Activity No. 3 - Alejandro Angelica

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Manila
ACTIVITY NO. 3
NAME: Angelica B. Alejandro DATE: March 14, 2021

SECTION: BSIE-HE/3A SCHEDULE: Friday: 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM
TOPIC: PHILIPPINE HISTORY
GENERAL INSTRUCTION: Research and make an outline of the following topics.
I. Origin of the Philippines
A. The Earliest people
• The first humans emerged in Africa around two million years ago, long before the
modern humans known as Homo sapiens appeared on the same continent.
• A “human” is anyone who belongs to the genus Homo (Latin for “man”). Scientists
still don’t know exactly when or how the first humans evolved, but they’ve identified
a few of the oldest ones.
• One of the earliest known humans is Homo habilis, or “handy man,” who lived
about 2.4 million to 1.4 million years ago in Eastern and Southern Africa. Others
include Homo rudolfensis, who lived in Eastern Africa about 1.9 million to 1.8
million years ago (its name comes from its discovery in East Rudolph, Kenya); and
Homo erectus, the “upright man” who ranged from Southern Africa all the way to
modern-day China and Indonesia from about 1.89 million to 110,000 years ago.
• In addition to these early humans, researchers have found evidence of an

unknown “superarchaic” group that separated from other humans in Africa around
two million years ago. These superarchaic humans mated with the ancestors of
Neanderthals and Denisovans, according to a paper published in Science
Advances in February 2020. This marks the earliest known instance of human
groups mating with each other—something we know happened a lot more later on.
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B. Theory of Migration
• Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of the Philippine
islands emerged during the Pleistocene period. There are two theories on where
the inhabitants (first Filipinos) came from namely: Beyer’s “Migration Theory” and
Jocano’s “Evolution Theory”. Noted social scientist Henry Otley Beyer believes that
Filipinos descended from different groups that came from Southeast Asia in
successive waves of migration. Each group had a distinct culture, with its own
customs and traditions. While Jocano believes that Asians, including Filipinos are
the result of a lengthy process of evolution and migration.
• The first migrants were what Beyer caked the “Dawnmen” (or “cavemen” because
they lived in caves.). The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, Peking Man, and other
Asian Home sapiens who existed about 250,000 years ago. They did not have any
knowledge of agriculture, and lived by hunting and fishing. It was precisely in
search of food that they came to the Philippines by way of the land bridges that
connected the Philippines and Indonesia. Owing perhaps to their migratory nature,
they eventually left the Philippines for destinations unknown.
1. Pygmies
• The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called

“Aetas’ or “Negritoes”. About 30,000 years ago, they crossed the land bridged from
Malaya, Borneo, and Australia until they reached Palawan, Mindoro and
Mindanao. They were pygmies wh o went around practically naked and were good
at hunting, fishing and food gathering. They used spears and small flintstones
weapons.
• The aboriginal pygmy group, the Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000
years ago via land bridges.
2. Indonesian
• The sea-faring tool- using Indonesian group who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000
years ago and were the first immigrants to reach the Philippines by sea.
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• The Indonesians, who came to the islands in boats. They were more advanced
than the Aetas in that: they had tools made out of stone and steel, which enabled
them to build sturdier houses: they engaged in farming and mining, and used
materials made of brass; they wore clothing and other body ornaments.
3. Malays
• The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight black hair and
flat noses. Their technology was said to be more advanced than that of their
predecessors. They engaged in pottery, weaving, jewelry making and metal
smelting, and introduced the irrigation system in rice planting.
• The seafaring, more civilized Malays who brought the Iron age culture and were
the real colonizers and dominant cultural group in the pre-Hispanic Philippines.
C. Early contact with Asian countries and its influence
1. Arabs
• About 200 years before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, Arabs
traded and settled in the Philippines. Arabs mostly colonized and
influenced the island of Mindanao. In Mindanao, the Arab Muslims
influenced and converted the indigenous people to Islam. Besides
making Mindanao an Islamic and sacred island, the Arabs also
introduced the sultanate form of government. In this type of
government, a Sultan, is the main chief in charge. A Sultan gains his
power, control and sovereignty through the number of followers he
gains, rather than wealth.
• In addition, Arabs have some influence in numerous Filipino
languages. Words such as apo(grandchild), alamat (legend), sulat
(letter) and Salamat (thank you), came from the Arabic language.
Arabs also introduced the use of calendars to the Filipinos. Last but
not least, Arabs improved the relationship between the Philippines
and other Asian countries. Since Arabs colonized Mindanao, and
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were a powerful empire, the Arab empire was the center of

commerce in Asia.
2. India
• The Government of India’s ‘Act East policy’ aims at improving

economic and political relations with the Southeast Asian region
which has had close contacts with India for centuries and is linked
culturally and geographically with it. India has been able to make
inroads in trade and investments with members of the ASEAN by
signing a Free Trade Agreement in 2009 which will aim at increasing
business between the two and renew the partnership and contact
with member countries with similar culture, artistic tradition, family
values and customs.
• In Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia or Burma today, many
symbolic remnants of India’s influence are clearly visible in their art,
culture and civilization. Through the centuries, India has been a
source of inspiration for art and architecture in countries belonging
to the present-day ASEAN. The eleven countries of ASEAN are
Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Laos, Brunei, the Philippines and recently added Timor
Leste.
• Temples of Angkor Wat, Pagan, Borobudur and Prambanan bear
evidence to the deep penetration of Indian art and architectural forms
in these famous Southeast Asian monuments.
• Some of these monuments surpass the grandeur of Indian temples
from the same period because of their scale, extensive stone bas
relief carvings and expanse. Thanks to the contact with Indian
civilization, the Southeast Asia also created many literary works
based on the Ramayana but with something distinctively their own
being discernable in them.
• It must be said that Southeast Asia did not accept all foreign
influences in an indiscriminate manner. Two notably important
external influences came from China and India, but Southeast Asia
accepted only those influences and practices that were suitable to
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their local cultures. Almost every country accepted Ramayana

because it is easy to retell, understand, modify and apply to
contemporary culture.
• Folklore singers and artistes played a very important role in
popularizing and modifying Indian literary works in Southeast Asia
and it was the most popular and effective way of propagating Indian
culture. Through retelling of the stories from generation to
generation, the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata could be
edited and retold to attract bigger and bigger audiences. The artistes
who popularised these were called ‘dalangs’ and contributed to the
process of adaptation of these epic works originating outside their
country by adding or changing them to make them more contextual
and localized. This was the beginning of the formation of new texts
like Seri Rama (Malaysian adaptation of Ramayana) and RamKer
(Ramayana Khmer) in Cambodia. These are regarded as some of
the highest literary works of Southeast Asia.
• Similarly, sculptors and artists copied and combined original Indian
motifs with local artistic motifs to arrive at something distinctively
Southeast Asian and produced stylized masterpieces of their own.
Modelled after Gupta period icons, the Cambodian (Khmer)
sculpture of 8th to 13th centuries are very different in appearance
and form yet they are beautiful creations representing stylized figures
of gods, goddesses, Buddha, Apsaras and demons with Southeast
Asian features.
• India’s civilization and culture spread in many parts of the world
through trade but struck firm roots in Southeast Asia including in
dance forms.
• Yet India’s cultural conquests were peaceful and without forced
conversions. There was no evidence of violence, colonization and
subjugation and there was no extensive migration from India to the
countries of Southeast Asia. The Indians who went there did not go
to rule nor had any interest in controlling from afar.
• Southeast Asia was particularly attractive to Indian mercantile class
and they named the faraway lands Swarnabhumi or land of gold,
Tokola or land of cardamoms or Narikeldeep, land of coconuts. They
followed two routes one through land via Bengal, Assam, Manipur
and Burma to reach different parts of Southeast Asia. The other route
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was the maritime route from Coromandel coast or the coast of Bay
of Bengal to Cape Comorin and via Malacca strait to reach the Malay
Peninsula.
• India during Gupta period was a land of riches and people possessed
great skills at weaving textiles, crafting gold jewellery, metal,
sculpture and beautiful objects. There was much demand for Indian
goods and trade between India and Southeast Asia which was seen
as a land of spices and rice growing fertile lands, flourished. Funan
in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam was the first trading post of Indian
traders. Traders took residence there and from there spread to other
countries of the region.
• Hindu priests and Buddhist monks accompanied mercantile class
and assumed a leading role in spreading the message of Indian
thought and culture to the entire Southeast Asian region. Since they
had no political ambitions and were living in hermitages and
ashrams, the local people welcomed them.
• Thus merchants, monks and Hindu Brahmin priests travelled to
faraway kingdoms like Cambodia and Indonesia in large numbers
and India’s culture, religion and civilization spread to different parts
of Southeast Asia. The kings of the region wore Indian made silk and
brocade textiles during ceremonious occasions and donned jewels
imported from India. Printed and woven textiles were eagerly sought
after by the common people.
• Indian religion, political thought, literature, mythology, artistic motifs
and style, were absorbed deeply into local culture as greater
interaction with Indians who settled in the courts of South East Asia
took place. Buddhism came to Southeast Asia from India in 3rd
century BCE when Buddhist monks were sent by king Ashok.
• In medieval times, from sixth to fourteenth century, there existed a
great maritime empire based in the Indonesian islands of Java and
Sumatra. Many Indian artisans came to work temporarily in the
courts and were from Kalinga (modern day Orissa). They helped in
building great temples and monuments. Many of the motifs on the
walls of Borobudur and Angkor Wats resemble carvings of Konarak
and other medieval temples of eastern India.
• Brahmins also played an important role in the Siamese court as
experts in Astrology and in conducting ceremonies. They were not
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only experts in performing religious rites but were also

knowledgeable in political affairs, art and architecture. They were
invited by rulers to serve as advisors, administrators and priests.
They were experts in Sanskrit.
• Sanskrit scripts are the first form of writing known to have reached
Southeast Asia. Similar alphabets were adopted for local languages
as well. The alphabets used today for Burmese, Thai, Laos and
Cambodia derive originally from Indian prototype. A large number of
ancient inscriptions which have been discovered are in Sanskrit.
• Sanskrit terminology was used in all legal aspects of court
procedures and only the factual aspects were described in
vernacular. The use of Indian framework of code of law was
mentioned by these inscriptions. Codes of law and public
administration especially the concept of “God King” was adopted by
many kings of Southeast Asia. They con sidered themselves to be
incarnation or a descendant of one of the Hindu deities. Later when
Buddhism came, this view was modified. The kings of Cambodia,
Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his successors were
addressed by the people as king of the mountain and they built their
palaces and temples on hill peaks (Bayon temples).
• Traders were also accompanied by Shudras (the lowest caste
according to the Hindu caste hierarchy) who migrated in search of a
better life from India and many settled in Bali. The caste system was
modified when adopted by Southeast Asians as they had a class
system of their own. They also did not adopt the Manusmriti which
relegates women to an inferior place. The Indonesians still have
matriarchal society in Sumatra (Minangkabau) where women are
head of the family and inheritance is through the daughters’ lineage.
• Finally, the decline of India’s influence in Southeast Asia began from
around 13th century when conversions to Islam took place in many
major countries like Malaysia and Indonesia. But within Indonesia,
Bali practices Hinduism even today.
• The rise of India’s influence had taken place when the Khmer kings
spread it to other regions and decline began with the coming of Islam.
But even though it was a long time ago that India’s influence on
Southeast Asia’s culture and civilization more or less halted, the
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impact can be seen and felt even today on its customs, culture,
architectural designs.
• The syncretic culture of Southeast Asia is evident in Buddhism being
practiced in Hindu temples in Cambodia, Muslim wedding rituals and
dress in Malaysia which are based on Hindu rituals and attire,
Garuda the vehicle of Hindu God Vishnu, is the name of Indonesian
Airlines, and Naga and Kuber which are prevalent in both Hindu and
Buddhist cultures can be seen carved in many places. A
Mahabharata Monument depicting Krishna and Arjun riding a chariot
pulled by eleven horses is placed prominently in a park in central
Jakarta. Southeast Asia absorbed and retained its past Indian
influence in a very distinctive manner over the centuries and today it
has melded into the Southeast Asian culture.
• In Indonesia shadow play involving leather puppets with moveable
arms and legs on a screen narrating scene from Ramayana is very
popular even today. It is also a popular art form in Orissa. There was
reverse exchange of ideas and artistic techniques in the last century
when Rabindranath Tagore travelled to Southeast Asia and brought
the art of Batik from Indonesia to India and taught it to the students
in Santiniketan.
• The influence of India can also be felt in the food and flavours of
South East Asia. There are many spices in common between Indian
and Southeast Asian foods. Nearly all the people of Southeast Asian
region eat rice and curry like the people of Eastern India with many
common ingredients. Indian herbal medicines also reached
Southeast Asia from ancient times and are used even today in many
countries. Closer links with the Southeast Asian region is thus a
natural outcome for India and its ‘Act East policy’.
3. China
• Between the 10th and 16th centuries and before the Spanish
colonization, Chinese traders sailed to the Philippines. They brought
porcelain and silk, in exchange for beeswax, deer horn and trepang
(sea slug). The trade with China was the beginning of a major
influence and contribution within the FIlipino culture. One major
influence that the Chinese contributed within the culture was culinary
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arts. Some culinary techniques that the Filipinos were taught include
sauteed dishes, rice cakes and noodle dishes (like Pancit!). In
addition, the Chinese way of family structure also heavily influenced
the traditional Filipino family structure. The traditional Filipino
structure is very rigid, authoritarian, and uses Chinese-based
nomenclature. The eldest son is called Kuya, and the eldest daughter
is referred to as Ate. Both kuya and ate have authority and
responsibility over their siblings.
• In China, the Ming dynasty under whose rule the production and
global dissemination of blue-and-white porcelain flourished gave
way, in 1636, to the Qing dynasty. Led by Manchu emperors and
ruling over a vast and culturally diverse territory, the Qing dynasty
placed strategic emphasis on multiculturalism in a way that calls to
mind similar efforts by the Safavids. The Qing court became an
important patron of the arts, largely characterized by grandeur,
opulence, and eccentricity of design.
4. Japan
• In Japan, the early 17th century marked a turning point as the

Tokugawa family took control of the country and began their long and
relatively peaceful and prosperous shogunate. The Tokugawa ruled
from Edo (present-day Tokyo), which gives the name for this period
and where a vibrant urban culture developed. It was, to some extent,
a foil to Kyoto, where the emperor continued to live, secluded in his
palace.
• Mostly shielded from the outside world (in contrast to Safavid Persia
and Qing-dynasty China), the poets and painters of Edo-period
Japan drew inspiration not only from nature and from the classics,
but also from everyday life, developing the first so-called genre
paintings (portrayals of common people engaged in routine
activities). Within this category, a spectacular subtype was the
rakuchū rakugai zu (“scenes in and around the capital”), depicting
Kyoto and its suburbs in ways that mixed anecdotal detail from street
life with vistas of the capital’s famous locations and seasonal
festivals.
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• The 19th century brought major changes to Asia’s many worlds. By

the mid-20th century, societies had undergone watershed
transformations. In Japan, following the 1853 “black ship” expedition
of American commodore Perry who demanded Japan’s “opening” to
the world and the 1868 revolt that put an end to the Tokugawa
shogunate and restored imperial power, the arts reflected an
unprecedented broadening of styles and foreign influences, as well
as imperial ambitions and rising nationalism that culminated during
WWII. In China, the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 marked the end
of the country’s imperial history that had stretched for over two
thousand years. The rise of the Communist Party, China’s
participation in the first World War, and the Japanese aggressions in
Manchuria all led to the country’s involvement in WWII and the
subsequent establishment of the People’s Republic led by Mao
Zedong. In response to centuries of autocratic and colonial rule,
communism became a rallying point for revolutionaries in countries
across Asia, each drawing on Karl Marx’s manifesto, as well as the
1918 October Revolution in Russia that had been led by Vladimir
Lenin.
• For example, in India, the swadeshi movement encouraged artists to
envision a non-Western, solely Indian art. However, in the case of
the Bengal School of painting that came out of this context, European
and modern developments still found their way in the underpinning
concepts of the new school. The swadeshi-inspired Bengal School
shared many characteristics with the contemporaneous Nihonga
(literally, “Japanese painting,”) in Japan. Like the Bengal School,
Nihonga was defined in opposition to Western painting but bore the
influence of Western ideas and techniques. Some proponents and
practitioners of both schools knew and inspired one another.
• In an interconnected art world whose online presence and
international fairs and biennials make regional identities more elusive
than ever before, contemporary Asian art presents an extremely
diverse range of individual styles and expressions. That said,
internationally acclaimed artists like Subodh Gupta (Indian, b. 1964)
and Takashi Murakami (Japanese, b. 1962) continue to explore the
creative tension between tradition and innovation and between the
global and the local.
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D. Early History and Culture of the Philippines
• Philippine culture is a melting pot of all its colonial masters with a base that
consists of its long, indigenous history. It is a culture that is difficult to pin
down since it is so diverse; the Western influences may appear to be
dominant but at close inspection, it is a mere skin over a pulsing
archipelagic culture. The country's many languages underline the
numerous narratives that exist in the Philippines, each language
delineating a locale. So much so that English is currency in the country,
even among the locals. The inherited language of a colonial master is what
will allow someone from one end of the country to speak to someone from
the other end. For the Filipino is a nomadic creature, even in their own land.
This may explain why hospitality is a well-documented trait everyone is
from somewhere else; everyone is creating new home even as they wax
nostalgic about their origins.
• Religion is a powerful force in the country, whether it be Catholicism or
Islam or the various other religions present in the country. A place of
worship is always at the center of town and in a city; there are always
numerous places to visit if spiritual sanctuary is sought. The pageantry of
these religions come to life in the provincial fiestas, celebrations that
combine colorful spectacle and the fervor of faith.
• The arts are a thriving industry in the Philippines. Entertainment is a large
part of the Filipino life locally, and cultural labor is heavily exported
especially in terms of the performing arts. There is much to explore in the
Philippines, its magnificent vistas are wh at bring people here as tourists.
But the complex nature of its culture is what keeps people interested.
II. Philippine History and Government
A. The Pre-Spanish Government
1. UNIT of GOVERNMENT
— Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the Philippines was composed of settlements
or villages, each called barangay.
➢ Barangay is named after balangay, a Malaysian word meaning “boat”

➢ It consists of more or less 100 families.
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➢ It was virtually a state, for it possessed the four basic elements of statehood.
➢ Some joined together as “confederations” mainly for the purpose of mutual
protection against common enemies.
2. DATU
— Each barangay was ruled by a chief called datu in some places, and rajah, sultan,
or hadji in others.
➢ The datu was the barangay’s chief executive, lawgiver, chief judge, and military
head.
➢ He was assisted usually by a council of elders (maginoos) which served as his
advisers.
➢ One could be a datu chiefly by inheritance, wisdom, wealth, or physical prowess.
— In form, the barangay was a monarchy with the datu as the monarch.
3. SOCIAL CLASSES in the BARANGAY
➢ The nobility (Maharlika)

➢ The freemen (Timawa)
➢ The serfs (Aliping namamahay)
➢ The slaves (Aliping sagigilid)
4. EARLY LAWS
— Written Laws
➢ Promulgated by datus
➢ The two known written are the Maragtas Code and the Kalantiaw Code.
1. Maragtas Code - was said to have been written about 1250 AD by Datu
Sumakwel of Panay
2. Kalantiaw Code - Written in 1433 AD by Datu Kalantiaw of Panay
— Unwritten Laws - consisted of customs and traditions which had been passed
down from generation to generation
5. COMPARISON with OTHER ANCIENT GOVERNMENTS

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— The laws of the barangay were generally fair.

— An eminent scholar has written: “The Filipino people, even in the prehistoric times
had already shown high intelligence and moral virtues; virtues and intelligence
clearly manifested in their legislation, which, taking into consideration the
circumstances and the epoch in which it was framed, was clearly as wise, as
prudent, and as humane, as that of the nation s then at the head of civilization.
B. The Spanish Government
1. SPAIN’S TITLE to the PHILIPPINES
— It was based on the discovery made by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.
2. SPANISH COLONIAL GOVERNMENT
— From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was indirectly governed by the King of Spain
through Mexico.
— From 1821, when Mexico obtained her independence from Spain, to 1898, the
Philippines was ruled directly from Spain.
➢ The council in Spain responsible for the administration of the Philippines

was the Council of the Indies.
➢ In 1837, it was abolished and legislation for the Philippines was temporarily
performed by the Council of Ministers.
➢ From 1863, the Ministry of Ultramar (colonies) exercised general powers of
supervision of Philippine affairs
— Three times during the Spanish period (1810-1813, 1820-1823, 1836-1837),

the Philippines was given representation in the Spanish Cartes, the legislative
body of Spain.
— Basic principle introduced by Spain: The union of the CHURCH and the
STATE.
3. GOVERNMENT in the PHILIPPINES: UNITARY
— The government which Spain has established: centralized in structure and

national in scope.
➢ The barangays were consolidated into towns (pueblos), each headed by a

gobernadorcillo (little governor), popularly called capitan, and the towns into
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provinces, each headed by a governor who represented the Governor

General in the province.
➢ Cities governed under special charters were also created.
— Each of these cities had an ayuntamiento or cabildo (city council)
➢ Cebu was the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines. The
second was Manila, in 1571.
4. The GOVERNOR – GENERAL
— The powers of the government were actually exercised by the Governor-

General who resided in Manila.
➢ “Governor – General,” “Captain General,” “Vice Royal Patron”
✓ As Governor-General: He had executive, administrative, legislative, and

judicial powers.
✓ As Captain General: He was Commander-in-Chief of all the Armed
Forces in the country
✓ As the Vice Royal Patron: He exercised certain religious powers.
➢ It has been said that the Governor-General enjoyed more powers than the
King of Spain himself.
✓ This was justified because of the distance of the Philippines from Spain.
— The Governor-General was assisted by many boards and officers, particularly

the Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration.
— Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1565-1571) – first Spanish Governor-General
— Gen. Diego de los Rios (1898) – last Spanish Governor-General
5. The JUDICIARY
— Royal Audiencia (1583)
➢ It is the Supreme Court of the Philippines during the Spanish times.

➢ Its decision was final except on certain cases of great importance which
could be appealed to the King of Spain.
➢ It performed functions of executive and legislative nature.
— Territorial Audiencias (1893)

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➢ It is below the Royal Audiencia

➢ There were two territorial audiencias: one in Cebu and the other in Vigan
➢ It exercised appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases coming from the
surrounding territory.
➢ In 1886, courts of first instance with both civil and criminal jurisdiction were
established in the provinces.
➢ At the bottom of the judicial system were the justice of the peace courts
which were established in the different towns in 1885.
— There were special courts:
➢ Military and Naval courts — Had jurisdiction over military defenses

➢ Ecclesiastical courts — Had cognizance of canonical matters and
ecclesiastical offenses
➢ Treasury and Commercial courts
6. EVALUATION of the SPANISH GOVERNMENT in the PHILIPPINES
— Demerits
➢ The government which Spain established was defective.
✓ It was a government for the Spaniards not for the Filipinos
➢ The Spanish officials were often inefficient and corrupt.
➢ The union of the church and state produced serious strifes between the
ecclesiastical and civil authorities.
➢ Equality before the law was denied to the Filipinos.
— Merits
➢ The Spanish rule was generally mild and humane.
✓ The Filipinos were not brutalized.

✓ Spaniards and Filipinos intermarried and mingled socially.
✓ Slavery and tribal wars were suppressed.
➢ It brought about the unification of the Filipino people.
✓ The diverse tribes were molded into one people, under one God, under
one King, and one government.
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✓ The spirit of nationalism blossomed.
➢ It uplifted the Filipinos from the depth of primitive culture and paganism.
✓ blessings of Christianity and European civilization
C. The Revolutionary Government

1. The Katipunan
• The Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng

Bayan ("Supreme and Venerable Association of the Children of the
Nation", Spanish: Suprema y Venerable Asociación de los Hijos del
Pueblo), also known as Katipunan or KKK, was a Philippine
revolutionary society founded by anti-Spanish colonialism Filipinos
in Manila in 1892; its primary goal was to gain independence from
Spain through a revolution.
• Documents discovered in the 21st cen tury suggest that the society
had been organized as early as January 1892 but may not have
become active until July 7 of the same year; that was the date that
Filipino writer José Rizal was to be banished to Dapitan.
• Founded by Filipino patriots Andrés Bon ifacio, Teodoro Plata,
Ladislao Diwa and others, the Katipunan was a secret organization
until it was discovered in 1896. This discovery led to the outbreak of
the Philippine Revolution.
• The Katipunan being a secret organization, its members were
subjected to the utmost secrecy and were expected to abide by the
rules established by the society. Aspiring applicants were given
standard initiation rites in order to become members of the society.
At first, membership in the Katipunan was only open to male
Filipinos; later, women were accepted into the society. The
Katipunan had its own publication, Kalayaan (Freedom) which
issued its first and last printing in March 1896. Revolutionary ideals
and works flourished within the society, and Filipino literature was
expanded by some of its prominent members.
• In planning the revolution, Bonifacio contacted Rizal for his full-
fledged support for the Katipunan in exchange for a promise to
rescue Rizal from his detention. In May 1896, the leadership of the
Katipunan met with the Captain of a visiting Japanese warship in an
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attempt to secure a source of arms for the revolution, but without

success. The Katipunan's existence was revealed to the Spanish
authorities. Days after the Spanish authorities learned of the
existence of the secret society, in August 1896, Bonifacio and his
men tore up their cédulas during the Cry of Balintawak that started
the Philippine Revolution of 1896.
2. The Biak na Bato Republic
• The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided for the establishment of a

Supreme council that would serve as the highest governing body of
the Republic. It also outlined certain basic human rights, such as
freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and the right to education.
• The Republic of Biak-na-Bato (Tagalog: Republika ng Biak-na-Bato,
Spanish: República de Biac-na-Bató), officially referred to in its
constitution as the Republic of the Philippines (Tagalog: Republika
ng Pilipinas, Spanish: República de Filipinas), was the first republic
ever declared in the Philippines by revolutionary leader Emilio
Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries. Despite its successes,
including the establishment of the Philippines' first ever constitution,
the republic lasted just over a month. It was disestablished by a
peace treaty signed by Aguinaldo and the Spanish Governor-
General, Fernando Primo de Rivera which included provision for
exile of Aguinaldo and key associates to Hong Kong.
3. The Dictatorial Government
• The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines was an insurgent

government in the Spanish East Indies inaugurated during the
Spanish American War by Emilio Aguinaldo in a public address on
May 24, 1898 on his return to the Philippines from exile in Hong
Kong, and formally established on June 18. The government was
officially a dictatorship with Aguinaldo formally holding the title of
"Dictator". The government was succeeded by a revolutionary
government which was established by Aguinaldo on June 23.
• In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began. In December 1897, the
Spanish government and the revolutionaries signed a truce, the Pact
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of Biak-na-Bato, requiring that the Spanish pay the revolutionaries

800,000 pesos and that Aguinaldo and other leaders go into exile in
Hong Kong. In April 1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish American
War, Commodore George Dewey aboard the U.S.S. Olympia sailed
from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the Asiatic Squadron of the
U.S. Navy. On May 1, 1898, the United States defeated the Spanish
in the Battle of Manila Bay. Emilio Aguinaldo decided to return to the
Philippines to help American forces defeat the Spaniards. The U.S.
4. The Revolutionary Government
• The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, when the Spanish

authorities discovered the Katipunan, an anti-colonial secret
organization. The Katipunan, led by Andrés Bonifacio, began to
influence much of the Philippines. During a mass gathering in
Caloocan, the leaders of the Katipunan organized themselves into
a revolutionary government, named the newly established
government "Haring Bayang Katagalugan", and openly declared a
nationwide armed revolution. Bonifacio called for an attack on the
capital city of Manila. This attack failed; however, the surrounding
provinces began to revolt. In particular, rebels in Cavite led by
Mariano Álvarez and Emilio Aguinaldo (who were from two different
factions of the Katipunan) won early major victories. A power
struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's death in 1897,
with command shifting to Aguinaldo, who led the newly formed
revolutionary government. That year, the revolutionaries and the
Spanish signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, which temporarily reduced
hostilities. Aguinaldo and other Filipino officers exiled themselves to
Hong Kong. However, the hostilities never completely ceased.
5. The First Philippine Republic
• The First Philippine Republic was established after the Philippine

Revolution against the Spanish Empire (1896–1897) and the
Spanish–American War between Spain and the United States
(1898). Following the American victory at the Battle of Manila Bay,
Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, issued the Philippine
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Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898, and established a

revolutionary Philippine government. In December 1898,
Sovereignty over the Philippines was transferred from Spain to the
United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, making the United States
formally the Philippines colonial power. The Malolos Constitution
establishing the First Philippine Republic was proclaimed the
following month. The Philippine American War began in February
1899, which the Philippine Republic lost.
• The Philippine Republic was the first constitutional republic in Asia.
Although there were several Asian republics predating the First
Philippine Republic for example, the Mahajanapadas of ancient
India, the Lanfang Republic, the Republic of Formosa or the
Republic of Ezo, the Republic at Malolos was the first to frame a
comprehensive constitution duly approved by a partially elected
congress.
D. The American Government
• The United States is a constitutional democracy, a type of government

characterized by limitations on government power spelled out in a written
constitution. Written in 1787, the U.S. Constitution is both the oldest and
shortest written constitution in the world. It serves as the supreme law of the
United States.
• The Constitution outlines a federal government with three separate
branches: the legislative branch (Congress), the executive branch (the
presidency), and the judicial branch (the courts). Over time, however, other
key elements of government have developed and become just as important,
such as the federal bureaucracy, political parties, interest groups, the
media, and electoral campaigns. We will cover these components in detail
in upcoming chapters.
• The Legislative Branch

Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government and is
responsible for creating laws. Congress consists of two chambers; an upper
chamber called the Senate and a lower chamber called the House of
Representatives. Congress has the sole auth ority to make laws, levy taxes,
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declare war, and print money, among other powers. Congress also controls
the federal budget.
• The Executive Branch

The presidency is the executive branch of the federal government. The
president is elected every four years and is responsible for enforcing the
laws that Congress makes. The president is also the commander-in-chief
of the armed forces and has the power to conduct foreign relations.
• The Judicial Branch

The federal courts make up the judicial branch of the federal government,
which consists of regional circuit courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme
Court. The Supreme Court is the highest legal authority in the country and
has assumed the power of judicial review to decide the legality of the laws
Congress makes.
• The Bureaucracy
The term bureaucracy refers to the various departments and agencies of
the executive branch that help the president carry out his or her duties.
There are fifteen departments within the executive bureaucratic branch,
including the Department of State, the Department of Labor, the Department
of Homeland Security, and the Department of Education. Each of these
departments is also responsible for a number of small government
agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central
Intelligence Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration.
1. The Military Government
• A military government is generally any government that is administered by

military forces, whether or not this government is legal under the laws of the
jurisdiction at issue, and whether this government is formed by natives or
by an occupying power. It is usually carried out by military workers.
Types of military government include:
• Military occupation of acquired foreign territory and the administration thereof

• Martial law, temporary military rule of domestic territory
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• Military dictatorship, an authoritarian government controlled by a military and

its political designees, called a military junta when done extralegally
• Military junta, a government led by a committee of military leaders.
• Stratocracy, a government traditionally or constitutionally run by a military.
2. The Civil Government
• Civil government is established when the people consent to be governed.

They cannot be forced into allegiance or fealty to a government. The people
give up their rights to perfect freedom, judgment, and punishment, and
invest these powers in a legislative and executive power.
— The so-called Spooner Amendment ended the military regime in the

Philippines.
— The Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901, headed by a
Civil Governor whose position was created on October 29, 1901.
— The Civil Governor (later changed to Governor-General) exercised legislative
powers.
➢ He remained as President of the Philippine Commission, the sole law-

making body of the government from 1901 to 1907.
— From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of
the legislative branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house.
➢ These two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature with the passage
of Spooner Law in 1916.
— Judge William H. Taft (1901-1903)
➢ first Civil Governor
— Luke F. Wright (1904-1906)
➢ succeeded Taft
➢ the first American to enjoy the title of Governor-General of the
Philippines
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— Frank Murphy (1933-1935)
➢ last Governor-General
➢ the first High Commissioner of the United States to the Philippines upon
the inauguration of the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines
3. The Commonwealth Government
• Philippine Commonwealth Era. The Commonwealth era is the 10-year

transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in preparation for
independence from the United States as provided for under the Philippine
Independence Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law.
— Pursuant to an act of the United States Congress on March 23, 1934,

commonly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law, the Commonwealth
Government was established.
➢ Among other things, the law provided for a transition period of ten years
during which the Philippine Commonwealth would operate and at the
expiration of said period on July 4, 1946, the independence of the
Philippines would be proclaimed and established.
— The new government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, following the
first national election under the 1935 Constitution held on September 12, 1935,
with Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, as President and Vice- President,
respectively.
— The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was republican in form
under the presidential type.
➢ Legislative power
✓ It was first vested in a unicameral National Assembly and later in a

bicameral Congress composed of the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
➢ Judicial power
✓ It was vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts provided by law.
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— The Commonwealth Government was very autonomous.

— The Filipinos had almost complete control over the domestic affairs, the United
States retaining control only over matters involving foreign affairs.
E. The Japanese Government
• The Government of Japan (日本国政府, Nihonkoku-seifu or Nipponkoku-

seifu) is the central government of Japan. The Government of Japan
consists of legislature, executive and judiciary branches and is accountable
to the Emperor of Japan. The Prime Minister of Japan is the chief executive
of the government and is responsible for selecting ministers to serve in the
Cabinet of Japan, the executive branch of the state government.
• The Government runs under the framework established by the Constitution
of Japan, adopted in 1947. It is a unitary state, containing forty-seven
administrative divisions, with the Emperor as its Head of State. His role is
ceremonial and he has no powers related to Government. Instead, it is the
Cabinet, comprising the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister, that
directs and controls the Government and the civil service. The Cabinet has
the executive power and is formed by the Prime Minister, who is the Head
of Government. He or she is designated by the National Diet and appointed
to office by the Emperor.
1. The JAPANESE MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
— It was established in Manila on January 3, 1942, one day after its occupation.
➢ Under a proclamation issued by the Japanese High Command, the

sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines was declared
terminated.
2. The PHILIPPINE EXECUTIVE COMMISSION
— The Philippine Executive commission composed of Filipinos with Jorge B.

Vargas as chairman, was organized by the military forces of occupation.
➢ It exercised both the executive and legislative powers.

➢ The laws enacted were subject to the approval of the Commander-in-Chief
of the Japanese forces.
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➢ The judiciary continued in the same form but without the independence
which it had traditionally enjoyed.
3. The JAPANESE-SPONSORED REPUBLIC of the PHILIPPINES
— It was inaugurated on October 14, 1943 with Jose P. Laurel as President.

— The ultimate source of its authority was the Japanese military authority and
government.
— President Laurel proclaimed its dissolution on August 17, 1945.
F. The Third Philippine Republic
• On July 4, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the

Republic of the Philippines signed a Treaty of General Relations between the two
governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the
Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment of American
sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.
• Filipino historians point out that independence in 1946 came with numerous strings
attached. The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones.
In addition, independence was qualified by legislation passed by the U.S.
Congress. For example, the Bell Trade Act prohibited the Philippines from
manufacturing or selling any products that might "come into substantial
competition" with U.S.-made goods. It further required that the Philippine
Constitution be revised to grant U.S. citizens and corporations equal access to
Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources. In hearings before the
Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs
William L. Clayton described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign
economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant
the Philippines genuine independence."
• But the Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for
independence. The U.S. Congress was threatening to withhold post-World War II
rebuilding funds unless the Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged
on July 2, 1946
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• There were 6 administrations in the third Republic which are:
1. Roxas administration (Manuel Roxas as President and Elpidio Quirino as Vice

President) (1946-1948)
2. Quirino administration (Elpidio Quirino as President and Fernando Lopez as Vice

President) (1949-1953)
3. Magsaysay administration (Ramon Magsaysay as President and Carlos P. Garcia

as Vice President) (1953-1957)
4. Garcia administration (Carlos P. Garcia as President and Diosdado Macapagal as

Vice President) (1957-1961)
5. Macapagal administration (Diosdado Macapagal as President and Emmanuel

Pelaez as Vice President) (1961-1965)
6. And the Marcos administration (Ferdinand Marcos as President and Fernando

Lopez as Vice President) (1965-1972)
1. Pres. Manuel Roxas
• (born Jan. 1, 1892, Capiz, Phil.—died April 15, 1948, Clark Field,
Pampanga), political leader and first president (1946–48) of the
independent Republic of the Philippines.
• After studying law at the University of the Philippines, near Manila,
Roxas began his political career in 1917 as a member of the
municipal council of Capiz (renamed Roxas in 1949). He was
governor of the province of Capiz in 1919–21 and was then elected
to the Philippine House of Representatives, subsequently serving as
Speaker of the House and a member of the Council of State. In 1923
he and Manuel Quezon, the president of the Senate, resigned in
protest from the Council of State when the U.S. governor-general
(Leonard Wood) began vetoing bills passed by the Philippine
legislature. In 1932 Roxas and Sergio Osmeña, the Nacionalista
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Party leader, led the Philippine Independence Mission to

Washington, D.C., where they influenced the passage of the Hare-
Hawes-Cutting Act. Roxas was later opposed by Quezon, who held
that the act compromised future Philippine independence; the
Nacionalista Party was split between them on this issue. In 1934,
however, Roxas was a member of the convention that drew up a
constitution under the revised Philippine Independence and
Commonwealth Act (Tydings-McDuffie Act). Roxas also served as
secretary of finance in the Commonwealth government (1938–40).
• During World War II Roxas served in the pro-Japanese government
of José Laurel by acquiring supplies of rice for the Japanese army.
Although a court was established after the war to try collaborators,
Roxas was defended by his friend General Douglas MacArthur.
Roxas was elected president of the Commonwealth in 1946 as the
nominee of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party (which became
the Liberal Party), and, when independence was declared on July 4,
he became the first president of the new republic.
• Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from
the United States after independence, he was forced to concede
military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade
restrictions for Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S.
property owners and investors. His administration was marred by
graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military
police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap (Huk)
movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush
the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection. Roxas died in office
in 1948 and was succeeded by his vice president, Elpidio Quirino.
2. Pres. Elpidio Quirino
• (born Nov. 16, 1890, Vigan, Phil.—died Feb. 28, 1956, Novaliches),
political leader and second president of the independent Republic of
the Philippines.
• After obtaining a law degree from the University of the Philippines,
near Manila, in 1915, Quirino practiced law until he was elected a
member of the Philippine House of Representatives in 1919–25 and
a senator in 1925–31. In 1934 he was a member of the Philippine
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independence mission to Washington, D.C., headed by Manuel

Quezon, which secured the passage in Congress of the Tydings–
McDuffie Act, setting the date for Philippine independence as July 4,
1946. He was also elected to the convention that drafted a
constitution for the new Philippine Commonwealth. Subsequently he
served as secretary of finance and secretary of the interior in the
Commonwealth government.
• After World War II, Quirino served as secretary of state and vice
president under the first president of the independent Philippines,
Manuel Roxas. When Roxas died on April 15, 1948, Quirino
succeeded to the presidency. The following year, he was elected
president for a four-year term on the Liberal Party ticket, defeating
the Nacionalista candidate.
• President Quirino’s administration faced a serious threat in the form
of the Communist-led Hukbalahap (Huk) movement. Though the
Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon,
the Communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and,
when Quirino’s negotiations with Huk commander Luis Taruc broke
down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and
called for the overthrow of the government. By 1950 the Huks had
gained control over a considerable portion of Luzon, and Quirino
appointed the able Ramon Magsaysay as secretary of national
defense to suppress the insurrection.
• Quirino’s six years as president were marked by notable postwar
reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid
from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly
in the rural areas, remained unsolved; Quirino’s administration was
tainted by widespread graft and corruption. The 1949 elections,
which he had won, were among the most dishonest in the country’s
history. Magsaysay, who had been largely successful in eliminating
the threat of the Huk insurgents, broke with Quirino on the issue of
corruption, campaigning for clean elections and defeating Quirino as
the Nacionalista candidate in the presidential election of 1953.
Subsequently, Quirino retired to private life.
3. Pres. Ramon Magsaysay

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• (born Aug. 31, 1907, Iba, Phil.—died March 17, 1957, near Cebu),
president of the Philippines (1953–57), best known for successfully
defeating the communist-led Hukbalahap (Huk) movement.
• The son of an artisan, Magsaysay was a schoolteacher in the
provincial town of Iba on the island of Luzon. Though most Philippine
political leaders were of Spanish descent, Magsaysay was of Malay
stock, like most of the common people. Working his way through
José Rizal College near Manila, he obtained a commercial degree
in 1933 and became general manager of a Manila transportation
company. After serving as a guerrilla leader on Luzon during World
War II, he was appointed military governor of his home province,
Zambales, when the United States recaptured the Philippines. He
served two terms (1946–50) as a Liberal Party congressman for
Zambales, his first experience in politics.
• President Elpidio Quirino appointed Magsaysay secretary of
defense to deal with the threat of the Huks, whose leader, Luis
Taruc, in February 1950 established a People’s Liberation Army and
called for the overthrow of the government. Magsaysay then carried
out until 1953 one of the most successful antiguerrilla campaigns in
modern history. Realizing that the Huks could not survive without
popular support, he strove to win the trust of the peasants by offering
land and tools to those who came over to the government side and
by insisting that army units treat the people with respect. Reforming
the army, he dismissed corrupt and incompetent officers and
emphasized mobility and flexibility in combat operations against the
guerrillas. By 1953 the Huks were no longer a serious threat, but
Magsaysay’s radical measures had made many enemies for him
within the government, compelling him to resign on February 28,
when he charged the Quirino administration with corruption and
incompetence.
• Although Magsaysay was a Liberal, the Nacionalista Party
successfully backed him for the presidency against Quirino in the
1953 elections, winning the support of Carlos P. Romulo, who had
organized a third party. Magsaysay promised reform in every
segment of Philippine life, but he was frustrated in his efforts by a
conservative congress that represented the interests of the wealthy.
Despite initial support of Congress in July 1955, Magsaysay was
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unable to pass effective land-reform legislation; government

indifference to the plight of the peasants then undid most of his good
work in gaining the support of the people against the Huks.
Nevertheless, he remained extremely popular and had a well-
deserved reputation for incorruptibility.
• In foreign policy, Magsaysay remained a close friend and supporter

of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism
during the Cold War. He made the Philippines a member of the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, which was established in
Manila on Sept. 8, 1954. Before the expiration of his term as
president, Magsaysay was killed in an airplane crash; he was
succeeded by the vice president, Carlos P. Garcia.
4. Pres. Carlos Garcia
• Carlos Polestico Garcia, (born November 4, 1896, Talibon,

Philippines—died June 14, 1971, Quezon City), fourth president of
the Republic of the Philippines. After graduating from law school in
1923, he became, successively, a schoolteacher, representative in
the Philippine Congress, governor of his province (Bohol), and then
(1941–53) senator. During the Japanese occupation of the
Philippines in World War II, Garcia was active in the resistance
movement. He was elected vice president on the ticket of the
Nacionalista Party in 1953 and was also minister of foreign affairs
(1953–57). He became president of the Philippines in March 1957,
upon the death of Pres. Ramon Magsaysay, and was elected to a full
four-year term the same year. He maintained the strong traditional
ties with the United States and sought closer relations with
noncommunist Asian countries. In the election of November 1961,
he was defeated by Vice Pres. Diosdado Macapagal.
5. Pres. Diosdado Macapagal
• (born Sept. 28, 1910, Lubao, Phil. died April 21, 1997, Makati, Phil.),
reformist president of the Philippines from 1961 to 1965.
• After receiving his law degree, Macapagal was admitted to the bar in
1936. During World War II he practiced law in Manila and aided the
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anti-Japanese resistance. After the war he worked in a law firm and

in 1948 served as second secretary to the Philippine Embassy in
Washington, D.C. The following year he was elected to a seat in the
Philippine House of Representatives, serving until 1956. During this
time, he was Philippine representative to the United Nations General
Assembly three times. From 1957 to 1961 Macapagal was a member
of the Liberal Party and vice president under Nacionalista president
Carlos Garcia. In the 1961 elections, however, he ran against Garcia,
forging a coalition of the Liberal and Progressive parties and making
a crusade against political corruption a principal element of his
platform. He was elected by a wide margin.
• While president, Macapagal worked to suppress graft and corruption
and to stimulate the Philippine economy. He placed the peso on the
free currency-exchange market, encouraged exports, passed the
country’s first land-reform legislation, and sought to curb income tax
evasion, particularly by the wealthiest families, which cost the
treasury millions of pesos yearly. His reforms, however, were
crippled by a House of Represen tatives and Senate dominated by
the Nacionalistas, and he was defeated in the 1965 presidential
elections by Ferdinand Marcos.
• In 1972 he chaired the convention that drafted the 1973 constitution,
but in 1981 he questioned the validity of its ratification. In 1979 he
organized the National Union for Liberation as an opposition party to
the Marcos regime.
6. Pres. Ferdinand Marcos
• Ferdinand Edralin Marcos, (born September 11, 1917, Sarrat,

Philippines died September 28, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.),
Philippine lawyer and politician who, as head of state from 1966 to
1986, established an authoritarian regime in the Philippines that
came under criticism for corruption and for its suppression of
democratic processes.
• Marcos attended school in Manila and studied law in the late 1930s
at the University of the Philippines, near that city. Tried for the
assassination in 1933 of a political opponent of his politician father,
Marcos was found guilty in November 1939. But he argued his case
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on appeal to the Philippine Su preme Court and won acquittal a year

later. He became a trial lawyer in Manila. During World War II he was
an officer with the Philippine armed forces. Marcos’s later claims of
having been a leader in the Filipino guerrilla resistance movement
were a central factor in his political success, but U.S. government
archives revealed that he actually played little or no part in anti -
Japanese activities during 1942–45.
• From 1946 to 1947 Marcos was a technical assistant to Manuel
Roxas, the first president of the independent Philippine republic. He
was a member of the House of Representatives (1949–59) and of
the Senate (1959–65), serving as Senate president (1963–65). In
1965 Marcos, who was a prominent member of the Liberal Party
founded by Roxas, broke with it after failing to get his party’s
nomination for president. He then ran as the Nationalist Party
candidate for president against the Liberal president, Diosdado
Macapagal. The campaign was expensive and bitter. Marcos won
and was inaugurated as president on December 30, 1965. In 1969
he was reelected, becoming the first Philippine president to serve a
second term. During his first term he had made progress in
agriculture, industry, and education. Yet his administration was
troubled by increasing student demonstrations and violent urban
guerrilla activities.
• On September 21, 1972, Marcos imposed martial law on the
Philippines. Holding that communist and subversive forces had
precipitated the crisis, he acted swiftly; opposition politicians were
jailed, and the armed forces became an arm of the regime. Opposed
by political leaders—notably Benigno Aquino, Jr., who was jailed and
held in detention for almost eight years—Marcos was also criticized
by church leaders and others. In the provinces Maoist communists
(New People’s Army) and Muslim separatists (notably of the Moro
National Liberation Front) undertook guerrilla activities intended to
bring down the central government. Under martial law the president
assumed extraordinary powers, including the ability to suspend the
writ of habeas corpus. Marcos announced the end of martial law in
January 1981, but he continued to rule in an authoritarian fashion
under various constitutional formats. He won election to the newly
created post of president against token opposition in June 1981.
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• Marcos’s wife from 1954 was Imelda Romualdez Marcos, a former

beauty queen. Imelda became a powerful figure after the institution
of martial law in 1972. She was often criticized for her appointments
of relatives to lucrative governmental and industrial positions while
she held the posts of governor of Metropolitan Manila (1975–86) and
minister of human settlements and ecology (1979–86).
• Marcos’s later years in power were marred by rampant government
corruption, economic stagnation, the steady widening of economic
inequalities between the rich and the poor, and the steady growth of
a communist guerrilla insurgency active in the rural areas of the
Philippines’ innumerable islands.
• By 1983 Marcos’s health was beginning to fail, and opposition to his
rule was growing. Hoping to present an alternative to both Marcos
and the increasingly powerful New People’s Army, Benigno Aquino,
Jr., returned to Manila on August 21, 1983, only to be shot dead as
he stepped off the airplane. The assassination was seen as the work
of the government and touched off massive antigovernment protests.
An independent commission appointed by Marcos concluded in 1984
that high military officers were responsible for Aquino’s
assassination. To reassert his mandate, Marcos called for
presidential elections to be held in 1986. But a formidable political
opponent soon emerged in Aquino’s widow, Corazon Aquino, who
became the presidential candidate of the opposition. It was widely
asserted that Marcos managed to defeat Aquino and retain the
presidency in the election of February 7, 1986, only through massive
voting fraud on the part of his supporters. Deeply discredited at home
and abroad by his dubious electoral victory, Marcos held fast to his
presidency as the Philippine military split between supporters of his
and of Aquino’s legitimate right to the presidency. A tense standoff
that ensued between the two sides ended only when Marcos fled the
country on February 25, 1986, at U.S. urging. He went into exile in
Hawaii, where he remained until his death.
• Evidence emerged that during his years in power Marcos, his family,
and his close associates had looted the Philippines’ economy of
billions of dollars through embezzlements and other corrupt
practices. Marcos and his wife were subsequently indicted by the
U.S. government on racketeering charges, but in 1990 (after
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Marcos’s death) Imelda was acquitted of all charges by a federal

court. She was allowed to return to the Philippines in 1991, and in
1993 a Philippine court found her guilty of corruption (the conviction
was overturned in 1998).
7. Pres. Corazon Aquino
• Maria Corazon Aquino, née Maria Corazon Cojuangco, (born

January 25, 1933, Tarlac province, Philippines died August 1, 2009,
Makati), Philippine political leader who served as the first female
president (1986–92) of the Philippines, restoring democratic rule in
that country after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
• Corazon Cojuangco was born into a wealthy, politically prominent
family based in Tarlac province, north of Manila. She graduated from
Mount St. Vincent College in New York City in 1954 but abandoned
further studies in 1955 to marry Benigno Simeon Aquino, Jr., who
was then a promising young politician. Corazon remained in the
background during her husband’s subsequent career, rearing their
five children at home. Her husband, who had become a prominent
opposition politician, was jailed by Marcos for eight years (1972–80),
and Corazon accompanied him into exile in the United States in
1980. Benigno was assassinated upon his return to the Philippines
in August 1983. This event galvanized opposition to the Marcos
government.
• When Ferdinand E. Marcos unexpectedly called for presidential
elections in February 1986, Corazon Aquino became the unified
opposition’s presidential candidate. Though she was officially
reported to have lost the election to Marcos, Aquino and her
supporters challenged the results, charging widespread voting fraud.
High officials in the Philippine military soon publicly renounced
Marcos’s continued rule and proclaimed Aquino the Philippines’
rightful president. On February 25, 1986, both Aquino and Marcos
were inaugurated as president by their respective supporters, but
that same day Marcos fled the country.
• In March 1986 Aquino proclaimed a provisional constitution and soon
thereafter appointed a commission to write a new constitution. The
resulting document, which restored the bicameral Congress
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abolished by Marcos in 1973, was ratified by a landslide popular vote

in February 1987. Aquino held elections to the new Congress and
broke up the monopolies held by Marcos’s allies over the economy,
which experienced steady growth for several years. But she failed to
undertake fundamental economic or social reforms, and her
popularity steadily declined as sh e faced continual outcries over
economic injustice and political corruption. These problems were
exacerbated by persistent warfare between the communist
insurgency and a military whose loyalties to Aquino were uncertain.
In general, her economic policies were criticized for being mixed or
faltering in the face of mass poverty. Aquino was succeeded in office
by her former defense secretary, Fidel Ramos.
8. Pres. Fidel Ramos
• Fidel Valdez Ramos, byname Eddie Ramos, (born March 18, 1928,
Lingayen, Phil.), military leader and politician who was president of
the Philippines from 1992 to 1998. He was generally regarded as one
of the most effective presidents in that nation’s history.
• Ramos was educated at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point,
N.Y., and at the University of Illinois, U.S. He then entered the
Philippine army, serving in Korea and Vietnam. In 1972 President
Ferdinand Marcos (who was Ramos’ second cousin) appointed him
chief of the Philippine Constabulary, and when Marcos imposed
martial law later that year Ramos was responsible for enforcing it;
the Constabulary arrested thousands of political dissidents. In 1981
Ramos became deputy chief of staff of the armed forces.
• After the presidential elections of 1986, in which Marcos claimed
victory despite allegations of large-scale electoral fraud, Ramos and
defense minister Juan Ponce Enrile supported Marcos’ opponent,
Corazon Aquino. Their defection sparked the civilian “People Power”
movement that forced Marcos into exile. During Aquino’s presidency
Ramos served as military chief of staff (1986–88) and secretary of
national defense (1988–91), and he suppressed several military
coups attempts against her government.
• Ramos was elected to succeed Aquino in May 1992. As president he
purged the national police force of corrupt officers; encouraged
Manila
family-planning practices to curb the growth of the country’s

population; and liberalized the Philippines’ heavily protected
economy in order to spur economic growth. Ramos’ governing
coalition won a decisive victory in congressional elections held in
1995, midway through his six-year term as president. His
administration reached peace agreements with two long-active
guerrilla insurgencies, the communist New People’s Army and the
Muslim separatists of the Moro National Liberation Front. He
meanwhile continued his efforts to deregulate major industries that
were dominated by a handful of large companies and to improve the
government’s inefficient tax-collection system. These reforms helped
revitalize the Philippines’ economy, which emerged from years of
stagnation to grow at a rapid rate in 1994–97. The country was thus
able to weather a severe business downturn that crippled national
economies across Southeast Asia in 1998. Ramos was
constitutionally restricted to one term as president, which ended in
June 1998.
9. Pres. Joseph Estrada
• Joseph Ejercito, (born April 19, 1937, Manila, Philippines), Filipino

actor and politician who served as president of the Philippines
(1998–2001) and later mayor of Manila (2013–19).
• The son of a government engineer, Estrada entered the Mapua
Institute of Technology with the intention of following in his father’s
footsteps, but he eventually dropped out to become a film actor.
Forbidden by his parents to use the family name, he adopted the
screen name Erap Estrada. He played the lead in more than 100
movies, usually portraying a swashbuckling tough guy who defends
the poor against the corrupt establishment. He also produced some
75 films.
• In 1968 Estrada entered politics, successfully running for the
mayorship of the Manila suburb of San Juan, a post he retained until
1986. In 1969 he was elected to the Senate. In 1992 he ran for vice
president on the National People’s Coalition ticket. Although the
Manila
party’s presidential candidate, Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr., lost the

election to Fidel Ramos, Estrada won the vice-presidential contest.
• In 1998 Estrada ran for president, though his candidacy faced
significant opposition. Ramos, who was constitutionally barred from
running for a second term, endorsed House Speaker José de
Venecia, and many of the country’s powerful businessmen opposed
Estrada’s populist proposals. The Roman Catholic Church denied
Estrada its support because he had admitted to having fathered four
children by women other than his wife. However, he did have the
support of Imelda Marcos, the widow of former president Ferdinand
Marcos and then a member of Congress, and he enjoyed a devoted
following among the country’s poor. Estrada managed to capture
nearly 40 percent of the vote, handily defeating his nearest rival, de
Venecia, who garnered only 15.9 percent. The margin of victory was
the largest in a free election in the history of the Philippines, and
Estrada was officially declared president by Congress on May 29,
1998.
• Estrada’s tenure as president was short-lived, however, as a
corruption scandal erupted in October 2000 when a fellow politician
claimed that Estrada had accepted millions of dollars’ worth of
bribes. In November the Philippine Senate began an impeachment
trial, but it was abandoned after some senators blocked the
admission of evidence. On January 20, 2001, Estrada was ousted
amid mass protests, and his vice president, Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo, ascended to the presidency. Later that year Estrada was
brought to trial on charges of plunder (large-scale corruption) and
accused of having procured more than $80 million through bribes
and corrupt dealings. Estrada denied the accusations, calling them
politically motivated, and he remained relatively popular in the
Philippines despite the charges. In September 2007 he was
convicted of plundering and sentenced to a maximum of 40 years in
prison. The following month, however, Estrada was pardoned by
Arroyo. In October 2009 he announced his candidacy for president,
but he was defeated in the May 2010 elections by Benigno S. Aquino
III (son of Benigno Aquino, Jr., and Corazon Aquino).
• In 2013 Estrada ran for mayor of Manila and defeated the
incumbent, Alfredo Lim. After taking office later that year, he faced
Manila
a number of issues, notably the city’s debt and inability to pay for
basic services. In order to raise revenue, he sharply raised property
taxes. Estrada faced a serious challenge from Lim in the 2016 race
but narrowly won reelection. He ran for a third term in 2019 but was
defeated.
10. Pres. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
• (born April 5, 1947, San Juan, Philippines), Filipino politician who

was president of the Philippines (2001–10).
• Arroyo’s father, Diosdado P. Macapagal, was president of the
Philippines from 1961 to 1965. Arroyo studied economics at
Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., where she began a
lasting friendship with classmate and future U.S. president Bill
Clinton. After returning to the Philippines and graduating magna cum
laude from Assumption College in Manila in 1968, Arroyo earned a
master’s degree in economics (1978) from Ateneo de Manila
University and a doctorate in economics (1986) from the University
of the Philippines in Quezon City.
• Arroyo was a university professor when Pres. Corazon Aquino
appointed her undersecretary of trade and industry in 1986. She
won a seat in the Senate in 1992 and was reelected in 1995 by a
record 16 million votes. She was elected vice president in 1998,
garnering more votes than the winner of the presidency, Joseph
Estrada, who named Arroyo secretary of social welfare and
development. In 2000, however, a corruption scandal enveloped
Estrada, and on October 12 Arroyo resigned from the cabinet post
to rally opposition against him. Angry protesters drove Estrada from
the presidential residence on January 20, 2001, and Arroyo
assumed power.
• Arroyo brought an unprecedented academic and administrative
background to the Philippines presidency, but her ten ure was
plagued by political unrest. Just months after she took office, some
20,000 supporters of Estrada stormed the gates of the presidential
palace. Several people were killed, and Arroyo declared a “state of
rebellion” that lasted five days. In 2003 disaffected soldiers seized a
Manila apartment building and demanded Arroyo’s resignation; the
Manila
attempted coup was suppressed peacefully. Promising to reduce

corruption and improve the economy, Arroyo was reelected
president in 2004. However, accusations that she rigged the election
emerged the following year and resulted in a failed attempt at
impeachment. In 2006 Arroyo declared a countrywide state of
emergency after a military coup was blocked; the state of
emergency was lifted after about one week. Terrorism was also a
concern for Arroyo’s administration. Abu Sayyaf, a terrorist group
that sought a separate Islamic state in the southern Philippines, was
responsible for a number of attacks, including the 2004 bombing of
a ferry that killed more than 100 people.
• In late 2009, after members of a politically powerful clan in Mindanao
were implicated in the massacre of a political opponent and his
entourage there, Arroyo briefly declared martial law in the region.
She also renounced ties with the clan, which until then had been a
political ally. Constitutionally barred from seeking another six-year
presidential term, she ran for and won a seat in the House of
Representatives in the May 2010 presidential and parliamentary
elections.
• Arroyo subsequently was investigated for various alleged crimes,
and in 2011 the government barred her from leaving the country to
seek medical treatment. In November she was arrested on charges
of having committed electoral fraud during the 2007 Senate election.
She pleaded not guilty in February 2012. The following month,
however, new allegations were brought which stated that she and
her husband had accepted bribes from a Chinese
telecommunications company in 2007. She was released from
custody on bail in July 2012. Later that year Arroyo was arrested for
allegedly having misused state lottery funds while president. At the
time she was in a Manila hospital, and she remained there until the
country’s Supreme Court dismissed the charges in July 2016.
Arroyo, who had been reelected to Congress in May, resumed her
political career. An important ally of Pres. Rodrigo Duterte, she was
elected speaker of the House of Representatives in 2018.
11. Pres. Benigno Simeon Aquino

Manila
• Benigno Aquino III, in full Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, also
called Noynoy, (born February 8, 1960, Manila, Philippines), Filipino
politician who served as president of the Philippines (2010–16) and
was the scion of a famed political family.
• He was the son of Corazon Aquino, who served as president of the
Philippines (1986–92), and political leader Benigno Simeon Aquino,
Jr. themselves the children of politically connected families. The
elder Benigno, an opposition figure to Pres. Ferdinand Marcos who
was imprisoned when the younger Benigno was a child, was
released and allowed to go to the United States in 1980. The
following year the younger Benigno, after graduating from Ateneo de
Manila University with a bachelor’s degree in economics, followed
his family to Boston. His father returned to the Philippines in 1983
intending to challenge Marcos for the presidency but was
assassinated immediately on arrival. The family nevertheless
returned to the country soon afterward, and there the young Aquino
worked for companies including Philippine Business for Social
Progress and Nike Philippines.
• He became vice president of his family’s Best Security Agency
Corporation in 1986, the same year that his mother was named
president of the Philippines after her opposition party successfully
charged incumbent President Marcos with voting fraud. Aquino left
the company in 1993 to work for another family-owned business, a
sugar refinery. Finally, in 1998, he made the move to politics as a
member of the Liberal Party, serving the constitutional maximum of
three consecutive terms as a representative of the 2nd district of
Tarlac province. During this time, he also served as deputy speaker
of the House of Representatives (2004–06), but he resigned from the
post in advance of joining other Liberal Party leaders in making a call
for the resignation of Pres. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–10), who
was accused of corrupt dealings including the rigging of the 2004
presidential election. From 2006 Aquino served as vice-chairman of
the Liberal Party, and in 2007, at the end of his final term in the House
of Representatives, he made a successful bid for a Senate seat.
• In September 2009 Aquino announced his candidacy in the 2010
presidential race. His mother, to many a symbol of democratic rule
in the Philippines, had died the previous month, an event that
Manila
heightened Aquino’s profile and served as a catalyst for his seeking

higher office. Though his opponents for the presidency included such
seasoned politicians as Joseph Estrada, who had previously served
as president of the Philippines (1998–2001), Aquino was considered
the front-runner from the time that he entered the race. In the
elections held on May 10, Aquino won the presidency by a wide
margin.
• Aquino’s chief domestic accomplishment was the conclusion of a
peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) in
October 2012. The deal promised a significant amount of autonomy
to a Muslim-majority region of southern Mindinao and seemingly
concluded four decades of deadly conflict. Economic growth in the
Philippines was strong during Aquino’s administration, but
unemployment remained high, and opposition politicians argued that
the benefits chiefly accrued to the country’s elite. Aquino also faced
criticism over his government’s slow response to Super Typhoon
Haiyan, which killed some 8,000 people and displaced more than
800,000 when it hit the Philippines in November 2013. The most
significant foreign policy issue of Aquino’s term in office was China’s
increasingly assertive posture in the South China Sea. The
Philippines sought a judgment from the Permanent Court of
Arbitration at The Hague to clarify the ownership of a reef that was
claimed by China despite the fact that it lay within Philippine territorial
waters. Although the court later ruled that China had no claim to the
reef and that China’s actions had constituted a violation of the
Philippines’ sovereignty, China dismissed the decision. Limited to a
single six-year term, Aquino supported Manuel (“Mar”) Roxas to
succeed him in 2016. Roxas, the grandson of Pres. Manuel Roxas,
represented the mainstream political establishment at a time when
voters were clearly frustrated with the status quo, and he finished a
distant second to inflammatory populist Rodrigo Duterte. Duterte
succeeded Aquino as president on June 30, 2016.
Manila
REFERENCES
• https://www.philippine-history.org/early-
filipinos.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20two%20theories%20on,in%20successive
%20waves%20of%20migration
• https://www.history.com/news/humans-evolution-neanderthals-
denisovans#:~:text=The%20First%20Humans,-
Homo%20habilis%20individuals&text=One%20of%20the%20earliest%20known,i
n%20Eastern%20and%20Southern%20Africa
• https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indias-cultural-and-civilizational-influence-
on-southeast-asia/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia
• https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/how-india-influenced-southeast-asian-
civilization/
Manila
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/The-Hellenistic-Age
• https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/start-here-apah/brief-
histories-apah/a/a-brief-history-of-the-cultures-of-asia
• https://asiasociety.org/education/japanese-history
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Japan
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramon-Magsaysay
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elpidio-Quirino
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carlos-P-Garcia
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Manuel-Roxas-y-Acuna
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-E-Marcos
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Diosdado-Macapagal
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Corazon-Aquino
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fidel-Ramos
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Estrada
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gloria-Macapagal-Arroyo
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benigno-Aquino-III

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REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

NAME: Angelica B. Alejandro DATE: March 14, 2021

TOPIC: PHILIPPINE HISTORY

GENERAL INSTRUCTION: Research and make an outline of the following topics.

I. Origin of the Philippines

A. The Earliest people

• In addition to these early humans, researchers have found evidence of an

• The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called

C. Early contact with Asian countries and its influence

were a powerful empire, the Arab empire was the center of

• The Government of India’s ‘Act East policy’ aims at improving

their local cultures. Almost every country accepted Ramayana

only experts in performing religious rites but were also

• In Japan, the early 17th century marked a turning point as the

• The 19th century brought major changes to Asia’s many worlds. By

D. Early History and Culture of the Philippines

II. Philippine History and Government

A. The Pre-Spanish Government

➢ Barangay is named after balangay, a Malaysian word meaning “boat”

3. SOCIAL CLASSES in the BARANGAY

➢ The nobility (Maharlika)

5. COMPARISON with OTHER ANCIENT GOVERNMENTS

— The laws of the barangay were generally fair.

B. The Spanish Government

1. SPAIN’S TITLE to the PHILIPPINES

— It was based on the discovery made by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.

2. SPANISH COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

➢ The council in Spain responsible for the administration of the Philippines

— Three times during the Spanish period (1810-1813, 1820-1823, 1836-1837),

3. GOVERNMENT in the PHILIPPINES: UNITARY

— The government which Spain has established: centralized in structure and

➢ The barangays were consolidated into towns (pueblos), each headed by a

provinces, each headed by a governor who represented the Governor

— Each of these cities had an ayuntamiento or cabildo (city council)

4. The GOVERNOR – GENERAL

— The powers of the government were actually exercised by the Governor-

➢ “Governor – General,” “Captain General,” “Vice Royal Patron”

✓ As Governor-General: He had executive, administrative, legislative, and

— The Governor-General was assisted by many boards and officers, particularly

— Royal Audiencia (1583)

➢ It is the Supreme Court of the Philippines during the Spanish times.

— Territorial Audiencias (1893)

➢ It is below the Royal Audiencia

— There were special courts:

➢ Military and Naval courts — Had jurisdiction over military defenses

6. EVALUATION of the SPANISH GOVERNMENT in the PHILIPPINES

➢ The government which Spain established was defective.

✓ It was a government for the Spaniards not for the Filipinos

➢ The Spanish officials were often inefficient and corrupt.

➢ The Spanish rule was generally mild and humane.

✓ The Filipinos were not brutalized.

➢ It brought about the unification of the Filipino people.

✓ The spirit of nationalism blossomed.

✓ blessings of Christianity and European civilization

C. The Revolutionary Government

• The Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng

attempt to secure a source of arms for the revolution, but without