PSA Lecture Notes1

Subject code: 15A02603 Power System Analysis
LECTURE NOTES
ON
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
2019 – 2020
III B. Tech II Semester (JNTUA-R15)
Dr. A. Hemasekha, M.Tech, P.hD.

Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
VEMU INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY::P.KOTHAKOTA NEAR PAKALA,
CHITTOOR-517112
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)
Dept.of.EEE VEMU IT Page 1

SYLLABUS
UNIT -I POWER SYSTEM NETWORK MATRICES Representation of Power System Elements, Graph
Theory: Definitions, Bus Incidence Matrix, Ybus Formation by Direct and Singular Transformation
Methods, Numerical Problems. Formation of ZBus: Partial Network, Algorithm for the Modification of
ZBus Matrix for Addition Element for the Following Cases: Addition of Element from a New Bus to
Reference, Addition of Element from a New Bus to an Old Bus, Addition of Element Between an Old Bus
to Reference and Addition of Element Between Two Old Busses (Derivations and Numerical Problems).-
Modification of ZBus for the Changes in Network ( Problems )
UNIT – II SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Per-Unit System of Representation. Per-Unit Equivalent

Reactance Network of a Three Phase Power System, Numerical Problems.
Symmetrical Fault Analysis: Short Circuit Current and MVA Calculations, Fault Levels, Application of
Series Reactors, Numerical Problems. Symmetrical Component Theory: Symmetrical Component
Transformation, Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence Components: Voltages, Currents and Impedances.
Sequence Networks: Positive, Negative and Zero sequence Networks, Numerical Problems.
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis: LG, LL, LLG faults with and without Fault Impedance, Numerical
Problems.
UNIT – III POWER FLOW STUDIES-I Necessity of Power Flow Studies – Data for Power Flow Studies –
Derivation of Static Load Flow Equations – Load Flow Solutions using Gauss Seidel Method: Acceleration
Factor, Load Flow Solution with and without P-V Buses, Algorithm and Flowchart. Numerical Load flow
Solution for Simple Power Systems (Max. 3-Buses): Determination of Bus Voltages, Injected Active and
Reactive Powers (Sample One Iteration only) and Finding Line Flows/Losses for the given Bus Voltages.
Dept.of.EEE VEMU IT Page 2

UNIT – IV POWER FLOW STUDIES-II Newton Raphson Method in Rectangular and
Polar Co-Ordinates Form: Load Flow Solution with or without PV Buses- Derivation of
Jacobian Elements, Algorithm and Flowchart. Decoupled and Fast Decoupled Methods.-
Comparison of Different Methods – DC Load Flow
UNIT – V POWER SYSTEM STABILITY ANALYSIS Elementary Concepts of Steady

State, Dynamic and Transient Stabilities - Description of: Steady State Stability Power
Limit, Transfer Reactance, Synchronizing Power Coefficient, Power Angle Curve and
Determination of Steady State Stability and Methods to Improve Steady State Stability -
Derivation of Swing Equation - Determination of Transient Stability by Equal Area
Criterion, Application of Equal Area Criterion, Critical Clearing Angle Calculation. Solution
of Swing Equation by 4th Order Runga Kutta Method (up to 2 iterations) - Methods to
improve Stability - Application of Auto Reclosing and Fast Operating Circuit Breakers.
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course the student should be able to: Form the Zbus
and Ybus of a given power system network Compare different methods used for obtaining
load flow solution Conduct load flow studies on a given system Make fault
calculations for various types of faults Determine the transient stability by equal area
criterion Determine steady state stability power limit Distinguish between different
types of buses used in load flow solution
TEXT BOOKS: 1. Power Systems Analysis, Grainger and Stevenson, Tata Mc Graw-hill,
2005. 2. Modern Power system Analysis 2nd edition, I.J.Nagrath & D.P.Kothari: Tata
McGrawHill Publishing Company, 2003.
REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Computer Techniques in Power System Analysis 2nd Edition,,

M A Pai, TMH, 2005. 2. Computer Techniques and Models in Power Systems, K. Uma
Rao, I. K. International, 2007. 3. Electric Power Systems 1st Edition, S. A. Nasar,
Schaum‟s Outline Series, TMH, 1997. 4. Computer Methods in Power System Analysis, E.
Stagg and El-Abiad, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 1969
DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 3

``````````````````````CHAPTER- 1-A
INCIDENCE AND NETWORK MATRICES

[CONTENTS: Definitions of important terms, Incidence matrices: Element node
incidence matrix and Bus incidence matrix, Primitive networks and matrices,
Performance of primitive networks, Frames of reference, Singular
transformation analysis, Formation of bus admittance matrix, examples]
INTRODUCTION
The solution of a given linear network problem requires the formation of a set of
equations describing the response of the network. The mathematical model so
derived, must describe the characteristics of the individual network components, as
well as the relationship which governs the interconnection of the individual
components. In the bus frame of reference the variables are the node voltages and
node currents.
The independent variables in any reference frame can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the coefficient matrix relating the dependent variables and the
independent variables will be either an impedance or admittance matrix. The
formulation of the appropriate relationships between the independent and dependent
variables is an integral part of a digital computer program for the solution of power
system problems. The formulation of the network equations in different frames of
reference requires the knowledge of graph theory. Elementary graph theory concepts
are presented here, followed by development of network equations in the bus frame
of reference.
ELEMENTARY LINEAR GRAPH THEORY: IMPORTANT TERMS

The geometrical interconnection of the various branches of a network is called the
topology of the network. The connection of the network topology, shown by replacing
all its elements by lines is called a graph. A linear graph consists of a set of objects
called nodes and another set called elements such that each element is identified with an
ordered pair of nodes. An element is defined as any line segment of the graph
irrespective of the characteristics of the components involved. A graph in which a

direction is assigned to each element is called an oriented graph or a directed graph.
It is to be noted that the directions of currents in various elements are arbitrarily
assigned and the network equations are derived, consistent with the assigned
directions. Elements are indicated by numbers and the nodes by encircled numbers.
The ground node is taken as the reference node. In electric networks the convention
is to use associated directions for the voltage drops. This means the voltage drop in a
branch is taken to be in the direction of the current through the branch. Hence, we
need not mark the voltage polarities in the oriented graph.
Connected Graph : This is a graph where at least one path (disregarding

orientation) exists between any two nodes of the graph. A representative power
system and its oriented graph are as shown in Fig 1, with:
e = number of elements = 6 l = number of links = e-b = 3
n = number of nodes = 4 Tree = T(1,2,3) and
b = number of branches = n-1 = 3 Co-tree = T(4,5,6)
Sub-graph : sG is a sub-graph of G if the following conditions are satisfied:
 sG is itself a graph
 Every node of sG is also a node of G
 Every branch of sG is a branch of G
For eg., sG(1,2,3), sG(1,4,6), sG(2), sG(4,5,6), sG(3,4),.. are all valid sub-graphs of
the oriented graph of Fig.1c.
Loop : A sub-graph L of a graph G is a loop if

 L is a connected sub-graph of G
 Precisely two and not more/less than two branches are incident on each node
in L
In Fig 1c, the set{1,2,4} forms a loop, while the set{1,2,3,4,5} is not a valid, although
the set(1,3,4,5) is a valid loop. The KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) for the loop is
stated as follows: In any lumped network, the algebraic sum of the branch voltages
around any of the loops is zero.

Fig 1a. Single line diagram of a power system
Fig 1b. Reactance diagra
Fig 1c. Oriented Graph

m

Cutset : It is a set of branches of a connected graph G which satisfies the following
conditions :
 The removal of all branches of the cutset causes the remaining graph to have
two separate unconnected sub-graphs.
 The removal of all but one of the branches of the set, leaves the remaining
graph connected.
Referring to Fig 1c, the set {3,5,6} constitutes a cutset since removal of them isolates
node 3 from rest of the network, thus dividing the graph into two unconnected sub-
graphs. However, the set(2,4,6) is not a valid cutset! The KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current
Law) for the cutset is stated as follows: In any lumped network, the algebraic sum of
all the branch currents traversing through the given cutset branches is zero.
Tree: It is a connected sub-graph containing all the nodes of the graph G, but
without any closed paths (loops). There is one and only one path between every pair
of nodes in a tree. The elements of the tree are called twigs or branches. In a graph
with n nodes,
The number of branches: b = n-1 (1)
For the graph of Fig 1c, some of the possible trees could be T(1,2,3), T(1,4,6),
T(2,4,5), T(2,5,6), etc.
Co-Tree : The set of branches of the original graph G, not included in the tree is
called the co-tree. The co-tree could be connected or non-connected, closed or open.
The branches of the co-tree are called links. By convention, the tree elements are
shown as solid lines while the co-tree elements are shown by dotted lines as shown
in Fig.1c for tree T(1,2,3). With e as the total number of elements,
The number of links: l = e – b = e – n + 1 (2)
For the graph of Fig 1c, the co-tree graphs corresponding to the various tree graphs
are as shown in the table below:
Tree T(1,2,3) T(1,4,6) T(2,4,5) T(2,5,6)
Co-Tree T(4,5,6) T(2,3,5) T(1,3,6) T(1,3,4)

Basic loops: When a link is added to a tree it forms a closed path or a loop. Addition
of each subsequent link forms the corresponding loop. A loop containing only one
link and remaining branches is called a basic loop or a fundamental loop. These
loops are defined for a particular tree. Since each link is associated with a basic
loop, the number of basic loops is equal to the number of links.
Basic cut-sets: Cut-sets which contain only one branch and remaining links are
called basic cutsets or fundamental cut-sets. The basic cut-sets are defined for a
particular tree. Since each branch is associated with a basic cut-set, the number of
basic cut-sets is equal to the number of branches.
Examples on Basics of LG Theory:

Example-1: Obtain the oriented graph for the system shown in Fig. E1. Select any
four possible trees. For a selected tree show the basic loops and basic cut-sets.
Fig. E1a. Single line diagram of Example System
Fig. E1b. Oriented Graph of Fig. E1a.

For the system given, the oriented graph is as shown in figure E1b. some of the valid
Tree graphs could be T(1,2,3,4), T(3,4,8,9), T(1,2,5,6), T(4,5,6,7), etc. The basic
cut-sets (A,B,C,D) and basic loops (E,F,G,H,I) corresponding to the oriented graph
of Fig.E1a and tree, T(1,2,3,4) are as shown in Figure E1c and Fig.E1d respectively.
Fig. E1c. Basic Cutsets of Fig. E1a.
Fig. E1d. Basic Loops of Fig. E1a.

INCIDENCE MATRICES
ˆ
Element–node incidence matrix:
A
The incidence of branches to nodes in a connected graph is given by the element-node

ˆ ˆ
incidence matrix, A . An element aij of A is defined as under:
aij = 1 if the branch-i is incident to and oriented away from the node-j.
= -1 if the branch-i is incident to and oriented towards the node-j.
= 0 if the branch-i is not at all incident on the node-j.
ˆ
Thus the dimension of A is e  n, where e is the number of elements and n is the
number of nodes in the network. For example, consider again the sample system
with its oriented graph as in fig. 1c. the corresponding element-node incidence
matrix, is obtained as under:
Nodes
0 1 2 3
Elements
1 1 -1
2 1 -1
A =
ˆ 3 1 -1
4 1 -1
5 1 -1
6 1 -1
It is to be noted that the first column and first row are not part of the actual matrix and
they only indicate the element number node number respectively as shown. Further, the
sum of every row is found to be equal to zero always. Hence, the rank of the
ˆ
matrix is less than n. Thus in general, the matrix A satisfies the identity:
n
∑ aij = 0  i = 1,2,…..e. (3)
j=1

Bus incidence matrix: A
By selecting any one of the nodes of the connected graph as the reference node, the
ˆ
corresponding column is deleted from A to obtain the bus incidence matrix, A. The
dimensions of A are e  (n-1) and the rank is n-1. In the above example, selecting
node-0 as reference node, the matrix A is obtained by deleting the column
corresponding to node-0, as under:
Buses
1 2 3
Elements
1 -1
A
2 -1 b Branches
A= 3 -1 =
4 1 -1
5 1 -1 Al Links
6 1 -1
It may be observed that for a selected tree, say, T(1,2,3), the bus incidence matrix
can be so arranged that the branch elements occupy the top portion of the A-matrix
followed by the link elements. Then, the matrix-A can be partitioned into two sub
matrices Ab and Al as shown, where,
(i) Ab is of dimension (bxb) corresponding to the branches and

(ii) Al is of dimension (lxb) corresponding to links.
A is a rectangular matrix, hence it is singular. Ab is a non-singular square matrix of

dimension-b. Since A gives the incidence of various elements on the nodes with
their direction of incidence, the KCL for the nodes can be written as
AT i =0 (4)
T
where A is the transpose of matrix A and i is the vector of branch currents. Similarly
for the branch voltages we can write,
v =A Ebus (5)

Examples on Bus Incidence Matrix:
Example-2: For the sample network-oriented graph shown in Fig. E2, by selecting a
ˆ.
tree, T(1,2,3,4), obtain the incidence matrices A and A Also show the partitioned
form of the matrix-A.
Fig. E2. Sample Network-Oriented Graph
nodes
e \ n 0 1 2 3 4 
1 1 1 0 0 0 
 
2 1 0 1 0 0 
 
ˆ 3 1 0 0 0  1
A = Elements  4 0 0 0 1 1 
 
5 0 0 1  1 0 
6 0 1  1 0 0 
 
7 0 0 1 0 1
 
buses
e \ b 1 2 3 4 
 1 1 0 0 0 
 
 2 0 1 0 0 
 
A = Elements  3 0 0 0  1
 4 0 0 1 1 
 
 5 0 1 1 0 
 6 1 1 0 0 
 
 7 0 1 0  1
 


Corresponding to the Tree, T(1,2,3,4), matrix-A can be partitioned into two sub-
matrices as under:
buses
b \ b 1 2 3 4 
 1  1 0 0 0 
 

Ab = branch es  2 0 1 0 0 

 3 0 0 0  1
 
 4 0 0  1 1 
buses
l \ b 1 2 3 4 
 5 0 1  1 0 

Al = link s

6 1 1 0 0 
 
7 0 1 0  1
Example-3: For the sample-system shown in Fig. E3, obtain an oriented graph. By
ˆ.
selecting a tree, T(1,2,3,4), obtain the incidence matrices A and A Also show the
partitioned form of the matrix-A.
Fig. E3a. Sample Example network
Consider the oriented graph of the given system as shown in figure E3b, below.

Fig. E3b. Oriented Graph of system of Fig-E3a.
Corresponding to the oriented graph above and a Tree, T(1,2,3,4), the incidence
matrices Ậand A can be obtained as follows:
e\n 0 1 2 3 4 e\b 1 2 3 4
1 1 -1 1 -1
2 1 -1 2 -1
ˆ A= 3 -1
A = 3 1 -1
4 1 -1 4 -1
5 1 -1 5 1 -1
6 -1 1 6 -1 1
7 1 -1 7 1 -1
8 -1 1 8 -1 1
9 -1 1 9 -1 1
Corresponding to the Tree, T(1,2,3,4), matrix-A can be partitioned into two sub-
matrices as under:
e\b 1 2 3 4 e\b 1 2 3 4
1 -1 5 1 -1
Ab = 2 -1 Al = 6 -1 1
3 -1 7 1 -1
4 -1 8 -1 1
9 -1 1

PRIMITIVE NETWORKS
So far, the matrices of the interconnected network have been defined. These
matrices contain complete information about the network connectivity, the
orientation of current, the loops and cutsets. However, these matrices contain no
information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network.
The complete behaviour of the network can be obtained from the knowledge of the
behaviour of the individual elements which make the network, along with the
incidence matrices. An element in an electrical network is completely characterized
by the relationship between the current through the element and the voltage across it.
General representation of a network element: In general, a network element may

contain active or passive components. Figure 2 represents the alternative impedance
and admittance forms of representation of a general network component.
Epp Ep p
ipq
epq
(ipq+ jpq)
jpq
y
vpq = Ep - Eq pq
z
pq
ipq ipq
Eq q Eq q
Fig.2 Representation of a primitive network element

(a) Impedance form (b) Admittance form

The network performance can be represented by using either the impedance or the
admittance form of representation. With respect to the element, p-q, let,
vpq = voltage across the element p-q,
epq = source voltage in series with the element p-
q, ipq= current through the element p-q,
jpq= source current in shunt with the element p-
q, zpq= self impedance of the element p-q and
ypq= self admittance of the element p-q.
Performance equation: Each element p-q has two variables, vpq and ipq. The
performance of the given element p-q can be expressed by the performance
equations as under:
vpq + epq = zpqipq (in its impedance form)
ipq + jpq = ypqvpq (in its admittance form) (6)
Thus the parallel source current jpq in admittance form can be related to the series
source voltage, epq in impedance form as per the identity:
jpq = - ypq epq (7)
A set of non-connected elements of a given system is defined as a primitive Network

and an element in it is a fundamental element that is not connected to any other element.
In the equations above, if the variables and parameters are replaced by the
corresponding vectors and matrices, referring to the complete set of elements present in
a given system, then, we get the performance equations of the primitive network in
the form as under:
v + e = [z] i
i + j = [y] v (8)
Primitive network matrices:

A diagonal element in the matrices, [z] or [y] is the self impedance z pq-pq or self
admittance, ypq-pq. An off-diagonal element is the mutual impedance, zpq-rs or mutual
admittance, ypq-rs, the value present as a mutual coupling between the elements p-q and
r-s. The primitive network admittance matrix, [y] can be obtained also by

inverting the primitive impedance matrix, [z]. Further, if there are no mutually
coupled elements in the given system, then both the matrices, [z] and [y] are
diagonal. In such cases, the self impedances are just equal to the reciprocal of the
corresponding values of self admittances, and vice-versa.
Examples on Primitive Networks:
Example-4: Given that the self impedances of the elements of a network referred by
the bus incidence matrix given below are equal to: Z 1=Z2=0.2, Z3=0.25, Z4=Z5=0.1
and Z6=0.4 units, draw the corresponding oriented graph, and find the primitive
network matrices. Neglect mutual values between the elements.
-1 0 0
0 -1 0
A= 0 0 -1
1 -1 0
0 1 -1
1 0 -1
Solution:
ˆ
The element node incidence matrix, A can be obtained from the given A matrix, by
pre-augmenting to it an extra column corresponding to the reference node, as under.
1 -1 0 0
1 0 -1 0
A =
ˆ 1 0 0 -1
0 1 -1 0
0 0 1 -1
0 1 0 -1

ˆ
Based on the conventional definitions of the elements of A , the oriented graph can
be formed as under:
Fig. E4 Oriented Graph
Thus the primitive network matrices are square, symmetric and diagonal matrices of
order e=no. of elements = 6. They are obtained as follows.
0.2 0 0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0 0 0 0
[z] = 0 0 0.25 0 0 0
0 0 0 0.1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0.1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.4
And
5.0 0 0 0 0 0
0 5.0 0 0 0 0
[y] = 0 0 4.0 0 0 0
0 0 0 10 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 0
0 0 0 0 0 2.5

Example-5: Consider three passive elements whose data is given in Table E5 below.
Form the primitive network impedance matrix.
Table E5
Self impedance (zpq-pq) Mutual impedance, (zpq-rs)

Element
Bus-code, Impedance in Bus-code, Impedance in
number
(p-q) p.u. (r-s) p.u.
1 1-2 j 0.452
2 2-3 j 0.387 1-2 j 0.165
3 1-3 j 0.619 1-2 j 0.234
Solution:
1-2 2-3 1-3
1-2 j 0.452 j 0.165 j 0.234
2-3
[z] = j 0.165 j 0.387 0
1-3 j 0.234 0 j 0.619
Note:
 The size of [z] is e  e, where e= number of elements,
 The diagonal elements are the self impedances of the elements
 The off-diagonal elements are mutual impedances between the corresponding
elements.
 Matrices [z] and [y] are inter-invertible.

FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS
The bus admittance matrix, YBUS plays a very important role in computer aided power
system analysis. It can be formed in practice by either of the methods as under:
1. Rule of Inspection
2. Singular Transformation
3. Non-Singular Transformation
4. ZBUS Building Algorithms, etc.
The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three

different frames of reference as discussed below:
Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses)
relating the bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix
and bus admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (9)
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches
of a selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of
currents and voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance
matrix:
EBR = ZBR IBR
IBR = YBR EBR (10)
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP
ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP (11)
Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (Y BUS)
and the bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by
the rule of inspection as explained next.
Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff’s Current
Law principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:
At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)
At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS
These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and
they can be represented in matrix form as:
I1 = (Y1+Y3 +Y6)-Y6 -Y3 V1

I2 = -Y6 (Y2+Y5 +Y6) -Y5 V2
0 = -Y3 -Y5 (Y3 +Y4+Y5) V3 (13)
In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively.
By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, Y BUS of equation (13), it is
observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of
the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements
incident at the bus/node i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Y ij) of the bus admittance
matrix, YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the
connecting element present between the buses I and j, if any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the
rule of inspection are obtained as:
Yii =  yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
Y= -y
ij ij (j = 1,2,…….n) (15)

For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of
element connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element
connected between bus i and ground (reference bus).
Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, it cannot be formed by
direct inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix
determined by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be
inverted to obtain the bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are inter-
invertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.
Examples on Rule of Inspection:
Example 6: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown
aside by the rule of inspection
16 -8 -4 YBUS = j
-8 24 -8 -4 -8 16
Example 7: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the
eligible unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.
-9. 8 54
YBUS= j 5 -16 10
4 10 -14
ZBUS = Y BUS-1

New -1
YBUS = YA-YBYD YC
YBUS = -8.66 7.86

7.86 -8.86
New -1
YBUS = YA-YBYD YC
YBUS = j -8.66 7.86

7.86 -8.66
SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS
The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on
the impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not
contain any information about the behaviour of the interconnected network
variables. Hence, it is necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more
meaningful matrices which can relate variables of the interconnected network.
Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is
described by n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1
nodes are present, out of which one of them is designated as the reference node). For
example a 5-bus system will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The

performance equation relating the bus voltages to bus current injections in bus frame
of reference in admittance form is given by
Where EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus
IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus
YBUS = bus admittance matrix
The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by
i + j = [y] v
t
Pre-multiplying by A (transpose of A), we obtain
At i +At j = At [y] v (18)
However, as per equation (4),
At i =0,
since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents
incident at a bus, which by Kirchhoff’s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the
algebraic sum of all source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the
total current injected at the bus. Hence,
At j = IBUS (19)
Thus from (18) we have, IBUS = At [y] v (20)
However, from (5), we have
v =A EBUS
And hence substituting in (20) we get,
IBUS = At [y] A EBUS (21)
Comparing (21) with (17) we obtain,
YBUS = At [y] A (22)
The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, (22) gives a
singular transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance
matrix is given by ,
-1
ZBUS = YBUS (23)

Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance,
however, since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the
transformation will obviously be power invariant.

Examples on Singular Transformation:
Example 8: For the network of Fig E8, form the primitive matrices [z] & [y] and
obtain the bus admittance matrix by singular transformation. Choose a Tree
T(1,2,3). The data is given in Table E8.
Fig E8 System for Example-8
Table E8: Data for Example-8
Elements Self impedance Mutual impedance

1 j 0.6 -
2 j 0.5 j 0.1(with element 1)
3 j 0.5 -
4 j 0.4 j 0.2 (with element 1)
5 j 0.2 -
Solution:
The bus incidence matrix is formed taking node 1 as the reference bus.

 1 0 0 
 0  1 0 
 
A =  0 1  1
 
 1 0 0 
 1 0  1
 

The primitive incidence matrix is given by,
 j0.6 j0.1 0.0 j0.2 0.0 

 
 j0.1 j0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 
[z]=  0.0 0.0 j0.5 0.0 0.0 
 
 j0.2 0.0 0.0 j0.4 0.0 
 
 
 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 j0.2
The primitive admittance matrix [y] = [z]-1 and given by,
 j2.0833 j0.4167 0.0 j1.0417 0.0 

 j0.4167  j2.0833 0.0  j0.2083 0.0 
 
[y]=  0.0 0.0  j2.0 0.0 0.0 
 
 j1.0417  j0.2083 0.0  j3.0208 0.0 
 

 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0  j5.0
The bus admittance matrix by singular transformation is obtained as
 j8.0208 j0.2083 j5.0 
t  
YBUS = A [y] A =  j0.2083  j4.0833 j2.0
 
 j5.0 j2.0  j7.0


 j0.2713 j0.1264 j0.2299
-1  
ZBUS = YBUS =  j0.1264

j0.3437 j0.1885

 j0.2299 j0.1885 j0.3609


SUMMARY
The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution
of any electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or
voltages. Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances
or admittances.
Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph
theory, independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree-
branches and links are distinctly identified. The complete information about the
interconnection of the network, with the directions of the currents is contained in the
bus incidence matrix.
The information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected
network is contained in the primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be
represented in impedance form or admittance form. In the bus frame of reference,
the performance of the interconnected system is described by (n-1) nodal equations,
where n is the number of nodes. The bus admittance matrix and the bus impedance
matrix relate the bus voltages and currents. These matrices can be obtained from the
primitive impedance and admittance matrices.

Chapter-1-B
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

[CONTENTS: Node elimination by matrix algebra, generalized algorithms for Z BUS
building, addition of BRANCH, addition of LINK, special cases of analysis,
removal of elements, changing the impedance value of an element, examples]
NODE ELIMINATION BY MATRIX ALGEBRA
Nodes can be eliminated by the matrix manipulation of the standard node equations.
However, only those nodes at which current does not enter or leave the network can be
considered for such elimination. Such nodes can be eliminated either in one group or by
taking the eligible nodes one after the other for elimination, as discussed next.
CASE-A: Simultaneous Elimination of Nodes:

Consider the performance equation of the given network in bus frame of reference
in admittance form for a n-bus system, given by:
I =Y E
BUS BUS BUS (1)
Where IBUS and EBUS are n-vectors of injected bus current and bus voltages and
YBUS is the square, symmetric, coefficient bus admittance matrix of order n.
Now, of the n buses present in the system, let p buses be considered for node-
elimination so that the reduced system after elimination of p nodes would be retained
with m (= n-p) nodes only. Hence the corresponding performance equation would be
similar to (1) except that the coefficient matrix would be of order m now, i.e.,
new
I =Y E
BUS BUS BUS (2)
new
Where YBUS is the bus admittance matrix of the reduced network and the vectors
IBUS and EBUS are of order m. It is assumed in (1) that IBUS and EBUS are obtained
with their elements arranged such that the elements associated with p nodes to be
eliminated are in the lower portion of the vectors. Then the elements of YBUS also
get located accordingly so that (1) after matrix partitioning yields,

m p
I m Y Y E
BUS-m A B BUS-m
=
I p Y Y E
BUS-p C D BUS-p
(3)
Where the self and mutual values of YA and YD are those identified only with the
nodes to be retained and removed respectively and YC=YBt is composed of only the
corresponding mutual admittance values, that are common to the nodes m and p.
Now, for the p nodes to be eliminated, it is necessary that, each element of the
vector IBUS-p should be zero. Thus we have from (3):
I =Y E +Y E
BUS-m A BUS-m B BUS-p
I =Y E +Y E =0
BUS-p C BUS-m D BUS-p (4)
-1
Solving, EBUS-p = - YD YC EBUS-m (5)
Thus, by simplification, we obtain an expression similar to (2) as,
IBUS-m = {YA - YBYD-1YC} EBUS-m (6)
Thus by comparing (2) and (6), we get an expression for the new bus admittance
matrix in terms of the sub-matrices of the original bus admittance matrix as:
new -1
Y
BUS = {YA - YBYD YC} (7)
This expression enables us to construct the given network with only the necessary
nodes retained and all the unwanted nodes/buses eliminated. However, it can be
observed from (7) that the expression involves finding the inverse of the sub-matrix
YD (of order p). This would be computationally very tedious if p, the nodes to be
eliminated is very large, especially for real practical systems. In such cases, it is
more advantageous to eliminate the unwanted nodes from the given network by
considering one node only at a time for elimination, as discussed next.

CASE-B: Separate Elimination of Nodes:
Here again, the system buses are to be renumbered, if necessary, such that the node
to be removed always happens to be the last numbered one. The sub-matrix YD then
would be a single element matrix and hence it inverse would be just equal to its own
reciprocal value. Thus the generalized algorithmic equation for finding the elements
of the new bus admittance matrix can be obtained from (6) as,
new old
Yij = Yij – Yin Ynj / Ynn i,j = 1,2,…… n. (8)
Each element of the original matrix must therefore be modified as per (7). Further,
this procedure of eliminating the last numbered node from the given system of n
nodes is to be iteratively repeated p times, so as to eliminate all the unnecessary p
nodes from the original system.
Examples on Node elimination:

Example-1: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown below by the rule of
The admittance equivalent network is as follows:

The bus admittance matrix is obtained by RoI as:

-9. 8 5 4
YBUS= j -16 10
4 10 -14
The reduced matrix after elimination of node 3 from the given system is
determined as per the equation:
New -1
YBUS = YA-YBYD YC
n/n 1 2
Y
new 1 -j8.66 j7.86
BUS =
2 j7.86 -j8.66
Alternatively,
Yijnew = Yijold – Yi3 Y3j / Y33  i,j = 1,2.
Y11 = Y11-Y13Y31/ Y33 = -j8.66

Y22 = Y22 – Y23Y32/ Y33 = -j8.66
Y12 = Y21 = Y12 – Y13Y32/Y33 = j7.86
Thus the reduced network can be obtained again by the rule of inspection as shown
be low.

Example-2: Obtain YBUS for the admittance network shown below by the rule of
n/n 1 2 3 4
1 -j50 0 j20 j10
YBUS=2 0 -j60 0 j72 = YA YB

3 j20 0 -j72 j50 YC YD
4 j10 j72 j50 -j81
New -
Y
BUS = YA-YBYD YC
n/n 1 2
new 1 -j32.12 j10.32
Y
BUS =
2 j10.32 -j51.36
Thus the reduced system of two nodes can be drawn by the rule of inspection as
under:

ZBUS building
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
The bus impedance matrix is the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. An alternative
method is possible, based on an algorithm to form the bus impedance matrix directly
from system parameters and the coded bus numbers. The bus impedance matrix is
formed adding one element at a time to a partial network of the given system. The
performance equation of the network in bus frame of reference in impedance form using
the currents as independent variables is given in matrix form by
 Z  I
E bu s
bus bus (9)
When expanded so as to refer to a n bus system, (9) will be of the form
ZIZI
E1 11 1 12 2  .......  .Z1k I k ...  Z1n I n
Ek  Z k1 I1  Z k 2 I 2  ......  Z kk I k  Z kn I n
E ZIZI
n n1 1 n2 2 .........  Z nk I k  Z nn I n (10)
Now assume that the bus impedance matrix Zbus is known for a partial network of m
buses and a known reference bus. Thus, Zbus of the partial network is of dimension
m  m. If now a new element is added between buses p and q we have the following
two possibilities:

(i) p is an existing bus in the partial network and q is a new bus; in this case
p-q is a branch added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1a, and
(ii) both p and q are buses existing in the partial network; in this case p-q is a
link added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1b.
1
2
Partial
Network
p
q
Z
BUS i
m
0 Ref.
Fig 1a. Addition of branch p-q
1
2
Partial
Network
p
Z
BUS q
m
0 Ref.
Fig 1b. Addition of link p-q

If the added element ia a branch, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix would be
of order m+1, and the analysis is confined to finding only the elements of the new
row and column (corresponding to bus-q) introduced into the original matrix.
If the added element ia a link, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix will remain
unaltered with regard to its order. However, all the elements of the original matrix
are updated to take account of the effect of the link added.
ADDITION OF A BRANCH
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the
added branch p-q, given by
E   Z Z Z Z Z  I 
 1   11
12 1p 1m
1q 
1 
E
 2  
Z
Z Z Z Z  2 

21
   22 2p 2m 2q

  Z Z  
E p    p1 Z Z Z  p 
 (11)
   p2 pp pm pq
 
    
E  Z m1 Z Z Z Z I
 m 
 m   m2 mp mm
mq
 
E
 q  
Z
q1 Z Z I
q 2 Z qp Z qm
 q 
qq
 
It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, wehave
Vector ypq-rs is not equal to zero and Zij= Zji  i,j=1,2,…m,q (12)
To find Zqi:
The elements of last row-q and last column-q are determined by injecting a current of
1.0 pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference
bus-0, as shown in Fig.2. Since all other bus currents are zero, we have from (11) that
Ek = Zki Ii = Zki  k = 1, 2,…i ....... p,….m, q (13)
Hence, Eq = Zqi ; Ep = Zpi ………
Also, Eq=Ep -vpq ; so that Zqi = Zpi - vpq  i =1, 2,…i ....... p,….m, ≠q (14)
To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current
through the elements is given by

i  y y v 
 pq   pq,pq pq,rs pq (15)
i y y v
 rs   rs,pq rs,rs  rs 



1
2
Partial
Network v
pq
p
q
i
Z
BUS
Ii =1pu
m
0 Ref.

Fig.2 Calculation for Zqi
where i pq is current through element p-q
irs is vector of currents through elements of the partial network
v pq is voltage across element p-q
y pq , pq is self – admittance of the added element
y pq,rs is the vector of mutual admittances between the added elements p-q and
elements r-s of the partial network.
vrs is vector of voltage across elements of partial network.
yrs, pq is transpose of y pq,rs .
yrs ,rs is the primitive admittance of partial network.
Since the current in the added branch p-q, is zero, i pq  0 . We thus have from (15),
i y v 
pq pq , pq pq y pq ,rs v rs  0 (16)

Solving, v   ypq,rs vrs or

pq y pq, pq
  
v y
pq,rs E r Es (17)
pq
y pq, pq
Using (13) and (17) in (14), we get

Z ypq,rs Zri  Zsi
qi  Z pi  y i  1,2......m; i  q (18)
pq, pq
To find zqq:
The element Zqq can be computed by injecting a current of 1pu at bus-q, Iq = 1.0 pu.
As before, we have the relations as under:
Ek = Zkq Iq = Zkq  k = 1,2,…i.…...p,….m, q (19)
Hence, Eq = Zqq ; Ep = Zpq ; Also, Eq =Ep - vpq ; so that Zqq = Zpq - vpq (20)
Since now the current in the added element is ipq  Iq  1.0 , we have from(15)
i y v
pq pq , pq pq  y pq ,rsvrs  1
y pq,rs v rs
Solving, v pq  1 
y pq, pq

pq,rs Er  Es
v  1  y (21)
pq
y pq, pq
Using (19) and (21) in (20), we get
  
Z  1 y Z rq Zsq
pq,rs
Z (22)
qq pq
y pq, pq
Special Cases
The following special cases of analysis concerning Z BUS building can be considered
with respect to the addition of branch to a p-network.
Case (a): If there is no mutual coupling then elements of y pq ,rs are zero. Further, if
p is the reference node, then Ep=0. thus,
Zpi = 0 i  1,2. .... m : i  q
And Zpq = 0.
Hence, from (18) (22) Zqi = 0 i  1,2. ..... m; i  q
Z z
And qq pq, pq \ (23)

Case (b): If there is no mutual coupling and if p is not the ref. bus, then, from (18)
and (22), we again have,
Z
qi  Zpi , i  1,2. .. m; i  q
Z z
qq  Z pq pq , pq (24)
ADDITION OF A LINK
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the
added link p-l, (p-l being a fictitious branch and l being a fictitious node) given by
E1  Z Z Z  I 
   11 12 Z1 p Z1m
1q  1 
E
 2  
Z
21 Z Z  2 
   22 Z2 p Z2m 2q
 
   I 
 p    p1 Z
E Z
Z Z Z  p  (25)
   p2 pp pm  
 
Em  Zm1 Z Z Z Z I
 m
 
m2 mp mm mq
  
E Z Zli
Z Zlm
 l   l1
I
 l 
l2 ll
It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have
Vector ypq-rs is not equal to zero and Zij= Zji  i,j=1,2,…m,l. (26)
To find Zli:
The elements of last row-l and last column-l are determined by injecting a current of
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the
reference bus-0, as shown in Fig.3. Further, the current in the added element
is made
zero by connecting a voltage source, el in series with element p-q, as shown. Since
all other bus currents are zero, we have from (25) that
Ek = Zki Ii = Zki  k = 1, 2,…i ....... p,….m, l (27)
Hence, el = El = Zli ; Ep = Zpi ; Ep = Zpi ………
Also, el = Ep - Eq - vpq ;
So that Zli = Zpi - Zqi - vpq  i=1,2,…i.…p,...q,….m, ≠l (28)

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current
through the elements is given by
i  y y v 
 pl   pl, pl pl,rs pl (29)

i y y v
rs   rs, pl rs,rs  rs



1
2
Partial
Network p
v
pl
q el
i l
Z
BUS
Ii =1pu
m
0 Ref.


 Fig.3 Calculation for Zli


where ipl is current through element p-q



i rs is vector of currents through elements of the partial network
v
is voltage across element p-q
pl
y
pl , pl is self – admittance of the added element
y pl , rs is the vector of mutual admittances between the added elements p-q and
elements r-s of the partial network.
vrs is vector of voltage across elements of partial network.
yrs, pl is transpose of y pl , rs .
yrs ,rs is the primitive admittance of partial network.

Since the current in the added branch p-l, is zero, ipl  0 . We thus have from (29),
i y v 0
pl pl , pl pl  ypl ,rs vrs (30)
Solving, v   ypl , rs v rs or
pl y pl , pl

v y pl , rs Er  Es  (31)
pl
y pl , pl
However,
y pl , rs  y pq, rs
y y
A
Unsidng (27), (31) and (32) in (28), we get
pl , pl p q, pq (32)
  
Z Z Z y Zri Zsi i  1,2......m;i  l
pq, rs
(33)
li pi qi
y pq, pq
To find Zll:
The element Zll can be computed by injecting a current of 1pu at bus-l, Il = 1.0 pu.
As before, we have the relations as under:
Ek = Zkl Il = Zkl  k = 1, 2,…i.…...p,…q,….m, l (34)
Hence, el = El = Zll ; Ep = Zpl ;
Also, el = Ep - Eq - vpl ;
So that Zll = Zpl - Zql - vpl  i=1,2,…i.…p,...q,….m, ≠l (35)
Since now the current in the added element is ipl  Il  1.0 , we have from (29)
i y v 
pl pl , pl pl y pl , rs vrs  1
Solving, vpl  1  yply, rs vrs
pl ,pl



Er  Es  (36)
v  1  y
pl , rs
pl
y pl , pl
However,
y pl , rs  y pq, rs
y y
And pl , pl pq , pq (37)
Using (34), (36) and (37) in (35), we get

  
Z  1 y
pq, rs
Z Z Zrl Z sl
(38)
ll pl ql
y pq, pq
Special Cases Contd….
The following special cases of analysis concerning Z BUS building can be considered
with respect to the addition of link to a p-network.
Case (c): If there is no mutual coupling, then elements of y pq,rs are zero. Further, if p
is the reference node, then Ep=0. thus,
Z
li  Zqi , i  1,2 ... m;i  l
Z  Z  z
ll ql pq , pq (39)
From (39), it is thus observed that, when a link is added to a ref. bus, then the
situation is similar to adding a branch to a fictitious bus and hence the following
steps are followed:
1. The element is added similar to addition of a branch (case-b) to obtain the
new matrix of order m+1.
2. The extra fictitious node, l is eliminated using the node elimination algorithm.
Case (d): If there is no mutual coupling, then elements of y pq,rs are zero. Further, if p
is not the reference node, then
Zli = Zpi - Zqi
Zll = Zpl – Zql – zpq,pq

= Zpp + Zqq – 2 Zpq+ zpq,pq (40)
MODIFICATION OF ZBUS FOR NETWORK CHANGES
An element which is not coupled to any other element can be removed easily. The
Zbus is modified as explained in sections above, by adding in parallel with the
element (to be removed), a link whose impedance is equal to the negative of the
impedance of the element to be removed. Similarly, the impedance value of an
element which is not coupled to any other element can be changed easily. The Zbus
is modified again as explained in sections above, by adding in parallel with the
element (whose impedance is to be changed), a link element of impedance value
chosen such that the parallel equivalent impedance is equal to the desired value of
impedance. When mutually coupled elements are removed, the Zbus is modified by
introducing appropriate changes in the bus currents of the original network to reflect
the changes introduced due to the removal of the elements.
Examples on ZBUS building
Example 1: For the positive sequence network data shown in table below, obtain
ZBUS by building procedure.
Pos. seq.
p-q
Sl. No. reactance
(nodes)
in pu
1 0-1 0.25
2 0-3 0.20
3 1-2 0.08
4 2-3 0.06
Solution:
The given network is as shown below with the data marked on it. Assume the
elements to be added as per the given sequence: 0-1, 0-3, 1-2, and 2-3.
Fig. E1: Example System
Consider building ZBUS as per the various stages of building through the
consideration of the corresponding partial networks as under:
Step-1: Add element–1 of impedance 0.25 pu from the external node-1 (q=1) to
internal ref. node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;
1
(1)
ZBUS = 1 0.25

internal ref. node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;
1 3
(2) 1 0.25 0
ZBUS = 3 0 0.2
internal node-1 (p=1). (Case-b), as shown in the partial network;
1 3 2
(3)
1 0.25 0 0.25
ZBUS =3 0 0.2 0
2 0.25 0 0.33
Step-4: Add element–4 of impedance 0.06 pu between the two internal nodes,
node-2 (p=2) to node-3 (q=3). (Case-d), as shown in the partial network;

1 3 2 l
1 0.25 0 0.25 0.25
(4) 3 0 0.2 0 -0.2
ZBUS = 2 0.25 0 0.33 0.33
l 0.25 -0.2 0.33 0.59
The fictitious node l is eliminated further to arrive at the final impedance matrix as
under:
1 3 2
1 0.1441 0.0847 0.1100
ZBUS (final) = 3 0.0847 0.1322 0.1120
2 0.1100 0.1120 0.1454
Example 2: The ZBUS for a 6-node network with bus-6 as ref. is as given below.
Assuming the values as pu reactances, find the topology of the network and the
parameter values of the elements involved. Assume that there is no mutual coupling
of any pair of elements.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 0 0 0 2
2 0 2 0 2 0
3
ZBUS = 0 0 2 0 0
4 0 2 0 3 0
5 2 0 0 0 3
Solution:
The specified matrix is so structured that by its inspection, we can obtain the
network by backward analysis through the various stages of ZBUS building and p-
networks as under:


Thus the final network is with 6 nodes and 5 elements connected as follows with
the impedance values of elements as indicated.
Fig. E2: Resultant network of example-2

Example 3: Construct the bus impedance matrix for the system shown in the figure
below by building procedure. Show the partial networks at each stage of building
the matrix. Hence arrive at the bus admittance matrix of the system. How can this
result be verified in practice?
Solution: The specified system is considered with the reference node denoted by
node-0. By its inspection, we can obtain the bus impedance matrix by building
procedure by following the steps through the p-networks as under:
Step1: Add branch 1 between node 1 and reference node. (q =1, p = 0)
Step2: Add branch 2, between node 2 and reference node. (q = 2, p = 0).

Step3: Add branch 3, between node 1 and node 3 (p = 1, q = 3)
Step 4: Add element 4, which is a link between node 1 and node 2. (p = 1, q = 2)

Now the extra node-l has to be eliminated to obtain the new matrix of step-4,
using the algorithmic relation:
Yijnew = Yijold – Yin Ynj / Ynn  i,j = 1,2, 3.
Step 5: Add link between node 2 and node 3 (p = 2, q=3)

Thus, the new matrix is as under:
Node l is eliminated as shown in the previous step:
Further, the bus admittance matrix can be obtained by inverting the bus
impedance matrix as under:
As a check, it can be observed that the bus admittance matrix, Y BUS can also be
obtained by the rule of inspection to arrive at the same answer.

Example 4: Form the bus impedance matrix for the network shown below.
Solution:
Add the elements in the sequence, 0-1, 1-2, 2-3, 0-3, 3-4, 2-4, as per the various
steps of building the matrix as under:
Step1: Add element 1, which is a branch between node-1 and reference node.
Step2: Add element 2, which is a branch between nodes 1 and 2.
Step3: Add element 3, which is a branch between nodes 2 and 3
Step4: Add element 4, which is a link from node 3 to reference node.

Eliminating node l,
Step5: Add element 5, a branch between nodes 3 and 4.
Step 6: Add element 6, a link between nodes 2 & 4.
Eliminating node l we get the required bus impedance , matrix

Example 5: Form the bus impedance matrix for the network data given below.
Self Impedance Mutual Impedance

Element Bus zpq, pq Bus zpq, rs
p-q (pu) r-s (pu)
1 1 – 2(1) j0.6
2 1 – 2(2) j0.4 1 – 2(1) j0.2
Solution:
Let bus-1 be the reference. Add the elements in the sequence 1-2(1), 1-2(2). Here,
in the step-2, there is mutual coupling between the pair of elements involved.
Step1: Add element 1 from bus 1 to 2, element 1-2(1). ( p=1, q=2, p is the
reference node)
Step2: Add element 2, element 1-2(2), which is a link from bus1 to 2,

mutually coupled with element 1, 1-2(1).

Consider the primitive impedance matrix for the two elements given by
Thus the primitive admittance matrix is obtained by taking the inverse of [z] as
Thus,
So that we have,
Thus, the network matrix corresponding to the 2-node, 1-bus network given, is obtained
after eliminating the extra node-l as a single element matrix, as under:

CHAPTER 2
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

[CONTENTS: Review of solution of equations, direct and iterative methods,
classification of buses, importance of slack bus and YBUS based analysis,
constraints involved, load flow equations, GS method: algorithms for finding
the unknowns, concept of acceleration of convergence, NR method- algorithms
for finding the unknowns, tap changing transformers, Fast decoupled load
flow, illustrative examples]
REVIEW OF NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms
the basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power
system analyses, such as during linear graph analysis, load flow analysis
(nonlinear equations), transient stability studies (differential equations), etc. Hence, it
is necessary to review the general forms of the various solution methods with respect
to all forms of equations, as under:
Solution Linear equations:
Direct methods:
Cramer’s (Determinant) Method,
Gauss Elimination Method (only for smaller systems),
LU Factorization (more preferred method), etc.
Iterative methods:
Gauss Method
Gauss-Siedel Method (for diagonally dominant systems)
• Solution of Nonlinear equations:
Iterative methods only:
Gauss-Siedel Method (for smaller systems)
Newton-Raphson Method (if corrections for variables are small)
• Solution of differential equations:
Iterative methods only:
• Euler and Modified Euler method,
• RK IV-order method,
• Milne’s predictor-corrector method, etc.

It is to be observed that the nonlinear and differential equations can be solved only
by the iterative methods. The iterative methods are characterized by the various
performance features as under:
 Selection of initial solution/ estimates
 Determination of fresh/ new estimates during each iteration
 Selection of number of iterations as per tolerance limit
 Time per iteration and total time of solution as per the solution method selected
 Convergence and divergence criteria of the iterative solution
 Choice of the Acceleration factor of convergence, etc.
A comparison of the above solution methods is as under:

 In general, the direct methods yield exact or accurate solutions.
However,they are suited for only the smaller systems, since otherwise,
in large systems, the possible round-off errors make the solution process
inaccurate.
 The iterative methods are more useful when the diagonal elements of
htecoefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off diagonal
elements. The round-off errors in these methods are corrected at the
successive steps of the iterative process.
 The Newton-Raphson method is very much useful for solution of non –
linearequations, if all the values of the corrections for the unknowns are very
small in magnitude and the initial values of unknowns are selected to be
reasonably closer to the exact solution.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Introduction: Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future
expansion of power systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at
all the buses, for a particular load condition. Different steady state solutions can be
obtained, for different operating conditions, to help in planning, design and
operation of the power system.
Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which involves
bulk power transmission. The load at the buses is assumed to be known. Load flow

studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation, such
as: violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between
buses linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency
shutdown of generators, etc. Load flow studies are required for deciding the
economic operation of the power system. They are also required in transient stability
studies. Hence, load-flow studies play a vital role in power system studies.
Thus the load flow problem consists of finding the power flows (real and reactive) and
voltages of a network for given bus conditions. At each bus, there are four quantities of
interest to be known for further analysis: the real and reactive power, the voltage
magnitude and its phase angle. Because of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations,
describing the given power system, their solutions are obviously, based on the iterative
methods only. The constraints placed on the load flow solutions could be:
 The Kirchhoff’s relations holding good,
 Capability limits of reactive power sources,
 Tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
 Specified power interchange between interconnected systems,
 Selection of initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, etc.
Classification of buses for LFA: Different types of buses are present based on the
specified and unspecified variables at a given bus as presented in the table below:
Table 1. Classification of buses for LFA
Sl. Specified Unspecified

Remarks
No. Bus Types Variables variables
V, : are assumed if not
Slack/ 0
1 V,  PG, QG specified as 1.0 and 0
Swing Bus
Generator/ A generator is present at
2 Machine/ PV Bus PG, V QG,  the machine bus
About 80% buses are of
3 Load/ PQ Bus PG, QG V,  PQ type
‘a’ is the % tap change in
Voltage
4 Controlled Bus PG,QG, V , a tap-changing transformer

Importance of swing bus: The slack or swing bus is usually a PV-bus with the
largest capacity generator of the given system connected to it. The generator at the
swing bus supplies the power difference between the “specified power into the
system at the other buses” and the “total system output plus losses”. Thus swing bus
is needed to supply the additional real and reactive power to meet the losses. Both
the magnitude and phase angle of voltage are specified at the swing bus, or
otherwise, they are assumed to be equal to 1.0 p.u. and 00 , as per flat-start
procedure of iterative solutions. The real and reactive powers at the swing bus are
found by the computer routine as part of the load flow solution process. It is to be
noted that the source at the swing bus is a perfect one, called the swing machine, or
slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the magnitude of voltage fixed. The phase
angle is the system reference phase and hence is fixed. The generator at the swing
bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or swing as the demand changes.
This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.
Importance of YBUS based LFA: The majority of load

flow programs employ
methods using the bus admittance matrix, as this method is found to be more
economical. The bus admittance matrix plays a very important role in load floe
analysis. It is a complex, square and symmetric matrix and hence only n(n+1)/2
elements of YBUS need to be stored for a n-bus system. Further, in the YBUS matrix, Yij
= 0, if an incident element is not present in the system connecting the buses ‘i’ and ‘j’.
since in a large power system, each bus is connected only to a fewer buses through
an incident element, (about 6-8), the coefficient matrix, YBUS of such systems
would be highly sparse, i.e., it will have many zero valued elements in it. This is
defined by the sparsity of the matrix, as under:
Percentage sparsity of a Total no. of zero valued elements of YBUS

given matrix of nth order: = Total no. of entries of YBUS
S = (Z / n2) x 100 % (1)
The percentage sparsity of YBUS, in practice, could be as high as 80-90%, especially

for very large, practical power systems. This sparsity feature of YBUS is extensively

used in reducing the load flow calculations and in minimizing the memory required to
store the coefficient matrices. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements
YBUS can be stored during the computer based implementation of the schemes, by
adopting the suitable optimal storage schemes. While YBUS is thus highly sparse, it’s
inverse, ZBUS, the bus impedance matrix is not so. It is a FULL matrix, unless the
optimal bus ordering schemes are followed before proceeding for load flow analysis.
THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

Here, the analysis is restricted to a balanced three-phase power system, so that the
analysis can be carried out on a single phase basis. The per unit quantities are used for
all quantities. The first step in the analysis is the formulation of suitable equations for
the power flows in the system. The power system is a large interconnected system,
where various buses are connected by transmission lines. At any bus, complex power is
injected into the bus by the generators and complex power is drawn by the loads. Of
course at any bus, either one of them may not be present. The power is transported from
one bus to other via the transmission lines. At any bus i, the complex power Si
(injected), shown in figure 1, is defined as
Si = SGi – SDi (2)
Fig.1 power flows at a bus-i
where Si = net complex power injected into bus i, SGi = complex power injected by the
generator at bus i, and SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i. According to
conservation of complex power, at any bus i, the complex power injected into the
bus must be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the
transmission lines. Hence

Si = ∑Sij  i = 1, 2, ………..n (3) where Sij is the sum over all
lines connected to the bus and n is the number of buses in the system
(excluding the ground). The bus current injected at the bus-i is defined as
Ii = IGi – IDi  i = 1, 2, ………..n (4)
where IGi is the current injected by the generator at the bus and IDi is the current
drawn by the load (demand) at that bus. In the bus frame of reference
IBUS = YBUS VBUS (5)
where
I 1 
 
I
  2
IBUS =  .  is the vector of currents injected at thebuses,

 

.

 
I
 n 
YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, and
V1 
V2 
VBUS =  .  is the vector of complex bus voltages. 
 .  

Vn 

Equation (5) can be considered as 
Ii = YijV j
n
 i = 1, 2, .............. n (6)
j1
The complex power Si is given by

S i = V i Ii *
 n *
= Vi 
YV 

 
ij j
 j 1 
 n * * (7)
= Vi 
 j 1 
Y V
ij j

 V V V
Let i  i  i  i cos  i  j sin  i 

ij  i   j

Y G  jB
ij ij ij
Hence from (7), we get,

n
Si = 
VV
i j cos ij  j sin ij  Gij  j Bij  (8)
j1
Separating real and imaginary parts in (8) we obtain,

n
Pi = 
VV
i j  Gij cosij  B ij sin ij  (9)
j1
Qi =  Vi V j Gij sin ij  Bij cosij  (10)

j1
An alternate form of Pi and Qi can be obtained by representing Yik also in polar form
Y 
as Yij= ij ij (11)
Again, we get from (7),
n
V   V
j   j
Si = i i  Y ij   ij (12)
j 1
The real part of (12) gives Pi.

n
Pi  Vi  cosij  i   j 
Y
ij Vj
j 1

n
= Vi Y ij V j cos  (ij  i   j ) or
j1
n
P
i  Vi Vj Yij cos(ij  i   j )  i = 1, 2,………..n, (13)
j 1
Similarly, Qi is imaginary part of (12) and is given by

n
Qi  Vi 
Y
ij V j sin  (ij  i  j ) or
j1
Qi   Vi V j Y ij
sin (ij  i   j )  i = 1, 2,………..n (14)
j1
Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the ‘power flow equations’ or the ‘load flow
equations’ in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each
bus-i is characterized by four variables, Pi, Qi, Vi, and i. Thus a total of 4n
variables are involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be solved for

any 2n unknowns, if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need for
classification of buses of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.
DATA FOR LOAD FLOW
Irrespective of the method used for the solution, the data required is common for any
load flow. All data is normally in pu. The bus admittance matrix is formulated from
these data. The various data required are as under:
System data: It includes: number of buses-n, number of PV buses, number
of loads, number of transmission lines, number of transformers, number of shunt
elements, the slack bus number, voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally
taken as 0o), tolerance limit, base MVA, and maximum permissible number of
iterations.
Generator bus data: For every PV bus i, the data required includes the bus
number, active power generation PGi, the specified voltage magnitude ,sp , inimum
reactive power limit Qi,min, and maximum reactive power limit Qi,max.
Load data: For all loads the data required includes the the bus number,
active power demand PDi, and the reactive power demand QDi.
Transmission line data: For every transmission line connected between
buses i and k the data includes the starting bus number i, ending bus number
k,.resistance of the line, reactance of the line and the half line charging admittance.
Transformer data:
For every transformer connected between buses i and k the data to be given includes:
the starting bus number i, ending bus number k, resistance of the transformer,
reactance of the transformer, and the off nominal turns-ratio a.
Shunt element data: The data needed for the shunt element includes the bus
number where element is connected, and the shunt admittance (G sh + j Bsh).
GAUSS – SEIDEL (GS) METHOD
The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated

till convergence is reached. The GS method applied to power flow problem is as
discussed below.
Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that
(n–1) complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the
slack bus is generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and
PQ buses are ordered next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared
to random ordering of buses. Consider the expression for the complex power at bus-
i, given from (7), as:
 n  *
Si = V i   ij V
Y j 

  j 1
This can be written as

* * 
 nY
 (15)
Si Vi   ij V
j

 j 1 
Since Si* = Pi – jQi, we get,
P  jQ n
V *  ij
= YV
i i
j
i j1
So that, n
 Y V
Pi  jQi = Y ii
V i
 ij j
(16)
* V j 1
i ji
Rearranging the terms, we get,

 n

jQ i  (17)
Vi = 1 Y i 
P
V * 
YV
ijj   i = 2, 3,………..n
ii i j1 
 ji 
 
Equation (17) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both sides
of the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique. Starting from an
initial estimate of all bus voltages, in the RHS of (17) the most recent values of the bus
voltages is substituted. One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus
voltages. In Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the
computation of subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up

convergence. Iterations are carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not
change by more than the tolerance value. Thus the algorithm for GS method is as
under:
Algorithm for GS method

• Prepare data for the given system as required.
• Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the
rule of inspection.
• Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,…n. In practical power systems,
the magnitude of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex
bus voltages at all (n-1) buses (except slack bus) are taken to be 1.0  00.
This is normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any k  1st iteration, from (17) the voltages are
given by
1  P  jQ Yii j1V (k 1) n 
 i  Y
V (k)
Vi ( k 1) = ( k) * j ij j   i=2,3,…n (18)
Y
 (Vi ) ii
j 1 j  i 1 
Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values
are already available for buses 2,3….(i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration.
Hence these values are used. For buses (i+1)…..n, values from previous,
kth iteration are used.
5. Continue iterations till
Vi ( k 1)  Vi ( k 1)  Vi ( k )  

 i = 2,3,…n (19)
Where,  is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of

0.0001 pu.
• Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (15)
[assuming bus 1 is slack bus].
 nY 

*
= P1 – jQ1
*
 1j  (20)
S1 = V1  V
j

 j 1 
• Compute all line flows.
• The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in
the system is calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.

Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:
At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified. Hence it
is needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (18). From (15) we have
 
Qi = – Im Vi  Yij
n
* V
j 
 j 1 
Where Im stands for the imaginary part. At any (k+1)st iteration, at the PV bus-i,
 i 1 n 
Qi ( k 1) = – Im (Vi ( k ) )* Y ij V j( k 1)  (Vi ) Yij
(k ) *
Vj 
( k ) (21)
 j 1 j i 
The steps for ith PV bus are as follows:
• Compute Qi( k 1) using (21)

• Calculate Vi using (18) with Qi = Qi( k 1)
3. Since i is specified at the PV bus, the magnitude of Vi obtained in step 2
has to be modified and set to the specified Vi, . Therefore,

V ( k 1)  V  ( k 1) (22)
i i,sp i
The voltage computation for PQ buses does not change.
Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during
any iteration, i.e Q ( k 1) computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
i
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to
lack of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st
iteration and the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:
If Qi < Qi,min If Qi > Qi,max
Then Qi = Qi,min. Then Qi = Qi,max.
(23)
If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be
switched back to PV status.
Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with
increase in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if

the correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant α,
called the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let
Vi ( k 1) (accelerate d )  Vi ( k )   Vi ( k 1)  Vi ( k )  (24)

where α is a real number. When α =1, the value of Vi ( k 1) is the computed value. If
1 < α < 2, then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally α is taken between 1.2
to 1.6, for GS load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage
magnitude violates the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power
demand cannot be supplied, with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.
Examples on GS load flow analysis:
Example-1: Obtain the voltage at bus 2 for the simple system shown in Fig 2, using
the Gauss–Seidel method, if V1 = 1  00 pu.
Fig : System of Example 1

Solution:
Here the capacitor at bus 2, injects a reactive power of 1.0 pu. The complex power
injection at bus 2 is
S2 = j1.0 – (0.5 + j 1.0) = – 0.5
pu. V1 = 1  00
 j2 j2 
YBUS =  
 j2  j2 

1 P  jQ 
V ( k 1)  Y 2 2 Y V
2 22  V ( k ) * 21 1
 2 
Since V1 is specified it is a constant through all the iterations. Let the initial voltage
at bus 2, V20 = 1 + j 0.0 = 1  00 pu.

V21  1   0.5

 0 j2  100  
 j2 10 
= 1.0 – j0.25 = 1.030776  – 14.0360

V 2 1   0.5  j2  100  
2  0 
 j2 1.03077614.036 
= 0.94118 – j 0.23529 = 0.970145  –14.0360

V 3  1   0.5  j2 10 0  
2  0 
 j2 0.97014514.036 
= 0.9375 – j 0.249999 = 0.970261  –14.9310

V 4 1   0.5  j2  100  
2  0 

 j2 
0.97026114.931 
= 0.933612 – j 0.248963 = 0.966237  –14.9310

V 5 1    0.5  j2  100  
2  0 

 j2 
0.96623714.931 
0
= 0.933335 – j 0.25 = 0.966237  –14.995
Since the difference in the voltage magnitudes is less than 10 -6 pu, the iterations can
be stopped. To compute line flow
VV 100  0.966237  14.9950

I 12  Z 2 
 1
12 j 0.5
= 0.517472  −14.9310
S
 V1 1I 2 *= 1  0 0 × 0.517472  14.931 0
12
= 0.5 + j 0.133329 pu
V V 0.966237  14.9950 100
I 21 2 Z  1
12 j 0.5
0
= 0.517472  −194.93
S
 V2 I21 * = – 0.5 + j 0.0 pu
21
The total loss in the line is given by

S12 + S21 = j 0.133329 pu
Obviously, it is observed that there is no real power loss, since the line has no
resistance.

Example-2:
For the power system shown in fig. below, with the data as given in tables below,
obtain the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying GS method.
Power System of Example 2
Line data of example 2

R X B
C
SB EB
(pu) (pu) 2
1 2 0.10 0.40 -
1 4 0.15 0.60 -
1 5 0.05 0.20 -
2 3 0.05 0.20 -
2 4 0.10 0.40 -
3 5 0.05 0.20 -
Bus data of example 2

PG QG PD QD V SP
Bus No. δ
(pu) (pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 - - - - 1.02 0o
2 - - 0.60 0.30 - -
3 1.0 - - - 1.04 -
4 - - 0.40 0.10 - -
5 - - 0.60 0.20 - -
Solution: In this example, we have,

Bus 1 is slack bus, Bus 2, 4, 5 are PQ buses, and Bus 3 is PV bus
 The lines do not have half line charging admittances P2
+ jQ2 = PG2 + jQG2 – (PD2 + jQD2) = – 0.6 – j0.3

P3 + jQ3 = PG3 + jQG3 – (PD3 + jQD3) = 1.0 + jQG3
Similarly P4 + jQ4 = – 0.4 – j0.1, P5 + jQ5 = – 0.6 – j0.2
The Ybus formed by the rule of inspection is given by:
2.15685 -0.58823 0.0+j0.0 -0.39215 -1.17647
-j8.62744 +j2.35294 +j1.56862 +j4.70588
-0.58823 2.35293 -1.17647 -0.58823 0.0+j0.0
+j2.35294 -j9.41176 +j4.70588 +j2.35294
0.0+j0.0 -1.17647 2.35294 0.0+j0.0 -1.17647
Ybus = +j4.70588 -j9.41176 +j4.70588
-0.39215 -0.58823 0.0+j0.0 0.98038 0.0+j0.0
+j1.56862 +j2.35294 -j3.92156
-1.17647 0.0+j0.0 -1.17647 0.0+j0.0 2.35294
+j4.70588 +j4.70588 -j9.41176
The voltages at all PQ buses are assumed to be equal to 1+j0.0 pu. The slack bus
voltage is taken to be V10 = 1.02+j0.0 in all iterations.
1  P  jQ
V 1   2 2
 Y21 V o  Y V 0  Y V 0  Y V 0 
2 o * 1 23 3 24 4 25 5
Y 22 V2
 
 
1   0.6  j0.3
=  0.58823  j2.35294  1.020o

Y
22 1.0  j0.0
 1.17647  j4.70588  1.040o   0.58823  j2.35294  1.000 
= 0.98140  −3.0665o = 0.97999 – j0.0525
Bus 3 is a PV bus. Hence, we must first calculate Q3. This can be done as under:
Q3 = V3 V1 G31 sin 31  B31 cos31   V3 V2 G32 sin 32  B32 cos32 
 V 2 G sin   B cos  VV G sin   B cos 
3 33 33 33 33 3 4 34 34 34 34
+V3 V5 G35 sin 35  B35 cos35 

We note that δ1 = 0o; δ2 = –3.0665o; δ3 = 0o; δ4 = 0o and δ5 = 0o
o
 δ31 = δ33 = δ34 = δ35 = 0 (δik = δi – δk); δ32 = 3.0665o
Q3 = 1.04 [1.02 (0.0+j0.0) + 0.9814 {–1.17647 × sin(3.0665 o) – 4.70588
×cos(3.0665 o)}+1.04{–9.41176 ×cos(0 o)}+1.0 {0.0 + j0.0}+1.0{–4.70588×cos(0 0)}]
= 1.04 [–4.6735 + 9.78823 – 4.70588] = 0.425204 pu.
1  P  jQ 
o 1 0 0
V31   Y31 V1  Y 32 V2  Y34 V4  Y35 V5 
Y33 
3 3
o*
V3 


1 1.0  j0.425204
 1.7647  j4.70588  (0.98140  3.0665o )

 = 
Y
33  1.04  j0.0
1.17647  j4.70588  (10o )
2. 1.05569  3.077o = 1.0541 + j0.05666 pu.
Since it is a PV bus, the voltage magnitude is adjusted to specified value and V31 is
computed as: V 13 1.04 3.077 0 pu
1  P  jQ 
V   Y41 V1  Y 42 V2  Y43 V3  Y45 V5 
o 1 1
Y  V o *
4
0
4
44  4 

= 1  0.4  j0.1   0.39215  j1.56862 1.020o 
Y
 1.0  j0.0
44
 0.58823  j2.35294 (0.98140  3.0665o )

0.45293  j3.8366 o
2. = 0.955715  –7.303 pu = 0.94796–
j0.12149 0.98038  j3.92156
1  P  jQ 
V5  
1
 Y51 V1  Y 52 V2  Y53 V3  Y54 V41 
5 o 5 1 1
Y55  V o*

5
= 
1   0.6  j0.2  1.17647  j4.70588  1.020o 
Y 
55  1.0  j0.0
 1.17647  j4.70588  1.043.077o 

5. 0.994618  −1.56o = 0.994249 – j0.027
Thus at end of 1st iteration, we have,
0
V1 = 1.02  0 pu V2 = 0.98140  –3.0660 pu
V3 = 1.04  3.0770 pu V4 = 0.955715  –7.3030 pu
and V5 = 0.994618  –1.560 pu
Example-3:
Obtain the load flow solution at the end of first iteration of the system with data as
given below. The solution is to be obtained for the following cases
7. All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses
8. Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu
9. Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 and 0.25≤Q2≤1.0
pu.

Fig. System for Example 3
Table: Line data of example 3

R X
SB EB
(pu) (pu)
1 2 0.05 0.15
1 3 0.10 0.30
2 3 0.15 0.45
2 4 0.10 0.30
3 4 0.05 0.15
Table: Bus data of example 3

Pi Qi Vi
Bus No.
(pu) (pu)
1 – – 1.04  00
2 0.5 – 0.2 –
3 – 1.0 0.5 –
4 – 0.3 – 0.1 –
Solution: Note that the data is directly in terms of injected powers at the buses. The
bus admittance matrix is formed by inspection as under:
3.0 – j9.0 –2.0 + j6.0 – 1.0 + j3.0 0

–2.0 + j6.0 3.666 – j11.0 – 0.666 + j2.0 – 1.0 + j3.0
YBUS = –1.0 + j3.0 –0.666 + j2.0 3.666 – j11.0 –2.0 + j6.0
0 –1.0 + j3.0 – 2.0 + j6.0 3.0 – j9.0
Case(i): All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses

Assume all initial voltages to be 1.0  00 pu.
1  P  jQ 
V2   Y21 V 1  Y 23V 3  Y24 V4 
Y 
1 2 2 o 0 0
o*
22  V2 

1 
Y     2.0  j6.0  1.040o 
0.5  j0.2
=
22 1.0  j0.0
    0.666  j2.0  1.00 o   1.0  j3.0  1.00 0  

= 1.02014  2.605o
1  P  jQ 
o 1 0
 Y31 V1  Y 32 V2  Y34 V4 
3 3
V3 
1  o*
Y33  V3 
1  1.0  j0.5  1.0  j3.0  (1.040.0o )
=

Y
33  1.0  j0.0
 0.666  j2.0  (1.020142.605o )  2.0  j6.0  1.0 00 
- 1.03108  – 4.831o
1 1  P  jQ o 1 1 
V4   Y41 V1  Y 42 V2 Y43 V3 
4
Y44  o* 4
 V4  1.0 j3.0 
= 
1  0.3  j0.1
   1.020142.605o
Y
44 1.0  j0.0
 2.0  j6.0 (1.03108  4.831o )
- 1.02467  −0.51o
Hence
V 1 = 1.04  00 pu V 1 = 1.02014  2.6050 pu
1 2
0
V3 = 1.03108  –4.831 pu
1
V4 = 1.02467  –0.510 pu
1
Case(ii): Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu

We first compute Q2.
Q2 = V2 V1 G21 sin 21  B21 cos21   V2 G22 sin 22  B22 cos22 
 V3 G23 sin 23  B23 cos23   V4 G24 sin 24  B24 cos24 

= 1.04 [1.04 {–6.0} + 1.04 {11.0}+1.0{– 2.0} + 1.0 {–3.0}= 0.208 pu.
V2 1 =  0   2.0  j6.0 1.040o 
1 0.5  j0.208
Y
22  1.04 0
 0.666  j2.0  1.00o  1.0  j3.0 1.000 
15. 1.051288 + j0.033883
The voltage magnitude is adjusted to 1.04. Hence V21 = 1.04  1.8460

1  1.0  j0.5
1.0 j3.0(1.040.0o )
1
V3 =  0
Y
33  1.0 0
  0.666  j2.0  (1.041.846o )  2.0  j6.0  1.0 00 
= 1.035587  – 4.951o pu.
V41 =    1.0  j3.0 1.041.846o 
1 0.3  j0.1
Y
44 1.0  j0.0
  2.0  j6.0 (1.035587  4.951o )
= 0.9985  – 0.178o
Hence at end of 1st iteration we have:
0 0
V 1 = 1.04  0 pu V 1 = 1.04  1.846 pu
1 2
0 1
V3 = 1.035587  –4.951 pu
1
V4 = 0.9985  –0.1780 pu
Case (iii):Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 & 0.25≤Q2≤1 pu.
If 0.25 ≤ Q2 ≤ 1.0 pu then the computed value of Q2 = 0.208 is less than the lower
limit. Hence, Q2 is set equal to 0.25 pu. Iterations are carried out with this value of Q 2.
The voltage magnitude at bus 2 can no longer be maintained at 1.04. Hence, there is
no necessity to adjust for the voltage magnitude. Proceeding as before we obtain at
the end of first iteration,
V 1 = 1.04  00 pu 0
V 1 = 1.05645  1.849 pu
1 2
1 0 1
V3 = 1.038546  –4.933 pu V4 = 1.081446  4.8960 pu
Limitations of GS load flow analysis:

GS method is very useful for very small systems. It is easily adoptable, it can be
generalized and it is very efficient for systems having less number of buses.
However, GS LFA fails to converge in systems with one or more of the features as
under:
- Systems having large number of radial lines
- Systems with short and long lines terminating on the same bus
- Systems having negative values of transfer admittances
- Systems with heavily loaded lines, etc.
GS method successfully converges in the absence of the above problems. However,

convergence also depends on various other set of factors such as: selection of slack
bus, initial solution, acceleration factor, tolerance limit, level of accuracy of results
needed, type and quality of computer/ software used, etc.

CHAPTER 3
NEWTON –RAPHSON METHOD
Newton-Raphson (NR) method is used to solve a system of non-linear algebraic

equations of the form f(x) =0. Consider a set of n non-linear algebraic equations
given by
fi (x1 , x2 .......xn ) 0 i  1,2......n (25)
Let x 0 ,x 0
...........x 0 , be the initial guess of unknown variables and
1 2 n
x 0 , x 0 ....... x 0 be the respective corrections. Therefore,

1 2 n
f (x 0  x0 , x 0  x 0 .........x 0  x 0
) 0 i  1,2......n (26)
i 1 1 2 2 n n
The above equation can be expanded using Taylor’s series to give

  0    fi  
f (x 0 , x 0 ........ x 0 ) +  fi  x  
0 fi x 0 
 
0
x
 
i 1 2 n   x   

 x
  x 
1 2
n

  2  1  n  
+ Higher order terms = 0  i  1,2......n (27)
 f 0  f 0  f 0
Where, 
 x
i 

 i
, x
 
 i 
, x
are the partial derivatives of fi withrespect
 1   2   n 
to x , x ........ x respectively, evaluated at ( x0 , x 0 ........... x n ). If the higher order terms
1 2 n 1 2 0
are neglected, then (27) can be written in matrix form as

 f 0  f 0  f 0 
 1  1   1   

f 0   x 
. . .  
x2 x x 0  
   n  0  1 0 
  f
1 0
 
0  
f f 0  f 
1

2   2    2  ...  2   x2 
 .   x1   x2   x n   . 

 . . ... .  . =0 (28)
 .     
 .    .  

. ... .
  . . ...  . 
0   f .  x n 0 
 nf 
  nx   
f n
 f
  . . . 

 
n

 
  1   x2  xn 
 
In vector form (28) can be written as
F 0  J 0 X 0  0
Or F 0  J 0 X 0
Or X 0  [J 0 ]1 F 0 (29)

And X  X  X 1 0 0
(30)
Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobian matrix. The vector of unknown variables
is updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two
successive iterations is less than the tolerance value.
NR method for load flow solution in polar coordinates

In application of the NR method, we have to first bring the equations to be solved, to
the form fi (x1 , x2 ,...xn )  0 , where x1 , x2 ,...xn are the unknown variables to be
determined. Let us assume that the power system has n1 PV buses and n2 PQ buses.
In polar coordinates the unknown variables to be determined are:
i , the angle of the complex bus voltage at bus i, at all the PV and PQ buses. This
gives us n1  n2 unknown variables to be determined.
Vi , the voltage magnitude of bus i, at all the PQ buses. This gives us n2 unknown
variables to be determined.
Therefore, the total number of unknown variables to be computed is: n1  2n2 , for
which we need n1  2n2 consistent equations to be solved. The equations are given
by,
P P 0
Pi i ,sp i ,cal
(31)
Q Q
Qi i ,sp i ,cal 0 (32)
P
Where i ,sp  Specified active power at bus i
Q
i ,sp  Specified reactive power at bus i
P
i ,cal  Calculated value of active power using voltage estimates.
Qi ,cal  Calculated value of reactive power using voltage estimates
P  Active power residue

Q  Reactive power residue
The real power is specified at all the PV and PQ buses. Hence (31) is to be solved at
all PV and PQ buses leading to n1  n2 equations. Similarly the reactive power is
specified at all the PQ buses. Hence, (32) is to be solved at all PQ buses leading to
n2 equations.

We thus have n1  2n2 equations to be solved for n1  2n2 unknowns. (31) and (32)
are of the form F(x) = 0. Thus NR method can be applied to solve them. Equations
(31) and (32) can be written in the form of (30) as:
P   J J   
  
 1 2   
(33)
Q J J 
  3 4 V 
Where J1 , J 2 , J 3 , J 4 are the negated partial derivatives of P and Q with respect
to corresponding  V. The negated partial derivative of P , is same as the
partial derivative of Pcal, since Psp is a constant. The various computations involved
are discussed in detail next.
Computation of Pcal and Qcal:

The real and reactive powers can be computed from the load flow equations as:
n
P i,Cal  Pi V V
i k Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik 
k 1

 G V  n
VV
ii i
2 i k Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik  (34)
k 1
k i
 Qi   Vi Vk Gik sin  ik  Bik cos  ik 

Q
i ,Cal
k 1

n
 Bii Vi 2   Vi Vk Gik sin  ik  Bik cos  ik  (35)

k 1
k i
The powers are computed at any r  1st iteration by using the voltages available
from previous iteration. The elements of the Jacobian are found using the above
equations as:
Elements of J1
n
Pi
  Vi Vk  Gik  sin  ik   Bik cos  ik 
 i k1
k i
 Qi  Bii Vi 2
Pi  V V G ( sin  )(1)  B (cos )(1)

 k i k ik ik ik ik

Elements of J3
n
Qi   Vi Vk Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik   Pi  Gii Vi 2

 i k 1
k i
Qi   V V G cos  B sin  

k i k ik ik ik ik
Elements of J2
Pi V i 2 Vi 2 Gii  Vi  Vk Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik   Pi  Vi 2 Gii
n
 Vi k 1
G k i 
Pi V  V V
V
cos  B sin 
 k k i k ik ik ik ik
Elements of J4
Pi V i  2 Vi 2 B ii  V i Vk Giksin ik  Bik cos  ik   Qi  Vi 2 Bii
n
 V i k 1
Gk i 
Qi V  V V sin   B cos
 Vk k i k ik ik ik ik
Thus, the linearized form of the equation could be considered again as:
 P   H N    
     V  
Q
   M L  
 V 

The elements are summarized below:
(i) H  Pi  Q  B V 2
ii i i ii i
H Pi
(ii) ik   af
k i bVi Vk Gik sin  ik coBs  ik 
 k k ei ik
(iii) N  Pi V  P  G V 2
 ii V
i i i ii i
(iv) N  Pi V  a e  b f  V V G cos  B sin  

ik  Vk k k i k i i k ik ik ik ik
(v) M  Qi  P  G V 2
ii i i ii i

(vi) M  Qi  (a e  b f )  N

 k
ik k i k i ik
(vii) L  Qi V  Q  B V 2
ii V i i ii i
(viii) L  Qi V  a f  b e H
ik Vk k k i k i ik
In the above equations,

YG
ik  jBik
ik
ek  jf k  Vk (cos k  j sin  k )
And ak  jbk  (Gik  jBik )(ek  jf k ) (36)
If Yik  0.0  j0.0 (if there is no line between buses i and k ) then the corresponding
off-diagonal elements in the Jacobian matrix will also be zero. Hence, the Jacobian
is also a sparse matrix.
Size of the sub-matrices of the Jacobian: The dimensions of the various sub-
matrices are as per the table below:
Matrix size
H (n1+n2)  (n1+n2)
N (n1+n2)  (n2)
M (n2)  (n1+n2)
L (n2)  (n2)
J (n1+2n2)  (n1+2n2)
∆P (n1+n2)  1
∆Q n2  1
∆δ (n1+n2)  1
V/ n2  1

ALGORITHM FOR NR METHOD

IN POLAR COORDINATES
Formulate the YBUS

Assume initial voltages as follows:
V
Vi  i ,sp 00 (at all PVbuses)
V i  100 (at all PQ buses)

3. At (r+1) iteration, calculate P ( r 1) at all the PV and PQ buses and Q (r 1) at all the
st
i i
PQ buses, using voltages from previous iteration, V (r ) . The formulae to be used are
i
n
 Pi  Gii Vi 2   Vi Vk Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik 

P
i ,Cal
k1
k i


n

 Bii Vi 2   Vi Vk Gik sin  ik  Bik cos  ik 

Q  Qi 
i ,Cal
k1
k i
4. Calculate the power mismatches (power residues)

P ( r )  P  P ( r 1) (at PV and PQ buses)
i i,sp i,cal
Q ( r )  Q  Q ( r 1) (at PQ buses)

i i,sp i,cal
5. Calculate the Jacobian [ J ( r ) ] usingVi (r ) and its elements spread over H, N, M,

L sub- matrices using the relations derived as in (36).
6. Compute
  ( r ) 
 P ( r )
(r)  ( r ) 1

 V
  [J ]  ( r ) 
 

Q
V
 
7. Update the variables as follows:
i (r 1)  i (r )  i (r ) (at all buses)

Vi ( r 1)  Vi ( r )  V i( r)
8. Go to step 3 and iterate till the power mismatches are within acceptable tolerance.

DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW
In the NR method, the inverse of the Jacobian has to be computed at every iteration.
When solving large interconnected power systems, alternative solution methods are
possible, taking into account certain observations made of practical systems. These
are,
 Change in voltage magnitude Vi at a bus primarily affects the flow of reactive

power Q in the lines and leaves the real power P unchanged. This observation
implies that Qi is much larger than Pi . Hence, in the Jacobian, the elements
 Vj  Vj
of the sub-matrix N , which contains terms that are partial derivatives of real
power with respect to voltage magnitudes can be made zero.
 Change in voltage phase angle at a bus, primarily affects the real power flow P
over the lines and the flow of Q is relatively unchanged. This observation implies
Pi Qi
that is much larger than . Hence, in the Jacobian the elements of the sub-
 j  j
matrix M , which contains terms that are partial derivatives of reactive power
with respect to voltage phase angles can be made zero.
These observations reduce the NRLF linearised form of equation to
 P  H 0   
     V  (37)

Q
  0 L 
 V 


From (37) it is obvious that the voltage angle corrections  are obtained using real
power residues P and the voltage magnitude corrections V are obtained from
reactive power residues Q . This equation can be solved through two alternate
strategies as under:


Strategy-1
r     
(i) Calculate P , Q r and J r 
  r  
r 
V r P 
Q 
Compute    



V r   
r
  

Update  and . 


Jr1
Go to step (i) and iterate till convergence is reached.
In the first strategy, the variables are solved simultaneously. In the second strategy
the iteration is conducted by first solving for  and using updated values of  to
calculate V . Hence, the second strategy results in faster convergence, compared to
the first strategy.
FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW
If the coefficient matrices are constant, the need to update the

 Vr   V r 
Jacobian at every iteration is eliminated. This has resulted in
development of fast decoupled load Flow (FDLF). Here, certain assumptions are
made based on the observations of practical power systems as under:
X
 Bij >>Gij (Since the R ratio of transmission lines is high in well designed
systems)
 The voltage angle difference i   j  between two buses in the system is
very
small. This means cos i   j   1and sin i   j   0.0
 Qi  Vi 2
With these assumptions the elements of the Jacobian become

B
H ik  Lik   Vi Vk ik i  k 
HL  B V 2
ii ii ii i
The matrix (37) reducesVtoV 


P i j 
  Bij  

 V
V
Q   Vi j Bij (38)
V


Where B and B are negative of the susceptances of respective elements of the bus admittance matrix.
V
In (38) if we divide LHS and RHS by Vi and assume we get, j  1,
 P 
  


 B

ij
 V 
 
    V 
 Q   Bij    (39)
V





V 



Equations (39) constitute the Fast Decoupled load flow equations. Further
simplification is possible by:
 Omitting effect of phase shifting transformers
 Setting off-nominal turns ratio of transformers to 1.0
 In forming B , omitting the effect of shunt reactors and capacitors which
ij
mainly affect reactive power

 Ignoring series resistance of lines in forming the Ybus.
with these assumptions we obtain a loss-less network. In the FDLF method, the
matrices B and B are constants and need to be inverted only once at the
beginning of the iterations.
REPRESENTATION OF TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
Consider a tap changing transformer represented by its admittance connected in

series with an ideal autotransformer as shown (a= turns ratio of transformer)
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of a tap setting transformer

Fig. 3. π-Equivalent circuit of Fig.2 above.
By equating the bus currents in both the mutually equivalent circuits as above, it can
be shown that the π-equivalent circuit parameters are given by the expressions as
under:
(i) Fixed tap setting transformers (on no load)
A = Ypq/ a
B = 1/a (1/a -1) Ypq
C = (1-1/a) Ypq (i) Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers (on load)
A = Ypq
B = (1/a -1) (1/a + 1 – Eq/Ep) Ypq
C = (1-1/a) (Ep/Eq) Ypq
Thus, here, in the case of TCUL transformers, the shunt admittance values are
observed to be a function of the bus voltages.
COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW METHODS
The comparison of the methods should take into account the computing time
required for preparation of data in proper format and data processing, programming
ease, storage requirements, computation time per iteration, number of iterations,
ease and time required for modifying network data when operating conditions
change, etc. Since all the methods presented are in the bus frame of reference in
admittance form, the data preparation is same for all the methods and the bus
admittance matrix can be formed using a simple algorithm, by the rule of inspection.
Due to simplicity of the equations, Gauss-Seidel method is relatively easy to

program. Programming of NR method is more involved and becomes more

complicated if the buses are randomly numbered. It is easier to program, if the PV
buses are ordered in sequence and PQ buses are also ordered in sequence.
The storage requirements are more for the NR method, since the Jacobian elements have
to be stored. The memory is further increased for NR method using rectangular
coordinates. The storage requirement can be drastically reduced by using sparse matrix
techniques, since both the admittance matrix and the Jacobian are sparse matrices. The
time taken for a single iteration depends on the number of arithmetic and logical
operations required to be performed in a full iteration. The Gauss –Seidel method
requires the fewest number of operations to complete iteration. In the NR method, the
computation of the Jacobian is necessary in every iteration. Further, the inverse of the
Jacobian also has to be computed. Hence, the time per iteration is larger than in the GS
method and is roughly about 7 times that of the GS method, in large systems, as
depicted graphically in figure below. Computation time can be reduced if the Jacobian
is updated once in two or three iterations. In FDLF method, the Jacobian is constant
and needs to be computed only once. In both NR and FDLF methods, the time per
iteration increases directly as the number of buses.
Figure 4. Time per Iteration in GS and NR methods

The number of iterations is determined by the convergence characteristic of the
method. The GS method exhibits a linear convergence characteristic as compared to
the NR method which has a quadratic convergence. Hence, the GS method requires
more number of iterations to get a converged solution as compared to the NR
method. In the GS method, the number of iterations increases directly as the size of

the system increases. In contrast, the number of iterations is relatively constant in

NR and FDLF methods. They require about 5-8 iterations for convergence in large
systems. A significant increase in rate of convergence can be obtained in the GS
method if an acceleration factor is used. All these variations are shown graphically
in figure below. The number of iterations also depends on the required accuracy of
the solution. Generally, a voltage tolerance of 0.0001 pu is used to obtain acceptable
accuracy and the real power mismatch and reactive power mismatch can be taken as
0.001 pu. Due to these reasons, the NR method is faster and more reliable for large
systems. The convergence of FDLF method is geometric and its speed is nearly 4-5
times that of NR method.
Figure 5. Total time of Iteration in GS and NR methods
Figure 6. Influence of acceleration

factor on load flow methods
FINAL WORD
In this chapter, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has been
considered in detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the buses
and the complex power flows in the lines. Though, algorithms are available using the
impedance form of the equations, the sparsity of the bus admittance matrix and the ease
of building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms using the admittance form
of equations more popular.
The most popular methods are the Gauss-Seidel method, the Newton-Raphson
method and the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method. These methods have been
discussed in detail with illustrative examples. In smaller systems, the ease of
programming and the memory requirements, make GS method attractive. However, the
computation time increases with increase in the size of the system. Hence, in large
systems NR and FDLF methods are more popular. There is a trade off between various
requirements like speed, storage, reliability, computation time, convergence
characteristics etc. No single method has all the desirable features. However, NR
method is most popular because of its versatility, reliability and accuracy

CHAPTER 4
REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

[CONTENTS: One line diagram, impedance diagram, reactance diagram, per unit
quantities, per unit impedance diagram, formation of bus admittance &
impedance matrices, examples]
One Line Diagram
In practice, electric power systems are very complex and their size is unwieldy. It is
very difficult to represent all the components of the system on a single frame. The
complexities could be in terms of various types of protective devices, machines
(transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence,
for the purpose of power system analysis, a simple single phase equivalent circuit is
developed called, the one line diagram (OLD) or the single line diagram (SLD). An
SLD is thus, the concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be noted
that a given SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system
analysis/study under consideration. For example, the details of protective devices need
not be shown for load flow analysis nor it is necessary to show the details of shunt
values for stability studies.
Symbols used for SLD

Various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines as single
phase equivalents on the SLD,. Some of the important symbols used are as listed in the
table of Figure 1.

Example system
Consider for illustration purpose, a sample example power system and data as under:
Generator 1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X”= 1.6 ohms, Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6 KV, X”=
ohms, Generator 3: 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X”= 0.56 ohms, Transformer 1 (3-phase):
15 MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2 ohms/phase on HT side, Transformer 2 (3-phase): 15
MVA, 33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on HT side, Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per
phase, Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF (lag); and Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF
(lag). The corresponding SLD incorporating the standard symbols can be shown as in
figure 2.

It is observed here, that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L voltage and
per phase Y-equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L
voltage transformation ratio and per phase Y-equivalent impedance on any one side and
the loads are specified in 3-phase MW, L-L voltage and power factor.
Impedance Diagram
The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions can be
easily drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in obtaining the
impedance diagrams.
Assumptions:
The single phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedances on
appropriate side (LV/HV),
The magnetizing reactances of transformers are negligible,
The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series resistance or
reactance,
The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series branch of
resistance or reactance and
Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do
not appear in the impedance diagram.
Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the system of figure 2, the
impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.

Reactance Diagram
With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance diagram can
be simplified further to obtain the corresponding reactance diagram. The following are
the assumptions made.
Additional assumptions:
 The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a very
negligible error since, resistances are negligible
 Loads are Omitted
 Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
 Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.
Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2 and
figure 3, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 4.
Note: These impedance & reactance diagrams are also refered as the Positive
Sequence Diagrams/ Networks.
Per Unit Quantities

during the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current, voltage,
impedance, power, etc., of an electric power system in per unit or percentage of the
base or reference value of the respective quantities. The numerical per unit (pu) value of
any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base value of the same dimension. Thus a pu value
is a normalized quantity with respect to the chosen base value.
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any
given unit to the base value in the same unit. The percent value is 100 times the pu
value. Both the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the use of actual values.
Further, the main advantage in using the pu system of computations is that the result
that comes out of the sum, product, quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is expressed
in per unit itself.

In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current, voltage,
complex power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the phase angle is
dimensionless and the other four quantities can be described by knowing any two of
them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base values will evidently fix the
other base values.
Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the complex
power rating in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen for complex
power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen base MVA is the same for all the
parts of the system. However, the base voltage is chosen with reference to a particular
section of the system and the other base voltages (with reference to the other sections of
the systems, these sections caused by the presence of the transformers) are then related
to the chosen one by the turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.
If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilovolts, then the
base MVA is, Sb = (VbIb). Then the base values of current & impedance are given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb =
Sb/Vb (1.1)
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
= (KVb2 / MVAb) (1.2)
Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Z /Z
ohms b
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2) (1.3)
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA. [1-
phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].
Changing the base of a given pu value:

It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional directly to
new
the base MVA and inversely to the square of the base KV. If Zpu is the pu impedance
required to be calculated on a new set of base values: MVA bnew & KV
new
from the
old b
already given per unit impedance Zpu , specified on the old set of base values,
old old
MVA b & KV , then we have
Z new = Z b
old new old) (KV old/KVnew)2 (1.4)
pu pu (MVAb /MVA b b b
On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the given pu
impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value on the new set of base
values.
Merits and Demerits of pu System

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system of
computations in electric power systems:
Merits:

 The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
 The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when
refereed to either side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is
totally eliminated
 The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the erors
involved in pu computations are very less.
 Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name
plateratings, etc.
Demerits:
If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd
(such as 5.8 pu, -18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However,
this problem can be avoided by selecting the base MVA near the high-rated
equipment and a convenient base KV in any section of the system.
(iv) pu Impedance / Reactance Diagram

for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or
reactance diagram as explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the
properly selected base values of the system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit
impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the
procedural steps involved:
Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
Choose a common base MVA for the system
Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
Find the base KV of all the sections present
Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.
Formation Of YBUS & ZBUS
The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three

different frames of reference as discussed below:
Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating
the bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus
admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1.5)
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of
a selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents
and voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
EBR = ZBR IBR
IBR = YBR EBR (1.6)

Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents
and voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP
ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP (1.7)
Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and
the bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule
of inspection as explained next.
Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law
principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:
At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (1.8)
These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and they
can be represented in matrix form as:
I1 = (Y1+Y3 +Y6)-Y6 -Y3 V1

I2 = -Y6 (Y2+Y5 +Y6) -Y5 V2
0 = -Y 3 -Y 5 (Y 3 +Y 4+Y5) V3 (1.9)
In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1.10)
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current
and bus voltage vectors respectively.
By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, Y BUS of equation (9), it is
observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of the
given system diagram:

Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal
to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element
present between the buses I and j, if any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the
rule of inspection are obtained as:
Yii =  yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (1.11)
For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).
Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, then it cannot be formed by
direct inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix
determined by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be
inverted to obtain the bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are inter-invertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.
Examples
I EXAMPLES ON RULE OF INSPECTION:
Problem #1: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside
by the rule of inspection
16 -8 -4
YBUS = -8 24 -8
-4 -8 16
Problem #2: Obtain YBUS and ZBUS matrices for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS
for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible unwanted node. Draw the
resulting reduced system diagram. EMUIT
DEPT. OF EEE V Page 101

-9. 8 54
YBUS = 5 -16 10
4 10 -14
ZBUS = Y BUS-1
New -1
YBUS = YA-YBYD YC
YBUS = -8.66 7.86

7.86 -8.86

II EXAMPLES ON PER UNIT ANALYSIS:
Problem #1:
Two generators rated 10 MVA, 13.2 KV and 15 MVA, 13.2 KV are connected in
parallel to a bus bar. They feed supply to 2 motors of inputs 8 MVA and 12 MVA
respectively. The operating voltage of motors is 12.5 KV. Assuming the base quantities
as 50 MVA, 13.8 KV, draw the per unit reactance diagram. The percentage reactance
for generators is 15% and that for motors is 20%.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1(a).
Selection of base quantities: 50 MVA, 13.8 KV (Given)

Calculation of pu values:
XG1 = j 0.15 (50/10) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.6862 pu.
XG2 = j 0.15 (50/15) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.4574 pu.
2
Xm1 = j 0.2 (50/8) (12.5/13.8) = j 1.0256 pu.
2
Xm2 = j 0.2 (50/12) (12.5/13.8) = j 0.6837 pu.
Eg1 = Eg2 = (13.2/13.8) = 0.9565 00 pu
Em1 = Em2 = (12.5/13.8) = 0.9058 00 pu
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P1(b).

Problem #2:
Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a
base of 11 KV, 100 MVA in the generator circuit.
Solution:

The one line diagram with the data is considered as shown in figure.
Selection of base quantities:

100 MVA, 11 KV in the generator circuit(Given); the voltage bases in other sections
are: 11 (115/11.5) = 110 KV in the transmission line circuit and 110 (6.6/11.5) = 6.31
KV in the motor circuit.
XG = j 0.1 pu, Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.
Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.
Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.
Eg = 1.000 pu, Em = (6.6/6.31) = 1.04500 pu
Problem #3:
A 30 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The
generator supplies 2 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-
down transformer arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 20 MVA and 10 MVA
at 12.8 KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are rated
at 35 MVA, 13.2 KV- /115 KV-Y with 10 % leakage reactance. The line reactance is
80 ohms. Draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram by selecting the generator
ratings as base values in the generator circuit.

Solution:

30 MVA, 13.8 KV in the generator circuit(Given);
The voltage bases in other sections are:

13.8 (115/13.2) = 120.23 KV in the transmission line circuit
and 120.23 (13.26/115) = 13.8 KV in the motor circuit.
XG = j 0.15 pu.
Xm1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516 pu.
Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.2581 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2= j 0.0784 pu.
Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.
Eg = 1.000 pu; Em1 = Em2 = (6.6/6.31) = 0.9300 pu


Problem #4:
A 33 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. The
generator supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-
down transformer arrangement. The motor has rated input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with
25% sub transient reactance. Draw the equivalent per unit impedance diagram by
selecting 25 MVA (3), 6.6 KV (LL) as base values in the motor circuit, given the
transformer and transmission line data as under:
Step up transformer bank: three single phase units, connected –Y, each rated 10
MVA, 13.2/6.6 KV with 7.7 % leakage reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;
Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm/ KM and
a resistance of 0.2 ohm/ KM; and
Step down transformer bank: three single phase units, connected –Y, each rated 8.33
MVA, 110/3.98 KV with 8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance;
Solution:

3-phase ratings of transformers:
T1: 3(10) = 30 MVA, 13.2/ 66.43 KV = 13.2/ 115 KV, X = 0.077, R = 0.005 pu. T 2:
3(8.33) = 25 MVA, 110/ 3.983 KV = 110/ 6.8936 KV, X = 0.08, R = 0.008 pu.

25 MVA, 6.6 KV in the motor circuit (Given); the voltage bases in other sections are:
6.6 (110/6.8936) = 105.316 KV in the transmission line circuit and 105.316 (13.2/115)
= 12.09 KV in the generator circuit.
Xm = j 0.25 pu; Em = 1.000 pu.
XG = j 0.005 (25/33) (13.8/12.09)2 = j 0.005 pu; Eg = 13.8/12.09 = 1.41400 pu.
2
Zt1 = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09) = 0.005 + j 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV side)
2
Zt2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316) = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV side)
Zline = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/ 105.3162) = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu.

1.8 Exercises for Practice
Problems
1. Determine the reactances of the three generators rated as follows on a common base
of 200 MVA, 35 KV: Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 KV, sub transient reactance of 10%;
Generator 2: 150 MVA, 32 KV, sub transient reactance of 8% and Generator 3: 110
MVA, 30 KV, sub transient reactance of 12%.
[Answers: XG1 = j 0.1778, Xg2 = j 0.089, Xg3 = j 0.16 all in per unit]
2. A 100 MVA, 33 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The
generator supplies 3 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-
down transformer arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA and
50 MVA, at 30 KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers
are rated at 100 MVA, 32 KV- /110 KV-Y with 8 % leakage reactance. The line has a
reactance of 50 ohms. By selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator
circuit, determine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the
corresponding pu values and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
[Answers: XG = j 0.15, Xm1 = j 0.551, Xm2 = j 0.826, Xm3 = j 0.331, Eg1=1.0 00, Em1 = Em2
Em3 = 0.9100, Xt1 = Xt2 = j 0.0775 and Xline = j 0.39 all in per unit]
6. A 80 MVA, 10 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 10%. The
generator supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down
transformer arrangement. The motor has rated input of 95 MVA, 6.3 KV with 15% sub
transient reactance. The step-up 3-phase transformer is rated at 90 MVA, 11 KV-Y /110
KV-Y with 10% leakage reactance. The 3-phase step-down transformer consists of three
single phase Y- connected transformers, each rated at 33.33 MVA, 68/6.6 KV with
10% leakage reactance. The line has a reactance of 20 ohms. By selecting the 11 KV,
100 MVA as base values in the generator circuit, determine the base values in all the
other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values and draw the
equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
[Answers: XG = j 1.103, Xm = j 0.165, Eg1=0.9100, Em= 1.02200, Xt1 = j 0.11, Xt2 = j
0.114 and Xline = j 0.17 all in per unit]
4. For the three-phase system shown below, draw an impedance diagram expressing all
impedances in per unit on a common base of 20 MVA, 2600 V on the HV side of the
transformer. Using this impedance diagram, find the HV and LV currents.

[Answers: Sb = 20 MVA; Vb=2.6 KV (HV) and 0.2427 KV (LV); Vt=1.000, Xt = j

0.107, Zcable = 0.136 +j 0.204 and Zload = 5.66 + j 2.26, I = 0.158 all in per
unit, I (hv)= 0.7 A and I (lv) = 7.5 A]
Objective type questions
(iv) Under no load conditions the current in a transmission line is due to.
Corona effects
Capacitance of the line
Back flow from earth
None of the above
(v) In the short transmission line which of the following is used?
 - Model
T – Model
Both (a) and (b)
None of the above
(vi) In the short transmission line which of the following is neglected?
I2 R loss
Shunt admittance
Series impedance
All of the above
(vii) Which of the following loss in a transformer is zero even at full load?
Eddy current
Hysteresis
Core loss
Friction loss
(viii) The transmission line conductors are transposed to
Balance the current
Obtain different losses
Obtain same line drops
Balance the voltage
[Ans.: 1(b), 2(a), 3(b), 4(d), 5(c)]

SYMMETRICAL THREE PHASE FAULTS
[CONTENTS: Preamble, transients on a transmission line, short circuit of an unloaded

synchronous machine- short circuit currents and reactances, short circuit of a loaded
machine, selection of circuit breaker ratings, examples]
Preamble
in practice, any disturbance in the normal working conditions is termed as a FAULT.

The effect of fault is to load the device electrically by many times greater than its
normal rating and thus damage the equipment involved. Hence all the equipment in the
fault line should be protected from being overloaded. In general, overloading involves
the increase of current up to 10-15 times the rated value. In a few cases, like the
opening or closing of a circuit breaker, the transient voltages also may overload the
equipment and damage them.
In order to protect the equipment during faults, fast acting circuit breakers are put in the
lines. To design the rating of these circuit breakers or an auxiliary device, the fault
current has to be predicted. By considering the equivalent per unit reactance diagrams,
the various faults can be analyzed to determine the fault parameters. This helps in the
protection and maintenance of the equipment.
Faults can be symmetrical or unsymmetrical faults. In symmetrical faults, the fault

quantity rises to several times the rated value equally in all the three phases. For
example, a 3-phase fault - a dead short circuit of all the three lines not involving the
ground. On the other hand, the unsymmetrical faults may have the connected fault
quantities in a random way. However, such unsymmetrical faults can be analyzed by
using the Symmetrical Components. Further, the neutrals of the machines and
equipment may or may not be grounded or the fault may occur through fault
impedance. The three-phase fault involving ground is the most severe fault among the
various faults encountered in electric power systems.
Transients on a transmission line
Now, let us Consider a transmission line of resistance R and inductance L supplied by

an ac source of voltage v, such that v = Vm sin (t+) as shown in figure 1. Consider
the short circuit transient on this transmission line. In order to analyze this symmetrical
3-phase fault, the following assumptions are made:
 The supply is a constant voltage source,
 The short circuit occurs when the line is unloaded and

 The line capacitance is negligible.
Figure 1. Short Circuit Transients on an Unloaded Line.
Thus the line can be modeled by a lumped R-L series circuit. Let the short circuit take
place at t=0. The parameter,  controls the instant of short circuit on the voltage wave.
From basic circuit theory, it is observed that the current after short circuit is composed
of the two parts as under: i =is +it, Where, is is the steady state current and it is the
transient current. These component currents are determined as follows.
Consider, v = Vm sin (t+)
= iR + L (di/dt) (2.1)
and i = Im sin (t+-) (22.)
2 2 -1
Where Vm = 2V; Im = 2I; Zmag = [R +(L) ]= tan (L/R) (2.3)
Thus is = [Vm/Z] sin (t+-) (2.4)
Consider the performance equation of the circuit of figure 1 under circuit as:
iR + L (di/dt) = 0
i.e., (R/L + d/dt)i = 0 (2.5)
In order to solve the equation (5), consider the complementary function part of the
solution as:CF = C1 e(-t/) (2.6)
Where  (= L/R) is the time constant and C1 is a constant given by the value of steady
state current at t = 0. Thus we have,
C1 = -is(0)
= - [Vm/Z] sin (-)
= [Vm/Z] sin (-) (2.7)
Similarly the expression for the transient part is given by:
it = -is(0) e(-t/)
= [Vm/Z] sin (-) e(-R/L)t (2.8)
Thus the total current under short circuit is given by the solution of equation (1) as
[combining equations (4) and (8)],

i =is +it
= [2V/Z] sin (t+-) + [2V/Z] sin (-) e(-R/L)t (2.9)
Thus, is is the sinusoidal steady state current called as the symmetrical short circuit current
and it is the unidirectional value called as the DC off-set current. This causes the total
current to be unsymmetrical till the transient decays, as clearly shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. Plot of Symmetrical short circuit current, i(t).
The maximum momentary current, imm thus corresponds to the first peak. Hence, if the
decay in the transient current during this short interval of time is neglected, then we
have (sum of the two peak values);
imm = [2V/Z] sin (-) + [2V/Z] (2.10)
now, since the resistance of the transmission line is very small, the impedance angle ,
can be taken to be approximately equal to 900. Hence, we have
imm = [2V/Z] cos  + [2V/Z] (2.11)

This value is maximum when the value of  is equal to zero. This value corresponds to
the short circuiting instant of the voltage wave when it is passing through zero. Thus the
final expression for the maximum momentary current is obtained as:
imm = 2 [2V/Z] (2.12)
Thus it is observed that the maximum momentary current is twice the maximum value
of symmetrical short circuit current. This is refered as the doubling effect of the short
circuit current during the symmetrical fault on a transmission line.
Short circuit of an unloaded synchronous machine
Short Circuit Reactances

Under steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction in synchronous
generator produces a demagnetizing effect. This effect can be modeled as a reactance,
Xa in series with the induced emf and the leakage reactance, Xl of the machine as
shown in figure 3. Thus the equivalent reactance is given by:
Xd = Xa +Xl (2.13)
Where Xd is called as the direct axis synchronous reactance of the synchronous
machine. Consider now a sudden three-phase short circuit of the synchronous generator
on no-load. The machine experiences a transient in all the 3 phases, finally ending up in
steady state conditions.
Figure 3. Steady State Short Circuit Model
Immediately after the short circuit, the symmetrical short circuit current is limited only
by the leakage reactance of the machine. However, to encounter the demagnetization of
the armature short circuit current, current appears in field and damper windings,
assisting the rotor field winding to sustain the air-gap flux. Thus during the initial part
of the short circuit, there is mutual coupling between stator, rotor and damper windings
and hence the corresponding equivalent circuit would be as shown in figure 4. Thus the
equivalent reactance is given by:
Xd” = Xl +[1/Xa + 1/Xf + 1/Xdw]-1 (2.14)

Where Xd” is called as the sub-transient reactance of the synchronous machine. Here,
the equivalent resistance of the damper winding is more than that of the rotor field
winding. Hence, the time constant of the damper field winding is smaller. Thus the
damper field effects and the eddy currents disappear after a few cycles.
Figure 4. Model during Sub-transient Period of Short Circuit
In other words, Xdw gets open circuited from the model of Figure 5 to yield the model
as shown in figure 4. Thus the equivalent reactance is given by:
Xd’ = Xl +[1/Xa + 1/Xf ]-1 (2.15)
Where Xd’ is called as the transient reactance of the synchronous machine.
Subsequently, X f also gets open circuited depending on the field winding time constant
and yields back the steady state model of figure 3.
Figure 5. Model during transient Period of Short Circuit
Thus the machine offers a time varying reactance during short circuit and this value of
reactance varies from initial stage to final one such that: Xd  Xd’  Xd’
Short Circuit Current Oscillogram

Consider the oscillogram of short circuit current of a synchronous machine upon the
occurrence of a fault as shown in figure 6. The symmetrical short circuit current can be
divided into three zones: the initial sub transient period, the middle transient period and
finally the steady state period. The corresponding reactances, Xd,” Xd’ and Xd
respectively, are offered by the synchronous machine during these time periods

.
Figure 6. SC current Oscillogram of Armature Current.
The currents and reactances during the three zones of period are related as under in
terms of the intercepts on the oscillogram (oa, ob and oc are the y-intercepts as
indicated in figure 6):
RMS value of the steady state current = I = [oa/2] = [Eg/Xd]
RMS value of the transient current = I’ = [ob/2] = [Eg/Xd’]
RMS value of the sub transient current = I = [oc/2] = [Eg/Xd”] (2.16)
short circuit of a loaded machine

In the analysis of section 2.3 above, it has been assumed that the machine operates at no
load prior to the occurrence of the fault. On similar lines, the analysis of the fault
occurring on a loaded machine can also be considered.
Figure 7 gives the circuit model of a synchronous generator operating under steady state
conditions supplying a load current Il to the bus at a terminal voltage V t. Eg is the
induced emf under the loaded conditions and Xd is the direct axis synchronous
reactance of the generator.
Figure 7. Circuit models for a fault on a loaded machine.

Also shown in figure 7, are the circuit models to be used for short circuit current
calculations when a fault occurs at the terminals of the generator, for sub-transient
current and transient current values. The induced emf values used in these models are
given by the expressions as under:
Eg = Vt + j ILXd = Voltage behind syn. reactance

Eg’= Vt + j ILXd’ = Voltage behind transient reactance
Eg“= Vt + j ILXd” = Voltage behind subtr. Reactance (2.17)
The synchronous motors will also have the terminal emf values and reactances.
However, then the current direction is reversed. During short circuit studies, they can be
replaced by circuit models similar to those shown in figure 7 above, except that the
voltages are given by the relations as under:
Em = Vt - j ILXd = Voltage behind syn. reactance

Em’= Vt - j ILXd’ = Voltage behind transient reactance
Em“= Vt - j ILXd” = Voltage behind subtr. Reactance (2.18)
The circuit models shown above for the synchronous machines are also very useful
while dealing with the short circuit of an interconnected system.
Selection of circuit breaker ratings

For selection of circuit breakers, the maximum momentary current is considered
corresponding to its maximum possible value. Later, the current to be interrupted is
usually taken as symmetrical short circuit current multiplied by an empirical factor in
order to account for the DC off-set current. A value of 1.6 is usually selected as the
multiplying factor.
Normally, both the generator and motor reactances are used to determine the momentary
current flowing on occurrence of a short circuit. The interrupting capacity of a circuit
breaker is decided by Xd” for the generators and X d’ for the motors.
Examples
Problem #1: A transmission line of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 5  is suddenly

short circuited at t = 0, at the far end of a transmission line and is supplied by an ac
source of voltage v = 100 sin (100t+150). Write the expression for the short circuit
current, i(t). Find the approximate value of the first current maximum for the given
values of  and . What is this value for =0, and =900? What should be the instant of
short circuit so that the DC offset current is (i)zero and (ii)maximum?

Solution:
Figure P1.
Consider the expression for voltage applied to the transmission system given by
v = Vm sin(t+) = 100 sin (100t+150)
Thus we get: Vm = 100 volts; f = 50 Hz and  = 150.
Consider the impedance of the circuit given by:
Z = R + jL = 5 + j (100) (0.1) = 5 + j 31.416 ohms.
Thus we have: Zmag=31.8113 Ohms; =80.9570 and =L/R=0.1/5=0.02
seconds. The short circuit current is given by:
i(t) = [Vm/Z] sin (t+-) + [Vm/Z] sin (-) e-(R/L)t
[100/31.8113] [sin (100t+150-80.9570) + sin(80.9570-150) e-(t/0.02)]
3.1435 sin(314.16 t – 65.96) +2.871 e–50t
Thus we have:
i) imm = 3.1435 + 2.871 e–50t
where t is the time instant of maximum of symmetrical short circuit current. This instant
occurs at (314.16 tc – 65.960) = 900 ; Solving we get, t = 0.00867 seconds so that imm =
5 Amps.
ii) imm = 2Vm/Z = 6.287 A; for =0, and =900 (Also, imm = 2 (3.1435) = 6.287 A)
iii) DC offset current = [Vm/Z] sin (-) e-(R/L)t
= zero, if (-) = zero, i.e.,  = , or  = 80.9570
0 0
= maximum if (-) = 90 , i.e.,  =  - 90 , or  = - 9.0430.
Problem #2: A 25 MVA, 11 KV, 20% generator is connected through a step-up

transformer- T1 (25 MVA, 11/66 KV, 10%), transmission line (15% reactance on a base
of 25 MVA, 66 KV) and step-down transformer-T2 (25 MVA, 66/6.6 KV, 10%) to a
bus that supplies 3 identical motors in parallel (all motors rated: 5 MVA, 6.6 KV, 25%).
A circuit breaker-A is used near the primary of the transformer T1 and breaker-B is
used near the motor M3. Find the symmetrical currents to be interrupted by circuit
breakers A and B for a fault at a point P, near the circuit breaker B.

Solution:
Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base values are
selected as under:
Figure P2(a)
Selection of bases:
Sb = 25 MVA (common); Vb = 11 KV (Gen. circuit)- chosen so that then Vb = 66 KV
(line circuit) and Vb = 6.6 KV (Motor circuit).
Pu values:
Xg=j0.2 pu, Xt1=Xt2=j0.1 pu; Xm1=Xm2=Xm3=j0.25(25/5)=j1.25 pu; Xline=j0.15 pu.
Since the system is operating at no load, all the voltages before fault are 1 pu.
Considering the pu reactance diagram with the faults at P, we have:
Figure P2(b)
Current to be interrupted by circuit breaker A = 1.0 /j[0.2+0.1+0.15+0.1]

= - j 1.818 pu = - j 1.818 (25/[3(11)]) = - j 1.818 (1.312) KA = 2.386 KA
And Current to be interrupted by breaker B = 1/j1.25 = - j 0.8 pu
= - j0.8 (25/[3(6.6)]) = - j0.8 (2.187) KA = 1.75 KA.

Problem #3: Two synchronous motors are connected to a large system bus through a
short line. The ratings of the various components are: Motors(each)= 1 MVA, 440
volts, 0.1 pu reactance; line of 0.05 ohm reactance and the short circuit MVA at the bus
of the large system is 8 at 440 volts. Calculate the symmetrical short circuit current fed
into a three-phase fault at the motor bus when the motors are operating at 400 volts.
Solution:
Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base values are
selected as under:
Figure P3.
Sb = 1 MVA; Vb = 0.44 KV (common)- chosen so that Xm(each)=j0.1 pu, Em =
1.000, Xline=j0.05 (1/0.442) = j 0.258 pu and Xlarge-system -= (1/8) = j 0.125 pu.
Thus the prefault voltage at the motor bus; Vt = 0.4/0.44 = 0.90900,
Short circuit current fed to the fault at motor bus (If = YV);
If = [0.125 + 0.258]-1 + 2.0 }0.909 = [20.55 pu] [1000/(3(0.4))]
= 20.55 (1.312) KA = 26.966 KA.
Problem #4: A generator-transformer unit is connected to a line through a circuit

breaker. The unit ratings are: Gen.: 10 MVA, 6.6 KV, Xd” = 0.1 pu, Xd’ = 0.2 pu and
Xd = 0.8 pu; and Transformer: 10 MVA, 6.9/33 KV, X l = 0.08 pu; The system is
operating on no-load at a line voltage of 30 KV, when a three-phase fault occurs on the
line just beyond the circuit breaker. Determine the following:
Initial symmetrical RMS current in the breaker,
Maximum possible DC off-set current in the breaker,
Momentary current rating of the breaker,
Current to be interrupted by the breaker and the interrupting KVA and
Sustained short circuit current in the breaker.
Solution:

Consider the base values selected as 10 MVA, 6.6 KV (in the generator circuit) and
6.6(33/6.9) = 31.56 KV(in the transformer circuit). Thus the base current is:
Ib = 10 / [3(31.56)] = 0.183 KA
The pu values are: Xd” = 0.1 pu, Xd’ = 0.2 pu and Xd = 0.8 pu; and X Tr = 0.08
(6.9/6.6)2 = 0.0874 pu; Vt = (30/31.6) = 0.9500 pu.
Initial symmetrical RMS current = 0.9500 / [0.1 + 0.0874] = 5.069 pu = 0.9277
KA; Maximum possible DC off-set current = 2 (0.9277) = 1.312 KA;
Momentary current rating = 1.6(0.9277) = 1.4843 KA; (assuming 60%
allowance) Current to be interrupted by the breaker (5 Cycles) = 1.1(0.9277) =
1.0205 KA; Interrupting MVA = 3(30) (1.0205) = 53.03 MVA;
Sustained short circuit current in the breaker = 0.9500 (0.183) / [0.8 +
0.0874] = 0.1959 KA.
Exercises for Practice
PROBLEMS
1. The one line diagram for a radial system network consists of two generators, rated 10
MVA, 15% and 10 MVA, 12.5 % respectively and connected in parallel to a bus bar A
at 11 KV. Supply from bus A is fed to bus B (at 33 KV) through a transformer T1
(rated: 10 MVA, 10%) and OH line (30 KM long). A transformer T2 (rated: 5 MVA,
8%) is used in between bus B (at 33 KV) and bus C (at 6.6 KV). The length of cable
running from the bus C up to the point of fault, F is 3 KM. Determine the current and
line voltage at 11 kV bus A under fault conditions, when a fault occurs at the point F,
given that Zcable = 0.135 + j 0.08 ohm/ kM and ZOH-line = 0.27 + j 0.36 ohm/kM.
[Answer: 9.62 kV at the 11 kV bus]
2. A generator (rated: 25MVA, 12. KV, 10%) supplies power to a motor (rated: 20
MVA, 3.8 KV, 10%) through a step-up transformer (rated:25 MVA, 11/33 KV, 8%),
transmission line (of reactance 20 ohms) and a step-down transformer (rated:20 MVA,
33/3.3 KV, 10%). Write the pu reactance diagram. The system is loaded such that the
motor is drawing 15 MW at 0.9 leading power factor, the motor terminal voltage being
3.1 KV. Find the sub-transient current in the generator and motor for a fault at the
generator bus. [Answer: Ig” = 9.337 KA; Im” = 6.9 KA]
3. A synchronous generator feeds bus 1 and a power network feed bus 2 of a system.
Buses 1 and 2 are connected through a transformer and a line. Per unit reactances of the
components are: Generator(bus-1):0.25; Transformer:0.12 and Line:0.28. The power
network is represented by a generator with an unknown reactance in series. With the
generator on no-load and with 1.0 pu voltage at each bus, a three phase fault occurring
on bus-1 causes a current of 5 pu to flow into the fault. Determine the equivalent
reactance of the power network. [Answer: X = 0.6 pu]
4. A synchronous generateor, rated 500 KVA, 440 Volts, 0.1 pu sub-transient reactance
is supplying a passive load of 400 KW, at 0.8 power factor (lag). Calculate the initial
symmetrical RMS current for a three-phase fault at the generator terminals.
[Answer: Sb=0.5 MVA; Vb=0.44 KV; load=0.8–36.90; Ib=0.656 KA; If=6.97 KA]

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. When a 1-phase supply is across a 1-phase winding, the nature of the

magnetic field produced is
a) Constant in magnitude and direction
b) Constant in magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed
c) Pulsating in nature
d) Rotating in nature
2. The damper windings are used in alternators to
a) Reduce eddy current loss
b) Reduce hunting
c) Make rotor dynamically balanced
d) Reduce armature reaction
3. The neutral path impedance Zn is used in the equivalent sequence
network models as
a) Zn2
b) Zn
c) 3 Zn
d) An ineffective value
4. An infinite bus-bar should maintain
a) Constant frequency and Constant voltage
b) Infinite frequency and Infinite voltage
c) Constant frequency and Variable voltage
d) Variable frequency and Variable voltage
5. Voltages under extra high voltage are
a) 1KV & above
b) 11KV & above
c) 132 KV & above
d) 330 KV & above
[Ans.: 1(c), 2(b), 3(c), 4(a), 5(d)]

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
[CONTENTS: Introduction, The a operator, Power in terms of symmetrical components, Phase shift in Y-
transformer banks, Unsymmetrical series impedances, Sequence impedances, Sequence
networks, Sequence networks of an unloaded generator, Sequence networks of elements,
Sequence networks of power system]
INTRODUCTION
Power systems are large and complex three-phase systems. In the normal operating
conditions, these systems are in balanced condition and hence can be represented as an
equivalent single phase system. However, a fault can cause the system to become
unbalanced. Specifically, the unsymmetrical faults: open circuit, LG, LL, and LLG
faults cause the system to become unsymmetrical. The single-phase equivalent system
method of analysis (using SLD and the reactance diagram) cannot be applied to such
unsymmetrical systems. Now the question is how to analyze power systems under
unsymmetrical conditions? There are two methods available for such an analysis:
Kirchhoff’s laws method and Symmetrical components method.
The method of symmetrical components developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918 is a

powerful technique for analyzing unbalanced three phase systems. Fortescue defined a
linear transformation from phase components to a new set of components called
symmetrical components. This transformation represents an unbalanced three-phase
system by a set of three balanced three-phase systems. The symmetrical component
method is a modeling technique that permits systematic analysis and design of three-
phase systems. Decoupling a complex three-phase network into three simpler networks
reveals complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms.
Consider a set of three-phase unbalanced voltages designated as Va, Vb, and Vc.
According to Fortescue theorem, these phase voltages can be resolved into following
three sets of components.
1. Positive-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude,

displaced from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the same phase sequence as
the original phasors, designated as Va1, Vb1, and Vc1
2. Negative-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude,
displaced from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite
to that of the original phasors, designated as Va2, Vb2, and Vc2
3. Zero-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, and
with zero phase displacement from each other, designated as Va0, Vb0, and Vc0
Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its components, the
original phasors expressed in terns of their components are
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0

The synthesis of a set of three unbalanced phasors from the three sets of symmetrical
components is shown in Figure1.
Figure 3.1 Graphical addition of symmetrical components

To obtain unbalanced phasors.
THE OPERATOR ‘a’
The relation between the symmetrical components reveals that the phase displacement
among them is either 1200 or 00. Using this relationship, only three independent
components is sufficient to determine all the nine components. For this purpose an
operator which rotates a given phasor by 1200 in the positive direction (counterclockwise)
is very useful. The letter ‘a’ is used to designate such a complex operator of unit
magnitude with an angle of 1200. It is defined by
a = 11200 = -0.5 + j 0.866 (3.2)

If the operator ‘a’ is applied to a phasor twice in succession, the phasor is rotated through
2400. Similarly, three successive applications of ‘a’ rotate the phasor through 360 0.
To reduce the number of unknown quantities, let the symmetrical components of

Vb and Vc can be expressed as product of some function of the operator a and a
component of Va. Thus,
Vb1 = a 2 Va1 Vb2 = a Va2 Vb0 = Va0
2
Vc1 = a Va1 Vc2 = a Va2 Vc0 = Va0
Using these relations the unbalanced phasors can be written as

Vb = Va0 + a 2Va1 + a Va2
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a 2Va2 (3.3)
In matrix form, 
v
 a 1
 12 1  va 0 
 1 a a  v  (3.4)
v b     a1 
v  1 a a2  v 
 c    a 2 
v  v  1 11 
a 0 
 
Vp  vb a  ; A 1 a 
2
Let ; Vs  v a1 a (3.5)
    
v  v  1 a a2 
 c   a2   
The inverse of A matrix is
1 1 1 
1 1  2 
A  3 1 a a  (3.6)
1 a 2 a 
 
With these definitions, the above relations can be written as
Vp = A Vs; Vs = A-1Vp (3.7)
Thus the symmetrical components of Va, Vb and Vc are given by
Va0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc)

Va1 = 1/3 (Va + a Vb + a 2Vc)
Va2 = 1/3 (Va + a 2Vb + a Vc) (3.8)
Since the sum of three balanced voltages is zero, the zero-sequence component voltage
in a balanced three-phase system is always zero. Further, the sum of line voltages of
even an unbalanced three-phase system is zero and hence the corresponding zero-
sequence component of line voltages.

40
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 1 : The line currents in a 3-ph 4 –wire system are Ia = 100<300; Ib =

50<3000; Ic = 30<1800. Find the symmetrical components and the neutral current.
Solution:
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 27.29 < 4.70 A
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 57.98 < 43.30A
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 18.96 < 24.90A
0
In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0 = 81.87 <4.7 A
Example 2: The sequence component voltages of phase voltages of a 3-ph system are:
Va0 = 100 <00 V; Va1 = 223.6 < -26.60 V ; Va2 = 100 <1800 V. Determine the phase
voltages.
Solution:
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 223.6 <-26.60 V
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 213 < -99.90 V
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 338.6 < 66.20 V
Example 3: The two seq. components and the corresponding phase voltage of a 3-ph
system are Va0 =1<-600 V; Va1=2<00 V ; & Va = 3 <00 V. Determine the other phase
voltages.
Solution:
Va2 = Va – Va0 – Va1 = 1 <600 V
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 3 < -1200 V
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 0 V
Example 4: Determine the sequence components if Ia =10<600 A; Ib =10<-600 A; Ic = 10

<1800 A.\
Solution:
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) =0A
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 10<600 A
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 0 A
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be zero.
Example 5: Determine the sequence components if Va = 100 <300 V; Vb = 100 <1500 V &
Vc = 100 <-900 V.
Solution:
Va0 = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc) =0V
Va1 = 1/3(Va + a Vb + a2Vc) = 0 V
Va2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + a Vc) = 100<300 V
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be
zero
.
Example 6: The line b of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced Y-load with neutral grounded
is open resulting in line currents: Ia = 10<00 A & Ic = 10<1200 A. Determine the
sequence current components.
Solution:
Ib = 0 A.
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 3.33<600 A
0
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 6.66<0 A
0
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 3.33<-60 A
Example 7: One conductor of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced delta-load is open.

Assuming that line c is open, if current in line a is 10<00 A , determine the
sequence components of the line currents.
Solution:
Ic = 0 A; Ia = 10<00 A.  Ib = 10<1200 A
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) =0A
0
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 5.78<-30 A
0
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 5.78< 30 A
Note: The zero-sequence components of line currents of a delta load (3-ph 3-wire)
system are zero.
POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The power in a three-phase system can be expressed in terms of symmetrical

components of the associated voltages and currents. The power flowing into a three-
phase system through three lines a, b and c is
S = P + j Q = Va Ia* + Vb Ib * + Vc Ic * (3.9)
where Va , Vb and Vc are voltages to neutral at the terminals and Ia , Ib, and Ic are the
currents flowing into the system in the three lines. In matrix form
I
I a  Va V b   * ba
* T
S  va vb vc  I    I
I   
 b
 V I
  c     c  
  c 
Thus
S = [A V]T [AI]*
Using the reversal rule of the matrix algebra
S = VT AT A* I*
Noting that AT = A and a and a 2 are conjugates,

1 II aa2
a0
1 1 1  1 1  *
S  va 0 va1 va 2 1 a 2 a  1 a  
  2  a1 
1 a a2  1 a 
  I a2 
T
or, since A A* is equal to 3U where U is 3x3 unit matrix
Ia0*
v v 
S  3  va 0 a1 a2 
I a1

 
I 
 a2
Thus the complex three-phase power is given by
S = Va Ia* + Vb Ib* + Vc Ic * = 3 Va0 Ia0 + 3 Va1 Ia1 + 3 Va2 Ia2 (3.10)
Here, 3Va0Ia0, 3Va1Ia1 and 3Va2Ia2 correspond to the three-phase power delivered to
the zero-sequence system, positive-sequence system, and negative-sequence system,
respectively. Thus, the total three-phase power in the unbalanced system is equal to the
sum of the power delivered to the three sequence systems representing the three-phase
system.
PHASE SHIFT OF COMPONENTS IN Y- TRANSFORMER BANKS
The dot convention is used to designate the terminals of transformers. The dots are
placed at one end of each of the winding on the same iron core of a transformer to
indicate that the currents flowing from the dotted terminal to the unmarked terminal of
each winding produces an mmf acting in the same direction in the magnetic circuit. In
that case, the voltage drops from dotted terminal to unmarked terminal in each side of
the windings are in phase.
The HT terminals of three-phase transformers are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the
corresponding LT side terminals are marked X1, X2 and X3. In Y-Y or - transformers,
the markings are such that voltages to neutral from terminals H1, H2, and H3 are in
phase with the voltages to neutral from terminals X1, X2, and X3, respectively. But,
there will be a phase shift (of 300) between the corresponding quantities of the primary
and secondary sides of a star-delta (or delta-star) transformer. The standard for
connection and designation of transformer banks is as follows:
1. The HT side terminals are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the corresponding LT side
terminals are marked X1, X2 and X3.
2. The phases in the HT side are marked in uppercase letters as A, B, and C. Thus for
the sequence abc, A is connected to H1, B to H2 and C to H3. Similarly, the phases
in the LT side are marked in lowercase letters as a, b and c.
3. The standard for designating the terminals H1 and X1 on transformer banks requires
that the positive-sequence voltage drop from H1 to neutral lead the positive sequence
voltage drop from X1 to neutral by 300 regardless of the type of connection in the HT

and LT sides. Similarly, the voltage drops from H2 to neutral and H3 to neutral lead
their corresponding values, X2 to neutral and X3 to neutral by 300.
Figure 3.2 Wiring diagram and voltage phasors of a Y- transformer

With Y connection on HT side.
Consider a Y- transformer as shown in Figure a. The HT side terminals H1, H2, and
H3 are connected to phases A, B, and C, respectively and the phase sequence is ABC. The
windings that are drawn in parallel directions are those linked magnetically (by being
wound on the same core). In Figure a winding AN is the phase on the Y-side which is
linked magnetically with the phase winding bc on the side. For the location of thedots
on the windings VAN is in phase with Vbc. Following the standards for the phase shift, the
phasor diagrams for the sequence components of voltages are shown in Figure b. The
sequence component of VAN1 is represented as VA1 (leaving subscript ‘N’ for convenience
and all other voltages to neutral are similarly represented. The phasor diagram reveals
that VA1 leads Vb1 by 300. This will enable to designate the terminal to which b is
connected as X1. Inspection of the positive-sequence and negative-sequence phasor
diagrams revels that Va1 leads VA1 by 900 and Va2 lags VA2 by 900.
From the dot convention and the current directions assumed in Figure a, the phasor diagram
for the sequence components of currents can be drawn as shown in Figure c. Since the
direction specified for IA in Figure a is away from the dot in the winding and the
direction of Ibc is also away from the dot in its winding, IA and Ibc are 1800 out of phase.
Hence the phase relation between the Y and currents is as shown in Figure c. From this
diagram, it can be seen that Ia1 leads IA1 by 900 and Ia2 lags IA2 by 900. Summarizing
these relations between the symmetrical components on the two sides of the transformer
gives:

Figure 3.3 Current phasors of Y- transformer with Y connection on HT side.
Va1 = +j VA1 Ia1 = +j IA1

Va2 = -j VA2 Ia1 = -j IA2 (3.11)
Where each voltage and current is expressed in per unit. Although, these relations are
obtained for Y- transformer with Y connection in the HT side, they are valid even when
the HT side is connected in and the LT side in Y.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 8: Three identical resistors are Y-connected to the LT Y-side of a delta-star

transformer. The voltages at the resistor loads are |Vab| = 0.8 pu., |Vbc|=1.2 pu., and
|Vca|=1.0 pu. Assume that the neutral of the load is not connected to the neutral of the
transformer secondary. Find the line voltages on the HT side of the transformer.
Solution:
Assuming an angle of 1800 for Vca, find the angles of other voltages
Vab = 0.8<82.80 pu
Vbc = 1.2<-41.40 pu
Vca = 1.0<1800 pu
The symmetrical components of line voltages are
Vab0 = 1/3 (Vab +Vbc + Vca) = 0

Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +aVbc + a2Vca) = 0.985<73.60 V
Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +a2Vbc + aVca) = 0.235<220.30 V
Since Van1 = Vab1<-300 and Van2 = Vab2<300
Van1 = 0.985<73.60-0300
= 0.985<43.6 pu (L-L base)
Van2 = 0.235<220.30+300
= 0.235<250.30 pu(L-L base)
Since each resistor is of 1.0<0 pu. Impedance,

Ian1 = (Van1/Z) = 0.985<43.60 pu.

Ian2 = (Van2/Z) = 0.235<250.30 pu.
The directions are +ve for currents from supply toward the delta primary and away
from the Y-side toward the load. The HT side line to neutral voltages are
VA1 = - j Va1 = 0.985<-46.40

VA2 = +j Va2 = 0.235<-19.70
VA = VA1 +VA2 = 1.2<-41.30 pu.
VB1 = a2VA1 and VB2 = a VA2
VB = VB1 + VB2 = 1<1800 pu.
VC1 = a VA1 and VC2 = a2VA2
VC = VC1 + VC2 = 0.8<82.90 pu.
The HT side line voltages are

VAB = VA – VB = 2.06<-22.60 pu. (L-N base)
= (1/3) VAB = 1.19<-22.60 pu. (L-L base)
VBC = VB – Vc = 1.355<215.80 pu. (L-N base)
= (1/3) VBC = 0.782<215.80 pu. (L-L base)
VCA = VC – VA = 1.78<116.90 pu. (L-N base)
= (1/3) VCA = 1.028<116.90 pu. (L-L base)
UNSYMMETRICAL IMPEDANCES
Figure 3.4 Portion of three-phase system representing

three unequal series impedances.
Consider the network shown in Figure. Assuming that there is no mutual impedance
between the impedances Za, Zb, and Zc, the voltage drops Vaa’, vbb’, and Vcc’ can be
expressed in matrix form as

V  Z 0  I 
0
 aa '   a  Ia 
 bb'   0 Zb 0   b (3.12)
V   0 0 Z  I 
 cc'   c  c 
And in terms of symmetrical components of voltage and current as

 aa '0   a   a 0 
V Z 0 0 I
V   Zb  I  (3.13)
A  aa '1   0 0  A  a1 
V   0 0 Z  I 
 aa '2   c  a 2 
If the three impedances are equal ( i.e., if Za = Zb = Zc), Eq reduces to
Vaa’1 = Za Ia1; Vaa’2 = Za Ia2; Vaa’0 = Za Ia0 (3.14)
Thus, the symmetrical components of unbalanced currents flowing in balanced series

impedances (or in a balanced Y load) produce voltage drops of like sequence only.
However, if the impedances are unequal or if there exists mutual coupling, then voltage
drop of any one sequence is dependent on the currents of all the sequences.

Figure 3.5 Sequence impedances of a Y-connected load.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 9: A Y-connected source with phase voltages Vag = 277<00, Vbg = 260<-
1200 and Vcg = 295<1150 is applied to a balanced load of 30<400 Ω/phase through a
line of impedance 1<850 Ω. The neutral of the source is solidly grounded. Draw the
sequence networks of the system and find source currents.
Solution:
Va0 = 15.91<62.110 V
Va1 = 277.1<-1.70 V
Va2 = 9.22<216.70 V
Y eq. of load = 10<400 Ω/phase
Zline = 1<850 Ω.
Zneutral = 0
Ia0 = 0<00 A
Ia1 = 25.82<-45.60 A
Ia2 = 0.86<172.80 A
Ia = 25.15<-46.80 A
Ib = 25.71<196.40 A
Ic = 26.62<73.80 A

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS
The impedance of a circuit to positive-sequence currents alone is called the impedance

to positive-sequence current or simply positive-sequence impedance, which is generally
denoted as Z1. Similarly, the impedance of a circuit to negative-sequence currents alone
is called the impedance to negative-sequence current or simply negative-sequence

impedance, which is generally denoted as Z2. The impedance of a circuit to zero-
sequence currents alone is called the impedance to zero-sequence current or simply
zero-sequence impedance, which is generally denoted as Z0. In the analysis of an
unsymmetrical fault on a symmetrical system, the symmetrical components of the
unbalanced currents that are flowing are determined. Since in a balanced system, the
components currents of one sequence cause voltage drops of like sequence only and are
independent of currents of other sequences, currents of any one sequence may be
considered to flow in an independent network composed of the generated voltages, if
any, and impedances to the current of that sequence only.
The single-phase equivalent circuit consisting of the impedances to currents of any one
sequence only is called the sequence network of that particular sequence. Thus, the
sequence network corresponding to positive-sequence current is called the positive-
sequence network. Similarly, the sequence network corresponding to negative-sequence
current is called negative-sequence network, and that corresponding to zero-sequence
current is called zero-sequence network. The sequence networks are interconnected in a
particular way to represent various unsymmetrical fault conditions. Therefore, to
calculate the effect of a fault by the method of symmetrical components, it is required
to determine the sequence networks.
SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF UNLOADED GENERATOR
Consider an unloaded generator which is grounded through a reactor as shown in

Figure. When a fault occurs, unbalanced currents depending on the type of fault will
flow through the lines. These currents can be resolved into their symmetrical
components. To draw the sequence networks of this generator, the component
voltages/currents, component impedances are to be determined. The generated voltages
are of positive-sequence only as the generators are designed to supply balanced three-
phase voltages. Hence, positive-sequence network is composed of an emf in series with
the positive-sequence impedance. The generated emf in this network is the no-load
terminal voltage to neutral, which is also equal to the transient and subtransient voltages
as the generator is not loaded. The reactance in this network is the subtransient,
transient, or synchronous reactance, depending on the condition of study.
Figure 3.6 Circuit of an unloaded generator grounded through reactance.

The negative- and zero-sequence networks are composed of only the respective
sequence impedances as there is no corresponding sequence emf. The reference bus for
the positive- and negative-sequence networks is the neutral of the generator.
The current flowing in the impedance Zn between neutral and ground is 3Ia0 as shown
in Fig. 3.6. Thus the zero-sequence voltage drop from point a to the ground, is given by:
(-Ia0Zg0 – 3Ia0Zn), where Zg0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the generator. Thus
the zero-sequence network, which is single-phase equivalent circuit assumed to carry
only one phase, must have an zero-sequence impedance of Zo = (Zg0 +3Zn).
From the sequence networks, the voltage drops from point a to reference bus (or
ground) are given by
Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1
Va2 = - Ia2Z2
Va0 = - Ia0 Z0 (3.15)
Figure 3.7 Sequence current paths in a generator and

The corresponding sequence networks.

Eq. 3.15 applicable to any unloaded generator are valid for loaded generator under steady
state conditions. These relations are also applicable for transient or subtransient
conditions of a loaded generator if Eg’ or Eg” is substituted for Ea.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
For obtaining the sequence networks, the component voltages/ currents and the component
impedances of all the elements of the network are to be determined. The usual elements of a
power system are: passive loads, rotating machines (generators/ motors), transmission lines
and transformers. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of linear, symmetrical,
static circuits are identical (because the impedance of such circuits is independent of phase
order provided the applied voltages are balanced).
The sequence impedances of rotating machines will generally differ from one another.
This is due to the different conditions that exists when the sequence currents flows. The
flux due to negative-sequence currents rotates at double the speed of rotor while that the
positive-sequence currents is stationary with respect to the rotor. The resultant flux due
to zero-sequence currents is ideally zero as these flux components adds up to zero, and
hence the zero-sequence reactance is only due to the leakage flux. Thus, the zero-
sequence impedance of these machines is smaller than positive- and negative-sequence
impedances.
The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of a transmission line are identical,

while the zero-sequence impedance differs from these. The positive- and negative-
sequence impedances are identical as the transposed transmission lines are balanced
linear circuits. The zero-sequence impedance is higher due to magnetic field set up by
the zero-sequence currents is very different from that of the positive- or negative-
sequence currents ( because of no phase difference). The zero-sequence reactance is
generally 2 to 3.5 times greater than the positive- sequence reactance. It is customary to
take all the sequence impedances of a transformer to be identical, although the zero-
sequence impedance slightly differs with respect to the other two.
SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF POWER SYSTEMS
In the method of symmetrical components, to calculate the effect of a fault on a power

system, the sequence networks are developed corresponding to the fault condition.
These networks are then interconnected depending on the type of fault. The resulting
network is then analyzed to find the fault current and other parameters.
Positive- and Negative-Sequence Networks: The positive-sequence network is obtained by

determining all the positive-sequence voltages and positive-sequence impedances of
individual elements, and connecting them according to the SLD. All the generated emfs are
positive-sequence voltages. Hence all the per unit reactance/impedance diagrams obtained
in the earlier chapters are positive-sequence networks. The negative-sequence generated
emfs are not present. Hence, the negative-sequence network for a power system is obtained
by omitting all the generated emfs (short circuiting emf sources) and

replacing all impedances by negative-sequence impedances from the positive-sequence
networks.
Since all the neutral points of a symmetrical three-phase system are at the same potential
when balanced currents are flowing, the neutral of a symmetrical three-phase system is the
logical reference point. It is therefore taken as the reference bus for the positive- and
negative-sequence networks. Impedances connected between the neutral of the machine and
ground is not a part of either the positive- or negative- sequence networks because neither
positive- nor negative-sequence currents can flow in such impedances.
Zero-Sequence Networks: The zero-sequence components are the same both in

magnitude and in phase. Thus, it is equivalent to a single-phase system and hence, zero-
sequence currents will flow only if a return path exists. The reference point for this
network is the ground (Since zero-sequence currents are flowing, the ground is not
necessarily at the same point at all points and the reference bus of zero-sequence
network does not represent a ground of uniform potential. The return path is conductor
of zero impedance, which is the reference bus of the zero-sequence network.).
If a circuit is Y-connected, with no connection from the neutral to ground or to another

neutral point in the circuit, no zero-sequence currents can flow, and hence the impedance to
zero-sequence current is infinite. This is represented by an open circuit between the neutral
of the Y-connected circuit and the reference bus, as shown in Fig. 3.8a. If the neutral of the
Y-connected circuit is grounded through zero impedance, a zero-impedance path (short
circuit) is connected between the neutral point and the reference bus, as shown in Fig. 3.8b.
If an impedance Zn is connected between the neutral and the ground of a Y-connected
circuit, an impedance of 3Zn must be connected between the neutral and the reference bus
(because, all the three zero-sequence currents (3Ia0) flows through this impedance to cause
a voltage drop of 3Ia0 Z0 ), as shown in Fig. 3.8c.
A -connected circuit can provide no return path; its impedance to zero-sequence line
currents is therefore infinite. Thus, the zero-sequence network is open at the -connected
circuit, as shown in Fig.3.9 However zero-sequence currents can circulate inside the -
connected circuit.
The zero-sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase transformers deserve special

attention. The different possible combinations of the primary and the secondary windings in
Y and alter the zero-sequence network. The five possible connections of two-
winding transformers and their equivalent zero-sequence networks are shown in
Fig.3.10. The networks are drawn remembering that there will be no primary current
when there is no secondary current, neglecting the no-load component. The arrows on
the connection diagram show the possible paths for the zero-sequence current. Absence
of an arrow indicates that the connection is such that zero-sequence currents cannot
flow. The letters P and Q identify the corresponding points on the connection diagram
and equivalent circuit:

Figure 3.8 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of Y-connected load
Figure 3.9 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of -connected load
1. Case 1: Y-Y Bank with one neutral grounded: If either one of the neutrals of a Y-Y
bank is ungrounded, zero-sequence current cannot flow in either winding ( as the
absence of a path through one winding prevents current in the other). An open
circuit exists for zero-sequence current between two parts of the system connected
by the transformer bank.
2. Case 2: Y-Y Bank with both neutral grounded: In this case, a path through
transformer exists for the zero-sequence current. Hence zero-sequence current can
flow in both sides of the transformer provided there is complete outside closed path
for it to flow. Hence the points on the two sides of the transformer are connected by
the zer0-sequence impedance of the transformer.

Figure 3.10 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of three-

phase transformer banks for various combinations.
3. Case 3: Y- Bank with grounded Y: In this case, there is path for zero-sequence
current to ground through the Y as the corresponding induced current can circulate in
the . The equivalent circuit must provide for a path from lines on the Y side through
zero-sequence impedance of the transformer to the reference bus. However, an open
circuit must exist between line and the reference bus on the side. If there is an
impedance Zn between neutral and ground, then the zero-sequence impedance must
include 3Zn along with zero-sequence impedance of the transformer.

4. Case 4: Y- Bank with ungrounded Y: In this case, there is no path for zero-sequence
current. The zero-sequence impedance is infinite and is shown by an open circuit.
5. Case 5: - Bank: In this case, there is no return path for zero-sequence current. The
zero-sequence current cannot flow in lines although it can circulate in the windings.
6. The zero-sequence equivalent circuits determined for the individual parts separately
are connected according to the SLD to form the complete zero-sequence network.
Procedure to draw the sequence networks

The sequence networks are three separate networks which are the single-phase
equivalent of the corresponding symmetrical sequence systems. These networks can be
drawn as follows:
1. For the given condition (steady state, transient, or subtransient), draw the reactance
diagram (selecting proper base values and converting all the per unit values to the
selected base, if necessary). This will correspond to the positive-sequence network.
2. Determine the per unit negative-sequence impedances of all elements (if the values
of negative sequence is not given to any element, it can approximately be taken as
equal to the positive-sequence impedance). Draw the negative-sequence network by
replacing all emf sources by short circuit and all impedances by corresponding
negative-sequence impedances in the positive-sequence network.
3. Determine the per unit zero-sequence impedances of all the elements and draw the
zero-sequence network corresponding to the grounding conditions of different
elements.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 10: For the power system shown in the SLD, draw the sequence networks.

EXERCISE PROBLEM: For the power system shown in the SLD, draw the sequence
networks.

CHAPTER 4: UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
[CONTENTS: Preamble, L-G, L-L, L-L-G and 3-phase faults on an unloaded alternator without and with
fault impedance, faults on a power system without and with fault impedance, open
conductor faults in power systems, examples]
PREAMBLE
The unsymmetrical faults will have faulty parameters at random. They can be analyzed
by using the symmetrical components. The standard types of unsymmetrical faults
considered for analysis include the following (in the order of their severity):
 Line–to–Ground (L-G) Fault

 Line–to–Line (L-L) Fault
 Double Line–to–Ground (L-L-G)Fault and
 Three-Phase–to–Ground (LLL-G) Fault.
Further the neutrals of various equipment may be grounded or isolated, the faults can
occur at any general point F of the given system, the faults can be through a fault
impedance, etc. Of the various types of faults as above, the 3- fault involving the
ground is the most severe one. Here the analysis is considered in two stages as under:
(i) Fault at the terminals of a Conventional (Unloaded) Generator and (ii) Faults at any
point F, of a given Electric Power System (EPS).
Consider now the symmetrical component relational equations derived from the three
sequence networks corresponding to a given unsymmetrical system as a function of
sequence impedances and the positive sequence voltage source in the form as under:
Va0 = - Ia0Z0
Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1
Va2 = - Ia2Z2 (4.1)
These equations are refered as the sequence equations. In matrix Form the sequence
equations can be considered as:
Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 Z
0 2 Ia2 (4.2)
This equation is used along with the equations i.e., conditions under fault (c.u.f.),
derived to describe the fault under consideration, to determine the sequence current Ia1
and hence the fault current If, in terms of Ea and the sequence impedances, Z1, Z2 and
Z0. Thus during unsymmetrical fault analysis of any given type of fault, two sets of
equations as follows are considered for solving them simultaneously to get the required
fault parameters:
 Equations for the conditions under fault (c.u.f.)

 Equations for the sequence components (sequence equations) as per (4.2) above.
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL (UNLOADED)
GENERATOR
Figure 4.1 LG Fault on a Conventional Generator
A conventional generator is one that produces only the balanced voltages. Let Ea, nd Ec
be the internally generated voltages and Zn be the neutral impedance. The fault is assumed
to be on the phase’a’ as shown in figure 4.1. Consider now the conditions under
fault as under:
c.u.f.:
Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0. (4.3)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the current Ia with Ib=Ic=0, given by:
Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
Ia1 = (1/3) 1 a a 2 0
2
Ia2 1 a a 0 (4.4)
Solving (4.4) we get,
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3) (4.5)
Further, using equation (4.5) in (4.2), we get,

Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia1
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1

Va2 0 0 0 Z2Ia1 (4.6)
Pre-multiplying equation (4.6) throughout by [1 1 1], we get,

Va1+Va2+Va0 = - Ia1Z0 + Ea – Ia1Z1 – Ia2Z2
i.e.,Va = Ea – Ia1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = zero,
Or in other words,
Ia1 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)] (4.7)
.
Figure 4.2 Connection of sequence networks for LG Fault
on phase a of a Conventional Generator
The equation (4.7) derived as above implies that the three sequence networks are
connected in series to simulate a LG fault, as shown in figure 4.2. Further we have the
following relations satisfied under the fault conditions:
1. Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3) = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]

2. Fault current If = Ia = 3Ia1 = [3Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]
3. Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = Ea(Z2+Z0)/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
4. Va2 = - EaZ2/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
5. Va0 = - EaZ0/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
6. Fault phase voltage Va = 0,
7. Sound phase voltages Vb = a2Va1+aVa2+Va0; Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0
8. Fault phase power: VaIa*= 0, Sound pahse powers: V bIb =* 0, and VcIc = 0,
*
9. If Zn = 0, then Z0 = Zg0,

10. If Zn = , then Z0 = , i.e., the zero sequence network is open so that then,
If=Ia=0.
LINE TO LINE FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR
Figure 4.3 LL Fault on a Conventional Generator
Consider a line to line fault between phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’ as shown in figure 4.3, at
the terminals of a conventional generator, whose neutral is grounded through a
reactance. Consider now the conditions under fault as under:
c.u.f.:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc (4.8)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage Va with Vb=Vc, given by:
Va0 1 1 1 Va
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a 2 Vb
2
Va2 1 a a Vb (4.9)

Va1 = Va2 (4.10)
Further, consider the symmetrical components of current Ia with Ib=-Ic, and Ia=0; given
by:
Ia0 1 1 1 0
Ia1 = (1/3) 1 a a 2 Ib
Ia2 1 a2 a -Ib (4.11)

Ia0 = 0; and Ia2 = -Ia1 (4.12)
Using equation (4.10) and (4.12) in (4.2), and since Va0 = 0 ( Ia0 being 0), we get,
0 0 Z0 0 0 0
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va1 0 0 0 Z2 -Ia1 (4.13)
Pre-multiplying equation (4.13) throughout by [0 1 -1], we get,
Va1-Va1 = Ea – Ia1Z1 – Ia1Z2 = 0
Or in other words,
Ia1 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] (4.14)
Figure 4.4 Connection of sequence networks for LL Fault

on phases b & c of a Conventional Generator
The equation (4.14) derived as above implies that the three sequence networks are
connected such that the zero sequence network is absent and only the positive and
negative sequence networks are connected in series-opposition to simulate the LL fault,
as shown in figure 4.4. Further we have the following relations satisfied under the fault
conditions:
1. Ia1 = - Ia2 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] and Ia0 = 0,
2
2. Fault current If = Ib = - Ic = [3Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] (since Ib = (a -a)Ia1 = 3Ia1)
3. Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = EaZ2/(Z1+Z2)
4. Va2 = Va1 = EaZ2/(Z1+Z2)
5. Va0 = 0,
6. Fault phase voltages;Vb = Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0 = (a+a2)Va1 = - Va1
7. S ound pha se voltage; Va = Va1+*Va2+Va0 =*2Va1;
8. Fa ult phase powers are V bIb and V I ,
cc
9. Sound phase power: V aI a* = 0,

10. Since Ia0=0, the presence of absence of neutral impedance does not make any
difference in the analysis.
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL

GENERATOR
Figure 4.5 LLG Fault on a Conventional Generator
Consider a double-line to ground fault at the terminals of a conventional unloaded

generator, whose neutral is grounded through a reactance, between phase ‘b’ and phase
‘c’ as shown in figure 4.5, Consider now the conditions under fault as under:
c.u.f.:
Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0 (4.15)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage with V b=Vc=0, given by:
Va0 1 1 1 Va
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a 2 0
2
Va2 1 a a 0 (4.16)
Solving (4) we get,
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = Va/3 (4.17)
Consider now the sequence equations (4.2) as under,
Va0 0 Z0 0 0 a0
Va1 = a – 0
E Z 1 0 a1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 a2 (4.18)
Pre-multiplying equation (4.18) throughout by

1/Z0 0 0
-1
Z =0 1/Z1 0
0 0 1/Z2 (4.19)
We get,
Va1 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
-1 -1
Z-1 Va1 = Z Ea – Z 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va1 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (4.20)
Using the identity: Va1= (Ea – Ia1Z1) in equation (4.19), pre-multiplying throughout by
[1 1 1] and finally adding, we get,
Ea/Z0 - Ia1(Z1/Z0) + (Ea/Z1)- Ia1 + Ea/Z2 - Ia1(Z1/Z2) = (Ea/Z1) – (Ia0+Ia1+Ia2)
= (Ea/Z1) - Ia = (Ea/Z1) (4.21)
Since Ia = 0, solving the equation (4.21), we get,
Ia1 = { Ea/ [Z1 + Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)] } (4.22)
Figure4.6 Connection of sequence networks for LLG Fault on

phases b and c of a Conventional Generator
The equation (4.22) derived as above implies that, to simulate the LLG fault, the three
sequence networks are connected such that the positive network is connected in series
with the parallel combination of the negative and zero sequence networks, as shown in
figure 4.6. Further we have the following relations satisfied under the fault conditions:
1. Ia1 = {Ea/ [Z1+Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)]}; Ia2= -Ia1Z0/(Z2 + Z0) and Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2 + Z0),
2. Fault current If: Ia0=(1/3)(Ia+Ib+Ic) = (1/3)(Ib+Ic) = If/3, Hence If = 3Ia0
3. Ia = 0, Vb=Vc=0 and hence Va1=Va2=Va0=Va/3
4. Fault phase voltages;Vb = Vc = 0
5. Sound phase voltage; Va = Va1+Va2+Va0 = 3Va1;
6. Fault phase powers are VbIb* = 0, and V cI c* = 0, since Vb=Vc=0

7. Healthy phase power: VaIa* = 0, since Ia=0
8. If Z0=, (i.e., the ground is isolated), then Ia0=0, and hence the result is the
same as that of the LL fault [with Z0=, equation (4.22) yields equation (4.14)].
THREE PHASE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL

GENERATOR
Figure 4.7 Three phase ground Fault on a Conventional Generator
Consider a three phase to ground (LLLG) fault at the terminals of a conventional

unloaded generator, whose neutral is grounded through a reactance, between all its
three phases a, b and c, as shown in figure 4.7, Consider now the conditions under fault
as under:
c.u.f.:
Va = Vb = Vc = 0, Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (4.23)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage with Va=Vb=Vc= 0, given by:
Va0 1 1 1 0
2
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a 0
Va2 1 a2 a 0 (4.24)


Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = 0 (4.25)
Thus we have
Va1 = Ea1 – Ia1Z1 (4.26)
So that after solving for Ia1 we, get,
Ia1 = [ Ea / Z1 ] (4.27)
Figure 4.8 Connection of sequence networks for 3-phase ground

Fault on phases b and c of a Conventional Generator
The equation (4.26) derived as above implies that, to simulate the 3-phase ground fault,
the three sequence networks are connected such that the negative and zero sequence
networks are absent and only the positive sequence network is present, as shown in
figure 4.8. Further the fault current, If in case of a 3-phase ground fault is given by
If = Ia1= Ia = (Ea/Z1) (4.28)
It is to be noted that the presence of a neutral connection without or with a neutral
impedance, Zn will not alter the simulated conditions in case of a three phase to ground
fault.
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS
In all the analysis so far, only the fault at the terminals of an unloaded generator have
been considered. However, faults can also occur at any part of the system and hence the
power system fault at any general point is also quite important. The analysis of
unsymmetrical fault on power systems is done in a similar way as that followed thus far
for the case of a fault at the terminals of a generator. Here, instead of the sequence
impedances of the generator, each and every element is to be replaced by their
corresponding sequence impedances and the fault is analyzed by suitably connecting
them together to arrive at the Thevenin equivalent impedance if that given sequence.
Also, the internal voltage of the generators of the equivalent circuit for the positive

sequence network is now V f (and not Ea), the pre-fault voltage to neutral at the point of
fault (PoF) (ref. Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9 Unsymmetrical faults in Power Systems
Thus, for all the cases of unsymmetrical fault analysis considered above, the sequence
equations are to be changed as under so as to account for these changes:
Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = Vf – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (4.29)
(i) LG Fault at any point F of a given Power system
Let phase ‘a’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0.
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3)
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)] and
If = 3Ia1 (4.30)
(ii) LL Fault at any point F of a given Power system
Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc
Va1 = Va2; Ia0 = 0; Ia2 = -Ia1
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2)] and
If = Ib = - Ic = [3 Vf / (Z1 + Z2)] (4.31)
(ii) LLG Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = (Va/3)

Ia1 = {Vf / [Z1+Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)]}
Ia2= -Ia1Z0/(Z2 + Z2); Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2 + Z2) and
If = 3Ia0 (4.32)
(ii) Three Phase Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let all the 3 phases a, b and c be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Va = Vb = Vc = 0, Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = Va/3
Va0 = Va1 = Va2 = 0; Ia0 = Ia2 = 0,
Ia1 = [Vf /Z1] and If = Ia1=Ia (4.33)
OPEN CONDUCTOR FAULTS
Various types of power system faults occur in power systems such as the shunt type faults
(LG, LL, LLG, LLLG faults) and series type faults (open conductor and cross country
faults). While the symmetrical fault analysis is useful in determination of the rupturing
capacity of a given protective circuit breaker, the unsymmetrical fault analysis is useful in
the determination of relay setting, single phase switching and system stability studies.
When one or two of a three-phase circuit is open due to accidents, storms, etc., then
unbalance is created and the asymmetrical currents flow. Such types of faults that come
in series with the lines are refered as the open conductor faults. The open conductor
faults can be analyzed by using the sequence networks drawn for the system under
consideration as seen from the point of fault, F. These networks are then suitably
connected to simulate the given type of fault. The following are the cases required to be
analyzed (ref. fig.4.10).
Figure 4.10 Open conductor faults.
(i) Single Conductor Open Fault: consider the phase ‘a’ conductor open so that then the
conditions under fault are:
Ia = 0; Vbb’ = Vcc’ = 0
The derived conditions are:

Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0 and
Vaa1’ = Vaa2’ = Vaa0’ = (Vaa’/3) (4.34)
These relations suggest a parallel combination of the three sequence networks as shown
in fig. 4.11.
Figure 4.11 Sequence network connection for 1-conductor open fault
It is observed that a single conductor fault is similar to a LLG fault at the fault point F
of the system considered.
(ii) Two Conductor Open Fault: consider the phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ under open condition so
that then the conditions under fault are:
Ib = Ic = 0; Vaa’ = 0
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia/3 and
Vaa1’ = Vaa2’ = Vaa0’ = 0 (4.35)
These relations suggest a series combination of the three sequence networks as shown
in fig. 4.12. It is observed that a double conductor fault is similar to a LG fault at the
fault point F of the system considered.
Figure 4.12 Sequence network connection for 2-conductor open fault.

(iii) Three Conductor Open Fault: consider all the three phases a, b and c, of a 3-phase
system conductors be open. The conditions under fault are:
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = 0 and
Va0 = Va2 = 0 and Va1 = Vf (4.36)
These relations imply that the sequence networks are all open circuited. Hence, in a
strict analystical sense, this is not a fault at all!
FAULTS THROUGH IMPEDANCE
All the faults considered so far have comprised of a direct short circuit from one or two
lines to ground. The effect of impedance in the fault is found out by deriving equations
similar to those for faults through zero valued neutral impedance. The connections of
the hypothetical stubs for consideration of faults through fault impedance Z f are as
shown in figure 4.13.
Fig
ure 4.13 Stubs Connections for faults through fault impedance Zf.
(i) LG Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf

Let phase ‘a’ be on fault at F through Zf, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0.
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3)
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0+3Zf)] and
If = 3Ia1 (4.37)
(ii) LL Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf
Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F through Zf, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc
Va1 = Va2; Ia0 = 0; Ia2 = -Ia1
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2+Zf)] and
If = Ib = - Ic = [3 Vf / (Z1 + Z2+Zf)] (4.38)
(iii) LLG Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F through Zf,, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = (Va/3)
Ia1 = {Vf / [Z1+Z2(Z0+3Zf)/(Z2+Z0+3Zf)]}
Ia2= -Ia1(Z0+3Zf)/(Z2+Z0+3Zf); Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2+(Z0+3Zf) and
If = 3Ia0 (4.39)
(iv) Three Phase Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf
Let all the 3 phases a, b and c be on fault at F, through Z f so that the c.u.f. would be: Va
= IaZf ; Hence the derived conditions under fault would be: Ia1 = [Vf /(Z1+Zf); The
connections of the sequence networks for all the above types of faults through Z f are as
shown in figure 4.14.
LG Fault LL Fault
LLG Fault 3-Ph. Fault

Figure 4.15 Sequence network connections for faults through impedance
EXAMPLES
Example-1: A three phase generator with constant terminal voltages gives the
following currents when under fault: 1400 A for a line-to-line fault and 2200 A for a
line-to-ground fault. If the positive sequence generated voltage to neutral is 2 ohms,
find the reactances of the negative and zero sequence currents.
Solution: Case a) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the LL fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2)]
If = Ib = - Ic = 3 Ia1
=3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2) or
(Z1 + Z2) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 2 + Z2 = 3 [2000/1400]
Solving, we get, Z2 = 0.474 ohms.
Case b) Consider the conditions w.r.t. a LG fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2+Z0)]
If = 3 Ia1
= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2+Z0) or
(Z1 + Z2+Z0) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 2 + 0.474 + Z0 = 3 [2000/2200]
Solving, we get, Z0 = 0.253 ohms.
Example-2: A dead fault occurs on one conductor of a 3-conductor cable supplied y a

10 MVA alternator with earhed neutral. The alternator has +ve, -ve and 0-sequence
components of impedances per phase respectively as: (0.5+j4.7), (0.2+j0.6) and (j0.43)
ohms. The corresponding LN values for the cable up to the point of fault are:
(0.36+j0.25), (0.36+j0.25) and (2.9+j0.95) ohms respectively. If the generator voltage at
no load (Ea1) is 6600 volts between the lines, determine the (i)Fault current,
(ii)Sequence components of currents in lines and (iii)Voltages of healthy phases.
Solution: There is LG fault on any one of the conductors. Consider the LG fault to be
on conductor in phase a. Thus the fault current is given by:
(i) Fault current: If = 3Ia0 = [3Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]
= 3(6600/3)/ (4.32+j7.18)
= 1364.24 58.970.

(ii) equence components of line currents:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia/3 = If/3 = 454.75 58.970.
(iii) Sound phase voltages:
Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = Ea(Z2+Z0)/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 1871.83 -
26.170, Va2 = - EaZ2/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 462.91 177.60,
Va0 = - EaZ0/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 1460.54 146.50,
Thus, 2
Sound phase voltages Vb = a Va1 +aVa2+Va0 = 2638.73 -165.80
Volts, And Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0 = 3236.35 110.80 Volts.
Example-3: A generator rated 11 kV, 20 MVA has reactances of X1=15%, X2=10%

and X0=20%. Find the reactances in ohms that are required to limit the fault current to 2
p.u. when a a line to ground fault occurs. Repeat the analysis for a LLG fault also for a
fault current of 2 pu.
Solution: Case a: Consider the fault current expression for LG fault given by:
If = 3 Ia0
i.e., 2.0 = 3Ea / j[X1+X2+X0]
= 3(1.000) / j[0.15+0.1+0.2+3Xn]
Solving we get
3Xn = 2.1 pu
= 2.1 (Zb) ohms = 2.1 (112/20) = 2.1(6.05)
= 12.715 ohms.
Thus Xn = 4.235 ohms.
Case b: Consider the fault current expression for LLG fault given
by: If = 3Ia0 = 3 { -Ia1X2/(X2 + X0+3Xn)}= 2.0,
where, Ia1 = {Ea/ [X1+X2(X0+3Xn)/(X2+X0+3Xn)]}
Substituting and solving for Xn we get,
Xn = 0.078 pu
= 0.47
ohms.
Example-4: A three phase 50 MVA, 11 kV generator is subjected to the various faults

and the surrents so obtained in each fault are: 2000 A for a three phase fault; 1800 A for
a line-to-line fault and 2200 A for a line-to-ground fault. Find the sequence impedances
of the generator.
Solution: Case a) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the three phase fault:
If = Ia = Ia1 = Ea1/Z1
i.e., 2000 = 11000/ (3Z1)
Solving, we get, Z1 = 3.18 ohms (1.3 pu, with Zb = (112/50) = 2.42 ohms).

Case b) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the LL fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2)]
If = Ib = - Ic = 3 Ia1
=3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2) or
(Z1 + Z2) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 3.18 + Z2 = 3 (11000/3)/1800
Solving, we get, Z2 = 2.936 ohms = 1.213 pu.
Case c) Consider the conditions w.r.t. a LG fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2+Z0)]
If = 3 Ia1
= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2+Z0) or
(Z1 + Z2+Z0) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 3.18+ 2.936 + Z0 = 3 (11000/3)/ 2200
Solving, we get, Z0 = 2.55 ohms = 1.054 pu.

CHAPTER 5
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major problem for
secure operation of the system. Recent major black-outs across the globe caused by system
instability, even in very sophisticated and secure systems, illustrate the problems facing
secure operation of power systems. Earlier, stability was defined as the ability of a system
to return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form of
disturbance. This fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to remain in
synchronism. However, modern power systems operate under complex interconnections,
controls and extremely stressed conditions. Further, with increased automation and use of
electronic equipment, the quality of power has gained utmost importance, shifting focus
on to concepts of voltage stability, frequency stability, inter-area oscillations etc.
The IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have proposed the
following definition in 2004: “Power System stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded, so
that practically the entire system remains intact”.
The Power System is an extremely non-linear and dynamic system, with operating
parameters continuously varying. Stability is hence, a function of the initial operating
condition and the nature of the disturbance. Power systems are continually subjected to
small disturbances in the form of load changes. The system must be in a position to be
able to adjust to the changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. The system must
also withstand large disturbances, which may even cause structural changes due to
isolation of some faulted elements.
A power system may be stable for a particular (large) disturbance and unstable for
another disturbance. It is impossible to design a system which is stable under all

disturbances. The power system is generally designed to be stable under those
disturbances which have a high degree of occurrence. The response to a disturbance is
extremely complex and involves practically all the equipment of the power system. For
example, a short circuit leading to a line isolation by circuit breakers will cause
variations in the power flows, network bus voltages and generators rotor speeds. The
voltage variations will actuate the voltage regulators in the system and generator speed
variations will actuate the prime mover governors; voltage and frequency variations
will affect the system loads. In stable systems, practically all generators and loads
remain connected, even though parts of the system may be isolated to preserve bulk
operations. On the other hand, an unstable system condition could lead to cascading
outages and a shutdown of a major portion of the power system.
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
The high complexity of stability problems has led to a meaningful classification of the
power system stability into various categories. The classification takes into account the
main system variable in which instability can be observed, the size of the disturbance
and the time span to be considered for assessing stability.
ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY
Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of the synchronous machines of an

interconnected power system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a
disturbance. Instability results in some generators accelerating (decelerating) and losing
synchronism with other generators. Rotor angle stability depends on the ability of each
synchronous machine to maintain equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and
mechanical torque. Under steady state, there is equilibrium between the input
mechanical torque and output electromagnetic torque of each generator, and its speed
remains a constant. Under a disturbance, this equilibrium is upset and the generators
accelerate/decelerate according to the mechanics of a rotating body. Rotor angle
stability is further categorized as follows:

Small single (or small disturbance) rotor angle stability: It is the ability of the power
system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances. In this case, the system
equation can be linearized around the initial operating point and the stability depends
only on the operating point and not on the disturbance. Instability may result in
(i) A non oscillatory or a periodic increase of rotor angle
(ii) Increasing amplitude of rotor oscillations due to insufficient damping.
The first form of instability is largely eliminated by modern fast acting voltage
regulators and the second form of instability is more common. The time frame of small
signal stability is of the order of 10-20 seconds after a disturbance.
Large-signal rotor angle stability or transient stability: This refers to the ability of the
power system to maintain synchronism under large disturbances, such as short circuit, line
outages etc. The system response involves large excursions of the generator rotor angles.
Transient stability depends on both the initial operating point and the disturbance
parameters like location, type, magnitude etc. Instability is normally in the form of a
periodic angular separation. The time frame of interest is 3-5 seconds after disturbance.
The term dynamic stability was earlier used to denote the steady-state stability in the
presence of automatic controls (especially excitation controls) as opposed to manual
controls. Since all generators are equipped with automatic controllers today, dynamic
stability has lost relevance and the Task Force has recommended against its usage.
VOLTAGE STABILITY
Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady voltages at
all buses in the system after being subjected to a disturbance. It depends on the ability
of the system to maintain equilibrium between load demand and load supply. Instability
results in a progressive fall or rise of voltages of some buses, which could lead to loss
of load in an area or tripping of transmission lines, leading to cascading outages. This
may eventually lead to loss of synchronism of some generators.

The cause of voltage instability is usually the loads. A run-down situation causing voltage
instability occurs when load dynamics attempt to restore power consumption beyond the
capability of the transmission network. Voltage stability is also threatened when a

disturbance increases the reactive power demand beyond the sustainable capacity of the
available reactive power resources. Voltage stability is categorized into the following
sub-categories:
Small – disturbance voltage stability: It refers to the system’s ability to maintain

steady voltages when subjected to small perturbations such as incremental changes in
load. This is primarily influenced by the load characteristics and the controls at a given
point of time.
Large disturbance voltage stability: It refers to the systems ability to maintain steady
voltages following large disturbances; It requires computation of the non-linear
response of the power system to include interaction between various devices like
motors, transformer tap changers and field current limiters. Short term voltage stability
involves dynamics of fast acting load components and period of interest is in the order
of several seconds. Long term voltage stability involves slower acting equipment like
tap-changing transformers and generator current limiters. Instability is due to loss of
long-term equilibrium.
FREQUENCY STABILITY
Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency
following a severe disturbance, causing considerable imbalance between generation and
load. Instability occurs in the form of sustained frequency swings leading to tripping of
generating units or loads. During frequency swings, devices such as under frequency
load shedding, generator controls and protection equipment get activated in a few
seconds. However, devices such as prime mover energy supply systems and load
voltage regulators respond after a few minutes. Hence, frequency stability could be a
short-term or a long-term phenomenon.

MECHANICS OF ROTATORY MOTION
Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating bodies
are applicable to it. In rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The angle θm is
defined, with respect to a circular arc with its center at the vertex of the angle, as the ratio
of the arc length s to radius r.
s
θm = (5.1) r
The unit is radian. Angular velocity ωm is defined as

dm
ωm = (5.2)
dt
and angular acceleration as
  d m  d m
2
(5.3)
2
dt dt
The torque on a body due to a tangential force F at a distance r from axis of rotation is
given by T=rF (5.4)
The total torque is the summation of infinitesimal forces, given by
T = ∫ r dF (5.5)
The unit of torque is N-m. When torque is applied to a body, the body experiences
angular acceleration. Each particle experiences a tangential acceleration a  r , where r
is the distance of the particle from axis of rotation. The tangential force required to
accelerate a particle of mass dm is
dF = a dm = r α dm (5.6)
The torque required for the particle is

dT = r dF = r2 α dm (5.7)
and that required for the whole body is given by
T = α ∫ r2dm = I α (5.8)
2
Here, I = ∫ r dm (5.9)
It is called the moment of inertia of the body. The unit is Kg – m2. If the torque is
assumed to be the result of a number of tangential forces F, which act at different points
of the body
T=∑rF
Now each force acts through a distance, ds = r dθm and the work done is ∑ F . ds i.e.,

(5.10)
dW = ∑ F r dθm = dθm T
W = ∫ T dθm (5.11)
dW
and T=
dm
Thus the unit of torque may also be Joule per radian. The power is defined as rate of
doing work. Using (5.11)
P = d W  Tdm T m (5.12)
dt dt
The angular momentum M is defined as
M = I ωm (5.13)
And the kinetic energy is given by
KE = 1 I m 2 = 1 M ωm (5.14)
2 2
From (5.14) we can see that the unit of M has to be J-sec/rad.
SWING EQUATION:
The laws of rotation developed in section.3 are applicable to the synchronous machine.
From(.5.8)
I = T
I d 2m
or T (5.15)
dt2
Here T is the net torque of all torques acting on the machine, which includes the shaft
torque (due to prime mover of a generator or load on a motor), torque due to rotational
losses (friction, windage and core loss) and electromagnetic torque.
Let Tm = shaft torque or mechanical torque corrected for rotational

losses Te = Electromagnetic or electrical torque
For a generator Tm tends to accelerate the rotor in positive direction of rotation as

shown in Fig 5.1. It also shows the corresponding torque for a motor with respect to the
direction of rotation

(a) Generator (b) Motor
Fig. 5.1 Torque acting on a synchronous machine
The accelerating torque for a generator is given by:

a m T
T =T e (5.16)
Under steady-state operation of the generator, Tm is equal to Te and the accelerating
torque is zero. There is no acceleration or deceleration of the rotor masses and the
machines run at a constant synchronous speed. In the stability analysis in the following
sections, Tm is assumed to be a constant since the prime movers (steam turbines or
hydro turbines) do no act during the short time period in which rotor dynamics are of
interest in the stability studies.
Now (5.15) has to be solved to determine m as a function of time. Since m is

measured with respect to a stationary reference axis on the stator, it is the measure of
the absolute rotor angle and increases continuously with time even at constant
synchronous speed. Since machine acceleration /deceleration is always measured
relative to synchronous speed, the rotor angle is measured with respect to a
synchronously rotating reference axis. Let

5.17)
where sm is the synchronous speed in mechanical rad/s and m

isplacement in mechanical radians. Taking the derivative of (5.17) we get
(5.18)
dm  dm sm

dt dt
d m d 2m
2

dt 2 dt 2
Substituting (5.18) in (5.15) we get
I d 2m = T = T e N-m (5.19)

dt 2 a m T
Multiplying by m on both sides we get

 I d 2m =  ( T e) N-m (5.20)
m T
m dt 2 m
From (5.12) and (5.13), we can write
M d m  P  P
2
W (5.21)
dt 2 m a
where M is the angular momentum, also called inertia constant, P m is shaft power input
less rotational losses, Pe is electrical power output corrected for losses and Pa is the
acceleration power. M depends on the angular velocity m , and hence is strictly not a
constant, because m deviates from the synchronous speed during and after a
disturbance. However, under stable conditions  m does not vary considerably and M can be
treated as a constant. (21) is called the “Swing equation”. The constant M depends on the
rating of the machine and varies widely with the size and type of the machine. Another
constant called H constant (also referred to as inertia constant) is defined as
stored kinetic energy in mega joules
H= at sychronous speed MJ / MVA (5.22)
Machine rating in MVA
H falls within a narrow range and typical values are given in Table 5.1. If the rating of
the machine is G MVA, from (5.22) the stored kinetic energy is GH Mega Joules. From
(5.14)
GH = 1 M MJ (5.23)
sm
2
or
M = 2 GH MJ-s/mech rad (5.24)

sm
The swing equation (5.21) is written as
P P
2H d 2 P m e
m
 

a
(5.25)
sm dt 2 G G

In (5.25) m is expressed in mechanical radians and s m in mechanical radians per
second (the subscript m indicates mechanical units). If  and  have consistent units
(both are mechanical or electrical units) (5.25) can be written as
2H d 2  P  P P pu (5.26)
s dt 2 a me
Here s is the synchronous speed in electrical rad/s (   p 


s   sm) and Pa is
 2 

acceleration power in per unit on same base as H. For a system with an electrical
frequency f Hz, (5.26) becomes
H d 2  P  P P pu (5.27)
 f dt 2 a me
when  is in electrical radians and

H d 2  P  P P pu (5.28)
180 f dt 2 a m e
when  is in electrical degrees. Equations (5.27) and (5.28) also represent the swing
equation. It can be seen that the swing equation is a second order differential equation
which can be written as two first order differential equations:
2H d   P P pu (5.29)
s dt me
d
    (5.30)
dt
In which  , s and  are in electrical units. In deriving the swing equation, damping
has been neglected.

Table 5.1 H constants of synchronous machines
Type of machine H (MJ/MVA)
Turbine generator condensing 1800 rpm 9–6
3600 rpm 7–4
Non condensing 3600rpm 4–3
Water wheel generator
Slow speed < 200 rpm 2–3
High speed > 200 rpm 2–4

1.25 
Synchronous condenser Large

25% less for hydrogen cooled 1.0 
Small
Synchronous motor with load
varying from 1.0 to 5.0 2.0
In defining the inertia constant H, the MVA base used is the rating of the machine. In a
multi machine system, swing equation has to be solved for each machine, in which
case, a common MVA base for the system has to chosen. The constant H of each
machine must be consistent with the system base.
Let Gmach = Machine MVA rating (base)
Gsystem = System MVA base
In (5.25), H is computed on the machine rating G  G
mach
Gmach
Multiplying (5.25) by on both sides we get
G
system
G  2H d 2 PPG 
 mach  m m e 
mach 
G  dt 2  G G 

 

(5.31)
 system  sm mach  system 
2H 

system d 2 m  P  P pu (on system base)

sm dt 2 m e
Gmach
where H system = H (5.32)
G
system

In the stability analysis of a multi machine system, computation is considerably reduced

if the number of swing equations to be solved is reduced. Machines within a plant
normally swing together after a disturbance. Such machines are called coherent
machines and can be replaced by a single equivalent machine, whose dynamics reflects
the dynamics of the plant. The concept is best understood by considering a two machine
system.
SWING EQUATION OF TWO COHERENT MACHINES
The swing equations for two machines on a common system base are:
2H d 2 
1  P  P pu
1
(5.33)
s d t2 2 m1 e1
2H 2 d  2  P  P pu (5.34)
 m2 e2
s dt 2
Now 1   2   (since they swing together). Adding (5.33) and (5.34) we get
2H eq d 2   P  P pu
(5.35)
s dt2 m e
Where H eq  H1  H 2
Pm  Pm1  Pm 2
Pe  Pe1  Pe 2
The relation (5.35) represents the dynamics of the single equivalent machine.
SWING EQUATION OF TWO NON – COHERENT MACHINES
For any two non – coherent machines also (5.33) and (5.34) are valid. Subtracting
(5.34) from (33) we get
2 d2  2 d 2 PP
m1 e1
P P
1 2
  
H1 
m2
H
e2
(5.36)
2 2
dt
s dt s 2
H1 H 2
Multiplying both sides by we get
H
1 H2

2  H1 H 2  d
2
  1  2  P H  P H 2 1
PH p H
2 1
m1 m2 e1 e2
   
  2
s H1  H 2  dt H1  H 2 H1  H 2
2 H d 2 12  P P (5.37)
s 12 dt 2 m12 e12
i.e

12  1 2 , the relative angle of the two machines
where H H1 H 2
12  H1  H 2
p H p H
2 m2 1
Pm12  m1
H1  H 2
p H p H
2 e2 1
Pe12  e1
H1  H 2
From (5.37) it is obvious that the swing of a machine is associated with dynamics of
other machines in the system. To be stable, the angular differences between all the
machines must decrease after the disturbance. In many cases, when the system loses
stability, the machines split into two coherent groups, swinging against each other. Each
coherent group of machines can be replaced by a single equivalent machine and the
relative swing of the two equivalent machines solved using an equation similar to
(5.37), from which stability can be assessed.
The acceleration power is given by Pa = Pm – Pe. Hence, under the condition that Pm is
a constant, an accelerating machine should have a power characteristic, which would
increase Pe as δ increases.
This would reduce Pa and hence the acceleration and help in maintaining stability. If on
the other hand, Pe decreases when δ increases, Pa would further increase which is
P
detrimental to stability. Therefore,  must be positive for a stable system. Thus the
power-angle relationship plays a crucial role in stability.

POWER–ANGLE EQUATION:
In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally made

(i) Mechanical power input Pm is a constant during the period of interest,
immediately after the disturbance
(ii) Rotor speed changes are insignificant.
(iii) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient is neglected i.e the
excitation is assumed to be a constant.
s discussed in section 4, the power–angle relationship plays a vital role in the solution
of the swing equation.
POWER–ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON–SALIENT POLE
MACHINE: The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that of a constant voltage
behind an impedance. This model is called the classical model and can be used for cylindrical
rotor (non–salient pole) machines. Practically all high–speed turbo alternators are of
cylindrical rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the periphery of the rotor is
uniform. This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic reluctance, regardless of
the angular position of the rotor, with respect to the armature mmf. The phasor diagram of the
voltages and currents at constant speed and excitation is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Fig 5.2 Phasor diagram of a non–salient pole synchronous generator
Eg = Generator internal emf.

Vt = Terminal voltage
θ = Power factor angle

Ia = Armature current
Ra = Armature resistance
xd = Direct axis reactance
The power output of the generator is given by the real part of Eg Ia* .
Ia Eg   Vt 0
 Ra  jxd (5.38)
Eg   Vt 0
Neglecting Ra, Ia jxd


 E 90  V 90 * 
t
P = R   
 g
xd  

Eg  

  xd 
 

= Eg cos 90  gEt V cos 90 

2
xd xd
= Eg Vt sin  (5.39)
xd
(Note- R stands for real part of). The graphical representation of (9.39) is called the
power angle curve and it is as shown in Fig 5.3.
Fig 5.3 Power angle curve of a non – salient pole machine
Eg Vt
The maximum power that can be transferred for a particular excitation is given by
xd
o
at δ = 90 .

POWER ANGLE EQUATION FOR A SALIENT POLE MACHINE:
Here because of the salient poles, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit in which flows
the flux produced by an armature mmf in line with the quadrature axis is higher than
that of the magnetic circuit in which flows the flux produced by the armature mmf in
line with the direct axis. These two components of armature mmf are proportional to the
corresponding components of armature current. The component of armature current
producing an mmf acting in line with direct axis is called the direct component, Id. The
component of armature current producing an mmf acting in line with the quadrature
axis is called the quadrature axis component, Iq. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig 5,
with same terminology as Fig 5.4 and Ra neglected.
Fig 5.4 Phasor diagram of a salient pole machine
Power output P  Vt I a cos

 Ed I d  Eq I q (5.40)
E
From Fig 5.4, d  Vt sin ; Eq  Vt cos
Id E  Eq
 g  I a sin   
x
d
I q  Ed  I a cos    (5.41)
x
q
Substituting (5.41) in (5.40), we obtain
Eg Vt sin  Vt 2 xd  xq sin 2

P  (5.42)
xd 2 xd xq

the relation (5.42) gives the steady state power angle relationship for a salient pole machine.
The second term does not depend on the excitation and is called the reluctance power
component. This component makes the maximum power greater than in the classical model.
However, the angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 90 o.
POWER ANGLE RELATIONSHIP IN A SMIB SYSTEM:

Without loss of generality, many important conclusions on stability can be arrived at by
considering the simple case of a Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB), where a
generator supplies power to an infinite bus. The concept of an infinite bus arises from
the fact that if we connect a generator to a much larger power system, it is reasonable to
assume that the voltage and frequency of the larger system will not be affected by
control of the generator parameters. Hence, the external system can be approximated by
an infinite bus, which is equivalent to an ideal voltage source, whose voltage and
frequency are constant. The one line diagram is shown in Fig 7.
Fig. 5.5 SMIB System
In Fig. 5.5, the infinite bus voltage is taken as reference and δ is the angle between Eg
and Eb. The generator is assumed to be connected to the infinite bus through a lossless
line of reactance xe. The power transferred (using classical model) is given by
P = Eg Eb sin  (5.43)
xd  xe
and using salient pole model,
Eg Eb Eb 2  xd  xq 
P = xd  xe sin   2 x d  xe  x q  xe  sin 2 (5.44)

An important measure of performance is the steady state stability limit, which is
defined as the maximum power that can be transmitted in steady state without loss of
synchronism, to the receiving end. If transient analysis is required, respective transient
  
quantities namely Eg , xd and xq are used in (5.43) and (5.44) to calculate the power
output.
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Transient stability is the ability of the system to remain stable under large disturbances
like short circuits, line outages, generation or load loss etc. The evaluation of the
transient stability is required offline for planning, design etc. and online for load
management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability analysis
deals with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the
dynamics of the machines and their controls and interfacing it with the algebraic
equations describing the interconnections through the transmission network.
Since the disturbance is large, linearized analysis of the swing equation (which
describes the rotor dynamics) is not possible. Further, the fault may cause structural
changes in the network, because of which the power angle curve prior to fault, during
the fault and post fault may be different (See example 9.8). Due to these reasons, a
general stability criteria for transient stability cannot be established, as was done in the
case of steady state stability (namely PS > 0). Stability can be established, for a given
fault, by actual solution of the swing equation. The time taken for the fault to be cleared
(by the circuit breakers) is called the clearing time. If the fault is cleared fast enough,
the probability of the system remaining stable after the clearance is more. If the fault
persists for a longer time, likelihood of instability is increased.
Critical clearing time is the maximum time available for clearing the fault, before the
system loses stability. Modern circuit breakers are equipped with auto reclosure facility,
wherein the breaker automatically recloses after two sequential openings. If the fault still
persists, the breakers open permanently. Since most faults are transient, the first reclosure

is in general successful. Hence, transient stability has been greatly enhanced by auto
closure breakers.
Some common assumptions made during transient stability studies are as follows:
1. Transmission line and synchronous machine resistances are neglected. Since
resistance introduces a damping term in the swing equation, this gives
pessimistic results.
2. Effect of damper windings is neglected which again gives pessimistic results.
3. Variations in rotor speed are neglected.
4. Mechanical input to the generator is assumed constant. The governor control
loop is neglected. This also leads to pessimistic results.
5. The generator is modeled as a constant voltage source behind a transient
reactance, neglecting the voltage regulator action.
6. Loads are modeled as constant admittances and absorbed into the bus
admittance matrix.
The above assumptions, vastly simplify the equations. A digital computer program for
transient stability analysis can easily include more detailed generator models and effect of
controls, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of present treatment. Studies on the
transient stability of an SMIB system, can shed light on some important aspects of
stability of larger systems. One of the important methods for studying the transient
stability of an SMIB system is the application of equal-area criterion.
5. 8 EQUAL- AREA CRITERION
Transient stability assessment of an SMIB system is possible without resorting to actual

solution of the swing equation, by a method known as equal–area criterion. In a SMIB
system, if the system is unstable after a fault is cleared, δ(t) increases indefinitely with
time, till the machine loses synchronism. In contrast, in a stable system, δ(t) reaches a
maximum and then starts reducing as shown in Fig.5.6.

Fig.5.6 Swing Curve (δ VS t) for stable and unstable system
Mathematically stated,
d t  


0dt
d
some time after the fault is cleared in a stable system and > 0, for a long time after
dt
the fault is cleared in an unstable system.
Consider the swing equation (21)
d 
M 22 
 Pm P 
e
Pa dt
d 2 P
a

dt 2
d
M
Multiplying both sides by 2 , we get
dt
d d  2
d P
a
2 dt dt 2  2 dt M
This may be written as
  d  2  d P
d  2 a
 

d t  dt  dt M
 
Integrating both sides we get

 d  2 2 
M
   Pa d 
 dt 
 o
d 2 
or
dt

M P d
a
(5.45)
o
For stability d  0 , some time after fault is cleared. This means

dt

 Pa d  0 (5.46)
o
The integral gives the area under the P a – δ curve. The condition for stability can be, thus
stated as follows: A SMIB system is stable if the area under the P a – δ curve, becomes zero
at some value of δ. This means that the accelerating (positive) area under Pa – δ curve, must
equal the decelerating (negative) area under P a – δ curve. Application of
equal area criterion for several disturbances is discussed next.
SUDDEN CHANGE IN MECHANICAL INPUT

Consider the SMIB system shown in Fig. 5.7.
Fig.5.7 SMIB System
The electrical power transferred is given by

Pe  Pmax sin 

P  Eg V
max x   x
d e
Under steady state Pm = Pe. Let the machine be initially operating at a steady state angle
δo, at synchronous speed ωs, with a mechanical input Pmo, as shown in Fig.5.8 ( point a).

Fig.5.8 Equal area criterion–sudden change in mechanical input
If there is a sudden step increase in input power to P m1 the accelerating power is positive
(since Pm1 > Pmo) and power angle δ increases. With increase in δ, the electrical power P e
increases, the accelerating power decreases, till at δ = δ1, the electrical power matches the
new input Pm1. The area A1, during acceleration is given by
A1 = 1 P  P d
 0
m1e
 Pm1 (1  0 )  Pmax (cos0  cos1 ) (5.47)

At b, even though the accelerating power is zero, the rotor is running above synchronous
speed. Hence, δ and Pe increase beyond b, wherein Pe < Pm1 and the rotor is subjected to
deceleration. The rotor decelerates and speed starts dropping, till at point d, the machine
reaches synchronous speed and δ = δmax. The area A2, during deceleration is given by

A2 = 
1
max (P P ) d  P (cos  cos )  P ( ) (5.48)
e m1 max 1 max m1 max 1
By equal area criterion A1 = A2. The rotor would then oscillate between δ 0 and δmax at its
natural frequency. However, damping forces will reduce subsequent swings and the
machine finally settles down to the new steady state value δ1 (at point b). Stability can be
maintained only if area A2 at least equal to A1, can be located above Pm1. The limiting
case is shown in Fig.5.9, where A2 is just equal to A1.

Fig.5.9 Maximum increase in mechanical power
Here δmax is at the intersection of Pe and Pm1. If the machine does not reach
synchronous speed at d, then beyond d, Pe decreases with increase in δ, causing δ to
increase indefinitely. Applying equal area criterion to Fig.5.9 we get
A1 = A2.
From (5.47) and (5.48) we get
Pm1 (max  0 )  Pmax (cos0  cosmax )
Substituting Pm1  Pmax sin max , we get

max  0 sin max  cosmax  cos0 (5.49)
Equation (5.49) is a non-linear equation in δmax and can be solved by trial and error or by
using any numerical method for solution of non-linear algebraic equation (like Newton-
Raphson, bisection etc). From solution of δmax, Pm1 can be calculated. Pm1 – Pmo will give
the maximum possible increase in mechanical input before the machine looses stability.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 1: A 50Hz, 4 pole turbo alternator rated 150 MVA, 11 kV has an inertia
constant of 9 MJ / MVA. Find the (a) stored energy at synchronous speed (b) the rotor
acceleration if the input mechanical power is raised to 100 MW when the electrical load
is 75 MW, (c) the speed at the end of 10 cycles if acceleration is assumed constant at
the initial value.

Solution:
(a) Stored energy = GH = 150 × 9 = 1350 MJ
(b) Pa = Pm – Pe = 100 – 75 = 25 MW
GH 1350
M=   0.15 MJ – s /ºe
180 f 180 50
d 2 
0.15  25
dt2
Acceleration   d 2  25166.6 ºe/s

2
dt2 0.15
2
= 166.6 × ºm/s2
P
2 1
= 166.6 × × rps /s
P 360
= 166.6 × 2 × 1 × 60 rpm/s
P 360
= 13.88 rpm/s
* Note ºe = electrical degree; ºm = mechanical degree; P=number of poles.
10
(c) 10 cycles =  0.2 s
50
120  50
NS = Synchronous speed =  1500
rpm 4
Rotor speed at end of 10 cycles = NS + α × 0.2 = 1500 + 13.88 × 0.2 = 1502.776 rpm.
Example 2: Two 50 Hz generating units operate in parallel within the same plant, with
the following ratings: Unit 1: 500 MVA, 0.8 pf, 13.2 kV, 3600 rpm: H = 4 MJ/MVA;
Unit 2: 1000 MVA, 0.9 pf, 13.8 kV, 1800 rpm: H = 5 MJ/MVA. Calculate the
equivalent H constant on a base of 100 MVA.
Solution:
H H G
 = 4 500  20 MJ/MVA
1mach
1system 1mach
G
Gsystem 100
H H 2 mach
= 5
1000
50 MJ/MVA
2 system 2 mach G
system 100

H eq  H1  H 2 = 20 + 50 = 70 MJ/MVA
This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the
two machines swing coherently.
Example 3: Obtain the power angle relationship and the generator internal emf for (i)
classical model (ii) salient pole model with following data: xd = 1.0 pu : xq = 0.6 pu : Vt
= 1.0 pu : Ia = 1.0 pu at upf
Solution:
(i) Classical model: The phasor diagram is shown in Fig P3.
Fig.P3 Example 3, case(i)
Eg  Vt 2  I a xd 2  1.02 1.01.02  1.414

δ = tan 1 I a x d = tan 1 1.0  45
V
t 1.0
 Eg = 1.414 45 .
E
If the excitation is held constant so that g = 1.414, then power output
P = 1.414  1.0 sin   1.414
sin  1.0
(ii) Salient pole: From Fig (5), we get using (41a) to

(41d) Eg = Eq + Id xd = Vt cos δ + Id xd
= Vt cos δ + Ia sin δ xd

(* θ = 00, since we are considering upf)
Substituting given values we get
Eg = cos δ + sin δ.
Again from Fig (9.5) we have
Ed = Vt sin δ = Iq xq
 Vt sin δ – Iq xq = 0
Vt sin δ – Ia cos δ xq = 0
Substituting the given values we get
0 = sin δ – 0.6 cos δ
We thus have two simultaneous equations.
Eg = cos δ + sin δ
0 = sin δ – 0.6 cos δ
Solving we get δ = 30.96o
Eg = 1.372 pu
If the excitation is held constant, then from (42)
P = 1.372 sin δ + 0.333 sin 2δ
Example 4: Determine the steady state stability limit of the system shown in Fig 8, if Vt
= 1.0 pu and the reactances are in pu.
Fig. P4 Example 4
Solution:
Vt   1.00 1.0   1.00
Current I = j1.0  j1.0
Eg   Vt   j1.0 (I )

  j1.0 1.0 1.00
=1
j1.0
= cos θ + j sinθ + cosθ + j sinθ – 1.0
= 2cosθ – 1 + j 2sinθ
When maximum power is transferred δ = 90o; which means real part of E = 0
 2 cosθ – 1 = 0
θ = cos-1 0.5 = 60o
o
E g = 2 sin 60 = 1.732
Eg = 1.732 90 (for maximum power)
1.732  1.0
Steady state stability limit =  0.866
pu 1.0  1.0
Example 5: A 50 Hz synchronous generator having an internal voltage 1.2 pu,

H = 5.2 MJ/MVA and a reactance of 0.4 pu is connected to an infinite bus through a
double circuit line, each line of reactance 0.35 pu. The generator is delivering 0.8pu
power and the infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu. Determine: maximum power transfer,
Steady state operating angle, and Natural frequency of oscillation if damping is
neglected.
Solution: The one line diagram is shown in Fig P5.
Fig . P5 Example 6
0.35
(a) X = 0.4 + = 0.575 pu

Eg Eb 1.2 1.0
2Pmax =   2.087 pu
X 0.575
(b) Pe = Pmax sin δo
1 Pe 1  0.8 
o  sin  sin    22.54 .
P 2.087 
max
(c) Ps = Pmax cos δo = 2.087 cos (22.54o)

= 1.927 MW (pu)/ elec rad.
M (pu) = H  5.2  0.0331 s 2 / elec rad

 f  50
Without damping s =  j PS   j 1.927

M 0.0331
= ± j 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz
Natural frequency of oscillation ωn = 1.21 Hz.
Example 6: In example .6, if the damping is 0.14 and there is a minor disturbance of  
= 0.15 rad from the initial operating point, determine: (a) n (b)  (c) d (d) setting
time and (e) expression for .
Solution:
PS 1.927
(a) n = = = 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz
M 0.0331
(b)  = D 1  0.14 1 = 0.277

2 M PS 2 0.0331 1.927
(c) d = n 1 2  7.63 1 0.2772 = 7.33 rad/sec = 1.16 Hz
(d) Setting time = 4 =4 1  4 1 = 1.892 s

n 0.277  7.63
(e)  o = 0.15 rad = 8.59o

 = cos-1  = cos-1 0.277 = 73.9o
o   t
δ = o  e n
sin  d t  
1 2
= 22.54o  8.59 e  0.277  7.63t sin 7.33t  73.9o 

1  0.277 2

= 22.54o + 8.94 e- 2.11t sin (7.33t + 73.9o)
The variation of delta with respect to time is shown below. It can be observed that the
angle reaches the steady state value of 22.54o after the initial transient. It should be
noted that the magnitudes of the swings decrease in a stable system with damping.
Fig.P6 Swing Curve for example 7
Example 7: In example 6, find the power angle relationship

(i) For the given network
(ii) If a short circuit occurs in the middle of a line
(iii) If fault is cleared by line outage
Assume the generator to be supplying 1.0 pu power initially.
Solution:
(i) From example 6, Pmax = 2.087, Pe = 2.087 sin .
(ii) If a short circuit occurs in the middle of the line, the network equivalent
can be draw as shown in Fig. 12a.

Fig.P7a Short circuit in middle of line
The network is reduced by converting the delta to star and again the resulting star to delta
as shown in Fig P7a, P7b and P7c.
Fig.P7b Fig.P7c

The transfer reactance is 1.55 pu. Hence,
1.2  1.0
Pmax = = 0.744 ; Pe = 0.744 sin δ
1.55
(iii) When there is a line outage
X = 0.4 + 0.35 = 0.75
1.2  1.0
Pmax = = 1.6
0.75
Pe = 1.6 sin δ
Example 8: A generator supplies active power of 1.0 pu to an infinite bus, through a

lossless line of reactance xe = 0.6 pu. The reactance of the generator and the connecting
transformer is 0.3 pu. The transient internal voltage of the generator is 1.12 pu and
infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu. Find the maximum increase in mechanical power that will
not cause instability.
Solution:
Pmax =
1.12  1.0 = 1.244
pu 0.9
Pmo = Peo = 1.0 = Pmax sin δo = 1.244 sin δ o
1.0
 δo = sin-1 = 53.47o = 0.933 rad.
1.244
The above can be solved by N–R method since it is of the form f(δmax) = K. Applying N–
R method, at any iteration ‘r’, we get
K  f  ma (r) 
x
max(r) =
df
r 
dmax
df   ma (r)
 o  cosma (r)
x x
d
r 
max
(This is the derivative evaluated at a value of  = max ( r ) ) max(r1)  max(r)   max(r)
Starting from an initial guess of δmax between  to  , the above equations are solved
2
iteratively till max(r) ≤ . Here K = cos δo = 0.595. The computations are shown in table
P8, starting from an initial guess  max(1) = 1.745 rad.

Table P8
Interaction df f ma (r)   ma (r)
max(r1)
max(r) (r) x
d
x
r max
1 1.745 – 0.1407 0.626 0.22 1.965

2 1.965 – 0.396 0.568 – 0.068 1.897
3 1.897 – 0.309 0.592 – 0.0097 1.887
4 1.887 – 0.2963 0.596 – 0.0033 1.883
Since max(r) is sufficientby small, we can take

δmax = 1.883 rad = 107.88o
δ1 = 180   max = 72.1o
Pm1 = Pmax sin δmax = 1.183

Maximum step increase permissible is Pm1 – Pmo, = 1.183 – 1.0 = 0.183 pu
Example 9: Transform a two machine system to an equivalent SMIB system and show
how equal area criterion is applicable to it.
Solution: Consider the two machine system show in Fig.P9.
Fig.P9 Two machine system under steady state (neglecting losses)
Pm1  Pm 2  Pm ; Pe1  Pe 2  Pe
The swing equations are

PP
d 2 1 m1 e1 Pm  Pe
 
dt 2 M1 M1
PP
d 22  m2 e2
 Pe  P m
dt 2 M 2 M2
Simplifying, we get
d 2 ( 1  2 )  M 1  M 2 (P  P )
dt 2 M 1 M 2 me
or M d 2  P  P
eq
dt 2 m e
where Meq = M 1 M2
M 1 M2
δ = δ1 – δ2
E  E 2 
1
Pe  x   x  x  sin 

d1 e d2
This relation is identical to that of an SMIB system in form and can be used
to determine the relative swing (δ1 – δ2) between the two machines to assess
the stability.

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Subject code: 15A02603 Power System Analysis

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Dr. A. Hemasekha, M.Tech, P.hD.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Dept.of.EEE VEMU IT Page 1

UNIT – II SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Per-Unit System of Representation. Per-Unit Equivalent

Dept.of.EEE VEMU IT Page 2

UNIT – V POWER SYSTEM STABILITY ANALYSIS Elementary Concepts of Steady

REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Computer Techniques in Power System Analysis 2nd Edition,,

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 3

INCIDENCE AND NETWORK MATRICES

ELEMENTARY LINEAR GRAPH THEORY: IMPORTANT TERMS

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 4

Connected Graph : This is a graph where at least one path (disregarding

Sub-graph : sG is a sub-graph of G if the following conditions are satisfied:

Loop : A sub-graph L of a graph G is a loop if

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 5

Fig 1a. Single line diagram of a power system

Fig 1b. Reactance diagra

Fig 1c. Oriented Graph

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 6

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 7

Examples on Basics of LG Theory:

Fig. E1a. Single line diagram of Example System

Fig. E1b. Oriented Graph of Fig. E1a.

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 8

Fig. E1c. Basic Cutsets of Fig. E1a.

Fig. E1d. Basic Loops of Fig. E1a.

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 9

The incidence of branches to nodes in a connected graph is given by the element-node

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 10

(i) Ab is of dimension (bxb) corresponding to the branches and

A is a rectangular matrix, hence it is singular. Ab is a non-singular square matrix of

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 11

Fig. E2. Sample Network-Oriented Graph

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 12

Fig. E3a. Sample Example network

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 13

Fig. E3b. Oriented Graph of system of Fig-E3a.

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 14

General representation of a network element: In general, a network element may

Fig.2 Representation of a primitive network element

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 15

A set of non-connected elements of a given system is defined as a primitive Network

Primitive network matrices:

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 16

Examples on Primitive Networks:

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 17

Fig. E4 Oriented Graph

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 18

Self impedance (zpq-pq) Mutual impedance, (zpq-rs)

2 2-3 j 0.387 1-2 j 0.165

3 1-3 j 0.619 1-2 j 0.234

1-2 2-3 1-3

1-2 j 0.452 j 0.165 j 0.234

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 19

FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three

DEPT. OF EEE VEMUIT Page 20

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS