Chapter 1

Introduction to
Network Theory
Outline
1.1. Electric Networks
• Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis" Chapter 1

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 1

1.2. Modeling, Analysis and Synthesis

1.3. Network Characterization

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Electric Networks
• Network: collection of individual elements governed by certain laws
• building blocks of systems
• Circuit: is a closed path
• Network: can be closed or open (more general)
• Electric network theory: Voltage(V), Current (I), Charge(Q), Flux(Ψ)
• interrelationship among quantities
• physical laws that govern their behavior
• For electric networks, excitation and response are given in terms of
voltages and currents.

Fig-1 : Three elements of network theory

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Transforms
• Voltage and Current signals are a function of time and frequency.
• Fourier and Laplace transforms
• Laplace transform: supports more waveforms and transient analysis (IC)

• Existence of Laplace transform:

• Inverse Laplace Transform:

a b
Fig-2 : (a) Linear System (b)Transform methods
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Laplace Transform Properties

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Common Transforms

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Example
• Let Frequency
Time

Magnitude response

Phase response

Sinusoidal Signal

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Outline
1.1. Electric Networks

1.2. Modeling, Analysis and Synthesis

• Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis" Chapter 1

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 1

1.3. Network Characterization

1.4. Network Theorems

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Modeling
• Physical systems are too complex
• Complexity arises from non-essential factors
Compromise
• Model should only extract essential factors reality
• Ideal/ simple model – easy to analyze vs
simplicity
• Detailed models – more accurate but complicated analysis
• A model should
✓ fairly reproduce the ideal system
✓ be easier to synthesize using practical components
✓ be realizable: Causality and Stability criterion

Fig-3 : Ideal (solid) and Real (dashed)

Low pass filter (LPF) functions
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Modeling…
• The following ideal models are useful in signal processing

Amplifier
r (t ) = ke(t )
Differentiator d
r (t ) = e(t )
dt
Integrator
r (t ) =  e(t )dt

Time Delay
r (t ) = e(t − T )

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Modeling…
• The elements encountered most are resistor, capacitor and inductor.
• When the currents and voltages are given as a function of time
v(t )
v(t ) = Ri (t ) i (t ) = Resistor
R
di (t ) 1 t
v(t ) = L i (t ) =  v( x)dx + i (0) Inductor
dt L0
t
1 dv(t )
v(t ) =  i ( x)dx + v(0) i (t ) = C Capacitor
C0 dt

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Modeling…
• In frequency domain, using Laplace transform
V (s)
V ( s ) = RI ( s ) I (s) = Resistor
R
1
V ( s ) = sLI ( s ) I (s) = V (s) Inductor
sL
1
V (s) = I (s) I ( s ) = sCV ( s ) Capacitor
sC

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Modeling…
• The end points of elements are called terminals.
• A port is defined as any pair of two terminals into which energy is
supplied, drawn or variables measured.

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Analysis
• Given excitation and network, determine response
• For LTI system given 𝑥(𝑡) and ℎ(𝑡) find 𝑦 𝑡

• Time domain: Convolution

∞
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Frequency domain: Fourier, Laplace, Hilbert transforms
• Solving ODE, PDE

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Synthesis
• Design a network given excitation & desired response
• Given 𝑥(𝑡),X(𝑠) and 𝑦(𝑡), Y(𝑠) synthesize the network from system function H(𝑠).

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑌(𝑠)
• Transfer Function: 𝐻 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋(𝑠)
• Steps
• Analysis : 30 - 35%
• Realizability
• Synthesis

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Analysis vs Synthesis
Analysis Synthesis
• Always there is a solution • The solution may not exist
• But might be complex to find • 1st step is to verify the solution exists:
solution sometimes Realizability test
• E.g. Power systems network with • If it passes the test, then look for a
girds and substations network that satisfies the given r/ship
between input and output

• The solution is unique • Indefinite no of solutions

• Find out the one that is most economic
• Use KVL, KCL and ohms law
• straightforward • Realizability test and finding the
network
• A bit challenging

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Driving Point (dp) Synthesis
• Driving point (1-port) immittance: the excitation and response are
taken from the same port.
• A driving point impedance is thus given as

V (s)
Z (s) = =R
I (s)
• “Black Box”

I (s)
Y (s) = = 3 + 4s
V (s)
• Realizable : positive real functions
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Two Port Network
• Transfer function: excitation and response are taken from different ports.

V2 ( s )
• Transfer Impedance: Z 21 ( s ) =
I1 ( s )
V2 ( s )
• Voltage Ratio: H (s) =
V1 ( s )
• Filter design is the most important aspect of transfer function synthesis.

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Filter Design
• Filter : defined as a network that passes a certain portion of frequency
spectrum and blocks the remainder of the spectrum.
• Two aspects of filter design
1. Obtaining a suitable and realizable transmittance H(s) given the specification.
2. Realizing the transmittance H(S).
• The first step is an approximation step.
• Because ideal filters are not realizable.

Fig-4 : Ideal and Realizable Low pass filter (LPF) Characteristics

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Outline
1.1. Electric Networks

1.2. Modeling, Analysis and Synthesis

1.3. Network Characterization

• Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis" Chapter 1

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 1

1.4. Network Theorems

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One-port vs Two-port Networks

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N-port Networks
• Single terminal servs no purpose unless it is connected to grounding
(zero potential point)

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Passive vs Active
Passive Networks
• Consider a two-port network


 i(t )v(t )dt  0 : Positive consumption of power an element in the network

−


  i (t )v (t )dt  0 : Positive consumption of power for all elements in the network

k k
k −

• No voltage or current appear between two terminals before excitation

• e.g. R, L, C
• Advantages : Large BW compared to active
• Low sensitivity : stable
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Passive vs Active Networks…
Active Networks
• Capable of boosting the input
• Use Op-amps
• Low cost-complexity ratio
• IC implementations
• No coil inductors
• Negative resistors and tunnel diodes
• High Quality (Q-factor)
• Adjustable gain to achieve high quality
Fig-5 : Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

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Linear
• A network is linear if principle of superposition and proportionality
(homgenity) are satisfied.

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Time Invariant
• A network is time-invariant if
e(t ) → r (t ) then e(t − T ) → r (t − T) for t

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Causal
• A network is causal if the response is zero before any excitation.
e(t ) = 0 for t T then r (t ) = 0 for t T
For an excitiatio n applied at t  T
The response is zero for -  t  T
• A causal network is realizable in real time.

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Lumped vs Distributed Networks
• Lumped Element : physical dimensions (D) are small compared to
wavelength (𝜆) corresponding to the highest frequency of operation.
Dmax  
• E.g. Audio frequency – 10KHz ⟹ 𝜆 = 30𝑘𝑚
• Components are negligible compared to wavelength
Fig-6a : Inductor
• Uniform current/voltage for all points
• Voltage and current satisfy Kirchhoff's laws
Microwave frequency – 1GHZ ⟹ 𝜆 = 0.3𝑚
• Network/component dimension becomes comparable to wavelength : Distributed
Dmax  
• v(t) and i(t) across points along element or within network vary

Fig-6b: High frequency model of an Inductor

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