JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY.

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE.
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.
BSc.FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

4TH YEAR PROJECT REPORT.

TITLE;UTILIZATION OF SWEET POTATO IN BREAD BAKING

ONGERI ELIJAH MOKAYA.

AG221-0075/2009.

SUPERVISOR: PROF. M. MWASARU.

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ABSTRACT
Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) produced in many parts of the country is mostly
consumed in the household level. Due to this trend of utilization, much of the produce
goes to waste due to spoilage caused by underutilization. Its production is on an
increasing trend, for instance, the production in 2011 increased by 12% from 2010.The
area under active production for instance was 57000ha from45000ha in 2010.The root
crop has a higher potential for utilization in bread making thus there is essence to
undertake research on this potential.
Three different varieties of sweet potatoes were obtained from a Kisii farmer, These were
ORP1(yellow fleshed),ORP2(white fleshed) and ORP3(orange fleshed).They were
prepared for analysis by peeling, grating, drying and milling. The dry samples were used
for proximate analysis. The moisture content of both fresh and dry samples was
determined, the crude fat content, protein content, ash, carbohydrate content and the color
measurement of each cultivar was determined.
Then baking was done in the ratios of 95:5, 90:10:, 85:15, 80:20, and 75:25. For each of
the three. This produces a total of 15 loaves. However 80:20 and 75:25 were out of a
sensory preferred range due to rough texture, hard crust among others.
Proximate analysis of each ration was carried out except for 80:20 and 75:25 blends.
85:15 was the optimum blend producing the preferred results.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................iv

1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................1

1.1 Problem statement.....................................................................................................3

1.3 Significance of the study...........................................................................................3

1.4 Objectives..................................................................................................................3

2.0. Literature review.......................................................................................................4

2.1. Sweet potato introduction.........................................................................................4

2.2. Cultivation................................................................................................................4

2.3. Uses...........................................................................................................................5

2.4. Varieties....................................................................................................................7

2.5. Composition..............................................................................................................7

3.0. Methodology...........................................................................................................14

3.1. Raw material acquisition and preparation..............................................................14

3.2. Analysis of color.....................................................................................................14

3.3. Proximate analysis methods...................................................................................15

4.0 Results and discussion.............................................................................................20

CONCLUSION................................................................................................................32

REFERENCES................................................................................................................33

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Percentage mean and variation of major constituents of sweet potatoes………....8

Table.2 Proximate analysis………………………………………………………………20

Table 3 Color measurements…………………………………………………………….23

Table.4 Proximate analysis of wheat-sweet potato bread……………………………......24

Table 5.Mean sensory scores…………………………………………………………….25

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas(L) Lam, is a dicotyledonous plant belonging to the
kingdom
Plantae,divisionMagnoliophta,classMagnoliopsida,orderSolanalaceae,familyConvolvulac
eae,genus Ipomoea and species I. batatas.Cultivars differ from one another in the colour
of the tuber skin (usually white,brown or reddish purple), colour of the tuber flesh (white
or yellow) among other several vegetative characteristics (Onwueme, 2004). Sweet
potato is unique among the tropical tubers in the sense that much of the starch is
converted to maltose during cooking and this makes the cooked product even more
sugary to taste. The starch fraction is composed of about 25 % amylose and 75 %
amylopectin. (Onwueme,2004).
Sweet potatoes are an important traditional food among many communities in Kenya.
Both in rural and urban areas they are consumed after being boiled roasted or baked.
Their production is however progressively diminishing due to lack of a variety of
products derived from them. They are thus being replaced with crops such as maize
which are gaining popularity because apart from presence of drought resistant varieties
hence food security, they have more commercial uses.
It probably originated in Mexico and Central America but is now grown widely in
Mediterranean-type, subtropical and tropical climatic regions of the world (Zhang et
al.,2004).It does well at average temperatures of 24 0C.abundant sunshine with warm
nights and rainfall ranging between 750-1000mm.
The food ranking system also showed sweet potato to be a strong performer in terms of
traditional nutrients. This root vegetable has been used in the traditional system of
medicine for Alzheimer's disease because its rich in beta-carotene, a very good source of
Vitamin C and manganese, as well as a good source of copper, dietary fiber, vitamin B6,
potassium and iron. Moreover, poor in content of protein but which is present contains
several of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan
and threonine( Husesain et l.,2008).Sweet potatoes and its leaves contain antioxidants;
phenolic components with a potential value as a chemo-preventative material for human

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health. Both beta-carotene and Vitamin C are very powerful antioxidants that work in the
body to eliminate free radicals. (Nestle et al.,2006) recorded the bio fortification of staple
food crops is a new public health approach to control Vitamin A, iron and zinc
deficiencies in poor countries. Vitamin A deficiency has been recognized as a widespread
problem affecting more than 700 million people, especially in developing countries.
Beta-carotene is the most available/important source of pro-vitamin A in the diet of most
people living in these countries. Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potatoes (OFSPs) which are
naturally rich in β-carotene, are an excellent food source of pro-vitamin A. These
varieties can make a significant contribution to a viable long-term effective and
sustainable food-based approach to prevent vitamin A deficiency in developing countries
(Hagenimana et al.,2009)
Sweet potato could be a good source of protein ingredient for food processing as it
possesses good solubility and emulsifying properties (Mu et al.,2009).
In kenya,its production increased by 72% in 2011 and the yield per acre increased by
60%from 45000hectares in 2010 to 57000 hectares in 2011.
Bread is a stable food prepared by baking a dough of flour and water. It is popular
around the world and is one of the world's oldest foods.The virtually infinite
combinations of different flours, and differing proportions of ingredients, has resulted in
the wide variety of types, shapes, sizes, and textures available around the world. It may
be leavened /aerated by a number of different processes ranging from the use of naturally
occurring microbes to high-pressure artificial aeration during preparation and/or baking,
or may be left unleavened. A wide variety of additives may be used, from fruits and nuts
to various fats, to chemical additives designed to improve flavour, texture, colour, and/or
shelf life.Bread may be served in different forms at any meal of the day, eaten as a snack,
and is even used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations. As a basic food
worldwide, bread has come to take on significance beyond mere nutrition, evolving into a
fixture in religious rituals, secular cultural life, and language.
Flour is a product made from grain that has been ground to a powdery consistency. Flour
provides the primary structure to the final baked bread.While wheat flour is most
commonly used for breads, flours made from rye, barley,maize, and other grains arealso

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commonly available. Each of these grains provides the starch and protein needed to form
bread

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Sweet potatoesare produced in many parts of the country and mostly they are consumed
at the household level. Due to this trend, much of the produce is underutilized and this
has led to a lot of wastages considering the fact that its production is on an increasing
trend, for instance, the production in 2011 increased by 12% from 2010.The area under
active production was 57000ha from45000ha in 2010.
Despite its great potential for industrial utilization, sweet potato roots have not been
utilized commercially, If utilized in such scales, we stand at a better position of reducing
the present pressure on cereal crops e.g. wheat. Due to this pressure, the cost of wheat has
been rising translating to an increase in the cost of products produced by wheat e.g.
bread.
There thus an urgency to find an industrial use to this produce.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

There will be reduced losses of this produce since the industrial utilization of sweet
potatoes in bread baking will attract much higher returns to farmers, reduce losses
experienced due to underutilization, enhance the employment opportunities and
productivity of the produce to help curd incidences of food insecurity experienced in
developing nations e.g. Kenya.

1.4 OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To determine the feasibility of sweet potato utilization in bread making
Specific Objectives
1. To determine the methods of preparing sweet potato roots for flour making.
2. To determine the color and proximate composition of the flour.
3. To determine the optimum blend of wheat flour and each of the sweet potato
cultivar flour in bread making.

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 4. To determine the proximate composition of the bread from each blend and the
optimum accepted blend

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Sweet potato introduction

Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam, is a dicotyledonous plant belonging to the
kingdom
Plantae,divisionMagnoliophta,classMagnoliopsida,orderSolanalaceae,familyConvolvulac
eae,genus Ipomoea and species I. batatas. The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), is a crop
plant whose large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable.
The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only
distantly related to the potato (Solanumtuberosum). It is even more distantly related to the
true yam (Dioscorea species) which is native to Africa and Asia. The genus Ipomoea that
contains the sweet potato also includes several garden flowers called morning glories,
though that term is not usually extended to Ipomoea batatas. Some cultivars of Ipomoea
batatas are grown as houseplants. This plant is a herbaceous perennial vine, bearing
alternate heart-shaped or palmately lobed leaves and medium-sized sympetalous flowers.
The edible tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose color ranges
between red, purple, brown and white. Its flesh ranges between white, yellow, orange,
and purple.

2.2. Cultivation
The plant does not tolerate frost. It grows best at an average temperature of 24 °C (75 °F).
Depending on the cultivar and conditions, tuberous roots mature in 2 to 9 months. With
care, early-maturing cultivars can be grown as an annual summer crop in temperate areas,
such as the northern USA. Sweet potatoes rarely flower when the daylight is longer than
11 hours, as is normal outside of the tropics. They are mostly propagated by stem or root
cuttings or by adventitious roots called "slips" that grow out from the tuberous roots
during storage. True seeds are used for breeding only.
Under optimal conditions of 85 to 90 % relative humidity at 13 to 16 °C (55 to 61 °F),
sweet potatoes can keep for six months. Colder temperatures injure the roots.

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They grow well in many farming conditions and have few natural enemies; pesticides are
rarely needed. They can be grown in poor soils with little fertilizer. Because they are
sown by vine cuttings rather than seeds, sweet potatoes are relatively easy to plant.
Because the rapidly growing vines shade out weeds, little weeding is needed, and farmers
can devote time to other crops. In the tropics the crop can be maintained in the ground
and harvested as needed for market or home consumption. In temperate regions sweet
potatoes are most often grown on larger farms and are harvested before frosts set in.
China is the largest grower of sweet potatoes; providing about 80% of the world's supply,
130 million tons were produced in one year (in 1990; about half that of common
potatoes). Historically, most of China's sweet potatoes were grown for human
consumption, but now most (60%) are grown to feed pigs. The rest are grown for human
food and for other products. Some are grown for export, mainly to Japan. Sweet potatoes
very early became popular in the islands of the Pacific, from Japan to Polynesia. One
reason is that they were favored as an emergency crop that could be relied on if other
crops failed due to typhoon flooding and the like. They are featured in many favorite
dishes in Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines , and other island nations. Indonesia, Vietnam,
India, and some other Asian countries are also large sweet potato growers. Uganda (the
third largest grower after Indonesia), Rwanda, and some other African countries also
grow a large crop which is an important part of their peoples' diets. North and South
America, the original home of the sweet potato, together grow less than three percent of
the world's supply. Europe has only a very small sweet potato production, mostly in
Portugal.(JRT)(FAO). Sweet potatoes were an important part of the diet in the United
States for most of its history, especially in the Southeast. In recent years however they
have become less popular. The average per capita consumption of sweet potatoes in the
United States is only about 1.5-2 kg (4 lbs) per year, down from 13 kg (31 lb) in 1920.
Southerner Kent Wrench writes: "The SweetPotato became associated with hard times in
the minds of our ancestors and when they became affluent enough to change their menu,
the potato was served less often.

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2.3. Uses
The roots are most frequently boiled, fried, or baked. They can also be processed to make
starch and a partial flour substitute. Industrial uses include the production of starch and
industrial alcohol.
Culinary Uses
Although the leaves and shoots are also edible, the starchy tuberous roots are by far the
most important product. In some tropical areas, they are a staple food-crop. Besides
starch, they are rich in dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin B6. All cultivars
are more-or-less sweet-flavored. Despite the name "sweet", it is actually a good food for
diabetics as preliminary studies on animals have revealed that it helps to stabilize blood
sugar levels and lowered insulin resistance. In 1992, the Center for Science in the Public
Interest compared the nutritional value of sweet potatoes to other vegetables. Considering
fiber content, complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins A and C, iron, and calcium, the
sweet potato ranked highest in nutritional value. According to these criteria, sweet
potatoes earned 184 points, 100 points over the next on the list, the common potato.
Sweet potato varieties with dark orange flesh have more Vitamin A than those with light
colored flesh and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa where Vitamin
A deficiency is a serious health problem. Some Americans, including television
personality Oprah Winfrey, are advocating increased consumption of sweet potatoes both
for their health benefits and because of their importance in traditional Southern cuisine.
Candied sweet potatoes are a side dish consisting mainly of sweet potatoes prepared with
sugar, marshmallows, maple syrup, molasses, or other sweet ingredients. Often served on
American Thanksgiving, it represents traditional American cooking and indigenous food.
Sweet potato pie is also a traditional favorite dish in southern U.S. cuisine. Baked sweet
potatoes are sometimes offered in restaurants as an alternative to baked potatoes. They
are often topped with brown sugar and butter. Boiled sweet potato leaves are a common
side dish in Taiwanese cuisine, often boiled with garlic and vegetable oil and dashed with
salt before serving. They are commonly found at biàndāng restaurants, as well as dishes
featuring the sweet potato root. Steamed/Boiled chunks, for a simple and healthy snack,
chunks of sweet potato may be boiled in water or cooked in the microwave. Sweet potato
chips, they can be sliced, fried, and eaten just like potato chips or french fries like at the

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Taiwan chain of T.K.K. Fried Chicken International restaurants. Shōchū' is a Japanese
alcohol made from rice and sweet potato.

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Non-Culinary Uses
In South America, the juice of red sweet potatoes is combined with lime juice to make a
dye for cloth. By varying the proportions of the juices, every shade from pink to purple to
black can be obtained.All parts of the plant are used for animal fodder.
Other Uses
The aerial roots are used as a galactogogue.The leaves are used to treat diabetes,
hookworm, hemorrhage, and abscesses.The tuber is used to treat asthma.

2.4. Varieties.
There are seven major varieties of sweet potatoes: Jersey, Kotobuki (Japanese),
Okinawan (Purple), Papa Doc, Beauregard, Garnet, and Jewel. The last three varieties are
regionally called "yams" in the United States. A unique variety of sweet potato grown in
New Zealand, originally grown by the indigenous Maori, is the kumara, a red/purple
variety with a unique flavor due to its isolation from other varieties. Nutritional quality of
sweet potatoes. These essential in meeting human nutritional needs including:
Carbohydrates, vitamins A & C1 fibre iron, potassium and high quality protein.

2.5. Composition.
They contain as much as 44% dry matter (Moorthy, 2002) however this depends on
varieties e.g. commercial cultures in the USA around 20-30%
The major carbohydrate component is starch, which is 60-70% amylopectin and 30-40%
amylose (Chen et al, 2002). Sucrose is a major sugar in raw uncooked roots but glucose
and fructose are also present in cooked roots. Major products of starch conversion are
collectively called fibre i.e. primary cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.

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Table 1, Percentage mean and variation of major constituents of sweet potatoes
Constituent Mean Variation %
Dry matter 29.87 14.99-41.98
Protein 4.22 1.34-11.08
Sugar 15.26 8.78-27.14
Starch 66.08 44.59-78.02
Crude fibre 3.99 2.70 -7.60

Source :Tson et al (2001)

Fibre varies greatly depending on the varieties, it increases with maturity.It’s an
important agent in human benefits of soluble dietary fibreinclude reduction in colorectal
cancer, and bowel transit time, lowering of serum blood cholesterol, reduction of glucose
metabolism and promotion of the growth of beneficial gut microflora (Breunan 2005)
TheProtein content is generally low, it ranges from 1.0 to 1.4.2% dry weight basis.
It contains an excessive amount of essential amino acids e.gleucine, lysine except
tryptophan and total sulphur amino acids when compared with the FAO reference protein
(Wanda 1987). This low levels has seen it (sweet potato) receive a lot of attention from
breeders in genetic research.
Starch occurs as granules characterized in size and shape for each plant source.
As they are produced, they are deposited in layers around a central hilum to form a
tightly packed granule (i.e in grains)
Gelatinization is the transformation that occurs when aqueous starch suspension is
heated. It involves a loss of granule crystallinity by disruption of granule structure as
gauged by loss of birefringence, hydration and slight swelling of the granule and this
change is irreversible (Smith 2006)
Continuous heating above the gelatinization temperature cause granules to become highly
hydrated and their volume increase as compare to the original.
Starch granule swelling in water is a reversible process at temperatures below the
gelatinization temperature due to its stable semi crystalline structure (Chen, 2003). The
water absorption is usually less than 40%.
When the temperature of granules in water increases to the gelatinization temperature
(50-8500c) the starch granules loses its birefringence and crytallinity with concurrent
swelling.

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Properties of sweet potato starch and their influence upon processing
Sweet potatoes possess a rigid viscous behavior and lower gel strength. This is according
to the rheological assessment (Yan chnd et al, 2003)
Swelling and solubility of sweet potato starch are lesser as compared to cassava. Below is
a gelatinization characteristics of sweet potato
Pasting temperature (0c) Maximum viscosity (B.U) Swelling power
77.0 590 27.2
Source : (Coursey et al, 1979)
The pasting behavior of sweet potato starch exhibits high peak viscosity and becomes
thinner rapidly with prolonged cooking before thickening or cooling (Jangchand et al
2003). The desirable gluten a free dough like texture of pancake from sweet potato is a
characteristic which fades rapidly under normal holding conditions (shihh et al,. 2006)
This decline in quality has been attributed to starch retrogradation. High content of
amylose in the starch is responsible for high degree of retrogradation property (Zhang et
al, 1999). The changes in which the dough loses its elasticity and become hard and brittle
due to the growth crystals in the temperature dependent. They increase with decreasing
storage temperature down to 20c (Juarez-garcia et al, 2006). The rate of retrogradation of
sweet potato is several times slower than the wheat starch but similar to potato. (Moorthy,
2002). It takes 16 days for wheat starch gels. Thus there’s need to further study this sweet
potato starch as to retard these undesirable changes. Most of their gelatinization
temperature ranges between 54-840c (Janchand et al 2003). However this is low than
cassava and some other tropical roots starches. It poses a low susceptibility to
digestibility of by alpha amylase enzyme (Moorthy, 2002), with an exception of cassava.
Most tropical root starches have it ie the resistance to digestive enzymes and thus helps in
determining the functional properties of sweet potatoes starch in composite dough’s.
Sweet potato flour usage in composite flour for baking bread.
It cannot be used totally for bread production. High level substitutions produce an
unacceptable loaf in terms of volume, flavor and texture (Green 2004).
There remains considerable areas of research needed to relate sweet potato quality to
specific end uses e.gbread making although this area has been covered by a number of
researchers. This thus is due to the essence of offering consumers with an acceptable
product. Starch is one of the most abundant materials produced in nature. Its easily

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recovered from plants organs that hold it. Its low in cost, and is readily converted
chemicals, physically and biologically into useful chemical and products. Mostly, its
recovered from seeds, roots and tubers, corn and wheat provides the major source of
starch. Increased processing of starch from its sources translated into more jobs and
improved economy. It has played an essential role in the human diet. It has also uses in
non-food applications e.g paper making and adhesives. New technologies based on starch
and new products from starch are emerging e.g. Starch from biodegradable plastics, Bio
polymer plastics, Water absorbent polymer (Super slurper), Starch far encapsulation.
These developments are leading to vast new markets for starch and for consumer
products that are more environmentally friendly acceptable than many currently in use.
Starch is a major carbohydrate in roots ranging from 73.7% to 84.9% of the root dry
weight (Sri-buri et al, 1999). It’s an important raw material used in the food industry
because of its properties e.g. low gelatinization temperature and low tendency to
retrograde. It has no residual protenaceous material or soil residues, It lacks a cereal
flavour and has high viscosity and high water binding capacity, It has a blend taster
translucent paste and its relatively stable.(Matreev et al 2001) said, the melting thermo
dynamic properties of starch were directly related to their amylose content.
X-ray refraction patterns have been used to reveal the characteristics of the crystalline
structure of starch granules (Zobel, 2008) most of the root and tuber starches exhibit a
typical x-ray pattern (Hoover, 2001)
Among the most essential functional properties of starches are their thermal and pasting
properties. The pasting behavior is usually studied by observing changes in the viscosity
of a starch system based on rheological principles.
Generally, root and tuber starches show weaker associative intergranulation forces. They
gelatinize at low temperature, rapid and uniform swelling of granules. They also exhibit a
high viscosity profile and high paste clarity as com0pared to cereal starches although they
(root and tuber starches) retrograde easily (Craig et al 2009)
Wheat starch has higher phospholipids and produces a starch paste with lower
transmittance than sweet potato whose starch has a lower content of phospholipids (Singh
et al 2003). Sweet potato starch however exhibit the highest swelling pores among all
power among all commercial starches and also it gives the highest viscosity posting

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properties (Mitch 2004) Highly swelled starches increase the smoothness and thus
reduces firmness and elasticity of some products e.g. noodles. Consequently, this lowers
the total texture quality.. Phosphorous a non carbohydrate constituent is found in potato
starch – with high values and may affect the functional properties of starch.
A high degree of phosphate substitution in potato starch leads to starch gels with high
viscosity(Noda et al,.2006). To determine the suitability of sweet potato flour for specific
requirement, knowledge of the functional and physio-chemical characteristics of its
starch is essential. It can be used as an ingredient in bread, cake, juice and noodles
(Zhanf and Oats, 1999). However the extent of the changes in the pasting behavior when
substituting sweet potato starch in other types of flour has not been reported.
Since starch is the most important component of sweet potatoes, it’s possible that the
pasting properties of these starches could change during heat treatment.
Very limited research on the analysis of mixture of wheat flour and tuber starches has
been reported and therefore this is an interesting area of study i.e the pasting
characteristics of the mixtures. Thus this study helps to the better understanding of the
functionalities of starch foods , bread in this case.

Sweet potatoes cultivars with high level of Beta carotene have been used to show beta
carotene loss drying and storage of dried products, however little has been done to show
the beta carotene loss during dry processing methods commonly to prepare the products
locally. Beta-carotene loss is greater at high temperatures, the loss is kinetically a first
order reaction (Retyu,et al 2006).When synthetic vitamin A or beta-carotene is added to
foods it needs to be protected from oxidation by addition of antioxidants. Beta carotene is
unstable in acid but can withstand boiling in a strong alkali like during saponification in
some methods of extraction losses of up to 10-40% of beta carotene can occur during
processing and cooking especially at high temperatures. However beta-carotene is not
water-soluble hence losses by leaching are minimal. Heat, acid and light affect stability
of beta-carotene in food. (Retrey 2005)
Beta-carotene is a compound containing conjugated double bonds; hence it’s unstable
when pure. However at high temperatures and presence of oxygen or sunlight it’s easily

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destroyed. Fat peroxides oxidize carotenes and therefore they are destroyed by conditions
favoring oxidation of fats such as presence of traces of copper and iron.
Orange fleshed sweet potatoes have high level of carotenoids, beta-carotene being the
major one present. Beta-carotene decreases as the total carotenoid level decreases.
Major factor affecting carotenoid content of sweet potatoes is the cultivar. Studies shows
that the stem end of sweet potatoes has more beta-carotene than the root end. It also
shows that the percentage of beta-carotene is high in yellow and orange fleshed sweet
potatoes, some white fleshed cultivars have no beta-carotene but pale yellow varieties
have traces of beta-carotene.
Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g. mantou),fried
(e.g. puri) or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g. tortillas).It may be leavened or
unleavened (e.g. matzo).Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are
common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg,
sugar, spice, fruit(such as raisins),vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnuts) or
seeds (such as poppy).Referred to colloquially as the "staff of life", bread has been
prepared for at least 30,000 years. The development of leavened bread can probably also
be traced to prehistoric times. Sometimes, the word bread refers to a sweetened loaf cake,
often containing appealing ingredients like dried fruit, chocolate chips, nuts or spices,
such as pumpkin bread, banana bread or gingerbread.

Chemical composition of wheat flour.

In wheat, phenolic compounds are mainly found in hulls in the form of insoluble bound
ferulic acid where it is relevant to wheat resistance to fungal diseases(Teriu 2008). Rye
breadcontains phenolic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers. Three natural
phenolicglucosides, secoisolariciresinoldiglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside and
ferulic acid glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed(Wesert
2009)

The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and
the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty
bread flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended for high-quality bread.

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If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce bread, a shorter
mixing time will be required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing
time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb,
instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers. Wheat flour, in addition to its
starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteases) and
two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with
water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the
structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet
dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands
of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the
strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are
known as gluten.

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3.0. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Raw material acquisition and preparation.

1. Three sweet potato cultivars [ORP1 (yellow fleshed), ORP2 (white fleshed)
andORP3 (orange fleshed)] were obtained fresh from Kisii farmers and
transported in black polythene bags.
2. They were cleaned by washing,weighed,peeledand grated to small fine chips.
Moisture content of the fresh samples was determined.
3. The samples were sun dried till an average constant weight was obtained, this
took 5days.
4. The samples were milled by passing through a sieve.
5. The flour samples were kept in air tight glass containers at room temperature for
further analysis.

3.2. Analysis of color.

1. The samples were covered with polyethylene film and the color meter calibrated
using a standard wheat flour.
2. The color readings were recorded as L*(lightness),a*(redness) and
b*(yellowness).
3. The readings for six trials were recorded.
4. The averages for each sample were recorded and used for calculation.
5. The overall color difference was calculated.

Calculations.

ΔE¿ √ ¿2)+(Δa)2+(Δb)2

Where ΔE=overall color difference,Δ L=¿L of standard-L of sample, Δa=LC-LS, and

Δb=bc-bs

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3.3. Proximate analysis methods.

Determination of crude protein content by semi-micro kjeldahl method.

1. Five grams of the sample was weighed then transferred to a digestion flask.
2. The sample remaining was then washed down with a little water.
3. Five grams of K2SO4 and 0.5 g CUSO4, were then added and a blank carried out
without sample at the same time.
4. 15ml of concentrated H2SO4 was then added and the flask rotated until the H 2SO4
soaked into the samples.
5. The samples were then heated in a fume hood. The flasks were periodically
rotated till the color changed to blue after which they were heated for another
hour then cooled to room temperature.
6. The digest was then transferred to 100 ml of volumetric flask completely and
filled up to the mark with water. Distillation was then carried out by the Parnas-
Wagner’s method.
7. The distillate was then titrated with 0.02N HCl solution, till the end point was
reached. (Orange color.)

Nitrogen % = (V1-V2) * N * f * 0.014 * 100/v * 100/S

Where;
V1 – titre for sample (ml)
V2 – titre for blank (ml)
N – Normality of standard solution
f – Factor of standard HCl solution
v – Volume of dilute digest taken for distillation
s – Weight of sample taken (g)
a factor, 6.25 was used to calculate the percentage protein.
Protein % = Nitrogen % * Protein factor.

Crude fat determination by soxhlet method.

xxi
 1. The constant weight of the extraction flask was first obtained.
2. Five grams of sample was accurately weighed then transferred to an extraction
thimble and a piece of defatted cotton wool put as a stopper.
3. The sample was then dried at 110 oC for one hour.
4. The thimble was then placed into the extraction apparatus.
5. Pet ether was then put up to two thirds of the extraction flask.
6. The extraction apparatus was then set up and extraction carried out for sixteen
hours.
7. After extraction, the thimble was picked out using forceps.
8. The pet ether was then evaporated on a water bath until it disappeared.
9. The extraction flask was then heated at 110 oC for one hour. It was then cooled to
room temperature in a desiccator then accurately weighed.

Determination of moisture by drying method.

1. Constant weight of the metal container was obtained(w0) then 5 g of sample put
into it then the sample and the container accurately weighed.(w1)
2. The sample was then heated at 105oC for two hours.
3. The sample was then cooled to room temperature in a desiccator then accurately
weighed.(w2)
Calculation:

% Moisture = Weight of sample before drying – Weight of sample after drying*100

Weight of sample before drying
Determination of Crude Ash
1. The crucibles were washed and dried in an oven at 105oC for 1 hour.
2. They were cooled in a dessicator to room temperature and then weighed.
3. About 5 grams of the flour was weighed into the crucible then swelled out by
heating in a fume board and charred using small flame.
4. The sample was then transferred into the muffle furnace at 550oC for 8 hours.
5. The samples were then cooled and the weight taken.

xxii
xxiii
Calculations;

Crude ash = (weight of the remained / weight of the sample) * 100

Determination of Crude Fibre.

1. 5g of sample was weighed and transferred into a conical flask.
2. They were digested using 1.25% sulphuric acid for 30 minutes and the digest
filtered with Pyrex glass filter and washed with boiling water until free of acid.
3. It was digested with 1.25% sodium hydroxide for 30minutes, the residue, filtered,
washed with 1% HCl and washed with boiling water and washed twice with
alcohol and thrice with ether.
4. The residue together with the glass filter was dried at 100 0C for 1 hr, cooled to
room temperature and weighed.
5. Incineration was then done at 5000C for 1 hr; the temperature decreased to 200 0C,
transferred to a dessicator, cooled to room temperature and weighed.
Calculation was as below.
Fiber % = [Weight before incineration (W1) – Weight after incineration (W2) ] * 100
Weight of sample
Carbohydrates
The total carbohydrate content of the flour samples was obtained as follows:
Formula:
C% = 100-( crude protein+ crude fat+ crude ash+ moisture+ crude fiber)

Process of producing sweet potato flour for bread baking.

Raw material
Sweet potato roots were used as a raw material for producing the flour.
Cleaning and Trimming
These operations aim to remove soil and other foreign material from the sweet potato root
surface, portion damaged by pests, and any other unwanted portions of the roots.
Cleaning and trimming was manually done using knives.
Washing
The quality of the end product flour depends on how the washing has been. Three batches
of water were used: the first for pre-washing where soil and other impurities are removed.
xxiv
The second washing is for cleaning with removal of possible damaged portions of
the roots escaped from the previous step. The third washing is for fine cleaning with very
clean water. The sun pre-drying of clean and washed roots was done. It reduces the
moisture at the surface of the roots and improves the cleanliness of the end product.
Peeling
The roots were peeled using knives.
Grating
The sweet potato grating separated the roots into small physical sizes and increases their
drying surface.
Drying
Traditional solar drying was used to expose the sweet potato chips directly to the rays of
the sun on a drying surface. They were dried until constant weights were obtained .This
took five days in all the cultivars. They were packed immediately after the drying to
avoid any risk of rehydration.
Milling and Storage
The dried chips were ground and the flour packed in polyethylene bags.

Bread making
The ingredients were weighedusing the following guide for six loaves;baker’s flour 2kg,
salt20g, instant yeast20g, sugar100g, fat80g, water1.1 litres
The flour ratios were, 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20 and 75:25 Wheat: sweet potato rations.
The flour was sieved for aeration and to remove contaminants,
They were put in a mixed bowl except for fat and mixed. The shortening was added.
The dough was put in a bowl, covered and left to ferment for an hour.
The dough was removed and scaled into the 460g pieces. The dough was moulded and
put inn greased baking pans.
The dough was put in a proofing cabinet and left for 60 mins until the dough rose to the
rim of the pans.
It was baked at 2200c until a golden brownish crust formed. This took 45 mins.
The breads were removed, depaned and cooled for weighing, calculations and analysis.

xxv
Sensory evaluation for bread
Fifteen untrained panelists assessed the bread for color, softness, aroma, taste and overall
quality acceptability using 9 point hedonic scale with 9 indicating “like extremely” and
1” dislike extremely’’

xxvi
 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weight of raw fresh samples=3kgs each.
Sample weight after peeling =1.70kgs.
Weight kept after sun drying for analysis.
ORP1(yellow fleshed) =238g.
ORP2(white fleshed) = 254g.
ORP3(orange fleshed)=233g.

Table.2 Proximate analysis

Cultiva M.C Protein Crude Crude Crude Carbohydrat 9

r Fresh(%) Dry(%) content(% fat(%) ash(%) fibre(%) e

) Content(%)

ORP1 64.10±0.3 9.80±0.21 2.20±0.18 1.50±0.2 1.49±0.0 2.91±0.0 83.00±0.50

5 1 1 2

ORP2 77.20±0.1 11.50±0.1 1.60±0.26 2.10±0.0 1.63±0.1 3.20±0.2 79.97±0.45

3 7 3 0 0

ORP3 72.30±0.1 9.80±0.16 1.50±21 1.90±0.3 2.03±0.0 3.33±0.0 81.44± 0.20

0 2 4 1

xxvii
ORP1

80:20

95:5
90:10

85:15
90:10 75:25

85:15
ORP2

95:5 80:20

75:25

xxviii
ORP3

90:10

95:5

85:15

80:20

75:25

xxix
Table 3: Color measurements
Sample L* a* b* ΔE

Standard(wheat 92.50±0.10 -0.30±0.01 6.60±0.34 0.00

flour)
ORP1(yellow 84.70±0.38 -0.20±0.03 14.10±0.3 10.82±0.02
fleshed) 2

ORP2(white 90.50±0.38 -2.40±0.03 6.90±0.04 2.92±0.19

fleshed)

Table.4 Proximate analysis of wheat-sweet potato bread.

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A total of 15 loaves were produced. Samples of upto 85:15 were analyzed for proximate
composition. 9

Bread Moisture Protein Crude Crude Crude Carbohydrate

Content(% content(%) fat(%) ash(%) fibre(%) Content(%)
)

ORP1;95:05 16.08±0.6 8.95±0.2 6.4±0.2 4.1±0.1 5.5±0.2 59.0±0.5

90:10 12.04±0.2 8.69±0.3 5.9±0.1 5.2±0.1 5.5±0.4 62.7±0.3
85:15 10.04±0.4 7.79±0.3 5.1±0.4 5.4±0.3 6.7±0.6 65.0±0.3

ORP2;95:05 19.76±0.7 8.95±0.1 6.1±0.3 4.5±0.1 5.8±0.2 55.0±0.4

90:10 18.60±0.5 8.11±0.4 6.0±0.1 4.6±0.2 6.2±0.1 56.5±0.2
85:15 16.55±0.3 7.65±0.2 5.3±0.2 5.1±0.4 8.7±0.4 56.7±0.3

ORP3;95:05 19.96±0.6 8.92±0.4 5.8±0.4 3.9±0.4 5.9±0.1 55.5± 0.2

90:10 19.87±0.6 8.68±0.3 5.7±0.5 4.7±0.1 6.1±0.1 55.0±0.3
85:15 18.54±0.4 7.86±0.1 5.1±0.2 4.9±0.1 8.2±0.3 55.4±0.1

xxxi
Table 5.Mean sensory scores
9

Bread Color Texture Aroma Taste Overall

Acceptability
ORP1 95:5 8 8 9 8 8.3

90:10 7 6 8 8 7.3

85:15 7 5 8 6 6.5

ORP2 95:5 9 7 8 7 7.8

90:10 8 7 7 6 7.0

85:15 7 5 7 7 6.5

ORP3 95:5 8 8 7 9 9.0

90:10 8 6 8 7 7.3

85:15 6 5 7 7 6.3

xxxii
Color
The color of the flour samples was determined using a color meter (Minolta Chroma
meter). All samples were covered with polyethylene film and 6 recordings made for each
and the averages recorded and used for calculation. The instrument gave the L* a* b*
values for secondary position of the standard observer and light illumination.Flour color
was determined by measuring the whiteness of a flour sample with a color meter. The
color results were reported in terms of 3 dimensional color values based on the following
ratings.L value represents the whiteness where 100 is the most white and 0 the most
black. a* value,positive values represents the red color and negative values is a measure
of the green color. b* positive value is a measure of the yellow color and negative values
measures the blue color. This is important because flour color affects the appearance of
the finished product and is therefore a customer preference since they perceive that a
bright white color is more desirable and of a superior quality.Therefore,the overall color
of ORP2 was lighter as compared to the rest.It had an overall color difference of
2.92,while ORP1 and ORP3 had 10.82 and 25.37.ORP3 had a great color difference as
compared to the other two.This means it will lower the brightness of the blend if mixed
with wheat flour.
Proteins.
Semi micro kjeldahl method consists of heating a substance with sulphuric acid which
decomposes the organic substance by oxidation to liberate the reduced nitrogen as
ammonium sulfate. In this step potassium sulfate is added to increase the boiling point of
the medium (from 337°F to 373°F / 169°C to 189°C). Chemical composition of the
sample is complete when the initially very dark-colored medium has become clear and
colorless.

The solution is then distilled with a small quantity of sodium hydroxide, which converts
the ammonium salt to ammonia. The amount of ammonia present, and thus the amount of
nitrogen present in the sample, is determined by back titration. The end of the condenser
is dipped into a solution of boric acid .The ammonia reacts with the acid and the
remainder of the acid is then titrated with a sodium carbonate solution by way of a methyl
orange pH indicator

xxxiii
 Degradation: Sample + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(g)
Liberation of ammonia: (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) +
2NH3(g)
Capture of ammonia: B(OH)3 + H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + B(OH)4–
Back-titration: B(OH)3 + H2O + Na2CO3 → NaHCO3(aq) + NaB(OH)4(aq) +
CO2(g) + H2O

In practice, this analysis is largely automated; specific catalysts accelerate the

decomposition. Originally, the catalyst of choice was mercuric oxide(Kertiu 2009).
However, while it was very effective, health concerns resulted in it being replaced by
cupric sulfate. Cupric sulfate was not as efficient as mercuric oxide, and yielded lower
protein results. It was soon supplemented with titanium dioxide, which is currently the
approved catalyst in all of the methods of analysis for protein in the official methods and
recommended practices e,g in America.

On average,ORP1 had the highest protein content of 2.2%,ORP2 had 1.6% while ORP3
had 1.5%.The protein content of dried flour is higher than the fresh samples because of
the removal of moisture content by conventional sun drying,(Villarel,.2007)

xxxiv
Fat

On average, ,ORP2 had the highest fat content among the three samples,this was
2.1%,ORP3 had 1.9% and ORP1 had 1.5%.Fat content in a flour sample increase on
drying majorly due to the removal of moisture.(Southgate,et al 2010).The method
described here is recognized by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
as the standard method for crude fat analysis.In addition,some rapid instrumental
methods are also approved by the AOAC.The Soxhlet method for determining crude fat
content is a lengthy process requiring up to a day for a single analysis. The solvent
extraction step alone takes six hours. The method is therefore not favored for routine
testing purposes rather it is used as a standard reference method.Crude fat content is
determined by extracting the fat from the sample using a solvent,then determining the
weight of the fat recovered. The sample is contained in a porous thimble that allows the
solvent to completely cover the sample.The thimble is contained in an extraction
apparatus that enables the solvent to be recycled over and over again.This extends the
contact time between the solvent and the sample and allows it time to dissolve all of the
fat contained in the sample.In order for the solvent to thoroughly penetrate the sample it
is necessary for the sample to be as finely comminuted as possible.Before the solvent
extraction step can begin the sample must be dried when the sample is being weighed it is
important not to lose any part of it including any moisture that may weep from the sample
during weighting.Loss of this moisture can be avoided by weighing the sample directly
into a pre-dried extraction thimble or alternatively on to a pre-dried filter paper. If a
moisture analysis is required,the dried extraction thimble or filter paper also has to be
pre-weighed. After weighing, the sample in the thimble or filter paper can be placed in
the oven for drying.After drying, the sample can be placed directly into the distillation
apparatus for extraction.

Ash.

On average,ORP3 had a higher ash content of 2.03% while ORP2 had 1.63% and ORP1
had 1.49%.Ash content represents the total mineral composition in a product.Much of the

xxxv
mineral constituent is contained in the peel(Goodbody,2009). Ash content is determined
by high temperature incineration in an electric muffle furnace. The ash test is significant
as a way to determine flour grade.There is a considerable variation in the amount of
mineral matter in the flour,depending on its class and the area where it was grown;
therefore, the ash test is often applied to in determining the class of
flour.Forinstance,Italian flour is classified by ash content.The mineral content varies
depending on many factors e.g.variety, terrain,fertilization and climate.Flours which are
said to be of higher quality produce less ash.

Moisture.

Moisture content was determined before drying and after milling.The fresh crated
samples contained higher proportions of moisture.ORP1,ORP2 and ORP3 had
64.1%,77.2% and72.3% respectively.The flour samples had reduced amounts of moisture
content i.e. 8.9%,11.5%and9.8% for ORP1,ORP2 and ORP3 respectively.ORP2 lost
65.7% of its moisture followed by ORP3 which lost 62.5% and ORP1 lost the least
amount i.e. 55.2%.This can be due to the original moisture composition considering the
fact that the samples were subjected to the same conditions. The moisture content in %
wet basis is defined as the ratio of the weight of water that can be removed without
changing the chemical structure of a product to its initial weight.Moisture content
determinations made with different oven methods and different samples may not be the
same due to the empirical nature of the methods.Oven exposure time depends upon the
type of a product.The moisture content of food products goes a long way in suggesting
the shelf life of the product.All the values of the flour samples fall within the acceptable
limit of dry products (15%). Control of moisture in products can be a vital part of the
processing of the product. There is a substantial amount of moisture in what seems to be
the dry matter ranging in products, moisture can play an important role in the final quality
of the product. There are two main aspects of concern in moisture control in products i.e.
allowing too much moisture or too little of it.Moisture has different effects on different
products, influencing the final quality of the product. There are many ways to measure
moisture in products, such as different wave measurement e.g. light and
audio,electromagnetic fields,capacitive methods,and the more traditional weighing and

xxxvi
drying technique.simple techniques may be the most effective in attaining the ideal
leveling sun drying sun, simple drying in racks,and time are factors that may be utilized
to reduce the moisture in many food products.Dehydration is the lowering of the moisture
content in a substance

Carbohydrates.

The cultivars had almost the same amounts of carbohydrate content.ORP1 had the
highest amount of 83.00% ORP3 and ORP2 had 81.44% and79.97% respectively.A
carbohydrate is an organic compound comprising only carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.It
comprises the disaccharides,oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. In general, the
monosaccharide and disaccharides.In food science,the term carbohydrate often means
any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch e.g. tubers and root
crops,or simple carbohydratessuch as sugar.Quantitation of carbohydrates depends on
chemical or enzymatic hydrolyses of them, followed by the analysis of the monomers.

Fibre
Fibre varies greatly depending on the varieties. Another factor that contributes to high
fibre levels is age where it increases with maturity.ORP1 had 2.91%, ORP2 had 3.20%
while ORP3 had 3.33%. ORP3 had the highest levels of fibre.

Fibre is an important agent in human benefits of soluble dietary fibre includes reduction
in colorectal cancer, and bowel transit time, lowering of serum blood cholesterol,
reduction of glucose metabolism and promotion of the growth of beneficial gut micro
flora.

Bread
Fifteen (15) loaves were produced and ratios up to 85:15 were analysed for proximate
composition. This was because the other two compositions were out of sensory range and
had minimum and acceptable levels. 80:20 for instance was rough, hard and the crust was
lumpy.
To produce one loaf of bread, we need 333g of wheat flour. At the ratio of 85:15, 283g of
wheat flour will be needed and 50g of sweet potato to produce the same loaf.

xxxvii
Proximate composition of bread
The result of the proximate analysis of bread made from wheat flour and sweet potato
flour blends are as shown in table 2. There was a decrease in moisture, protein and
fatcontents of the composite bread as the level of potato flour substitution increased.This
may be due to heat employed which led to their decrease due to high temperature and
duration of heating (Erdman & Erdman, 1982).There was however, an increase in the ash
and crude fibrecontent of the composite bread upon increment in substitution levels.
Though fibre has been reported to have no nutritional value added to human foods,
they add bulk to the foods and aids in bowl movement. Protein content reduced with
increasing substitution with sweet potato flour, this mayhave been due to loss of nitrogen
at elevated temperature (165oc) (Singh & Singh, 1991). The bread made with the sweet
potato flour substitutions had higher fat and ash contents than thatmade with wheat flour.
The result of the mean sensory scores of quality attributes of the bread are given in the
table3.

xxxviii
CONCLUSION.
This work revealed that the utilization of sweet potato flour in baking merits attention.
The substitution of wheat flour with sweet potato up to 85:15 indicated that bread baked
with composite wheat flour improved their sensory attributes since the overall sensory
preference was 6.4
There is thus need to adopt the findings of this research since the urgency to curb food
insecurity draws a lot of attention.

xxxix
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