Shreyash Bhimanwar

111907050
ENTC
Experiment No. 1
Characterization of RTD.
1. What are different sources of errors in RTD measurement?
2. What is lead wire compensation?
3. What is the significance of temperature coefficient of expansion (alpha) on the
measurement?
4. Explain self-heating effect in RTD.
5. Comment on: the selection criteria for RTD material?

Ans 1) Possible errors in the RTD measurements are: -

a. The gradient in temperature between the thermometer and the measuring
point.
b. Tolerances to resistance of the RTD.
c. Thermal Lag (delay in the thermometer to respond).

Ans 2) One lead wire is connected to one end of the element and two lead wires are connected
to the other end. The purpose of the third lead is to compensate for the lead wire resistance,
thereby increasing accuracy. An instrument capable of utilizing a 3- wire RTD must be used to
benefit from this configuration.

Ans 3)Significance of the temperature coefficient of expansion is: -

a. Used to produce a growth of material w.r.t a known temperature change.
b. Change in component length can be calculated for each degree of temperature change.
c. It also works in reverse.
d. The greater the change more the bimetallic nature of the strip will be.
Ans 4)
 1. The RTD is a passive sensor, it requires the passage of a measurement current to
produce a useful signal. This current heats the element and raises its temperature. This
is known as self-heating effect in RTD.

2. Normally a very small current, usually 1-5 milliamps is used in the excitation circuit to
minimize this joule heating of the sensor.
3. Self-heating Error = Power / dissipation constant.
Ans 5)
The criterions for selecting a material for an RTD:

 Malleability to form small wires.

 Linear relationship of resistance and temperature.
 Repeatability and stability.
 Corrosion.
 Low cost
 Easy availability
 Experiment No. 2
Thermocouple
Review questions: -
1. State and explain the laws of thermoelectricity?
2. What is cold junction compensation? How is it achieved?
3. Explain the criteria for selection of thermocouples?
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of thermocouples?
5. What are the different types of thermocouples based on materials used for
construction?

Ans 1) a. First law of homogeneous circuit: -

An electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of single homogenous by application
of heat done. This law is generally accepted to an experimental. In thermocouple, an emf is
formed by joining two dissimilar wires/metals.
b. Second law of intermediate metals: -
It states that intersection of third metal into a thermocouple circuit will have no effects,
as long as a junction by the third metal with thermocouple at the same temperature.

Ans 2) To measure the temperature of one junction, the other junction is kept at some
reference temperature. As this is done by using ice bath, it is normally called at cold junction.
Using ice bath for constant temperature is useful for laboratory calibration but is not
convenient for most measurement and control applications. Instead of ice bath, an effect of
cold junction is added using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or diode. This is
also called as isothermal block. Special care is taken to minimize any temperature gradient
between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the
appropriate correction is applied. This is known as cold junction compensation.

Ans 3) The selection criteria for thermocouple materials:

1. Temperature Range
2. Melting point
 3. Reaction to various atmospheric conditions
4. Thermoelectric output in combination
5. Electrical conductance
6. Stability
7. Interchangeability
8. Repeatability
9. Accuracy
10. Resolution
11. Cost

12. Availability
13. Chemical properties
14. Abrasion and vibration resistance
15. Installation requirements
16. Magnetic properties
17. Ease of handling and fabrication

Ans 4. )ADVANTAGES: -
1. The thermocouple is less expensive than RTD.
2. It has wide temperature ranges.
3. It has good reproducibility.
4. The temperature range is 270 to 2700 degree Celsius.
5. It has rugged construction.
6. It does not require bridge circuit.
7. It has good accuracy.
8. It has high speed of response.
DISADVANTAGES: -
1. The stray voltage pick up is possible.
2. As output voltage is very small, it needs amplification.
3. The cold junction and lead compensation are essential.
4. It shows nonlinearity.
5.
Ans 5.)Type J, K, T, & E are “Base Metal” thermocouples, the most common types of
thermocouples. Type R, S, and B thermocouples are “Noble Metal” thermocouples, which are
used in high temperature applications.
1. K type.
 2. J type.
3. T type.
4. E type.
5. N type.

6. S type.
7. R type.
8. B type.

Output:
 Experiment No.3
Measuring of level in tank using capacitive type level probe.

Review Questions:
1. Explain various transducer used for non-invasive measurement of level.
2. Explain the construction and working of Capacitive Level Transducer.
3. State advantages and disadvantages of Capacitive Level Transducer.
4. RF source is used with capacitive level transducer. Why?
5. State the factors taken into consideration while selecting Level measurement technique.

Ans 1) Invasive devices have the transducer which came into the contact with the flowing
fluid. They are also called as the “wetted transducers”.
Non-Invasive transducer does not come into the contact with the fluid and are placed on
the outside of the pipe. It has two types 1) intrusive 2) non-intrusive. Sensor is placed
outside the pipeline but either it can be in contact or no contact with the process flow
Non-intrusive devices do not interface with the flow profile. No pressure drop is
observed.

Ans 2) The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement pressure and other
physical quantity.
Construction: The capacitive level sensos are operated by 2 level electrodes forming a
capacitor often in the form of 2 parallel plates with insulating material separating them.It
stores electrical energy.
Working: The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on the charge of the
capacitance electrode acts as one plate of the capacitor and wall is the other plate. An empty
tank has lower capacitance than the filled tank dependent on the fluid level.
Ans 3) Advantages:
1. The sensitivity of capacitive transducer is high
2. The capacitive transducer is useful for the small system.
3. It has good frequency response.
4. The loading effect is less due to high impedance.
Disadvantages:
1. They are temperature sensitive.
2. It gives the nonlinear behavior.
3. The output impedance depends upon the frequency used.
4. Capacitance may change due to dust particle or moisture.

Ans 4) Rf source is used to measure and detect the change in the admittance.The Rf signal is
transmitted between probe and evaluation unit via coaxial cable to eliminate the effect of
changing cable capacitance to the ground.

Ans 5) Temperature and the pressure conditions to which the liquids are subjected must be
noted.
The level measurement instruments have a maximum and minimum limit for these
parameters.
Output:
 Experiment No.4
Strain Gauge

Review Questions:

1. Explain the effect of temperature on strain gauge and means to reduce the same.
2. What is Gauge Factor? What is its significance?
3. Explain different bonding materials that can be used with strain gauge?
4. What are the various problems associated with load measurement using strain gauge?
5. Explain the different types of strain gauges based on its construction?

ANSWERS
Ans1)
The strain measurement is a very straight forward method in experimental stress analysis. The
strains obtained from an experiment at room temperature are considered to be accurate, and
actually it is accurate with some minor errors if it is performed at unchanged environmental
condition. The case arises when the temperature changes, and the specimen is subjected to a
different temperature during performing the test. In this case, the strain reading will be
affected by several factors that cause error in the reading. When the temperature changes, the
specimen will expand, and this expansion causes and increases or decreases in strain reading.
The temperature change also affects the gage itself, and the gage can’t read correctly.
This strain change in the specimen and the gage is called thermal output. The change in strain
gage by temperature causes the gage factor to be changed. This variation of gage factor is also
another factor of error. The error that is caused by different factors can be fixed either by error
correction or compensation. There are several methods that can be used for error correction or
compensation. The purpose of this experiment was using different compensation and
correction methods to obtain actual strain. The experimental procedure and details for each
method will be discussed here.
Ans2)
Gauge Factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to the per unit change in
length. This can be mathematically written as,
Gf = (ΔR / R) / (ΔL / L)
Where
ΔR / R = Per unit change in resistance
ΔL / L = Per unit change in length
Gf = Gauge Factor
As strain of an elastic material is defined as the per unit change in length, therefore
Strain, ε = Change in Length / Original Length
= ΔL / L
Hence,
Gauge Factor, Gf = ε(ΔR / R)

A Strain gauge (sometimes referred to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance varies with
applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured. When external forces are applied to a stationary
object, stress and strain are the result.

Ans3)
The bonding procedures for strain gages differ depending on the type of the adhesive applied.
The description below applies to a case where the lead-wire-equipped KFGS gage is bonded to a
mild steel test piece with a typical cyanoacrylate adhesive, CC-33A. The dampproof treatment
shows a scenario using a butyl rubber coating agent.

Ans4)
1. Low-Quality Manufacturing or Construction
Small mechanical changes within the strain gauge are responsible for changes in voltage, which
creates the reading on the scale. If flaws in the strain gauge’s construction prevent the material
inside from moving properly, the reading will not be correct. For this reason, the process to
manufacture an accurate strain gauge-based load cell is delicate. If this isn’t done correctly, the
load cell won’t deliver adequate readings.
2. Temperature Changes
Temperature changes effects the conductivity of metals, which will change the output of the
strain gauge. Once the load cells are built, they need to be tested at different temperatures in
order to ascertain their drift with temperature. When the traditional strain gauge is needed to
measure particularly small amounts, temperature changes can be especially problematic.
Thermistors installed prior to the final test and calibration stage will reduce the temperature
effect.
3. Wrong Type of Load Cell
S-Beam Load Cell: Instead of a load sitting on top of the load cell, an S-Beam load cell hooks the
load on one side and uses the pulling force to measure the load.
Beam Type Load Cell: The beam type load cell uses compression to measure weight, and it is
often used in tank weighing and platform scales.
Single Point Load Cell: The single point load cell works similarly to the beam load cell, except it
is ideal for loads that are not centered.
Button Load Cell: The button load cell also uses compression, but measures load applied axially.
Pancake Load Cell: These load cells are used for high-capacity loads up to 500 tons, such as silo
weighing or structural loads.
Capacitive Load Cell: Since capacitive load cells operate on a different principle, they are not as
affected by noise and interference as strain gauges, and they can be more sensitive with less
need for delicate manufacturing. Capacitive load cells are highly effective for a variety of
applications, and are also available in all of the above configurations.
4. Exceeded Sensitivity
Smaller, more precise strain gauge load cells are much more delicate than their larger
counterparts. The nature of strain gauge technology requires that the strain gauge be much
smaller, and its components more delicate, to be more accurate. This makes the strain gauge
and the load cell much more susceptible to disruption from physical impacts, electromagnetic
interference, dust, temperature changes, and other issues.
5. Improperly Sealed
If your traditional load cell must operate around water, dust, or other debris, it must be
hermetically sealed. For traditional strain gauge load cells, hermetic sealing raises the price
significantly, and some scale dealers may cut corners in this area. If your traditional strain gauge
is significantly cheaper than other comparable models, it might not be properly sealed.

Ans5)
LY Linear Strain Gauges
The LY linear strain gauges measure the strain only in one direction. The LY1-LY9 are the types
of LY linear strain gauges with different sizes and geometrics. The DY11, DY13, DY1x, DY41,
DY43, DY4x, are the double linear strain gauges.
Strain Gauge Rosettes
The different types of strain gauge rosettes are membrane rosette, tee rosette, rectangular
rosette, and delta rosette.
Membrane Rosette Strain Gauges
The membrane rosette strain gauges are used to measure displacement, velocity, pressure, and
force, as well as to measure the elastic strain of the developed materials and structures under
dynamic and static loads. The strain gauges are used in railroad car manufacturing, mechanical
engineering, aircraft, and missile production, and other industries.
Tee Rosette Strain Gauge (0-900)
The Tee rosette is a two-element rosette strain gauge. In Tee rosette, the two grids are
mutually perpendicular.
Rectangular Rosette (0- 450-900)
It is also known as a three-element rectangular rosette strain gauge consists of three grids. The
second and third grids are angularly displaced by 450 and 900 respectively. Delta Rosette: The
delta rosette is also known as a three-element delta rosette strain gauge, the second and third
grids are 600 and 1200 away from the first grid.
Quarter Bridge Type Strain Gauge
The quarter bridge type I and quarter bridge-type II provide information about quarter bridge
strain gage configurations.
Half-Bridge Type Strain Gauges
The half-bridge type I and half-bridge type II provide information on half-bridge strain gage
configurations.
Full-Bridge Type Strain Gauges
The full-bridge type I, type II, and Type III provide information about full-bridge strain gage
configurations

OUTPUT:
 Experiment No. 5
Characterize the LVDT
Review Questions:

1. Explain with suitable waveforms, working of LVDT

2. Explain how LVDT can be used with DC supply to measure displacement.

3. Explain the concept of Residual voltage and its effect on measurement.

4. What are the limitations of LVDT

5. What Phase sensitive detector (PSD) is necessary of at the output side of LVDT?

ANSWERS
Ans1.

At the initial stage, the cross-sectional area and dimension of the cylindrical core are measured
across the core terminals. Assuming the initial parameters, theoretical analysis is used to
calculate the area and moment of inertia of the core module.

A dynamic and soft iron core is placed inside the hollow cylindrical core. The position of core is
measured and noted down as a null position (standard value). The LVDT system is energized by
applying the excitation voltage across primary windings. Coupling voltage across the circuit is
varied through the movable core, which in turn changes the flux and voltage across the
secondary terminals.

The to-and-fro movement of the coil inside the outer core generates variable coupling, and the
output voltage decreases based on direction (either negative or positive). The overall operating
procedures are divided into three cases based on shaft movement induced EMF, and position
Ans2.

An LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given position of
the core. This association of a signal value to a position occurs through electromagnetic
coupling of an AC excitation signal on the primary winding to the core and back to the
secondary windings. The position of the core determines how tightly the signal of the primary
coil is coupled to each of the secondary coils. The two secondary coils are series-opposed,
which means wound in series but in opposite directions. This results in the two signals on each
secondary being 180 deg out of phase. Therefore phase of the output signal determines
direction and its amplitude, distance.

The core causes the magnetic field generated by the primary winding to be coupled to the
secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly between both secondaries and the primary,
as shown, the voltage induced in each secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of
phase. Thus the LVDT output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is zero
because the voltages cancel each other.

Ans3.
A Residual Voltage Transformer is used to measure the residual voltage of three phase system
during single phase fault. During normal operating condition, the summation of three phase
voltage is zero but in case of single-phase fault, the scenario changes and there exists a residual
voltage.
It is very important to earth the primary winding neutral of Residual Voltage Transformer to
provide return path for zero sequence current else zero sequence current cannot flow and
hence the flux will contain 3rd harmonic component that is reflected in primary and secondary
voltages of Residual Voltage Transformer. This voltage appearing at the secondary terminals of
RVT is not the residual voltage of the system in any way.

Ans4.

1. Large displacement is required for getting the considerable differential output.

2. The LVDT transformer is very sensitive to the stray magnetic field.
3. The performance of the transducer is affected by the vibrations.
4. The dynamic response is controlled mechanically by the mass of the core and
electrically by the frequency of the current.
5. The performance of the LVDT is affected by the temperature.

Ans5.
A phase sensitive detector circuit (PSD) is useful to make the measurement direction sensitive.
It is connected at the output of the LVDT and compares the phase of the secondary output with
the primary signal to judge the direction of movement. The output of the phase sensitive
detector after passing through low pass filter is in the dc voltage form used for steady
deflection.

OUTPUT:
 Experiment No. 6
Simulate the performance of a Chemical sensor.
Review Questions:
1. What is meant by pH? Describe the working of pH meter.
2. Describe the calibration procedure for the pH meter.
3. Describe the construction and principle of working of a conductivity meter.
4. What is the effect of temperature on measurement of conductivity?
5. Discuss any three applications where the conductivity meter is used.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a conductivity meter?

Ans 1) pH is the measurable parameter between the value 0 and 14 provided the
concentration of the solution does not exceed 1 M. Solutions with pH greater than 7 are basic
and less than 7 are acidic. pH
meter is a device that measures the changes in the activity of the hydrogen ions in the
solution. It operates like a voltmeter. It is like a battery where positive terminal is measuring
electrode and negative is reference electrode. The measuring electrode which is sensitive to
the H+ ions develop potential directly related to the H+ ion concentration .The reference
electrode is stable regardless of any change in the H+ ions. It consists of 1) pH probe 2)
Temperature probe 3) the meter.

Ans 2)
1. The calibration must be performed for buffers with pH 4.0, 7.00 and 9.2.
2. At least a 2 point calibration must be performed at room temperature using buffers that
meet the expected pH value of the sample.
3. If a one-point calibration is performed, measurement errors are more for the sample that
is being measured.
4. If the temperature probe is not used at the time of calibration, default value considered
is 25°C.
Ans 3) Conductivity of meter refers to the ability of water to conduct an electrical current.
Construction: It consist of a platinum electrode placed inside a metal body. Cable is
connected to the EC meter. There is electrode separation and internal wiring contains
temperature sensor inside it.
Diagram:

Working principle: It employ potentiometric method and four electrodes. Often they are
cylindrical and arranged centrally. Current is applied to the outer pair of the electrodes.
Potential between the innerr pair is measured. Conductivity is determined using distance
between the electrodes and surface area.

Ans 4)
1. An increase in the temperature may increase number of ions.
2. the conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
3. In the solutions as temperature increases conductivity also increases.
4. In case of, metals it decreases with increase in the temperature.

Ans 5)
1. It has many applications in research and engineering:
2. It is used in hydroponics, aquaculture, aquaponics and the freshwater systems to monitor
the amount of nutrients salts and impurities in the water.
3. Conductivity general measure of water quality.
Ans 6)
Advantages:
1. They are made of single range, narrow measure range.
2. Portable conductivity meter has a wide range and commonly used.
3. Industrial meters are characterized by good stability, reliable operation, accuracy,
environmental adaptability, digital communications.
4. It is simple fast responding and at low cost.
Disadvantages:
1. It is non specific
2. It has limited sensitivity.
3. Temperature dependance is major problem

Output:
Part1: pH Measurement
Part 2: Conductivity Measurement
 Experiment No.7
Study of Software and Hardware Used in PLC.
Review Questions: -
1. What is PLC?
2. What are the basic components of a PLC?
3. Explain the operation of a PLC system.
4. What are the advantages of PLC?
5. What is Sinking and Sourcing operation with reference to PLC I/O module?

Ans 1. A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or Programmable Controller is an electronic

device used for Automation of industrial processes, such as control of machinery on factory
assembly lines. A programmable controller is a digitally operating electronic apparatus which
uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific
functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to control various
machines or processes through digital or analog input/output devices. Unlike general purpose
computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibrations and impacts.
Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results are produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation results.

Ans 2. Basic components of a PLC are: -

1. CPU and Memory module.
2. Power supply.
3. Input and output module.
4. Programming device.

Ans 3. Operation of a PLC are: -

1. Reading the field status form input devices.
2. Execution or solving the logic.
3. Updating the output devices status.
Ans 4. Advantages of a PLC are: -
1. More reliability.
2. No delay involved.
3. More flexibility and easy troubleshooting due to no hard-wired connection.

Ans 5.
1. If the device provides current during its ON or true state, then device is said to be
sourcing current.
2. If the device receives current during its ON or true state, then device is said to be sinking
current

Output:
 Experiment No.8
Implementation of logic gates using PLC
Review questions:
1. What are the different types of logic gates?
2. Draw the truth table for NAND, NOR and XOR gates.
3. How does a relay function?
4. Explain different relay instructions used in PLC programming.
5. What are the standard steps involved in developing a ladder?

Ans 1) there are different types of logic gates:

1. Basic gates: AND, OR NOT.
2. Universal gates:NAND,NOR.
3. Special gates:XOR,XNOR.
Ans 2) for NAND:

x y z
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
for NOR:

x y z
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
For XOR:

x y z
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Ans 3) A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by relatively small current that can turn on
or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an electromagnet (a coil which
becomes temporary magnet when electricity flows through it.
1. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the electromagnet starts
energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus, the upper contact arm starts to
be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts.
2. As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back
to its initial position with the help of spring.

Ans 4)PLC performs Boolean logics using basic relay instructions:

1. Common instructions are examine ONand examine OFF
2. The input instructions can be used to examine either the state of external PLC inputs or
internal bits in PLC memory.
3. Examine ON instructions is on if input or bit being examined is ON; examine OFF
instructions is on when input being examined is OFF.
4. Result is connected to relay coil (output)instructions

Ans 5)
1. Define the task
2. Define the inputs and outputs
3. Develop a logical sequence of operation
4. Develop the PLC program
5. Compile and Run the program
Outputs:
 Experiment No.9
Develop an application using On-Delay timer
Review Questions:
1. List the applications of the ON delay timer.
2. With timing diagram explain the working of on delay timer.
3. What do you mean by timebase of the timer?
4. "A firecracker an example of ON delay timer", Justify.
5. "On delay timer cannot be used in case of DG set for hour counting application", Justify.

Ans1.

Flashing light control (time on, time off):

In conjunction with each other, two time-delay relays are used to provide a constant frequency on / off
pulsing of contacts to send intermittent power to a lamp.

Furnace safety purge control:

The air fan must operate for a defined quantity of moment to “purge” the furnace chamber of any
possibly flammable or explosive vapours before a combustion-type furnace can be lit securely. A time-
delay relay offers this needed time component for the furnace control logic.

Motor soft-start delay control:

Instead of starting big electric engines by switching complete power from a dead-stop condition,
decreased voltage can be switched for a “softer” start and less inrush current.

Conveyor belt sequence delay:

When multiple conveyor belts are arranged to transport material, the conveyor belts must be started in
reverse sequence (the last one first and the first one last) so that material doesn’t get piled on to a
stopped or slow-moving conveyor.

Ans2.

A timing diagram is a graph that shows the status of the timer to the timing device in relation to the
performance of the contact or output of the timer. The diagram has two graphs, one is used to
represent the input signal to the timing device; fowling graphic lines are used to represent the timing
devices outputs or contacts.

Ans3.

A time base is a special type of function generator, an electronic circuit that generates a varying voltage
to produce a particular waveform. Time base generators produce very high frequency sawtooth waves
specifically designed to deflect the beam of a cathode ray tube (CRT) smoothly across the face of the
tube and then return it to its starting position.

Ans4.

Assume the Crackers crack to be the on time , so according to that two time-delay relays are used to
provide a constant frequency on / off pulsing i.e it will represent as an example of ON delay timer.

Ans5.

OUTPUT:
 Experiment No.10
OFF Delay Timer.
Review Questions: -
1. List the applications of off delay timer.
2. With timing diagram explain the working of off delay timer.
3. Write a ladder program to switch off a lamp after 10 sec delay when the input condition
to the rung has failed.
4. Explain the difference between Ton and Toff timer.
5. When retentive timers are preferred? Suggest suitable applications.

Ans 1. Application of Off Delay Timer are: -

1. Crusher and conveyor line.
2. Window manufacturing process.
3. Belt conveyors and bucket elevator.
4. Watch dog timers.

Ans 2. Working of off delay timer is as follows: -

EN-Enable Bit - The enable bit indicates the TOF instruction is enabled.
TT-Timer-Timing Bit - The timing bit indicates the timing operation is in process.
DN- Done Bit - The done bit changes state whenever the accumulated value reaches the preset
value.
ACC- Accumulator Bit - The accumulated value specifies the number of milliseconds that have
elapsed since the TOF instruction was enabled.
Pre-Preset Bit - The preset value specifies the value (1msec units) which the accumulated value
must reach before the instruction clears the DN bit.
The figure shows the timing diagram which illustrates the functioning of all the bits in sequence.
The timing diagram illustrates the functioning of all the bits in sequence.
Ans 3.

Ans 4.
a. T ON:
When the timer input bit (IN) receives power, the TON instruction adds the
preset time (PT), in milliseconds, and the timer output bit (Q) turns ON.
b. T OFF:
 When the timer input bit (IN) stops receiving power, the TOF instruction
adds the preset time (PT), in milliseconds, and the timer output bit (Q) turns OFF.
Ans 5.
Retentive timer is a timer which retains the accumulated value in case of power loss, change of
processor mode or rung state going from true to false (rung state transition).
Retentive timer can be used to track the running time of a motor for its maintenance
purpose. Each time the motor is turned off, the timer will remember the motor’s elapsed
running time. The next time the motor is turned on, the time will increase from there. This
timer can be reset by using a reset instruction.
 Experiment No.11
Ladder Programming with Counters.
Review questions: -
1. List the applications of up counters.
2. With timing diagram explain the working of up counter.
3. Write a ladder program to flash a lamp 10 times with 10sec duty cycle.
4. Explain the difference between up and down counter w.r.t done bit.
5. Explain necessity of down counter with suitable example.

Ans 1. UP Counter can be used in: -

1. Counting the time allotted for special process or event by the scheduler.
2. Clock divider circuit.
3. Digital clocks and multiplexing circuits.
4. Digital to analog converters.
5. Set AC Timer, set time in camera to take the picture, flashing light indicator in
automobiles, car parking control etc.

Ans 2.
 In a counter the device measures the number of on pulses received at its input. There is
a fixed preset value until which the counter measures. After that, the counter will keep
counting but there will be no change in its done bit.
Ans 3.

Ans 4.
In UP counter the done bit is set when the counter reaches preset value;
While in DOWN counter the preset bit is reset when the counter reaches to 0.

Ans 5.
Down Counters has their done bit set while counting. Thus they are used in applications where
counting down from preset value is required.
e.g.: - Counting no. of students in a class.
Output: