Particle Interaction Matter Upload

The African School of Physics
Lecture : Particle Interactions with Matter
Version 2012
ASP2012 - SH Connell 1
Learning Goals, Material
1. Understand the fundamental interactions of high energy particles with matter.

1. High Energy Physics :
1. Understand the HEP detector design and operation.
2. Research in HEP
2. Nuclear Physics
1. Understand detector / shielding design and operation.
3. Medical Physics
1. Understand biological implications
2. Understand radiation therapy
4. Other
1. Environmental radiation
2. Radiation damage for Space applications
3. Semiconductor processing
4. Radiation Damage in Materials
2. The core material is from “Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments” by WR Leo.
Supplementary material from ASP2010 and ASP2012 lecture notes.
Contents
1. Overview : Energy Loss mechanisms

2. Overview : Reaction Cross section and the probability of an interaction per unit path-length
3. Energy Loss mechanisms.

1. Heavy charged particles
2. Light charged particles
3. Photons
4. (Neutrons)
4. Multiple Coulomb Scattering

5. Energy loss distributions
6. Range of particles.
7. Radiation length
8. Showers
9. Counting Statistics
An example from the ATLAS detector
Reconstruction of a 2e2μ candidate for the Higgs boson - with m2e2μ= 123.9 GeV
We need to understand the interaction of particles with matter in order to understand
the design and operation of this detector, and the analysis of the data.
ASP2012 - SH Connell
Energy Loss Mechanisms
Heavy Charged Particles Light Charged Particles Photons Neutral Particles
Inelastic collisions Inelastic collisions Photo-electric Elastic nuclear

with atomic electrons with atomic electrons effect scattering
A(n.n)A
Elastic scattering Elastic scattering Compton
from nuclei from nuclei scattering Inelastic nuclear
scattering
Cherenkov radiation Cherenkov radiation Pair A(n.n’)A*
production
Bremsstrahlung Bremsstrahlung Radiative
Rayleigh Capture (n,g)
Nuclear reactions Nuclear reactions scattering
Fission (n,f)
Hadronic reactions Transition radiation Photo-nuclear
reactions Other nuclear
reactions
Hadronic
Showers
Introductory Comments : Interaction of Radiation with Matter
Different categories of particles have different Energy Loss mechanisms
dE
Energy Loss = = “stopping power”
dx
The Energy Loss by the particle in the detector material is what is ultimately converted into the electronic
signal pulse.
Heavy Charged Particles (m,p,p,d,a,…. (m > e))

1. Coulomb Scattering by nuclei of detector material
a) Not a significant Energy Loss Mechanism
b) Mainly cause slight trajectory deflection (Multiple Scattering)
c) Leads to radiation damage by creation of vacancies and interstitials.
2. Coulomb Scattering by electrons of detector material
a) Dominant contribution to Energy Loss
b) Expressed by Bethe-Bloch (Stopping Power) formula (derived below)
3. These particles have a well defined range in matter, depending on the projectile type and energy, and the
material characteristics.
Light Charged Particles (e-, e+)

1. Usually relativistic (v~c).
2. Multiple scattering angles are significant.
3. Quantum corrections to Bethe-Bloch because of exchange correlation.
4. Accompanied by bremsstrahlung radiation.
5. These particles also have a well defined range in matter, depending on the particle type and energy, and
the material characteristics.
6. Transition radiation (when a boundary between two mediums is crossed).
Gamma Radiation
1. Primarily interacts with material via effects which transfer all or part of the (neutral) photon’s energy to
charged particles
a) Photo-electric effect (absorbs full energy of the photon, leads to a “photo-peak”)
b) Compton Scattering (if the Compton scattered photon escapes, detector only records partial
energy)
c) Pair Production ( the pair then makes an energy loss as per light charged particles). If the
annihilation radiation of the positron escapes, it can lead to single or double escape peaks.
2. One does not have a concept of the range of photons in matter, rather, there is an exponentially
decreasing transmission probability for the passage of photons through material.
Neutron Radiation
1. Moderation processes
a) Elastic collisions A(n,n)A with nuclei in the material lead to fractional energy loss by a kinematic
factor.
b) The energy loss is more efficient when the stuck nucleus is light.
c) Successive interactions lead to successively lower neutron engines until the neutron population is
thermalised.
2. Absorption processes.
1. Fast neutrons : (n,p), (n,a), (n,2n) reactions are possible
2. Slow neutrons : (n,g) reactions, capture leading to excitation of the capture nucleus.
3. Absorption leads to an exponentially decreasing neutron population with material thickness
traversed.
3. Detection mechanisms – neutrons produce no direct ionisation
1. Detect secondary reaction products from the reactions (n,p), (n.a), (n,g) or (n,fission) or (n,Alight).
More Introductory Comments : Reaction Cross section
In the quest to understand nature, we seek both to measure something and to calculate something, (preferably
the same thing !), so as to gain insight into nature, via a model.
What should this ``something” be ?
Well .... it should characterise in some clear way the probability for a given interaction to occur, and be accessible
both experimentally and theoretically in a well defined way.
A long surviving concept in this regard has been the cross section, which first gained widespread in the analysis
of Rutherford's experiment leading to the discovery of the nucleus.
In a typical interaction between particles and matter, we can idealise the matter as a points in space, illuminated
by a uniform beam flux of Ia particles (Intensity or number per unit area per unit time). The beam will see Nt
scattering centres per unit area. A is either the area of the beam (if smaller than the target) or the area of the target
(if smaller than the beam).
As a result of the interaction, some particles appear as if they were emitted with a rate of r(q,f) particles per
second into a solid angle dW from a source at the target point.
The differential cross section is ……
r(q , j ) 1 dW
ds = × ×
I a A N t 4p
ds r(q , j )
=
dW 4p IAa N t
p 2p
d d
The total reaction cross section, is.
  dW   0 dW sin q dqdf
dW 0
One can also define the doubly differential reaction cross section d 2
dE dW
Which shows the energy dependence of the differential cross section.
The defining equation can now be turned around to give the reaction rate (if the cross-section) is known.
ds
For the scattering rate into a small
r(q, j ) = 4p I a AN t
solid angle in the direction (q,f)
dW
If the detector subtends a finite solid angle
ds ds
r(q, j ) = 4p I a AN t ò dW =4p I a AN t DW
dW dW
For the total scattering rate r =I a ANts
One calculates the number of scattering centres per unit area

NA
Nt = r
(N = surface density of nuclei).
t
r is the density of the material, NA is Avogadro’s number, M M
is the Molar mass and t is the thickness.
The units of cross section are typically the barn. About the cross-sectional area of
a nucleus with A=100
Suppose that we have for the number density, N, with t as the target
thickness
Nt = Nt
Then, the reaction rate is
r =I a ANs t
Considering an infinitesimal slice of the target, normalising the rate of the

reaction to the incident beam rate, we get the probability for a single
interaction …
P(single interaction in d x) = Ns × d x
The probability of interaction per path-length is
m = Ns
We will use this last result later
Electromagnetic Interaction of Particles with Matter
Z2 electrons, q=-e0
M, q=Z1 e0
Interaction with the Interaction with the In case the particle’s velocity is larger
atomic electrons. atomic nucleus. than the velocity of light in the medium,
The incoming The particle is deflected the resulting EM shock-wave manifests
particle loses (scattered) causing itself as Cherenkov Radiation. When the
energy and the Multiple Scattering of the particle crosses the boundary between
atoms are excited particle in the material. two media, there is a probability of the
or ionised. During this scattering, order of 1% to produce X-ray photons, a
Bremsstrahlung photons phenomenon called Transition radiation.
can be emitted.
ASP2012 - SH Connell 12 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

(Bohr’s calculation – classical case)
dp
F
dt
p   dp   Fdt
Mv  Mv ' mv e
2g 2 meu 2
ve  2 v
1
2 me (2u )2
Top formula, prev page
b
gu
Relativistic
A ~ molar mass
We can use the following identities……
The classical radius of the electron is
re = a 2 a0
Where the fine structure constant is
e2
a=
4pe0 c
and the Bohr radius of the atom is
4pe0 2
a0 =
mee2
Then Bohr’s classical formula for energy loss is
de Z z 2
g 2
m u 3
- = 4p N A re2 mec 2 r × ln e
dx A b2 ze2 v
The Bethe – Bloch Formula ….. (the correct quantum mechanical calculation)
Bethe-Bloch Formula
Bethe-Bloch formula gives the mean rate of energy loss (stopping power) of a heavy charged particle.
PDG 2008
with
A : atomic mass of absorber
z: atomic number of incident particle
Z: atomic number of absorber
Tmax : Maximum energy transfer in a single collision
δ(βγ) : density effect correction to ionisation loss.
x = ρ s , surface density or mass thickness, with unit g/cm2, where s is the length.
dE/dx has the units MeV cm2/g

History of Energy Loss Calculations: dE/dx
1915: Niels Bohr, classical formula, Nobel prize 1922.
1930: Non-relativistic formula found by Hans Bethe
1932: Relativistic formula by Hans Bethe
Bethe’s calculation is leading order in pertubation theory,

thus only z2 terms are included.
Additional corrections:
•z3 corrections calculated by Barkas-Andersen

Hans Bethe
• correction calculated by Felix Bloch (Nobel prize 1952,
z4 1906-2005
for nuclear magnetic resonance). Although the formula
is called Bethe-Bloch formula the z4 term is usually not Born in Strasbourg, emigrated
included. to US in 1933.
Professor at Cornell U.
•Shell corrections: atomic electrons are not stationary Nobel prize 1967
for theory of nuclear
•Density corrections: by Enrico Fermi (Nobel prize 1938, processes in stars.
for discovery of nuclear reaction induced by slow neutrons).

Particle ID by simultaneous
measurement of E and E
Minimum ionizing particle (MIP)
E (E – E)
Energy loss Calorimetry

measurement E = E + (E – E)
dE
DE = ò dx dx
Charged Particle Interactions with Matter
Particles are detected through their interaction with the active detector materials
Energy loss by ionisation

dE/dx described by
Primary ionisation can generate Bethe-Bloch formula
secondary ionisation
Primary
ionisation Relativistic rise
Primary +
secondary
ionisation
MIP
Typically:
Total ionisation = 3 x primary ionisation
 ~ 90 electrons/cm in gas at 1 bar
Not directly used for PID by ATLAS/CMS

Examples of Mean Energy Loss
Bethe-Bloch formula:
Except in hydrogen, particles of the same velocity

have similar energy loss in different materials.
1/β2
The minimum in ionisation
occurs at βγ = 3.5 to 3.0,
as Z goes from 7 to 100
PDG 2008

Particle identification from dE/dx and p measurements
Results from the

BaBar drift chamber
K
p
μ 
A simultaneous measurement of dE/dx and momentum

can provide particle identification.
Bethe-Bloch Formula
Bethe Bloch Formula, a few numbers:
For Z  0.5 A
1/r dE/dx  1.4 MeV cm 2/g for ßγ  3
Example :
Iron: Thickness = 100 cm; ρ = 7.87 g/cm3
dE ≈ 1.4 * 100* 7.87 = 1102 MeV
1/r
 A 1 GeV Muon can traverse 1m of Iron
This number must be multiplied with ρ [g/cm3]

of the material  dE/dx [MeV/cm]

Bethe-Bloch Formula
… however … for light charged particles …. there is something else too …
Energy loss by Bremsstrahlung
…. for light charged particles
At higher energies, bremsstrahlung dominates the radiative energy loss for electrons
Energy loss by ionisation Bremsstrahlung
Due to interaction with Coulomb field of

nucleus
Dominant energy loss mechanism for
electrons down to low momenta (~10 MeV)
Initiates EM cascades (showers)

Bremsstrahlung
High energy electrons lose their energy predominantly through radiation (bremsstrahlung).
electron
e e Cross section:
σ ∼ (Z e3)2 ∼ Z2 α3
photon
Ze
electron
nucleus
The electron is decelerated (accelerated) in the field of the nucleus. Accelerated charges radiate photons.
Thus the bremsstrahlung is strong for light charged particles (electrons), because its acceleration is large for
a given force. For heavier particles like muons, bremsstrahlung effects are only important at energies of a
few hundred GeV (important for ATLAS/CMS at the LHC!).
The presence of a nucleus is required to restore energy-momentum conservation. Thus the cross-section is
proportional to Z2 and α3 (α = fine structure constant).
The characteristic length which an electron travels in material until a bremsstrahlung happens is the radiation
length X0.

Weight:
Energy loss 4.5
tonsthrough planning andWeight:
Inner tracker material
by ionisation Bremsstrahlung 3.7 tons
construction
Multiple scattering
Froidevaux-Sphicas, Ann. Rev. 56, 375 (2006)

1.6 for the ATLAS and CMS inner trackers
Radiation length
ATLAS1.4 ATLAS eta = 0
Material thickness CMS eta = 0 Material X0 [cm]
1.2 in detector is measured in
ATLAS eta = 1.7
terms of dominant energy loss reactions at Be 35.3
1 CMS eta = 1.7
high energies:
0.8 Carbon-fibre ~ 25
 Bremsstrahlung for electrons
0.6 for photons Si 9.4
 Pair production
0.4 Fe 1.8
Definition:
0.2 PbWO4 0.9
LEP X0 = Length over which an electron loses all
detectors 0 Pb 0.6
but 1/e of its energy
1994by bremsstrahlung
(TP) 1997 (TDR) 2006 (End of
= 7/9 of mean free path length of photon construction)
ATLAS LAr CMS ECAL
beforeIncrease mostly due to underestimated
pair production absorber services
crystals
Describe material thickness in units of X0
For ATLAS, need to add ~2 X0 ( = 0) from solenoid + cryostat in front of EM calorimeter

Energy Loss of Charged Particles by Atomic Collisions
A charged particle passing through matter suffers Energy loss:
1. energy loss •mainly due to inelastic collisions with atomic
2. deflection from incident direction electrons.
•cross section σ≅ 10-17 - 10-16 cm2 !
•small energy loss in each collision, but many
collisions in dense material. Thus one can work with
average energy loss.
Main type of reactions:
•Example: a proton with Ekin=10 MeV loses all its
1. Inelastic collisions with atomic electrons of the
energy after 0.25 mm of copper.
material.
2. Elastic scattering from nuclei.
Less important reactions are:

3. Emission of Cherenkov radiation
4. Nuclear reactions Two groups of inelastic atomic collisions:
5. Bremsstrahlung (except for electrons!) •soft collisions: only excitation of atom.
•hard collisions: ionisation of atom. In some of the hard
collisions the atomic electron get such a large energy
that it causes secondary ionisation (δ-electrons).
Classification of charged particles with respect to

interactions with matter:
1. Low mass: electrons and positrons Elastic collisions from nuclei cause very small energy
2. High mass: muons, pions, protons, light nuclei. loss. They are the main cause for deflection.

Multiple Coulomb Scattering
for e+, e-
for others
gaussian tails
for e+, e-
for others
Gaussian approximation
Relate to Moliere
A particle which traverses a medium is deflected by small angle Coulomb scattering from nuclei. For hadronic
particles also the strong interaction contributes.
The angular deflection after traversing a distance x is described by the Molière theory.
The angle has roughly a Gauss distribution, but with larger tails due to Coulomb scattering.
Defining:
Gaussian approximation:
x/X0 is the thickness of the material in radiation lengths.

Monte Carlo calculation example of
•Multiple scattering
•Range and range straggling
Energy loss by ionisation Bremsstrahlung Multiple scattering
Charged particles traversing a medium are deflected by

many successive small-angle scatters
Angular distribution ~Gaussian, MS ~ (L/X0)1/2/p, but also
large angles from Rutherford scattering ~sin–4(q/2)
 Complicates track fitting, limits momentum measurement

Fluctuations in Energy Loss
• Gregor Herten / 1. Interaction of Charged

Particles with Matter

Fluctuations in Energy Loss
Typical distribution for energy
loss in a thin absorber – note
Mean energy loss the asymmetric distribution and
the long tail
For Landau ….
Wmax = ∞, electrons free, v = constant Max
energy
loss
Range of Particles in Matter
Average Range:
Towards the end of the track the energy loss is largest 
Bragg Peak  Cancer Therapy … or Archaeology!
Photons 25 MeV Carbon Ions 330 MeV
Relative Dose (%)
Co60
Electrons 21 MeV
Depth of Water (cm)

Range of Particles in Matter
Particle of mass M and kinetic Energy E0 enters matter and loses energy until it
comes to rest at distance R.
0
-1
R(E0 ) = ò dE dE
E0
dr
Mc 2 1 A
R(b0g 0 ) = f (b0g 0 )
r Z12 Z
Independent of
the material
Bragg Peak:
For g>3 the energy loss is 

constant (Fermi Plateau)
If the energy of the particle

falls below g=3 the energy
loss rises as 1/2
Towards the end of the track

the energy loss is largest 
Cancer Therapy.

Radiation length Cherenkov radiation
A relativistic charge particle traversing a

dielectric medium with refraction index
n > 1/, emits Cherenkov radiation in cone
with angle qC around track: cosqC = (n)–1
n >1/
qC
Charged particle
with momentum 
Light cone emission when passing thin medium
Detector types RICH (LHCb), DIRC, Aerogel

counters (not employed by ATLAS/CMS))


Radiation length Cherenkov radiation Transition radiation
Photon radiation when charged ultra-
Probability to exceed threshold

relativistic particles traverse the
boundary of two different dielectric 2 GeV
media (foil & air)
180 GeV
Foil Air (unpolarised)
(polarised)
Photons 180 GeV
Electron ++ E ~ 8 keV
with boost g 2 GeV
+
Electrical dipole 180 GeV
2 GeV
Significant radiation for g > 1000
and > 100 boundaries g factor

Photon Interactions
4
A QM calculation gives the probability for Compton Scattering at the angle q
(Klein-Nishina formula)
Integrating the angular dependence out to give the total cross section ….
As the energy increases, the Compton Effect begins to dominate over the
Photo-electric Effect
Where we have used …
)
h
The well defined finite range of charged particles in a material
and the attenuation of photons in a material
Radiation length
From the section on Bremsstrahlung
Solving we get the exponential dependence
Radiation length
We can also calculate probability of interaction per unit path-length for
Pair Production
m = Ns
Where we use the total cross section for Pair Production.
The mean free path for pair production
lpair =1/ m =1/ (Ns ) » 97 Lrad
The earths atmosphere is a
giant detector for cosmic
rays.
Showers are initiated

typically in the upper
atmosphere (why).
Primary particles with

energies of up to 1022 eV
lead to extensive showers
with a large footprint on the
earth.
Electromagnetic calorimetry: radiation length

Radiation length
Material thickness in detector is measured in Material X0 [cm]

terms of dominant energy loss reactions at Be 35.3
high energies:
Carbon-fibre ~ 25
 Bremsstrahlung for electrons
Si 9.4
 Pair production for photons
Fe 1.8
Definition:
PbWO4 0.9
X0 = Length over which an electron loses all
Pb 0.6
but 1/e of its energy by bremsstrahlung
= 7/9 of mean free path length of photon ATLAS LAr CMS ECAL
before pair production absorber crystals
Describe material thickness in units of X0
D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Electromagnetic calorimetry:
Illustrative radiation length
numbers …..

Electromagnetic showers
Lead
Al
68
Electromagnetic showers
PbW04 CMS, X0=0.89 cm

e

Neutron Radiation
Moderation processes
E ' A2  1  2 A cos q
Consider elastic collisions A(n,n)A with nuclei in the material. 
From the Conservation of Energy and Momentum E ( A  1) 2
(assuming nucleus A at rest)
Note : E’ and E are measured in the lab frame,
but q is in the CM frame.
 A 1 
2
 E' 
The maximum energy loss is therefore    
 E  min  A  1 
What would be the best materials for a neutron moderator ?
1. For energies below 10 MeV, scattering is isotropic in the CM frame.

2. One may expect a first generation scattered energy in the range E’ ~ (E, E’min).
3. This is represented by the rectangle in the figure below
4. A second generation scattered energy would be represented by a set of rectangles starting from the
highest point of the first rectangle to the lowest, leading to a net triangular distribution.
5. Successive scattering events lead to broader and lower energy triangular distributions.
6. Eventually the neutron will have a thermal energy distribution, we say the neutrons a re thermalised.
Schematic of neutron energy distributions
Consider first the distribution resulting from the first
energy scattering beginning with a mono-energetic
neutron
The next picture approximates the energy distribution

following the second generations scattering.
Four neutron generations are depicted based on an

accurate calculation in the last graph.
 E'
   log
We define the moderating power of a
particular material by the quantity ,
E  av
defined as logarithm of the average  ( A  1) 2 
fractional residual energy after a
single collision  log  ( A2  1  2 A cosq  dW

 dW
 1
 A  1)
2
log
A 1
2A A 1
After n collisions, the average value of E’ is E’n log E 'n  log E  n
Nucleus  n
1H 1.00 18
A comparison of moderators, and the 2H 0.725 25
number of scattering to thermalisation 4He 0.425 43
Thermal energies for room temperature 12C 0.158 110
238U 0.0084 2200
E = kT = 25 meV
Some neutron detectors make use of the fact that the neutron absorption cross section is higher at thermal
energies.
Accordingly, they contain a moderator component as well as a detector component
In fact, thermal energies actually means an energy distribution.
In the field of statistical mechanics, this distribution is derived as a speed distribution and known as the
Maxwellian Speed Distribution.
We represent it here converted into an energy distribution.
2pn 1 / 2  E / kT
f ( E ) de  E e dE
pkT )3/ 2
Absorption processes.
Fast neutrons : (n,p), (n,a), (n,2n) reactions are possible

Slow neutrons : (n,g) reactions, capture leading to excitation of the capture nucleus.
Absorption leads to an exponentially decreasing neutron population with material thickness traversed.
(One may think of the analogy with the attenuation of photons by a material)
dI   I t n dx
Here t is the total neutron reaction cross-section, except for elastic

scattering, and n is the number density of atoms in the material,
calculated as before.
Integrating ….
 t nx
I  I 0e
This expression would be modified for the energy loss, as the cross-
sections are energy dependent, and the neutron is usually being
thermalised at the same time it is exposed to the possibility of
inelastic reactions.
C=1 by
normalisation

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The African School of Physics

Lecture : Particle Interactions with Matter

1. Understand the fundamental interactions of high energy particles with matter.

1. Overview : Energy Loss mechanisms

3. Energy Loss mechanisms.

4. Multiple Coulomb Scattering

Heavy Charged Particles Light Charged Particles Photons Neutral Particles

Inelastic collisions Inelastic collisions Photo-electric Elastic nuclear

Heavy Charged Particles (m,p,p,d,a,…. (m > e))

Light Charged Particles (e-, e+)

What should this ``something” be ?

If the detector subtends a finite solid angle

One calculates the number of scattering centres per unit area

Considering an infinitesimal slice of the target, normalising the rate of the

The probability of interaction per path-length is

ASP2012 - SH Connell 12 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Top formula, prev page

The classical radius of the electron is

and the Bohr radius of the atom is

A : atomic mass of absorber

z: atomic number of incident particle

Z: atomic number of absorber

Tmax : Maximum energy transfer in a single collision

δ(βγ) : density effect correction to ionisation loss.

dE/dx has the units MeV cm2/g

ASP2012 - SH Connell 19 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Bethe’s calculation is leading order in pertubation theory,

•z3 corrections calculated by Barkas-Andersen

ASP2012 - SH Connell 20 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Minimum ionizing particle (MIP)

Energy loss Calorimetry

Energy loss by ionisation

Not directly used for PID by ATLAS/CMS

ASP2012 - SH Connell 22 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Except in hydrogen, particles of the same velocity

ASP2012 - SH Connell 23 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Results from the

A simultaneous measurement of dE/dx and momentum

This number must be multiplied with ρ [g/cm3]

ASP2012 - SH Connell 25 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

… however … for light charged particles …. there is something else too …

Energy loss by ionisation Bremsstrahlung

Due to interaction with Coulomb field of

ASP2012 - SH Connell 30 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

ASP2012 - SH Connell 31 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Froidevaux-Sphicas, Ann. Rev. 56, 375 (2006)

Describe material thickness in units of X0

For ATLAS, need to add ~2 X0 ( = 0) from solenoid + cryostat in front of EM calorimeter

Less important reactions are:

Classification of charged particles with respect to

ASP2012 - SH Connell 33 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

x/X0 is the thickness of the material in radiation lengths.

ASP2012 - SH Connell 37 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Energy loss by ionisation Bremsstrahlung Multiple scattering

Charged particles traversing a medium are deflected by

ASP2012 - SH Connell 39 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

• Gregor Herten / 1. Interaction of Charged

ASP2012 - SH Connell 40 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010

Depth of Water (cm)

ASP2012 - SH Connell 43 D. Froidevaux, CERN, ASP2010