SCIENCE

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
SHS STEM SPECIALIZED
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SCIENCE—Grade 11
Quarter 3 – Module 6

First Edition, 2020

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 3 Module 6
Systematics Based on Evolutionary
Relationships: Cladistics and
Phylogeny

Image Source: http://sawyerscience.com/pdfs/5-Unit3Evolution/building_a_cladogram_practice.pdf

Author: Allyza C. Gueriba

Editor:
Reviewers:
Illustrator: Shela L. Caballero
Layout Artist:
Management Team:
Gemma G. Cortez, Chief Education Supervisor, CID
Leylanie V. Adao, Education Program Supervisor, LRMD
Cesar Chester O. Relleve, Education Program Supervisor, ADM Coordinator
Antonio P. Faustino Jr., Education Program Supervisor, Science
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Guide in Learners Material Module

For the Parents/Guardian

Parent’s or Learning Facilitator’s Guide

As a parent or learning facilitator, you are expected to track the learner’s
progress while allowing the learner to manage their own learning on this
learner’s packet. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist your
child as she/he does the tasks included in this packet.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Introduction Development Engagement Assimilation Reflection
If you have any concerns or questions, kindly contact the adviser of your child
@ ____________________________

For the Learners

Learner’s Guide
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Learner’s Packet!
This packet was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and
time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource
while being an active learner. You may seek assistance from any member of
the family to guide and help you understand the lessons.
You may write your answers in this module or if you can access this in
digital form, the boxes for answers are editable. Once done, you may click
the submit or contact your Subject Teacher to submit.
Enjoy learning!

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 What I know? ☐ Accomplished

Café Conversation

Do you remember the last time you had a family reunion? A summer vacation or a
family barbecue and the latest family picture taken together? Can you describe your family
members? What makes you similar to them and what makes you unique?” List characters
or features that served as evidences (e.g. morphological, genetic, etc.) that indeed you
belong to the same family. Note as many as you can think of.

A family picture represents a family tree. Family tree is a chart that shows
relationships between people in several generations of a family. Similarly, scientists use
phylogenetic trees to study the relationships among organisms. In a family tree, those who
are closely related are located closer together than those who are only distantly related.
For example, we can see in the family tree that the siblings are close together. It shows
that they have close genetic relationship. The siblings are far from their great aunt, it
indicates distant genetic relationship. Family trees can also be used to see ancestral
connections. That is, we can see that all the people in the last generation have the same
great-great-grandparents in common. This same idea of relationships can be used in
science. Biologists use phylogenetic trees to illustrate evolutionary relationships among
organisms. As we discussed last module, here in phylogenic tree, two species are more
related if they have a more recent common ancestor and less related if they have a less
recent common ancestor.

What I need to know? ☐ Accomplished

Last module, we learned about the principles of taxonomy and systematics. This
module will discuss the procedure of constructing evolutionary histories. You will learn to
describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and procedures
that can be used to establish evolutionary relationship.

After the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Demonstrate how shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees
of relationship; and
b. Build cladograms to infer evolutionary relatedness
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To deeply understand the lesson, you will answer the following essential questions
throughout the discussions:
■ How shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees of relationship
■ What is cladistics?
■ How to construct a simple cladogram?

What is in? ☐ Accomplished

Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms in the evolutionary context. It

intends to use phylogeny in classifying organisms. Phylogeny is the study of the
evolutionary history and relationships among organisms. Evidences from a wide variety of
sources including paleontology, embryology, morphology, anatomy and molecular biology
can be used to establish phylogeny. Over the last few centuries systematists have
developed different approaches to show relationships among organisms. The most
commonly used is cladistics.

CLADISTICS

Cladistics is a biological classification system that

studies relationships between taxa using shared derived
characters. The basic assumption behind cladistics is that
members of a group share a common recent ancestor and
are thus more "closely related" to one another than they
are to other groups of organisms. Related groups of
organisms are recognized because they share a set of
derived characters. These derived characters were
inherited from a recent ancestor.

Cladistic analysis and specific methodology first

originated in the 1960’s by Willi Hennig, a biological
systematist. He developed a methodology known as
phylogenetic systematics (now frequently referred to as
"cladism" or "cladistics"). This process involves creating
phylogenies using morphological and molecular data to
visualize evolutionary history and relationships between Figure 1: Willi Hennig
species.

A cladogram is the graphical representation that shows relationship between

different groups of taxa called “clades”. It is used in the phylogenetic analysis of organisms
to determine the evolutionary relationship between them. It derived from Greek words
“clados” means branch and “gramma” that means characters.

Cladograms are often considered an initial step towards the construction of a

phylogenetic tree. Cladogram shows only the relationship between different organisms with
a common ancestor. Phylogenetic tree shows the relationship between different organisms
with respect to the evolutionary time and the amount of change with time.

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 PARTS OF THE CLADOGRAM
Root
The initial common ancestors of all the organisms in a cladogram. It is the starting
point for any given diagram. It might also indicate that it comes from some other larger
clades.

Nodes
The hypothetical ancestor that gives rise to two or more daughter taxa. It exists in
each point where a group of organisms divides or separate into further different groups.
Clades
These are groups of organisms a group of organisms believed to have evolved
from a common ancestor.
Taxon / Outgroup
It is the most distantly related group of animals that isn’t necessarily a clade. It
serves as point of reference or comparison for the rest of the cladogram.
Branches
Line in the cladogram that connects all the other parts. The branch length in some
cases represents the extent of divergence or the extent of the relationship among
different taxa.

Figure 2: Parts of a Cladogram

CONSTRUCTING CLADOGRAM

Cladograms can be constructed either based on the morphological /structural

characteristics or molecular evidence like DNA, RNA or protein sequencing. This time let’s
try to learn how to construct a cladogram based on morphological /structural characteristic

There are two steps that will help you build a cladogram.

Step One “The Chart”

1. First, you need to make a “characteristics chart” the helps you analyze which
characteristics each species has. Fill in a “x” for yes it has the trait and “o”
or blank for “no” for each of the organisms below.
2. Then you count how many times you wrote “x” for each characteristic. Those
characteristics with a large number of “x” are more ancestral characteristics
because they are shared by many. Those traits with fewer “x”, are shared
derived characters, or derived characters and have evolved later.

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CHART EXAMPLE

Characters Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human

Vertebrae X X X X

Two pairs of limbs X X X

Mammary glands X X

Placenta X

Step Two “The Venn Diagram”: This step will help you to learn to build Cladograms, but
once you figure it out, you may not always need to do this step.
1. Draw a multi-circular Venn diagram. You will need as many circles as there
are characters
2. Start with the character that is shared by all the taxa on the outside. (you will
want to make this a large circle.)
3. Inside each box, write the species that have only that set of characters.
4. On the outside of the Venn Diagram, write the outgroup. This is a group of
organisms that do not share any traits and serve as a comparison to the
phylogeny you are looking at. See Figure 3

Figure 3: Venn Diagram

Note: Shark is the organism with the least common character. It represents the outgroup

Step Three “The Cladogram”: This step converts the Venn Diagram into a cladogram.
The traits are written on the main line, and species go on the branches.

Figure 4: A Cladogram

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📌 LEARNING KEY POINTS
📌 Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms in the evolutionary context. It
intends to use phylogeny in classifying organisms.

📌 Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among organisms

📌 Phylogenetic trees is a diagram use to illustrate evolutionary relationships among

organisms. Here, two species are more related if they have a more recent common
ancestor and less related if they have a less recent common ancestor.

📌 Cladistics is a biological classification system that studies relationships between taxa

using shared derived characters.

📌 Cladogram is the graphical representation that shows relationship between different

groups of taxa called “clades”. It is used in the phylogenetic analysis of organisms to
determine the evolutionary relationship between them

📌 The parts of cladogram are; roots, node, clades, taxon/outgroup and branches.

Learning Checkpoint 1

Multiple choice. To check your understanding, please answer the following

questions by writing your answer on the space provided.

1. The study of the diversity of organisms in the evolutionary context. It intends to use
phylogeny in classifying organisms.
A. Systematics C. Cladistics
B. Taxonomy D. Evolution
2. The graphical representation that shows relationship between different groups of
taxa called “clades
A. Phylogenetic Tree C. Cladogram
B. Nodes D. Venn Diagram
3. A biological classification system that studies relationships between taxa using
shared derived characters. It says that members of a group share a common
recent ancestor and are more "closely related" to one another than they are to
other groups of organisms
A. Systematics C. Cladistics
B. Taxonomy D. Evolution
4. He is a biological systematist who developed a methodology known as phylogenetic
systematics
A. Willi Hennig C. Carolus Linnaeus
B. Charles Darwin D. None of the above
5. The organism with the least common characters in the cladogram
A. Nodes C. Clades
B. Branches D. Outgroup

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 What is more? ☐ Accomplished

CONSTRUCTING A PHYLOGENETIC TREE

One method commonly used to display evolutionary relationships is by constructing

a phylogenetic tree. These diagrams are meant to show how closely related different
species are in comparison to teach other. The base or “trunk” of the tree begins to divide
into smaller and smaller branches. Each division separates the organisms into smaller
groups based on observed physical characteristics, genetics, or behavior.

Objective:
To construct a phylogenetic tree from a set of animals provided, using only specific,
observable physical differences.

Direction:
2. For this activity, you will take a diverse group of animal species. Make a phylogenetic
tree showing their evolutionary relationships. This tree should be primarily based on
physical characteristics, such as:
I. Presence or absence of a backbone
II. Ability to breathe in air or water
III. Cold or warm blooded
IV. Carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore
V. Presence or absence of hair/fur
VI. Any other external structures such as horns

3. Write the name of the animals that can be found in this activity on a bond paper. Then
individually cut the names.
Note: Outline drawings of animals are provided for the activity for your reference.

3. Lay all the animal names out on your desk and separate them into two groups by
presence of a backbone.
4. On a separate bond paper, start drawing your phylogenetic tree like this:

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5. Continue separating the animals into smaller groups using the characters in number
two. Draw each division into your tree.
I. Presence or absence of a backbone
II. Ability to breathe in air or water
III. Cold or warm blooded
IV. Carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore
V. Presence or absence of hair/fur
VI. Any other external structures such as horns
6. When an animal reaches the tip of the branch, glue it. Repeat for all other animals in
the collection.

ANIMALS

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 BUILDING A CLADOGRAMS

Introduction
Cladograms are diagrams that we use to show phylogenies. A phylogeny is a
hypothesized evolutionary history between species that takes into account things such
as physical traits, biochemical traits, and fossil records. To build a cladogram one must
take into account all of these traits and compare them among organisms.

Objective
Construct a simple cladogram based on given physical traits

Instruction:

1. Fill in the following table. Mark an X if the species has the trait and O if they do not

Human Snake Monkey Mouse Starfish

Hair
Legs
Thumbs
eyes

2. Draw a Venn diagram

3. Draw a cladogram with all species and character traits

PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. Which two species are more closely related: humans and snakes or humans and
mice? How do you know?
2. According to your Diagram, what species are humans most closely related to? How
do you know?

CONCLUSION:

I learned about_____________________________________

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 What I have learned? ☐ Accomplished

Interpreting a Cladogram

Study the image and answer the following questions below.

FIGURE 5

1. Which species is the outgroup?

2. What animal does not have jaws?

3. Which animals have lungs?

4. What other animals would come after the chimp?

5. What could the character trait be that would come after the chimp?

6. What character trait separates salamanders and lizards?

7. List at least one shared derived character and explain who it is shared by.

8. List at least one derived character and explain why.

9. Based on the cladogram, which shared a common ancestor most recently- a

mouse and a lizard, or a mouse and a perch?

10. What evolutionary event occurs when a species branches off from the main line?

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 Let us Connect
☐ Accomplished

Make a 3 to 5 sentences essay about what you have learned from this lesson.
What do you think is the importance of studying this for you as a STEM student?

Answer Key

Learning Checkpoint 1

References
Additional Resources
Rea, Maria Angelica. D., & Dagamac, Nikky Heherson. A. General Biology 2 Revised Edition. 2020. Rex Book
Sore, Inc.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School GENERAL BIOLOGY 2. 2016. Published by the Commission on Higher
Education, 2016
On line References

• https://biologydictionary.net/cladistics/
• https://microbenotes.com/cladogram/#:~:text=A%20phylogenetic%20tree%20is%20an,between%20differe
nt%20groups%20of%20animals.&text=Cladograms%20give%20a%20hypothetical%20picture,evolutionary
%20history%20of%20the%20organisms.
• https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-cladogram-and-vs-phylogenetic-
tree/#:~:text=The%20key%20difference%20between%20cladogram,amount%20of%20change%20with%2
0time.

Constructing a Phylogenetic Tree available from:

https://www.gulfcoast.edu/current-students/academic-divisions/natural-sciences/biology-
project/classification/documents/constructing-a-phylogenetic-tree-with-teacher-notes.pdf

How to build a cladogram available from:

http://sawyerscience.com/pdfs/5-Unit3Evolution/building_a_cladogram_practice.pdf

Images

Figure 1 Willi Hennig :https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Willi_Hennig2.jpg

Figure 2: Parts of a cladogram: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/cladogram-features_med.jpeg
Figure 3 The Venn Diagram: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf
Figure 4 A Cladogram: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf
Figure 5 http://sawyerscience.com/pdfs/5-Unit3Evolution/building_a_cladogram_practice.pdf

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