLED AT SACRAMENTO PEAK * VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT 1-4
INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO PEOPLE TAILORING 2-5
VAPOR PHASE CALORIMETRY 10 - 6
PHONETIC THEORY 7. 11
SION LINES PHONONS, MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMIS 3-25
PHOTOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA 4 -4
OUND FIRE BY HELICOPTER PILOT SYSTEM FOR DETECTING GR 7-23
RANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE TURBULENT HEAT T 9- 18
FF 'S LAW AND THE RADIANT PLASMA KIRCHHO 3- 16
BOUNDARY LAYERS IN PLASMA ACCELERATORS AND GENERATORS 4 -6
PLASMA RELAXATION 8- 1
FEROMETER TO ARC-HEATED PLASMAS * OF THE DIFFERENTIAL INTER 7 -8
POLYMER DE FORMATION STUDIES 1-20
SENSING SYSTEM BASED ON POSITIVE - ION DETECTION * ATTITUDE . 8 -20
SYMMETRIZATION POSTULATE AND PARASTATISTICS 3. 1
SOLAR RADIO NOISE: POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL 1 .15
PREDICTING WHERE BALLOONS WILL BE 6 - 11
INDEX TO ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION * RADIO NOISE : POTENTIAL 1- 15
ITIONS IN ZNO AND THEIR PRESSURE DEPENDENCE * TRANS 5. 1
S OF IONIZATION IN LOW PRESSURE GAS DISCHARGES WAVE 5 -6
NEW PRESSURE GAUGE FOR HIGH VACUUMS 4 -3
AFOSR CHEMISTS PROBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL PROBLEMS 2-13
IN ELECTRON -DENSI TY PROBES CAN BE CAUSED BY ROCKET OUTGA 4. 14
OBE AIR FORCE TECHNICAL PROBLEMS AFOSR CHEMISTS PR 2- 13
ORY AND OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBLEMS * FOR OPTIMUM TRAJECT 6 -1
RECT ENERGY. CONVERSION PROCESSES * WORKING MEDIA FOR DI 1-5
PHOTOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA 4 -4
MEASURING VERTICAL WIND PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT METHOD FOR 2- 9
ANNA AND PROGENY 8.5
OF METALS OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE 8-3
TE FORM PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN SOLID-STA 8 -24
NONLASER OPTICAL RADAR 4-19
ROCKETS, ARECIBO RADAR AND SPORADIC E 2 -10
NCE RADAR DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULE 6 - 15
KIRCHHOFF ' S LAW AND THE RADIANT PLASMA 3- 16
RONMENTAL PREDICT * SOLAR RADIO NOISE : POTENTIAL INDEX TO ENVI 1-15
RADIO OBSERVATIONS OF 20 MAY ECLIPSE 6 -7
13
 EXTREMES AND A 500-FOOT RADOME CLIMATIC 10 -18
COSMIC RAY TRAJECTORIES 1- 1
C THEORY THE LINEARIZED RAYLEIGH PROBLEM ACCORDING TO KINETI 2 - 19
HIGH - ENERGY X RAYS FROM THE CRAB NEBULA 4 - 15
TES BY MEANS OF THE (p, Y . REACTION * OF NUCLEAR EXCITED STA 6 -6
RUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC REARWARD- FACING SURFACE STEPS * ST 10 - 10
LIPTIC EQUATIONS RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NONLINEAR EL 7 -3
RAMENT * TIME-LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT INSTALLED AT SAC 1-4
R * HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW STRUCTURE FO 10 - 10
PLASMA RELAXATION 8. 1
STEMS FOR LAUNCHINGS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS ROCKET TRACKING SY 10 -7
RULE - ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME GOLD ALLOYS 2-22
ELECTRON -PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDIES IN THREE CRYSTALLI 5 - 12
PROBES CAN BE CAUSED BY ROCKET OUTGASSING * ELECTRON -DENSITY 4 . 14
SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH 7.1
GS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS ROCKET TRACKING SYSTEMS FOR LAUNCHIN 10 -7
ROCKETS, ARECIBO RADAR AND SPORADIC E 2- 10
CED DISTORTION IN LASER RODS HEAT- INDU 6 - 19
TAL DEFORMATION THE ROLE OF ELASTIC ANISOTROPY IN BICRYS 5 . 19
SUNSPOTS AND SOLAR ROTATION 5-5
E GOLD * MATTHIESSEN 'S RULE - ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF SOM 2- 22
EQUIPMENT INSTALLED AT SACRAMENTO PEAK * VIDEO RECORDING 1-4
SED ON POSITIVE -ION * SATELLITE ATTITUDE - SENSING SYSTEM BA 8 -20
DISTRIBUTIONS OUT * AFCRL SATELLITE MEASURES CHARGED -PARTICLE 4- 18
LIGHT SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCOPY 9 -21
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CONCERNING 10 - 1
INFORMATION SCIENCES, 1965 4 .1
MODEL FOR SCINTILLATION 4- 9
ARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF SELENIUM 7-4
COMPUTER SELF-DIAGNOSIS 7- 15
VAPOR -SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTORS 8- 13
SATELLITE ATTITUDE SENSING SYSTEM BASED ON POSITIVE -ION 8 -20
TATION UNDERGOES TESTS SENSITIVE AIRBORNE GRAVITY INSTRUMEN 6 - 13
LECTURE SERIES IN DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 3-5
ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM 1-21
SHAKING A ROCKET TO DEATH 7- 1
TES AND OTHER ARBITRARY SHAPES BY COMPUTER DOG SILHOUET 9 -23
S IN AN ELECTROMEGNETIC SHOCK TUBE IONIZING SHOCK WAVE 7 - 12
OCK TUBE IONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SH 7 - 12
ES BY COMPUTER DOG SILHOUETTES AND OTHER ARBITRARY SHAP 9-23
LARGE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF SELENIUM 7 -4
O ENVIRONMENTAL PREDIC * SOLAR RADIO NOISE : POTENTIAL INDEX T 1 -15
SUNSPOTS AND SOLAR ROTATION 5-5
966 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCOPE TO BEGIN IN 1 1- 10
PERTIES OF MATERIALS IN SOLID -STATE FORM PRO 8 -24
VAPOR SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTORS 8 -13
EARTH SPACE MILLIMETER -WAVE COMMUNICATIONS 3- 19
GHT-SCATTERING HOMODYNE SPECTROSCOPY LI 9-21
NTROL SURFACES ON HIGH SPEED VEHICLES * OF AERODYNAMIC CO 9.1
US IS IT SPONTANEOUS EMISSION - HOW SPONTANEO 1- 3
NTANEOUS EMISSION - HOW SPONTANEOUS IS IT SPO 1-3
CKETS, ARECIBO RADAR AND SPORADIC E RO 2- 10
14
 OF MATERIALS IN SOLID . STATE FORM PROPERTIES 8 -24
ON INVESTIGATIONS OF STATIONARY MAGNETICALLY BALANCED 3- 22
BRITTLEMENT OF IRON AND STEEL * INTERACTIONS TO THE EM 3-6
ER DESIGN А STEP FORWARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE -HEAT 9 . 14
REARWARD-FACING SURFACE STEPS * STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC 10 - 10
EGRATION OF THE NAVIER STOK ES EQUATION NUMERICAL INT 9 -6
STEP FORWARD IN CERAMIC STORAGE -HEATER DESIGN A
9- 14
ANATOMY OF A SEVERE STORM 1-21
XPLOSIVE WARMING IN THE STRATOSPHERE - 3 -4
RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERODYNAMIC REARWARD- F 10- 10
OPERTIES AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF METALS OPTICAL PR. 8-3
BAND STRUCTURE OF ZNO 1. 11
ALLINE FORMS OF CADMIUM SULFIDE * STUDIES IN THREE CRYST 5. 12
SUNSPOTS AND SOLAR ROTATION 5 -5
TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPER SONIC FLOW STRUCTURE FOR AERODY 10 - 10
DYNAMIC REARWARD -FACING SURFACE STEPS * STRUCTURE FOR AERO 10 - 10
ENHANCED SURFACE-LAYER DIFFUSION 6 -3
ION OF CLEAN MOLYBDENUM SURFACES THE OXIDAT 2- 3
OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL SURFACES ON HIGH -SPEED VEHICLES 9-1
BALLOON DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHICLE 4 . 17
TISTICS SYMMETRIZATION POSTULATE AND PARASTA 3. 1
PLE TAILORING INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO PEO 2 -5
ION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CONCERNING THE INTERACT 10 - 1
RUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCOPE TO BEGIN IN 1966 CONST 1- 10
THIN MAGNETIC FILM LOGIC DEVICE 2-6
INSTALLED AT SACRAMEN * TIME -LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT 1-4
TOMORROW 'S WEAPONS AND BASIC RESEARCH 1 - 14
EMOTE LOCATIONS ROCKET TRACKING SYSTEMS FOR LAUNCHINGS IN R 10 - 7
COSMIC -RAY TRAJECTORIES 1- 1
PROCEDURE FOR OPTIMUM TRAJECTORY AND OPTIMAL CONTROL PROBL 6 -1
STRUCTURE FOR * HEAT TRANSFER AND RELATED SUPERSONIC FLOW 10 - 10
TURBULENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULATED PIPE 9-18
RUMENT ED HONEYCOM * HEAT. TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING INST 3 -8
E DEPE * THE BAND - TO -BAND TRANSITIONS IN ZNO AND THEIR PRESSUR 5- 1
ONS, MAGNONS AND COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINES PHON 3-25
LANCED ELECTRIC ARCS IN TRANSVERSE GAS FLOWS * MAGNETICALLY BA 3-22
EARTHQUAKE TRIGGERING MECHANISMS 2- 1
N ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK TUBE TONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN A 7 . 12
DETECTION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE RADAR 6 - 15
TED PIPE TURBULENT HEAT TRANSFER IN AN INSULA 9 - 18
HERIC FLYING LABORATORY UNDERGOES MAJOR MODIFICATIONS * TONOSP 1-22
GRAVITY INSTRUMENTATION UNDERGOES TESTS SENSITIVE AIRBORNE 6 - 13
CONTROL OF UNSTABLE MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 5- 11
CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR VACUUM TELESCOPE TO BEGIN IN 1966 1- 10
PRESSURE GAUGE FOR HIGH VACUUMS NEW 4- 3
COMBUSTION OF METAL VAPOR 6 - 18
VAPOR -PHASE CALORIMETRY 10 -6
RS VAPOR - SOLVENT GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTO 8 - 13
DROP TESTS OF SURVEYOR VEHICLE .BALLOON 4. 17
SURFACES ON HIGH -SPEED VEHICLES * OF AERODYNAMIC CONTROL 9- 1
METHOD FOR MEASURING VERTICAL WIND PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT 2-9
AT SACRAMENT 4 TIME -LAPSE VIDEO RECORDING EQUIPMENT INSTALLED 1-4
15
SE: MN LOW VOLTAGE INJECTION LUMINESCENCE IN ZN 7 . 18
EXPLOSIVE WARMING IN THE STRATOSPHERE 3- 4
EARTH -SPACE MILLIMETER . WAVE COMMUNICATIONS 3. 19
OF A DETONATION WAVE IN A FLOWING COMBUSTIBLE MIXTUR 8 -23
BE IONIZING SHOCK WAVES IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK TU 7 . 12
GAS DISCHARGES WAVES OF IONIZATION IN LOW -PRESSURE 5-6
TOMORROW'S WEAPONS AND BASIC RESEARCH 1 - 14
FOR MEASURING VERTICAL WIND PROFILE FROM AIRCRAFT METHOD 2-9
PROJECT WINDY ACRES 5 -22
TOELECTRIC PROCESSES IN YTTRIA PHO 4-4

GPO 9 30 -035

16
 TO OUR READERS
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Addresses are as follows:

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Attn : CRI
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AEROSPACE
Attn : ARI
RESEARCH LABORATORIES
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Attn : SRGL
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THE FRANK J. SEILER RESEARCH LABORATORY

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Attn : ORR
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