ELTR110 Sec2 PDF

ELTR 110 (AC 1), section 2
Recommended schedule
Day 1
Topics: Capacitive reactance and impedance, trigonometry for AC circuits
Questions: 1 through 20
Lab Exercise: Capacitive reactance and Ohm’s Law for AC (question 71)
Day 2
Topics: Series and parallel RC circuits
Lab Exercise: Series RC circuit (question 72)
Day 3
Topics: Superposition principle, AC+DC oscilloscope coupling
Lab Exercise: Parallel RC circuit (question 73)
Day 4
Topics: Passive RC and LR filter circuits
Lab Exercise: Time-domain phase shift measurement (question 74)
Day 5
Exam 2: includes Series or Parallel RC circuit performance assessment
Lab Exercise: Troubleshooting practice (variable phase shift bridge circuit – question 75)
Practice and challenge problems

Questions: 78 through the end of the worksheet
Impending deadlines
Troubleshooting assessment (AC bridge circuit) due at end of ELTR110, Section 3
Question 76: Troubleshooting log
Question 77: Sample troubleshooting assessment grading criteria
1
Skill standards addressed by this course section
EIA Raising the Standard; Electronics Technician Skills for Today and Tomorrow, June 1994
C Technical Skills – AC circuits

C.02 Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of an AC signal.
C.08 Understand principles and operations of AC capacitive circuits.
C.09 Fabricate and demonstrate AC capacitive circuits.
C.10 Troubleshoot and repair AC capacitive circuits.
C.27 Understand principles and operations of AC frequency selective filter circuits.
B Basic and Practical Skills – Communicating on the Job

B.01 Use effective written and other communication skills. Met by group discussion and completion of labwork.
B.03 Employ appropriate skills for gathering and retaining information. Met by research and preparation
prior to group discussion.
B.04 Interpret written, graphic, and oral instructions. Met by completion of labwork.
B.06 Use language appropriate to the situation. Met by group discussion and in explaining completed labwork.
B.07 Participate in meetings in a positive and constructive manner. Met by group discussion.
B.08 Use job-related terminology. Met by group discussion and in explaining completed labwork.
B.10 Document work projects, procedures, tests, and equipment failures. Met by project construction and/or
troubleshooting assessments.
C Basic and Practical Skills – Solving Problems and Critical Thinking
C.01 Identify the problem. Met by research and preparation prior to group discussion.
C.03 Identify available solutions and their impact including evaluating credibility of information, and locating
information. Met by research and preparation prior to group discussion.
C.07 Organize personal workloads. Met by daily labwork, preparatory research, and project management.
C.08 Participate in brainstorming sessions to generate new ideas and solve problems. Met by group discussion.
D Basic and Practical Skills – Reading
D.01 Read and apply various sources of technical information (e.g. manufacturer literature, codes, and
regulations). Met by research and preparation prior to group discussion.
E Basic and Practical Skills – Proficiency in Mathematics
E.01 Determine if a solution is reasonable.
E.02 Demonstrate ability to use a simple electronic calculator.
E.05 Solve problems and [sic] make applications involving integers, fractions, decimals, percentages, and
ratios using order of operations.
E.06 Translate written and/or verbal statements into mathematical expressions.
E.09 Read scale on measurement device(s) and make interpolations where appropriate. Met by oscilloscope
usage.
E.12 Interpret and use tables, charts, maps, and/or graphs.
E.13 Identify patterns, note trends, and/or draw conclusions from tables, charts, maps, and/or graphs.
E.15 Simplify and solve algebraic expressions and formulas.
E.16 Select and use formulas appropriately.
E.17 Understand and use scientific notation.
E.20 Graph functions.
E.26 Apply Pythagorean theorem.
E.27 Identify basic functions of sine, cosine, and tangent.
E.28 Compute and solve problems using basic trigonometric functions.
2
Common areas of confusion for students
Difficult concept: Phasors, used to represent AC amplitude and phase relations.

A powerful tool used for understanding the operation of AC circuits is the phasor diagram, consisting
of arrows pointing in different directions: the length of each arrow representing the amplitude of some
AC quantity (voltage, current, or impedance), and the angle of each arrow representing the shift in phase
relative to the other arrows. By representing each AC quantity thusly, we may more easily calculate their
relationships to one another, with the phasors showing us how to apply trigonometry (Pythagorean Theorem,
sine, cosine, and tangent functions) to the various calculations. An analytical parallel to the graphic tool of
phasor diagrams is complex numbers, where we represent each phasor (arrow) by a pair of numbers: either
a magnitude and angle (polar notation), or by ”real” and ”imaginary” magnitudes (rectangular notation).
Where phasor diagrams are helpful is in applications where their respective AC quantities add: the resultant
of two or more phasors stacked tip-to-tail being the mathematical sum of the phasors. Complex numbers,
on the other hand, may be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided; the last two operations being difficult
to graphically represent with arrows.
Difficult concept: Conductance, susceptance, and admittance.

Conductance, symbolized by the letter G, is the mathematical reciprocal of resistance ( R1 ). Students
typically encounter this quantity in their DC studies and quickly ignore it. In AC calculations, however,
conductance and its AC counterparts (susceptance, the reciprocal of reactance B = X1 and admittance, the
reciprocal of impedance Y = Z1 ) are very necessary in order to draw phasor diagrams for parallel networks.
Difficult concept: Capacitance adding in parallel; capacitive reactance and impedance adding in series.
When students first encounter capacitance, they are struck by how this quantity adds when capacitors
are connected in parallel, not in series as it is for resistors and inductors. They are surprised again, though,
when they discover that the opposition to current offered by capacitors (either as scalar reactance or phasor
impedance) adds in series just as resistance adds in series and inductive reactance/impedance adds in series.
Remember: ohms always add in series, no matter what their source(s); only farads add in parallel (omitting
siemens or mhos, the units for conductance and admittance and susceptance, which of course also add in
parallel).
Difficult concept: Identifying filter circuit types.

Many students have a predisposition to memorization (as opposed to comprehension of concepts), and so
when approaching filter circuits they try to identify the various types by memorizing the positions of reactive
components. As I like to tell my students, memory will fail you, and so a better approach is to develop
analytical techniques by which you may determine circuit function based on ”first principles” of circuits. The
approach I recommend begins by identifying component impedance (open or short) for very low and very
high frequencies, respectively, then qualitatively analyzing voltage drops under those extreme conditions. If
a filter circuit outputs a strong voltage at low frequencies and a weak voltage at high frequencies then it
must be a low-pass filter. If it outputs a weak voltage at both low and high frequencies then it must be a
band-pass filter, etc.
Difficult concept: The practical purpose(s) for filter circuits.

Bode plots show how filter circuits respond to inputs of changing frequency, but this is not how filters
are typically used in real applications. Rarely does one find a filter circuit subjected to one particular
frequency at a time – usually a simultaneous mix of frequencies are seen at the input, and it is the filter’s
job to select a particular range of frequencies to pass through from that simultaneous mix. Understanding
the superposition theorem precedes an understanding of how filter circuits are practically used.
3
Questions
Question 1
As a general rule, capacitors oppose change in (choose: voltage or current), and they do so by . . .
(complete the sentence).
Based on this rule, determine how a capacitor would react to a constant AC voltage that increases in
frequency. Would an capacitor pass more or less current, given a greater frequency? Explain your answer.
file 00579
Question 2
R
f (x) dx Calculus alert!
We know that the formula relating instantaneous voltage and current in a capacitor is this:
de
i=C
dt
Knowing this, determine at what points on this sine wave plot for capacitor voltage is the capacitor
current equal to zero, and where the current is at its positive and negative peaks. Then, connect these points
to draw the waveform for capacitor current:
e C
Time
How much phase shift (in degrees) is there between the voltage and current waveforms? Which waveform
is leading and which waveform is lagging?
file 00577
Question 3
You should know that a capacitor is formed by two conductive plates separated by an electrically
insulating material. As such, there is no ”ohmic” path for electrons to flow between the plates. This may
be vindicated by an ohmmeter measurement, which tells us a capacitor has (nearly) infinite resistance once
it is charged to the ohmmeter’s full output voltage.
Explain then, how a capacitor is able to continuously pass alternating current, even though it cannot
continuously pass DC.
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Question 4
Does a capacitor’s opposition to alternating current increase or decrease as the frequency of that current
increases? Also, explain why we refer to this opposition of AC current in a capacitor as reactance instead of
resistance.
file 00581
Question 5
Will the current through the resistor increase or decrease as the capacitor plates are moved closer
together?
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
coarse fine DC output
C
R
Explain why this happens, with reference to capacitive reactance (XC ).

file 01843
Question 6
A capacitor rated at 2.2 microfarads is subjected to a sinusoidal AC voltage of 24 volts RMS, at a
frequency of 60 hertz. Write the formula for calculating capacitive reactance (X C ), and solve for current
through the capacitor.
file 00583
Question 7
At what frequency does a 33 µF capacitor have 20 Ω of reactance? Write the formula for solving this,
in addition to calculating the frequency.
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Question 8
Explain how you could calculate the capacitance value of a capacitor (in units of Farads), by measuring
AC voltage, AC current, and frequency in a circuit of this configuration:
V,f
Write a single formula solving for capacitance given these three values (V , I, and f ).
file 02113
Question 9
In this AC circuit, the resistor offers 3 kΩ of resistance, and the capacitor offers 4 kΩ of reactance.
Together, their series opposition to alternating current results in a current of 1 mA from the 5 volt source:
XC = 4 kΩ
5 VAC
R = 3 kΩ
I = 1 mA
How many ohms of opposition does the series combination of resistor and capacitor offer? What name
do we give to this quantity, and how do we symbolize it, being that it is composed of both resistance (R)
and reactance (X)?
file 00585
Question 10
In DC circuits, we have Ohm’s Law to relate voltage, current, and resistance together:
E = IR
In AC circuits, we similarly need a formula to relate voltage, current, and impedance together. Write
three equations, one solving for each of these three variables: a set of Ohm’s Law formulae for AC circuits.
Be prepared to show how you may use algebra to manipulate one of these equations into the other two forms.
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Question 11
It is often necessary to represent AC circuit quantities as complex numbers rather than as scalar numbers,
because both magnitude and phase angle are necessary to consider in certain calculations.
When representing AC voltages and currents in polar form, the angle given refers to the phase shift
between the given voltage or current, and a ”reference” voltage or current at the same frequency somewhere
else in the circuit. So, a voltage of 3.5 V6 − 45o means a voltage of 3.5 volts magnitude, phase-shifted 45
degrees behind (lagging) the reference voltage (or current), which is defined to be at an angle of 0 degrees.
But what about impedance (Z)? Does impedance have a phase angle, too, or is it a simple scalar number
like resistance or reactance?
Calculate the amount of current that would go ”through” a 0.1 µF capacitor with 48 volts RMS applied
to it at a frequency of 100 Hz. Then, based on Ohm’s Law for AC circuits and what you know of the phase
relationship between voltage and current for a capacitor, calculate the impedance of this capacitor in polar
form. Does a definite angle emerge from this calculation for the capacitor’s impedance? Explain why or why
not.
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Question 12
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an impedance with a phase angle of 0 o , the resulting voltage and
current waveforms will look like this:
i
e
Time
Given that power is the product of voltage and current (p = ie), plot the waveform for power in this
circuit.
file 00631
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Question 13
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an impedance with a phase angle of -90 o , the resulting voltage and
current waveforms will look like this:
i
e
Time
Given that power is the product of voltage and current (p = ie), plot the waveform for power in this
circuit. Also, explain how the mnemonic phrase ”ELI the ICE man” applies to these waveforms.
file 00633
Question 14
Express the impedance (Z) in both polar and rectangular forms for each of the following components:
• A resistor with 500 Ω of resistance
• An inductor with 1.2 kΩ of reactance
• A capacitor with 950 Ω of reactance
• A resistor with 22 kΩ of resistance
• A capacitor with 50 kΩ of reactance
• An inductor with 133 Ω of reactance
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Question 15
A technician measures voltage across the terminals of a burned-out solenoid valve, in order to check for
the presence of dangerous voltage before touching the wire connections. The circuit breaker for this solenoid
has been turned off and secured with a lock, but the technician’s digital voltmeter still registers about three
and a half volts AC across the solenoid terminals!
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
...
To circuit breaker
...
Solenoid valve
Pipe Pipe
Now, three and a half volts AC is not enough voltage to cause any harm, but its presence confuses and
worries the technician. Shouldn’t there be 0 volts, with the breaker turned off?
Explain why the technician is able to measure voltage in a circuit that has been ”locked out.” Hint:
digital voltmeters have extremely high input impedance, typically in excess of 10 MΩ.
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Question 16
Use the ”impedance triangle” to calculate the necessary reactance of this series combination of resistance
(R) and capacitive reactance (X) to produce the desired total impedance of 300 Ω:
R = 210 Ω
R = 210 Ω
X = ???
Z = 300 Ω
X = ???
Explain what equation(s) you use to calculate X, and the algebra necessary to achieve this result from
a more common formula.
file 02092
Question 17
A series AC circuit exhibits a total impedance of 10 kΩ, with a phase shift of 65 degrees between voltage
and current. Drawn in an impedance triangle, it looks like this:
R
65o
X
Z = 10 kΩ
We know that the sine function relates the sides X and Z of this impedance triangle with the 65 degree
angle, because the sine of an angle is the ratio of opposite to hypotenuse, with X being opposite the 65 degree
angle. Therefore, we know we can set up the following equation relating these quantities together:
X
sin 65o =
Z
Solve this equation for the value of X, in ohms.
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Question 18
A series AC circuit exhibits a total impedance of 2.5 kΩ, with a phase shift of 30 degrees between voltage
and current. Drawn in an impedance triangle, it looks like this:
Z = 2.5 kΩ
X
o
30
R
Use the appropriate trigonometric functions to calculate the equivalent values of R and X in this series
circuit.
file 02087
Question 19
A parallel AC circuit draws 100 mA of current through a purely resistive branch and 85 mA of current
through a purely capacitive branch:
Itotal = ???
IC = 85 mA
IR = 100 mA IC = 85 mA
θ
IR = 100 mA
Calculate the total current and the angle Θ of the total current, explaining your trigonometric method(s)
of solution.
file 02091
Question 20
A parallel RC circuit has 10 µS of susceptance (B). How much conductance (G) is necessary to give
the circuit a (total) phase angle of 22 degrees?
G = ??? B = 10 µS
B = 10 µS
22o
G = ???
file 02090
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Question 21
Voltage divider circuits may be constructed from reactive components just as easily as they may be
constructed from resistors. Take this capacitive voltage divider, for instance:
C1 0.1 µF
Vin
10 VAC
250 Hz
Vout C2 0.47 µF
Calculate the magnitude and phase shift of Vout . Also, describe what advantages a capacitive voltage
divider might have over a resistive voltage divider.
file 00638
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Question 22
A technician needs to know the value of a capacitor, but does not have a capacitance meter nearby. In
lieu of this, the technician sets up the following circuit to measure capacitance:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
2 20 m Position 25 m 2.5 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
Volts/Div B Alt Holdoff
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
Ext. input
R 5
10
10 m
5m
Invert Intensity Focus Beam find Norm AC
20 2m Auto DC
DC Gnd AC Off Single LF Rej
Cal 1 V Gnd Trace rot. Reset Slope
HF Rej
Cx
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
You happen to walk by this technician’s workbench and ask, ”How does this measurement setup work?”
The technician responds, ”You connect a resistor of known value (R) in series with the capacitor of unknown
value (Cx ), then adjust the generator frequency until the oscilloscope shows the two voltage drops to be
equal, and then you calculate Cx .”
Explain how this system works, in your own words. Also, write the formula you would use to calculate
the value of Cx given f and R.
file 02114
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Question 23
A student measures voltage drops in an AC circuit using three voltmeters and arrives at the following
measurements:
V A
V A
V A
OFF
V A
OFF
A COM
A COM
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Upon viewing these measurements, the student becomes very perplexed. Aren’t voltage drops supposed
to add in series, just as in DC circuits? Why, then, is the total voltage in this circuit only 10.8 volts and not
15.74 volts? How is it possible for the total voltage in an AC circuit to be substantially less than the simple
sum of the components’ voltage drops?
Another student, trying to be helpful, suggests that the answer to this question might have something
to do with RMS versus peak measurements. A third student disagrees, proposing instead that at least one
of the meters is badly out of calibration and thus not reading correctly.
When you are asked for your thoughts on this problem, you realize that neither of the answers proposed
thus far are correct. Explain the real reason for the ”discrepancy” in voltage measurements, and also explain
how you could experimentally disprove the other answers (RMS vs. peak, and bad calibration).
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Question 24
Write an equation that solves for the impedance of this series circuit. The equation need not solve for
the phase angle between voltage and current, but merely provide a scalar figure for impedance (in ohms):
Ztotal = ???
file 01844
Question 25
Use a triangle to calculate the total voltage of the source for this series RC circuit, given the voltage
drop across each component:
VR = 3.2 V
VR = 3.2 V
VC = 1.8 V Vtotal
Vtotal = ???
VC = 1.8 V
Explain what equation(s) you use to calculate Vtotal , as well as why we must geometrically add these
voltages together.
file 02107
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Question 26
Determine the phase angle (Θ) of the current in this circuit, with respect to the supply voltage:
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
C1
R1 FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
file 01853
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Question 27
Due to the effects of a changing electric field on the dielectric of a capacitor, some energy is dissipated
in capacitors subjected to AC. Generally, this is not very much, but it is there. This dissipative behavior is
typically modeled as a series-connected resistance:
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)

Real
capacitor
Ideal capacitor
Calculate the magnitude and phase shift of the current through this capacitor, taking into consideration
its equivalent series resistance (ESR):
Capacitor
5Ω Vin
10 VAC
270 Hz
0.22 µF
Compare this against the magnitude and phase shift of the current for an ideal 0.22 µF capacitor.
file 01847
Question 28
Solve for all voltages and currents in this series RC circuit:
0.01 µF
15 V RMS
1 kHz
4.7 kΩ
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Question 29
Solve for all voltages and currents in this series RC circuit, and also calculate the phase angle of the
total impedance:
220n
3k3
48 V peak
30 Hz
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Question 30
Determine the total current and all voltage drops in this circuit, stating your answers the way a
multimeter would register them:
C1
R2
C2
R1
• C1 = 125 pF
• C2 = 71 pF
• R1 = 6.8 kΩ
• R2 = 1.2 kΩ
• Vsupply = 20 V RMS
• fsupply = 950 kHz
Also, calculate the phase angle (Θ) between voltage and current in this circuit, and explain where and
how you would connect an oscilloscope to measure that phase shift.
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Question 31
Calculate the voltage drops across all components in this circuit, expressing them in complex (polar)
form with magnitudes and phase angles each:
1.5 V
180 Hz
0.01 µF
C1
R1
7.1 kΩ
C2
0.15 µF
file 01852
Question 32
In this circuit, a series resistor-capacitor network creates a phase-shifted voltage for the ”gate” terminal
of a power-control device known as a TRIAC. All portions of the circuit except for the RC network are
”shaded” for de-emphasis:
330 kΩ
Lamp
AC DIAC
source TRIAC
0.068 µF
Calculate how many degrees of phase shift the capacitor’s voltage is, compared to the total voltage
across the series RC network, assuming a frequency of 60 Hz, and a 50% potentiometer setting.
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Question 33
A quantity sometimes used in DC circuits is conductance, symbolized by the letter G. Conductance is
the reciprocal of resistance (G = R1 ), and it is measured in the unit of siemens.
Expressing the values of resistors in terms of conductance instead of resistance has certain benefits in
parallel circuits. Whereas resistances (R) add in series and ”diminish” in parallel (with a somewhat complex
equation), conductances (G) add in parallel and ”diminish” in series. Thus, doing the math for series circuits
is easier using resistance and doing math for parallel circuits is easier using conductance:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 Gtotal = G1 + G2 + G3
R1
R2 R1 R2 R3
R3
1
1 Rtotal =
Gtotal = 1 1 1
+ +
1 1 1 R1 R2 R3
+ +
G1 G2 G3
In AC circuits, we also have reciprocal quantities to reactance (X) and impedance (Z). The reciprocal
of reactance is called susceptance (B = X1 ), and the reciprocal of impedance is called admittance (Y = Z1 ).
Like conductance, both these reciprocal quantities are measured in units of siemens.
Write an equation that solves for the admittance (Y ) of this parallel circuit. The equation need not
solve for the phase angle between voltage and current, but merely provide a scalar figure for admittance (in
siemens):
Ytotal = ???
G B
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Question 34
Calculate the total impedance offered by these three capacitors to a sinusoidal signal with a frequency
of 4 kHz:
• C1 = 0.1 µF
• C2 = 0.047 µF
• C3 = 0.033 µF
Surface-mount capacitors
on a printed-circuit board
C1 C2 C3 Ztotal @ 4 kHz = ???
State your answer in the form of a scalar number (not complex), but calculate it using two different
strategies:
• Calculate total capacitance (Ctotal ) first, then total impedance (Ztotal ).
• Calculate individual admittances first (YC1 , YC2 , and YC3 ), then total impedance (Ztotal ).
file 01846
Question 35
Calculate the total impedance of these parallel-connected components, expressing it in polar form
(magnitude and phase angle):
Surface-mount components
on a printed-circuit board
C1 33n R1 510 Ztotal @ 7.9 kHz = ???
Also, draw an admittance triangle for this circuit.

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21
Question 36
Calculate the total impedances (complete with phase angles) for each of the following capacitor-resistor
circuits:
3.3 µF 0.1 µF
100 Hz 470 Ω 290 Hz 1.5 kΩ
0.22 µF
3.3 µF 0.1 µF 0.22 µF

100 Hz 470 Ω 290 Hz 1.5 kΩ
file 02109
Question 37
If the source voltage in this circuit is assumed to be the phase reference (that is, the voltage is defined
to be at an angle of 0 degrees), determine the relative phase angles of each current in this parallel circuit:
Itotal
IR IC
• ΘI(R) =
• ΘI(C) =
• ΘI(total) =
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Question 38
If the dielectric substance between a capacitor’s plates is not a perfect insulator, there will be a path for
direct current (DC) from one plate to the other. This is typically called leakage resistance, and it is modeled
as a shunt resistance to an ideal capacitance:
Real
capacitor
Ideal capacitor Leakage resistance
Calculate the magnitude and phase shift of the current drawn by this real capacitor, if powered by a
sinusoidal voltage source of 30 volts RMS at 400 Hz:
Rleakage = 30 V RMS
0.75 µF 1.5 MΩ 400 Hz
Compare this against the magnitude and phase shift of the current for an ideal capacitor (no leakage).
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Question 39
The input impedance of an electrical test instrument is a very important parameter in some applications,
because of how the instrument may load the circuit being tested. Oscilloscopes are no different from
voltmeters in this regard:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
Zinput 20 2m 1
2.5 off
0.025 µ
DC Gnd AC
Input impedance X-Y
(how much impedance the Position
A B Alt Chop Add
tested circuit "sees" from Triggering Level
the oscilloscope) A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1
Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Typical input impedance for an oscilloscope is 1 MΩ of resistance, in parallel with a small amount of
capacitance. At low frequencies, the reactance of this capacitance is so high that it may be safely ignored.
At high frequencies, though, it may become a substantial load to the circuit under test:
Oscilloscope input (typical)
To circuit
under test 1 MΩ 20 pF
Calculate how many ohms of impedance this oscilloscope input (equivalent circuit shown in the above
schematic) will impose on a circuit with a signal frequency of 150 kHz.
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Question 40
Determine the size of capacitor (in Farads) necessary to create a total current of 11.3 mA in this parallel
RC circuit:
11.3 mA
5.2 V
C 790
500 Hz
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Question 41
Suppose we have a single resistor powered by two series-connected voltage sources. Each of the voltage
sources is ”ideal,” possessing no internal resistance:
1 kΩ
5V 3V
Calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in this circuit.
Now, suppose we were to remove one voltage source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
resistance (0 Ω). Re-calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in the resulting circuit:
1 kΩ
3V
5 volt source
replaced by short
Now, suppose we were to remove the other voltage source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
1 kΩ
5V
3 volt source
replaced by short
One last exercise: ”superimpose” (add) the resistor voltages and superimpose (add) the resistor currents
in the last two circuit examples, and compare these voltage and current figures with the calculated values of
the original circuit. What do you notice?
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Question 42
Suppose we have a single resistor powered by two parallel-connected current sources. Each of the current
sources is ”ideal,” possessing infinite internal resistance:
5Ω 4A 7A
Now, suppose we were to remove one current source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
resistance (∞ Ω). Re-calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in the resulting circuit:
4 A source
5Ω replaced by open 7A
Now, suppose we were to remove the other current source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
7 A source
5Ω 4A replaced by open
file 00692
Question 43
The Superposition Theorem is a very important concept used to analyze both DC and AC circuits.
Define this theorem in your own words, and also state the necessary conditions for it to be freely applied to
a circuit.
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Question 44
Note that this circuit is impossible to reduce by regular series-parallel analysis:
12 V
3V 1 kΩ 1 kΩ
1 kΩ
However, the Superposition Theorem makes it almost trivial to calculate all the voltage drops and
currents:
12 V
3V 3V 9V
6V
(Currents not shown for simplicity)
Explain the procedure for applying the Superposition Theorem to this circuit.
file 01855
Question 45
Explain in your own words how to apply the Superposition Theorem to calculate the amount of current
through the load resistor in this circuit:
R1
150 Ω
R2
220 Ω
4 mA
7.2 V
1 kΩ Rload
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28
Question 46
The Superposition Theorem works nicely to calculate voltages and currents in resistor circuits. But can
it be used to calculate power dissipations as well? Why or why not? Be specific with your answer.
file 00694
Question 47
Calculate the charging current through each battery, using the Superposition Theorem (ignore all wire
and connection resistances – only consider the resistance of each fuse):
Fuse 0.15 Ω Fuse 0.25 Ω Fuse 0.85 Ω
250 VDC
+ - + -
+ Battery Battery
Generator #1 #2
- 244 VDC 245 VDC
file 00695
29
Question 48
A remote speaker for an audio system is connected to the amplifier by means of a long, 2-conductor
cable:
2-conductor cable
Amplifier
Speaker
This system may be schematically modeled as an AC voltage source connected to a load resistor:
Amplifier Speaker
2-conductor cable
Suppose we decided to use the 2-conductor cable for more than just conveying an audio (AC) signal –
we want to use it to carry DC power as well to energize a small lamp. However, if we were to simply connect
the DC power source in parallel with the amplifier output at one end, and the lamp in parallel with the
speaker at the other, bad things would happen:
Amplifier Speaker
2-conductor cable
DC source
This will not work!! Light bulb
If we were to connect the components together as shown above, the DC power source will likely damage
the amplifier by being directly connected to it, the speaker will definitely be damaged by the application of
significant DC voltage to its coil, and the light bulb will waste audio power by acting as a second (non-audible)
load. Suffice to say, this is a bad idea.
Using inductors and capacitors as ”filtering” components, though, we can make this system work:
30
Amplifier C C
Speaker
2-conductor cable
C C
L L
DC source Light bulb
L
L
Apply the Superposition Theorem to this circuit to demonstrate that the audio and DC signals will
not interfere with each other as they would if directly connected. Assume that the capacitors are of such
large value that they present negligible impedance to the audio signal (Z C ≈ 0 Ω) and that the inductors
are sufficiently large that they present infinite impedance to the audio signal (Z L ≈ ∞).
file 01856
31
Question 49
The following circuit is a simple mixer circuit, combining three AC voltage signals into one, to be
measured by an oscilloscope:
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
OSCILLOSCOPE
coarse fine DC output vertical
Y
DC GND AC
FUNCTION GENERATOR V/div
Hz trigger
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
coarse fine timebase

DC output
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Draw a schematic diagram of this circuit, to make it easier to analyze.

Is it possible to filter the three constituent input signals from each other in the resulting output signal,
or are they irrevocably affected by one another when they ”mix” together in this resistor network? How
does the superposition principle relate to the operation of a mixer circuit like this?
What if the mixing circuit contains capacitors and inductors rather than resistors? Does the same
principle apply? Why or why not?
file 00648
Question 50
What is a musical chord? If viewed on an oscilloscope, what would the signal for a chord look like?
file 00647
Question 51
Identify the type of electronic instrument that displays the relative amplitudes of a range of signal
frequencies on a graph, with amplitude on the vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal.
file 00649
32
Question 52
If an oscilloscope is connected to a series combination of AC and DC voltage sources, what is displayed
on the oscilloscope screen depends on where the ”coupling” control is set.
With the coupling control set to ”DC”, the waveform displayed will be elevated above (or depressed
below) the ”zero” line:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1
Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
Invert Intensity Focus Norm AC
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Low-voltage
AC power supply
- +
12 Battery
6 6
Setting the coupling control to ”AC”, however, results in the waveform automatically centering itself
on the screen, about the zero line.
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1
Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Low-voltage
AC power supply
- +
12 Battery
6 6
33
Based on these observations, explain what the ”DC” and ”AC” settings on the coupling control actually
mean.
file 00538
Question 53
Explain what happens inside an oscilloscope when the ”coupling” switch is moved from the ”DC”
position to the ”AC” position.
file 01857
Question 54
Suppose a technician measures the voltage output by an AC-DC power supply circuit:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Rectifier assembly
Filter capacitor
Transformer
-
-
Bleed
resistor
The waveform shown by the oscilloscope is mostly DC, with just a little bit of AC ”ripple” voltage
appearing as a ripple pattern on what would otherwise be a straight, horizontal line. This is quite normal
for the output of an AC-DC power supply.
Suppose we wished to take a closer view of this ”ripple” voltage. We want to make the ripples more
pronounced on the screen, so that we may better discern their shape. Unfortunately, though, when we
decrease the number of volts per division on the ”vertical” control knob to magnify the vertical amplification
of the oscilloscope, the pattern completely disappears from the screen!
Explain what the problem is, and how we might correct it so as to be able to magnify the ripple voltage
waveform without having it disappear off the oscilloscope screen.
file 00539
34
Question 55
A student just learning to use oscilloscopes connects one directly to the output of a signal generator,
with these results:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
As you can see, the function generator is configured to output a square wave, but the oscilloscope does
not register a square wave. Perplexed, the student takes the function generator to a different oscilloscope.
At the second oscilloscope, the student sees a proper square wave on the screen:
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Hz
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
It is then that the student realizes the first oscilloscope has its ”coupling” control set to AC, while the
second oscilloscope was set to DC. Now the student is really confused! The signal is obviously AC, as it
35
oscillates above and below the centerline of the screen, but yet the ”DC” setting appears to give the most
accurate results: a true-to-form square wave.
How would you explain what is happening to this student, and also describe the appropriate uses of the
”AC” and ”DC” coupling settings so he or she knows better how to use it in the future?
file 01854
Question 56
In very simple, qualitative terms, rate the impedance of capacitors and inductors as ”seen” by low-
frequency and high-frequency signals alike:
• Capacitor as it ”appears” to a low frequency signal: (high or low) impedance?
• Capacitor as it ”appears” to a high frequency signal: (high or low) impedance?
• Inductor as it ”appears” to a low frequency signal: (high or low) impedance?

• Inductor as it ”appears” to a high frequency signal: (high or low) impedance?
file 00616
Question 57
Identify these filters as either being ”low-pass” or ”high-pass”, and be prepared to explain your answers:
Vout Vin Vin Vout
Vin Vout Vout Vin
file 00615
36
Question 58
Suppose you were installing a high-power stereo system in your car, and you wanted to build a simple
filter for the ”tweeter” (high-frequency) speakers so that no bass (low-frequency) power is wasted in these
speakers. Modify the schematic diagram below with a filter circuit of your choice:
"Tweeter" "Tweeter"
Amplifier
left right
"Woofer" "Woofer"
Hint: this only requires a single component per tweeter!

file 00613
37
Question 59
The superposition principle describes how AC signals of different frequencies may be ”mixed” together
and later separated in a linear network, without one signal distorting another. DC may also be similarly
mixed with AC, with the same results.
This phenomenon is frequently exploited in computer networks, where DC power and AC data signals
(on-and-off pulses of voltage representing 1-and-0 binary bits) may be combined on the same pair of wires,
and later separated by filter circuits, so that the DC power goes to energize a circuit, and the AC signals go
to another circuit where they are interpreted as digital data:
Digital data
pulses (AC) Digital data
Filter pulses (AC)
cable
Filter DC power
DC power
Filter circuits are also necessary on the transmission end of the cable, to prevent the AC signals from
being shunted by the DC power supply’s capacitors, and to prevent the DC voltage from damaging the
sensitive circuitry generating the AC voltage pulses.
Draw some filter circuits on each end of this two-wire cable that perform these tasks, of separating
the two sources from each other, and also separating the two signals (DC and AC) from each other at the
receiving end so they may be directed to different loads:
Filter Filter
Digital data Digital data

pulses (AC) load
DC power DC power
Cable load
Filter Filter
file 00612
38
Question 60
Draw the Bode plot for an ideal high-pass filter circuit:
Vout
Frequency
Be sure to note the ”cutoff frequency” on your plot.

file 00618
Question 61
Draw the Bode plot for an ideal low-pass filter circuit:
Vout
Frequency
Be sure to note the ”cutoff frequency” on your plot.

file 01245
Question 62
Identify what type of filter this circuit is, and calculate its cutoff frequency given a resistor value of 1
kΩ and a capacitor value of 0.22 µF:
Vout Vin
Calculate the impedance of both the resistor and the capacitor at this frequency. What do you notice
about these two impedance values?
file 00617
39
Question 63
The formula for determining the cutoff frequency of a simple LR filter circuit looks substantially different
from the formula used to determine cutoff frequency in a simple RC filter circuit. Students new to this subject
often resort to memorization to distinguish one formula from the other, but there is a better way.
In simple filter circuits (comprised of one reactive component and one resistor), cutoff frequency is that
frequency where circuit reactance equals circuit resistance. Use this simple definition of cutoff frequency to
derive both the RC and the LR filter circuit cutoff formulae, where fcutof f is defined in terms of R and
either L or C.
file 02075
Question 64
Identify what type of filter this circuit is, and calculate the size of resistor necessary to give it a cutoff
frequency of 3 kHz:
Vin 300 mH Vout
file 00619
Question 65
Calculate the power dissipated by this circuit’s load at two different source frequencies: 0 Hz (DC), and
fcutof f .
250 Ω
Rload
40 mH Lfilter
4 VAC
RMS
What do these figures tell you about the nature of this filter circuit (whether it is a low-pass or a
high-pass filter), and also about the definition of cutoff frequency (also referred to as f −3dB )?
file 00646
40
Question 66
Real filters never exhibit perfect ”square-edge” Bode plot responses. A typical low-pass filter circuit,
for example, might have a frequency response that looks like this:
fcutoff
0 dB
-3 dB
-6 dB
Signal
output -9 dB
-12 dB
-15 dB
101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (Hz)
What does the term rolloff refer to, in the context of filter circuits and Bode plots? Why would this
parameter be important to a technician or engineer?
file 01246
Question 67
Explain what a band-pass filter is, and how it differs from either a low-pass or a high-pass filter circuit.
Also, explain what a band-stop filter is, and draw Bode plots representative of both band-pass and band-stop
filter types.
file 01859
41
Question 68
A common way of representing complex electronic systems is the block diagram, where specific functional
sections of a system are outlined as squares or rectangles, each with a certain purpose and each having input(s)
and output(s). For an example, here is a block diagram of an analog (”Cathode Ray”) oscilloscope, or CRO:
Block diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
Preamp Cathode-ray tube

Input
Y
Trigger
circuits
Sweep X
circuits
Block diagrams may also be helpful in representing and understanding filter circuits. Consider these
symbols, for instance:
Which of these represents a low-pass filter, and which represents a high-pass filter? Explain your
reasoning.
Also, identify the new filter functions created by the compounding of low- and high-pass filter ”blocks”:
file 01858
42
Question 69
Plot the typical response of a band-pass filter circuit, showing signal output (amplitude) on the vertical
axis and frequency on the horizontal axis:
Amplitude
Frequency
Also, identify and label the bandwidth of the circuit on your filter plot.
file 01564
Question 70
Suppose this band-stop filter were to suddenly start acting as a high-pass filter. Identify a single
component failure that could cause this problem to occur:
C1 C2
Einput R1 Eoutput
C3
R2 R3
file 00621
43
Question 71
Competency: Measuring capacitance by AC reactance Version:

Schematic
A
Vsignal Cx
Given conditions
Vsignal =
Parameters
Measured Calculated
IC at f = Cx
IC at f = Cx
IC at f = Cx
Cx (With C meter) Cx (Average)
file 01920
44
Question 72
Competency: Series RC circuit Version:

Schematic
C1
Vsupply
R1
Given conditions
Vsupply = C1 = R1 =
fsupply =
Parameters
Predicted Measured
VC1
VR1
Itotal
Calculations
Fault analysis
open other
Suppose component fails
shorted
What will happen in the circuit?
file 01664
45
Question 73
Competency: Parallel RC circuit Version:

Schematic
Vsupply C1 R1
Given conditions
Vsupply = C1 = R1 =
fsupply =
Parameters
Predicted Measured
IC1
IR1
Itotal
Calculations
Fault analysis
open other
Suppose component fails
shorted
What will happen in the circuit?
file 01817
46
Question 74
Competency: Time-domain phase shift measurement Version:

Schematic
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
C1 DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
R1 2
1
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m
20 m
Position
Line
Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Given conditions
fsupply = C1 = R1 =
Parameters
Predicted Dual oscilloscope trace
Measured
Shift (divisions)
Period (divisions)
Period
Shift
file 01688
47
Question 75
Competency: Variable phase shift bridge circuit Version:

Schematic
R1 C2
Rpot
Vsignal
C1 R2
Vout
Given conditions
Recommendations
R1 = R2 =
Vsignal = 1
R≈
2πfC
C1 = C2 =
fsignal = Rpot >> R1 , R2
Rpot =
Parameters
Predicted Measured
θVout Potentiometer at full-left position
θVout Potentiometer at full-right position
Predicted Measured
Vout Potentiometer at full-left position
Vout Potentiometer at full-right position
file 03468
48
Question 76
Troubleshooting log
Actions / Measurements / Observations Conclusions
(i.e. What I did and/or noticed . . . ) (i.e. What this tells me . . . )
file 03933
49
Question 77
NAME: Troubleshooting Grading Criteria
You will receive the highest score for which all criteria are met.
100 % (Must meet or exceed all criteria listed)

A. Absolutely flawless procedure
B. No unnecessary actions or measurements taken
90 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria in addition to all criteria for 85% and below)
A. No reversals in procedure (i.e. changing mind without sufficient evidence)
B. Every single action, measurement, and relevant observation properly documented
80 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria in addition to all criteria for 75% and below)
A. No more than one unnecessary action or measurement
B. No false conclusions or conceptual errors
C. No missing conclusions (i.e. at least one documented conclusion for action / measurement / observation)
70 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria in addition to all criteria for 65%)
A. No more than one false conclusion or conceptual error
B. No more than one conclusion missing (i.e. an action, measurement, or relevant observation without a
corresponding conclusion)
65 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria in addition to all criteria for 60%)
A. No more than two false conclusions or conceptual errors
B. No more than two unnecessary actions or measurements
C. No more than one undocumented action, measurement, or relevant observation
D. Proper use of all test equipment
60 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria)

A. Fault accurately identified
B. Safe procedures used at all times
50 % (Only applicable where students performed significant development/design work – i.e. not a proven
circuit provided with all component values)
A. Working prototype circuit built and demonstrated
0 % (If any of the following conditions are true)

A. Unsafe procedure(s) used at any point
file 03932
Question 78
Suppose someone were to ask you to differentiate electrical reactance (X) from electrical resistance (R).
How would you distinguish these two similar concepts from one another, using your own words?
file 03301
50
Question 79
Explain all the steps necessary to calculate the amount of current in this capacitive AC circuit:
1 µF
24 V
150 Hz
file 01551
Question 80
Calculate the total impedance offered by these two capacitors to a sinusoidal signal with a frequency of
900 Hz:
C1
0.33 µF
Ztotal @ 900 Hz = ??? C2
0.1 µF
Show your work using three different problem-solving strategies:

• Calculating total capacitance (Ctotal ) first, then total impedance (Ztotal ).
• Calculating individual admittances first (YC1 and YC2 ), then total admittance (Ytotal ), then total
impedance (Ztotal ).
• Using complex numbers: calculating individual impedances first (ZC1 and ZC2 ), then total impedance
(Ztotal ).
Do these two strategies yield the same total impedance value? Why or why not?
file 01835
51
Question 81
Examine the following circuits, then label the sides of their respective triangles with all the variables
that are trigonometrically related in those circuits:
file 03288
Question 82
Draw a phasor diagram showing the trigonometric relationship between resistance, reactance, and
impedance in this series circuit:
2.2 kΩ
5 V RMS
350 Hz
C
0.22 µF
Show mathematically how the resistance and reactance combine in series to produce a total impedance
(scalar quantities, all). Then, show how to analyze this same circuit using complex numbers: regarding each
of the component as having its own impedance, demonstrating mathematically how these impedances add
up to comprise the total impedance (in both polar and rectangular forms).
file 01828
52
Question 83
Calculate the total impedance of this RC circuit, once using nothing but scalar numbers, and again
using complex numbers:
Ztotal @ 400 Hz = ???
R1
7.9 kΩ C1 0.047 µF
file 01838
Question 84
A student is asked to calculate the phase shift for the following circuit’s output voltage, relative to the
phase of the source voltage:
C
Vout
Vsource
R
He recognizes this as a series circuit, and therefore realizes that a right triangle would be appropriate
for representing component impedances and component voltage drops (because both impedance and voltage
are quantities that add in series, and the triangle represents phasor addition):
R , VR
θ
Zt
ota
l ,V XC , VC
tot
al
Φ
The problem now is, which angle does the student solve for in order to find the phase shift of V out ? The
triangle contains two angles besides the 90o angle, Θ and Φ. Which one represents the output phase shift,
and more importantly, why?
file 03748
53
Question 85
Calculate the output voltage of this phase-shifting circuit, expressing it in polar form (magnitude and
phase angle relative to the source voltage):
Vin 0.033 µF
5.4 VAC Vout
1.2 kHz
2.2 kΩ
file 02621
Question 86
Calculate the output voltage of this phase-shifting circuit, expressing it in polar form (magnitude and
phase angle relative to the source voltage):
1.5 kΩ
Vout
Vin
10 VAC 0.47 µF
250 Hz
file 02620
Question 87
Determine the input frequency necessary to give the output voltage a phase shift of 70 o :
0.022 µF
Vin Vout
f = ???
3.3 kΩ
file 02623
54
Question 88
0.01 µF
Vin Vout
f = ???
2.9 kΩ
file 02622
Question 89
Determine the input frequency necessary to give the output voltage a phase shift of -38 o :
8.1 kΩ
Vin Vout
f = ???
33 nF
file 02626
Question 90
Determine the input frequency necessary to give the output voltage a phase shift of -25 o :
1.7 kΩ
Vin Vout
f = ??? 0.047 µF
file 02625
55
Question 91
27n
Vin Vout
C
f = ???
5k9 R
Also, write an equation that solves for frequency (f ), given all the other variables (R, C, and phase
angle θ).
file 03284
Question 92
Determine the necessary resistor value to give the output voltage a phase shift of 58 o :
33n
Vout
C
9V R = ???
4.5 kHz
Also, write an equation that solves for this resistance value (R), given all the other variables (f , C, and
phase angle θ).
file 03285
Question 93
Determine the necessary resistor value to give the output voltage a phase shift of -64 o :
R = ???
Vout
11 V 15n C
1.3 kHz
Also, write an equation that solves for this resistance value (R), given all the other variables (f , C, and
phase angle θ).
file 03287
56
Question 94
Use algebraic substitution to generate an equation expressing the output voltage of the following circuit
given the input voltage, the input frequency, the capacitor value, and the resistor value:
C
Vout
Vin R
Vout =
file 03818
Question 95
Use algebraic substitution to generate an equation expressing the output voltage of the following circuit
given the input voltage, the input frequency, the capacitor value, and the resistor value:
C1 C2
Vout
Vin R
Vout =
file 03819
57
Question 96
Complete the table of values for this circuit, representing all quantities in complex-number form (either
polar or rectangular, your choice):
R1 17 V
3.3 µF C1 60 Hz
470 Ω
R1 C1 Total
V 17 V ∠ 0o
I
Z
file 03611
Question 97
This phase-shifting bridge circuit is supposed to provide an output voltage with a variable phase shift
from -45o (lagging) to +45o (leading), depending on the position of the potentiometer wiper:
R C
1
Rpot R=
ωC
Rpot >> R
Vout
C R
Suppose, though, that the output signal is stuck at +45o leading the source voltage, no matter where
the potentiometer is set. Identify a likely failure that could cause this to happen, and explain why this failure
could account for the circuit’s strange behavior.
file 03464
58
Question 98
R C
1
Rpot R=
ωC
Rpot >> R
Vout
C R
Suppose, though, that the output signal is stuck at -45o lagging the source voltage, no matter where the
potentiometer is set. Identify a likely failure that could cause this to happen, and explain why this failure
could account for the circuit’s strange behavior.
file 03465
Question 99
R C
1
Rpot R=
ωC
Rpot >> R
Vout
C R
Suppose, though, that the output signal registers as it should with the potentiometer wiper fully to the
right, but diminishes greatly in amplitude as the wiper is moved to the left, until there is practically zero
output voltage at the full-left position. Identify a likely failure that could cause this to happen, and explain
why this failure could account for the circuit’s strange behavior.
file 03466
59
Question 100
Suppose we have a single resistor powered by two series-connected voltage sources. Each of the voltage
sources is ”ideal,” possessing no internal resistance:
1 kΩ
5V 3V
Now, suppose we were to remove one voltage source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
1 kΩ
3V
5 volt source
replaced by short
Now, suppose we were to remove the other voltage source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
1 kΩ
5V
3 volt source
replaced by short
file 00690
60
Question 101
Suppose we have a single resistor powered by two parallel-connected current sources. Each of the current
sources is ”ideal,” possessing infinite internal resistance:
5Ω 4A 7A
Now, suppose we were to remove one current source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
4 A source
5Ω replaced by open 7A
Now, suppose we were to remove the other current source from the circuit, replacing it with its internal
7 A source
5Ω 4A replaced by open
file 00693
61
Question 102
Use the Superposition Theorem to calculate the amount of current going through the 55 Ω heater
element. Ignore all wire and connection resistances, only considering the resistance of each fuse in addition
to the heater element resistance:
250 VDC 246 VDC
+ +
Generator Generator
Heater
55 Ω
- -
file 03129
62
Question 103
Suppose a DC generator is powering an electric motor, which we model as a 100 Ω resistor:
Rwire
Generator
0.1 Ω
rgen 0.3 Ω
Motor
vgen Gen 475 V (Modeled as a

100 Ω resistor)
Rwire
0.1 Ω
Calculate the amount of current this generator will supply to the motor and the voltage measured
across the motor’s terminals, taking into account all the resistances shown (generator internal resistance
rgen , wiring resistances Rwire , and the motor’s equivalent resistance).
Now suppose we connect an identical generator in parallel with the first, using connecting wire so short
that we may safely discount its additional resistance:
Rwire
0.1 Ω
rgen 0.3 Ω rgen 0.3 Ω
Motor
vgen Gen 475 V vgen Gen 475 V 100 Ω
Rwire
0.1 Ω
Use the Superposition Theorem to re-calculate the motor current and motor terminal voltage,
commenting on how these figures compare with the first calculation (using only one generator).
file 03130
63
Question 104
Electrical signals are frequently used in industrial control applications to communicate information
from one device to another. An example of this is motor speed control, where a computer outputs a speed
command signal to a motor ”drive” circuit, which then provides metered power to an electric motor:
To source of
3-phase AC power
Input Output Motor
Computer Two-wire cable Motor

drive
Two common standards for analog control signals are 1-5 volts DC and 4-20 mA DC. In either case, the
motor will spin faster when this signal from the computer grows in magnitude (1 volt = motor stopped, 5
volts = motor runs at full speed; or 4 mA = motor stopped, 20 mA = motor runs at full speed).
At first, it would seem as though the choice between 1-5 volts and 4-20 mA as control signal standards
is arbitrary. However, one of these standards exhibits much greater immunity to induced noise along the
two-wire cable than the other. Shown here are two equivalent schematics for these signal standards, complete
with an AC voltage source in series to represent the ”noise” voltage picked up along the cable’s length:
Motor drive
Computer input
1-5 VDC 1 MΩ
Vnoise
Motor drive
Computer input
4-20 mA 250 Ω
Vnoise
Use the superposition theorem to qualitatively determine which signal standard drops the greatest
amount of noise voltage across the motor drive input’s resistance, thereby most affecting the motor speed
control.
file 03221
64
Question 105
Sketch the approximate waveform of this circuit’s output signal (Vout ) on the screen of the oscilloscope:
10 kΩ
12 V
47 µF Vout
1V
peak 10 kΩ
1.6 kHz
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Hint: use the Superposition Theorem!
file 03502
65
Question 106
Sketch the approximate waveform of this circuit’s output signal (Vout ) on the screen of the oscilloscope:
33 kΩ
12 V
3.3 µF Vout
2V
peak 11 kΩ
50 kHz
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Hint: use the Superposition Theorem!
file 03503
Question 107
Audio headphones make highly sensitive voltage detectors for AC signals in the audio frequency range.
However, the small speakers inside headphones are quite easily damaged by the application of DC voltage.
Explain how a capacitor could be used as a ”filtering” device to allow AC signals through to a pair of
headphones, yet block any applied DC voltage, so as to help prevent accidental damage of the headphones
while using them as an electrical instrument.
The key to understanding how to answer this question is to recognize what a capacitor ”appears as” to
AC signals versus DC signals.
file 01395
66
Question 108
Suppose a friend wanted to install filter networks in the ”woofer” section of their stereo system, to
prevent high-frequency power from being wasted in speakers incapable of reproducing those frequencies. To
this end, your friend installs the following resistor-capacitor networks:
"Tweeter" "Tweeter"
Amplifier
Filter Filter
left right
"Woofer" "Woofer"
After examining this schematic, you see that your friend has the right idea in mind, but implemented it
incorrectly. These filter circuits would indeed block high-frequency signals from getting to the woofers, but
they would not actually accomplish the stated goal of minimizing wasted power.
What would you recommend to your friend in lieu of this circuit design?
file 00614
Question 109
It is common in audio systems to connect a capacitor in series with each ”tweeter” (high-frequency)
speaker to act as a simple high-pass filter. The choice of capacitors for this task is important in a high-power
audio system.
A friend of mine once had such an arrangement for the tweeter speakers in his car. Unfortunately,
though, the capacitors kept blowing up when he operated the stereo at full volume! Tired of replacing these
non-polarized electrolytic capacitors, he came to me for advice. I suggested he use mylar or polystyrene
capacitors instead of electrolytics. These were a bit more expensive than electrolytic capacitors, but they
did not blow up. Explain why.
file 03467
67
Question 110
Controlling electrical ”noise” in automotive electrical systems can be problematic, as there are many
sources of ”noise” voltages throughout a car. Spark ignitions and alternators can both generate substantial
noise voltages, superimposed on the DC voltage in a car’s electrical system. A simple way to electrically
model this noise is to draw it as an AC ”noise voltage” source in series with the DC source. If this noise
enters a radio or audio amplifier, the result will be an irritating sound produced at the speakers:
Vnoise
Radio/
VDC Speakers
amplifier
What would you suggest as a ”fix” for this problem if a friend asked you to apply your electronics
expertise to their noisy car audio system? Be sure to provide at least two practical suggestions.
file 03510
Question 111
Plot the typical response of a band-stop filter circuit, showing signal output (amplitude) on the vertical
axis and frequency on the horizontal axis:
Amplitude
Frequency
Also, identify and label the bandwidth of the circuit on your filter plot.
file 01951
68
Question 112
Plot the typical frequency responses of four different filter circuits, showing signal output (amplitude)
on the vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal axis:
Low-pass High-pass
Vout Vout
f f
Band-pass Band-stop
Vout Vout
f f
Also, identify and label the bandwidth of the filter circuit on each plot.
file 02571
69
Question 113
The following circuit is called a twin-tee filter:
R R
2C
C C
Vin Vout
R
2
Research the equation predicting this circuit’s ”notch” frequency, given the component value ratios
shown.
fnotch =
file 02579
70
Answers
Answer 1
As a general rule, capacitors oppose change in voltage, and they do so by producing a current.
A capacitor will pass a greater amount of AC current, given the same AC voltage, at a greater frequency.
Answer 2
e C
i = +(maximum)
i=0
i = -(maximum)
Time
For a capacitor, voltage is lagging and current is leading, by a phase shift of 90 o .
Answer 3
I’ll let you figure this out on your own!
Answer 4
The opposition to AC current (”reactance”) of a capacitor decreases as frequency increases. We refer
to this opposition as ”reactance” rather than ”resistance” because it is non-dissipative in nature. In other
words, reactance causes no power to leave the circuit.
Answer 5
The current will increase.
Follow-up question: combine the physical capacitance equation and the capacitive reactance equation
together to form a new equation that solves for reactance (XC ) given all the physical specifications of the
capacitor (plate area, spacing, and permittivity) and the applied frequency:
²A 1
C= XC =
d 2πf C
71
Answer 6
1
XC =
2πf C
The current through this capacitor is 19.91 mA RMS.
Answer 7
f = 241.1 Hz
Answer 8
I
C=
2πf V
Answer 9
Ztotal = 5 kΩ.
Answer 10
E = IZ
E
I=
Z
E
Z=
I
If using phasor quantities (complex numbers) for voltage, current, and impedance, the proper way to
write these equations is as follows:
E = IZ
E
I=
Z
E
Z=
I
Bold-faced type is a common way of denoting vector quantities in mathematics.
Answer 11
ZC = 15.92 kΩ 6 -90o
72
Answer 12
e
i p
Time
Answer 13
i
p
e
Time
The mnemonic phrase, ”ELI the ICE man” indicates that this phase shift is due to a capacitance rather
than an inductance.
Answer 14
• A resistor with 500 Ω of resistance: 500 Ω 6 0o or 500 + j0 Ω

• An inductor with 1.2 kΩ of reactance: 1.2 kΩ 6 90o or 0 + j1.2k Ω
• A capacitor with 950 Ω of reactance: 950 Ω 6 -90o or 0 - j950 Ω
• A resistor with 22 kΩ of resistance: 22 kΩ 6 0o or 22k + j0 Ω
• A capacitor with 50 kΩ of reactance: 50 kΩ 6 -90o or 0 - j50k Ω
• An inductor with 133 Ω of reactance: 133 Ω 6 90o or 0 + j133 Ω
Follow-up question: what would the phasors look like for resistive, inductive, and capacitive impedances?
73
Answer 15
The stray capacitance existing between the open contacts of the breaker provides a high-impedance
path for AC voltage to reach the voltmeter test leads.
Follow-up question: while the measured voltage in this case was well below the general industry threshold
for shock hazard (30 volts), a slightly different scenario could have resulted in a much greater ”phantom”
voltage measurement. Could a capacitively-coupled voltage of this sort possibly pose a safety hazard? Why
or why not?
Challenge question: is it possible for the technician to discern whether or not the 3.51 volts measured
by the voltmeter is ”real”? In other words, what if this small voltage is not the result of stray capacitance
across the breaker contacts, but rather some other source of AC capable of delivering substantial current?
How can the technician determine whether or not the 3.51 volts is capable of sourcing significant amounts
of current?
Answer 16
X = 214.2 Ω, as calculated by an algebraically manipulated version of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Answer 17
X = 9.063 kΩ
Answer 18
R = 2.165 kΩ
X = 1.25 kΩ
Answer 19
Itotal = 131.2 mA
Θ = 40.36o
Follow-up question: in calculating Θ, it is recommended to use the arctangent function instead of either
the arcsine or arc-cosine functions. The reason for doing this is accuracy: less possibility of compounded error,
due to either rounding and/or calculator-related (keystroke) errors. Explain why the use of the arctangent
function to calculate Θ incurs less chance of error than either of the other two arcfunctions.
Answer 20
G = 24.75 µS
Follow-up question: how much resistance is this, in ohms?
Answer 21
Vout = 1.754 V 6 0o
Follow-up question #1: explain why the division ratio of a capacitive voltage divider remains constant
with changes in signal frequency, even though we know that the reactance of the capacitors (X C1 and XC2 )
will change.
Follow-up question #2: one interesting feature of capacitive voltage dividers is that they harbor the
possibility of electric shock after being disconnected from the voltage source, if the source voltage is high
enough and if the disconnection happens at just the right time. Explain why a capacitive voltage divider
poses this threat whereas a resistive voltage divider does not. Also, identify what the time of disconnection
from the AC voltage source has to do with shock hazard.
74
Answer 22
I’ll let you figure out how to explain the operation of this test setup. The formula you would use looks
like this:
1
Cx =
2πf R
Follow-up question: could you use a similar setup to measure the inductance of an unknown inductor
Lx ? Why or why not?
Challenge question: astute observers will note that this setup might not work in real life because the
ground connection of the oscilloscope is not common with one of the function generator’s leads. Explain why
this might be a problem, and suggest a practical solution for it.
Answer 23
AC voltages still add in series, but phase must also be accounted for when doing so. Unfortunately,
multimeters provide no indication of phase whatsoever, and thus do not provide us with all the information
we need. (Note: just by looking at this circuit’s components, though, you should still be able to calculate
the correct result for total voltage and validate the measurements.)
I’ll let you determine how to disprove the two incorrect explanations offered by the other students!
Challenge question: calculate a set of possible values for the capacitor and resistor that would generate
these same voltage drops in a real circuit. Hint: you must also decide on a value of frequency for the power
source.
Answer 24
√
Ztotal = R2 + X 2
Answer 25
Vtotal = 3.672 volts, as calculated by the Pythagorean Theorem
Answer 26
Θ = 26.51o
Challenge question: explain how the following phasor diagram was determined for this problem:
2.0
7V
4.126.51
8V
4.66 V
75
Answer 27
I = 3.732206 mA 6 89.89o for the real capacitor with ESR.
I = 3.732212 mA 6 90.00o for the ideal capacitor.
Follow-up question #1: can this ESR be detected by a DC meter check of the capacitor? Why or why
not?
Follow-up question #2: explain how the ESR of a capacitor can lead to physical heating of the
component, especially under high-voltage, high-frequency conditions. What safety concerns might arise
as a result of this?
Answer 28
VC = 14.39 volts RMS
VR = 4.248 volts RMS
I = 903.9 µA RMS
Follow-up question: identify the consequences of a shorted capacitor in this circuit, with regard to circuit
current and component voltage drops.
Answer 29
VC = 47.56 volts peak
VR = 6.508 volts peak
I = 1.972 milliamps peak
ΘZ = −82.21o
Follow-up question: what would we have to do to get these answers in units RMS instead of units
”peak”?
Answer 30
• Itotal = 2.269 mA
• VC1 = 3.041 V
• VC2 = 5.354 V
• VR1 = 15.43 V
• VR2 = 2.723 V
• Θ = −24.82o (voltage lagging current)
I suggest using a dual-trace oscilloscope to measure total voltage (across the supply terminals) and
voltage drop across resistor R2 . Theoretically, measuring the voltage dropped by either resistor would be
fine, but R2 works better for practical reasons (oscilloscope input lead grounding). Phase shift then could
be measured either in the time domain or by a Lissajous figure analysis.
Answer 31
VC1 = 0.921 V 6 − 52.11o
VC2 = 0.921 V 6 − 52.11o
VR1 = 1.184 V 6 37.90o
Follow-up question: how much phase shift is there between the capacitors’ voltage drop and the resistor’s
voltage drop? Explain why this value is what it is.
76
Answer 32
EC phase shift = -76.7o
Challenge question: what effect will a change in potentiometer setting have on this phase angle?
Specifically, will increasing the resistance make the phase shift approach -90 o or approach 0o ?
Answer 33
√
Ytotal = G2 + B 2
Follow-up question #1: draw a phasor diagram showing how Y , G, and B relate.
Follow-up question #2: re-write this equation using quantities of resistance (R), reactance (X), and
impedance (Z), instead of conductance (G), susceptance (B), and admittance (Y ).
Answer 34
First strategy:
Ctotal = 0.18 µF
Ztotal = 221 Ω
Second strategy:
YC1 = 2.51 mS
YC2 = 1.18 mS
YC3 = 829 µS
Ytotal = 4.52 mS
Ztotal = 221 Ω
Answer 35
Ztotal = 391.4 Ω 6 -39.9o
Ytotal = 2.555 mS
YC1 = 1.638 mS
39.9o
YR1 = 1.961 mS
77
Answer 36
3.3 µF 0.1 µF
100 Hz 470 Ω 290 Hz 1.5 kΩ
Ztotal = 673.4 Ω ∠ -45.74o 0.22 µF

Ztotal = 8.122 kΩ ∠ -79.36o
3.3 µF 0.1 µF 0.22 µF

100 Hz 470 Ω 290 Hz 1.5 kΩ
Ztotal = 336.6 Ω ∠ -44.26o Ztotal = 1.129 kΩ ∠ -41.17o
Answer 37
• ΘI(R) = 0o
• ΘI(C) = 90o
• ΘI(total) = some positive angle between 0o and 90o , exclusive
Answer 38
I = 56.548671 mA 6 89.98o for the real capacitor with leakage resistance.
I = 56.548668 mA 6 90.00o for the ideal capacitor.
Answer 39
Zinput = 52.98 kΩ at 150 kHz
Follow-up question: what are the respective input impedances for ideal voltmeters and ideal ammeters?
Explain why each ideal instrument needs to exhibit these impedances in order to accurately measure voltage
and current (respectively) with the least ”impact” to the circuit under test.
Answer 40
C = 562.2 nF
78
Answer 41
Original circuit: ER = 2 volts ; IR = 2 mA
With 3 volt voltage source only: ER = 3 volts ; IR = 3 mA
5 volts - 3 volts = 2 volts

5 mA - 3 mA = 2 mA
Answer 42
Original circuit: ER = 55 volts ; IR = 11 A
With 7 amp current source only: ER = 35 volts ; IR = 7 A
35 volts + 20 volts = 55 volts

7 A + 4 A = 11 A
Answer 43
There are plenty of textbook references to the Superposition Theorem and where it may be applied. I’ll
let you do your own research here!
Answer 44
This is easy enough for you to research on your own!
Answer 45
To apply the Superposition Theorem to the analysis of Rload ’s current, you must consider each source
acting alone, then algebraically combine the results of each analysis.
Iload = 6.623 mA
Answer 46
The Superposition Theorem cannot be directly used to calculate power.
Answer 47
Igenerator = 16.82 A
Ibattery1 = 13.91 A
Ibattery2 = 2.91 A
Follow-up question: identify any safety hazards that could arise as a result of excessive resistance in the
fuse holders (e.g., corrosion build-up on the metal tabs where the fuse clips in to the fuse-holder).
Answer 48
As each source is considered separately, the reactive components ensure each load receives the correct
source voltage, with no interference.
79
Answer 49
Vout
The ”superposition principle” states that when two or more waveforms mix together in a linear network,
the result is the sum of the waveforms. That is, the waveforms simply add up to make a total, and are not
”irrevocably affected” by one another. The question, then, is really: what constitutes a linear network?
Answer 50
A chord is a mixture of three of more notes. On an oscilloscope, it would appear to be a very complex
waveform, very non-sinusoidal.
Note: if you want to see this form yourself without going through the trouble of setting up a musical
keyboard (or piano) and oscilloscope, you may simulate it using a graphing calculator or computer program.
Simply graph the sum of three waveforms with the following frequencies:
• 261.63 Hz (middle ”C”)
• 329.63 Hz (”E”)
• 392.00 Hz (”G”)
Answer 51
A spectrum analyzer.
Challenge questions: two similar instruments are the wave analyzer and the Fourier analyzer. Explain
how both these instruments are similar in function to a spectrum analyzer, and also how both differ.
Answer 52
The ”DC” setting allows the oscilloscope to display all components of the signal voltage, both AC and
DC, while the ”AC” setting blocks all DC within the signal, to only display the varying (AC) portion of the
signal on the screen.
Answer 53
Switch shown in "AC" position
Signal input Signal output

to vertical amplifier
80
Answer 54
The problem is that the vertical axis input is DC-coupled.
Follow-up question: predict the frequency of the ripple voltage in this power supply circuit.
Answer 55
”DC” does not imply that the oscilloscope can only show DC signals and not AC signals, as many
beginning students think. Rather, the ”DC” setting is the one that should be first used to measure all
signals, with the ”AC” setting engaged only as needed.
Answer 56
• Capacitor as it ”appears” to a low frequency signal: high impedance.

• Capacitor as it ”appears” to a high frequency signal: low impedance.
• Inductor as it ”appears” to a low frequency signal: low impedance.

• Inductor as it ”appears” to a high frequency signal: high impedance.
Challenge question: what does a capacitor ”appear” as to a DC signal?
Answer 57
Low-pass High-pass
Vout Vin Vin Vout
Low-pass
High-pass
Vin Vout Vout Vin
81
Answer 58
"Tweeter" "Tweeter"
C C
Amplifier
left right
"Woofer" "Woofer"
Follow-up question: what type of capacitor would you recommend using in this application (electrolytic,
mylar, ceramic, etc.)? Why?
Answer 59
Filter Filter
Digital data Digital data

pulses (AC) load
DC power DC power
Cable load
Filter Filter
Follow-up question #1: how might the superposition theorem be applied to this circuit, for the purposes
of analyzing its function?
Follow-up question #2: suppose one of the capacitors were to fail shorted. Identify what effect, if any,
this would have on the operation of the circuit. What if two capacitors were to fail shorted? Would it matter
if those two capacitors were both on either the transmitting or the receiving side, or if one of the failed
capacitors was on the transmitting side and the other was on the receiving side?
82
Answer 60
Vout
fcutoff
Follow-up question: a theoretical filter with this kind of idealized response is sometimes referred to as
a ”brick wall” filter. Explain why this name is appropriate.
Answer 61
Vout
fcutoff
Follow-up question: a theoretical filter with this kind of idealized response is sometimes referred to as
a ”brick wall” filter. Explain why this name is appropriate.
Answer 62
This is a low-pass filter.
fcutof f = 723.4 Hz
Answer 63
1
fcutof f = (For simple RC filter circuits)
2πRC
R
fcutof f = (For simple LR filter circuits)
2πL
83
Answer 64
This is a high-pass filter.
R = 2πf L
R = 5.65 kΩ
Answer 65
Pload @ f = 0 Hz = 64 mW
Pload @ fcutof f = 32 mW
These load dissipation figures prove this circuit is a low-pass filter. They also demonstrate that the load
dissipation at fcutof f is exactly half the amount of power the filter is capable of passing to the load under
ideal (maximum) conditions.
Answer 66
”Rolloff” refers to the slope of the Bode plot in the attenuating range of the filter circuit, usually
expressed in units of decibels per octave (dB/octave) or decibels per decade (dB/decade):
0 dB rol
lof
f
-3 dB
ro
-6 dB
llo
Signal
ff
rol
output -9 dB
lof
f
-12 dB
-15 dB
101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (Hz)
Answer 67
A band-pass filter passes only those frequencies falling within a specified range, or ”band.” A band-stop
filter, sometimes referred to as a notch filter, does just the opposite: it attenuates frequencies falling within
a specified band.
Challenge question: what type of filter, band-pass or band-stop, do you suppose is used in a radio
receiver (tuner)? Explain your reasoning.
84
Answer 68
Band-stop filter
Band-pass filter
Answer 69
Amplitude
Frequency
The bandwidth of a band-pass filter circuit is that range of frequencies where the output amplitude is
at least 70.7% of maximum:
Maximum output
70.7% of max. output
Amplitude
BW
Frequency
Answer 70
If resistor R3 failed open, it would cause this problem. However, this is not the only failure that could
cause the same type of problem!
85
Answer 71
Use circuit simulation software to verify your predicted and measured parameter values.
Answer 72
Answer 73
Answer 74
Answer 75
Answer 76
I do not provide a grading rubric here, but elsewhere.
Answer 77
Be sure to document all steps taken and conclusions made in your troubleshooting!
Answer 78
It is really important for you to frame this concept in your own words, so be sure to check with your
instructor on the accuracy of your answer to this question! To give you a place to start, I offer this distinction:
resistance is electrical friction, whereas reactance is electrical energy storage. Fundamentally, the difference
between X and R is a matter of energy exchange, and it is understood most accurately in those terms.
Answer 79
I = 22.6 mA
Answer 80
First strategy:
Ctotal = 0.43 µF
Xtotal = 411.3 Ω
Ztotal = 411.3 Ω 6 − 90o or Ztotal = 0 − j411.3 Ω
Second strategy:
ZC1 = XC1 = 535.9 Ω
1
YC1 = ZC1 = 1.866 mS
ZC1 = XC2 = 1.768 kΩ
1
YC2 = ZC2 = 565.5 µS
Ytotal = 2.432 mS
1
Ztotal = Ytotal = 411.3 Ω
Third strategy: (using complex numbers)

XC1 = 535.9 Ω ZC1 = 535.9 Ω 6 − 90o
XC2 = 1.768 kΩ ZC1 = 1.768 kΩ 6 − 90o
Ztotal = 411.3 Ω 6 − 90o or Ztotal = 0 − j411.3 Ω
86
Answer 81
YT IL ZT VL
IT L VT
L R BL R XL
IR G VR R
ZT VC YT IC
VT IT
C
R XC C R BC
VR R IR G
Answer 82
R = 2.2 kΩ
Z to
ta
XC = 2.067 kΩ
l
=
3.
01
9
kΩ
Scalar calculations
R = 2.2 kΩp XC = 2.067 kΩ
Zseries = √ R2 + XC 2
Zseries = 22002 + 20672 = 3019 Ω
Complex number calculations

ZR = 2.2 kΩ 6 0o ZC = 2.067 kΩ 6 − 90o (Polar form)
ZR = 2.2 kΩ + j0 Ω ZC = 0 Ω − j2.067 kΩ (Rectangular form)
Zseries = Z1 + Z2 + · · · Zn (General rule of series impedances)
Zseries = ZR + ZC (Specific application to this circuit)
Zseries = 2.2 kΩ 6 0o + 2.067 kΩ 6 − 90o = 3.019 kΩ 6 − 43.2o
Zseries = (2.2 kΩ + j0 Ω) + (0 Ω − j2.067 kΩ) = 2.2 kΩ − j2.067 kΩ
87
Answer 83
Scalar calculations
R1 = 7.9 kΩ GR1 = 126.6 µS
XC1 = 8.466
√ kΩ BC1 = 118.1 µS
Ytotal = G2 + B 2 = 173.1 µS
1
Ztotal = Ytotal = 5.776 kΩ
Complex number calculations

R1 = 7.9 kΩ ZR1 = 7.9 kΩ 6 0o
XC1 = 8.466 kΩ ZC1 = 8.466 kΩ 6 − 90o
1
Ztotal = 1 + 1 = 5.776 kΩ 6 − 43.02o
ZR1 ZC1
Answer 84
The proper angle in this circuit is Θ, and it will be a positive (leading) quantity.
Answer 85
Vout = 2.593 V 6 61.3o
Answer 86
Vout = 6.7 V 6 -47.9o
Answer 87
f = 798 Hz
Answer 88
f = 6.54 kHz
Answer 89
f = 465 Hz
Answer 90
f = 929 Hz
Answer 91
f = 2.143 kHz
1
f=
2πRC tan θ
Answer 92
R = 669.7 Ω
1
R=
2πf C tan θ
88
Answer 93
R = 16.734 kΩ
tan θ
R=−
2πf C
Answer 94
R Vin
Vout = r³ ´2
1
2πf C + R2
Answer 95
R Vin
Vout = r³ ´2
C1 +C2
2πf C1 C2 + R2
Answer 96
R1 17 V
3.3 µF C1 60 Hz
470 Ω
R1 C1 Total
V 17 V ∠ 0o 17 V ∠ 0o 17 V ∠ 0o
I 36.17 mA ∠ 0o 21.15 mA ∠ 90o 41.9 mA ∠ 30.3o
Z 470 Ω ∠ 0o 803.8 Ω ∠ -90o 405.7 Ω ∠ -30.3o
89
Answer 97
A broken connection between the left-hand terminal of the potentiometer and the bridge could cause
this to happen:
R C
break!
Vout
C R
I’ll let you figure out why!
Answer 98
A broken connection between the right-hand terminal of the potentiometer and the bridge could cause
this to happen:
R C
break!
Vout
C R
I’ll let you figure out why!
90
Answer 99
An open failure of the fixed resistor in the upper-left arm of the bridge could cause this to happen:
!
en
op
C
d
ile
fa
Vout
C R
Follow-up question: identify another possible component failure that would exhibit the same symptoms.
Answer 100
Original circuit: ER = 8 volts ; IR = 8 mA
5 volts + 3 volts = 8 volts

5 mA + 3 mA = 8 mA
Answer 101
Original circuit: ER = 15 volts ; IR = 3 A
35 volts - 20 volts = 15 volts

7A-4A=3A
91
Answer 102
Iheater = 4.439 A
Follow-up question: explain how you could use the Superposition Theorem to calculate current going
through the short length of wire connecting the two generators together:
I = ???
250 VDC 246 VDC
+ +
Generator Generator
Heater
55 Ω
- -
Answer 103
With only one generator connected:
Imotor = 4.726 amps Vmotor = 472.6 volts
With two generators connected:

Imotor = 4.733 amps Vmotor = 473.3 volts
Challenge question: how much current does each generator supply to the circuit when there are two
generators connected in parallel?
Answer 104
The motor drive input in the 1-5 volt signal system ”sees” more noise voltage than the motor drive
input in the 4-20 mA signal system.
Follow-up question: what bad effects do you think noise superimposed on the DC signal cable would
have on motor speed control?
Challenge question: why do you suppose the 1-5 volt signal system requires a much greater input
impedance (1 MΩ) than the 4-20 mA signal system? What might happen to the voltage signal received at
the motor drive’s input terminals if the input resistance were much less?
92
Answer 105
10 kΩ
12 V
47 µF Vout
1V
peak 10 kΩ
1.6 kHz
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Follow-up question: what would the oscilloscope display look like if the coupling switch for channel A
had been set to ”AC” instead of ”DC”?
93
Answer 106
33 kΩ
12 V
3.3 µF Vout
2V
peak 11 kΩ
50 kHz
Volts/Div A Sec/Div
250 µ
0.5 0.2 0.1 1m 50 µ
1 50 m 5m 10 µ
5 10 m 100 m 0.5 µ
10 5m 500 m 0.1 µ
20 2m 1 0.025 µ
2.5 off
DC Gnd AC
X-Y
Position
A B Alt Chop Add
Triggering Level
A
B
0.5 0.2 0.1
50 m Line
1 Position
2 20 m Ext.
5 10 m
Ext. input
10 5m Beam find
20 2m Auto DC
HF Rej
Follow-up question: explain why it is acceptable to use a polarized (polarity-sensitive) capacitor in this
circuit when it is clearly connected to a source of AC. Why is it not damaged by the AC voltage when used
like this?
Answer 107
Connect a capacitor in series with the headphone speakers.
Answer 108
Rather than use a ”shunting” form of low-pass filter (resistor and capacitor), a ”blocking” form of
low-pass filter (inductor) should be used instead.
Answer 109
The issue here was not polarity (AC versus DC), because these were non-polarized electrolytic capacitors
which were blowing up. What was an issue was ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance), which electrolytic
capacitors are known to have high values of.
94
Answer 110
This is perhaps the easiest solution, to install a very large capacitor (C huge ) in parallel with the audio
load:
Vnoise
Radio/
VDC Chuge Speakers
amplifier
Other, more sophisticated solutions exist, however!
Follow-up question: use superposition theorem to show why the capacitor mitigates the electrical noise
without interfering with the transfer of DC power to the radio/amplifier.
Answer 111
Amplitude
Frequency
The bandwidth of a band-stop filter circuit is that range of frequencies where the output amplitude is
reduced to at least 70.7% of full attenuation:
BW
Amplitude
70.7% attenuation
Full attenuation
Frequency
95
Answer 112
Low-pass High-pass
Bandwidth Bandwidth
Vout Vout
70.7% 70.7%
f fc fc f
Band-pass Band-stop
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Vout Vout 70.7% 70.7%
70.7% 70.7%
fc1 f fc2 fc1 f fc2
Answer 113
1
fnotch =
2πRC
96
Notes
Notes 1
This question is an exercise in qualitative thinking: relating rates of change to other variables, without
the use of numerical quantities. The general rule stated here is very, very important for students to master,
and be able to apply to a variety of circumstances. If they learn nothing about capacitors except for this
rule, they will be able to grasp the function of a great many capacitor circuits.
Notes 2
This question is an excellent application of the calculus concept of the derivative: relating one function
(instantaneous current, i) with the instantaneous rate-of-change of another function (voltage, de dt ).
Notes 3
This feature of capacitors is extremely useful in electronic circuitry. Your students will find many
applications of it later on in their studies!
Notes 4
Ask your students to define the relationship between capacitor reactance and frequency as either
”directly proportional” or ”inversely proportional”. These are two phrases used often in science and
engineering to describe whether one quantity increases or decreases as another quantity increases. Your
students definitely need to be familiar with both these phrases, and be able to interpret and use them in
their technical discussions.
Also, discuss the meaning of the word ”non-dissipative” in this context. How could we prove that the
opposition to current expressed by a capacitor is non-dissipative? What would be the ultimate test of this?
Notes 5
Students might be able to guess the correct answer even if they know nothing about capacitive reactance,
just by assuming that closer plates means a more complete circuit. The real answer is more complex than
this, though, and that is what you must draw out of the discussion with them.
Notes 6
I have consistently found that qualitative (greater than, less than, or equal) analysis is much more
difficult for students to perform than quantitative (punch the numbers on a calculator) analysis. Yet, I have
consistently found on the job that people lacking qualitative skills make more ”silly” quantitative errors
because they cannot validate their calculations by estimation.
In light of this, I always challenge my students to qualitatively analyze formulae when they are first
introduced to them. Ask your students to identify what will happen to one term of an equation if another
term were to either increase, or decrease (you choose the direction of change). Use up and down arrow
symbols if necessary to communicate these changes graphically. Your students will greatly benefit in their
conceptual understanding of applied mathematics from this kind of practice!
Notes 7
Be sure to ask your students to demonstrate the algebraic manipulation of the original formula, in
providing the answer to this question. Algebraic manipulation of equations is a very important skill to have,
and it comes only by study and practice.
Notes 8
Ask your students to show how they arrived at the formula for calculating C. The algebra is not difficult,
but some substitution is required.
97
Notes 9
Students may experience difficulty arriving at the same quantity for impedance shown in the answer. If
this is the case, help them problem-solve by suggesting they simplify the problem: short past one of the
load components and calculate the new circuit current. Soon they will understand the relationship between
total circuit opposition and total circuit current, and be able to apply this concept to the original problem.
Ask your students why the quantities of 3 kΩ and 4 kΩ do not add up to 7 kΩ like they would if they
were both resistors. Does this scenario remind them of another mathematical problem where 3 + 4 = 5?
Where have we seen this before, especially in the context of electric circuits?
Once your students make the cognitive connection to trigonometry, ask them the significance of these
numbers’ addition. Is it enough that we say a component has an opposition to AC of 4 kΩ, or is there more
to this quantity than a single, scalar value? What type of number would be suitable for representing such a
quantity, and how might it be written?
Notes 10
Although the use of phasor quantities for voltage, current, and impedance in the AC form of Ohm’s
Law yields certain distinct advantages over scalar calculations, this does not mean one cannot use scalar
quantities. Often it is appropriate to express an AC voltage, current, or impedance as a simple scalar number.
Notes 11
This is a challenging question, because it asks the student to defend the application of phase angles to a
type of quantity that does not really possess a wave-shape like AC voltages and currents do. Conceptually,
this is difficult to grasp. However, the answer is quite clear through the Ohm’s Law calculation (Z = EI ).
Although it is natural to assign a phase angle of 0o to the 48 volt supply, making it the reference
waveform, this is not actually necessary. Work through this calculation with your students, assuming different
angles for the voltage in each instance. You should find that the impedance computes to be the same exact
quantity every time.
Notes 12
Ask your students to observe the waveform shown in the answer closely, and determine what sign
the power values always are. Note how the voltage and current waveforms alternate between positive and
negative, but power does not. Of what significance is this to us? What does this indicate about the nature
of a load with an impedance phase angle of 0o ?
Notes 13
Ask your students to observe the waveform shown in the answer closely, and determine what sign the
power values are. Note how the power waveform alternates between positive and negative values, just as the
voltage and current waveforms do. Ask your students to explain what negative power could possibly mean.
Of what significance is this to us? What does this indicate about the nature of a load with an impedance
phase angle of -90o ?
The phrase, ”ELI the ICE man” has been used be generations of technicians to remember the phase
relationships between voltage and current for inductors and capacitors, respectively. One area of trouble I’ve
noted with students, though, is being able to interpret which waveform is leading and which one is lagging,
from a time-domain plot such as this.
Notes 14
In your discussion with students, emphasize the consistent nature of phase angles for impedances of
”pure” components.
98
Notes 15
I cannot tell you how many times I encountered this phenomenon: ”phantom” AC voltages registered
by high-impedance DMM’s in circuits that are supposed to be ”dead.” Industrial electricians often use a
different instrument to check for the presence of dangerous voltage, a crude device commonly known as a
”Wiggy.”
Notes 16
Be sure to have students show you the form of the Pythagorean Theorem, rather than showing them
yourself, since it is so easy for students to research on their own.
Notes 17
Ask your students to show you their algebraic manipulation(s) in setting up the equation for evaluation.
Notes 18
There are a few different ways one could solve for R and X in this trigonometry problem. This would
be a good opportunity to have your students present problem-solving strategies on the board in front of class
so everyone gets an opportunity to see multiple techniques.
Notes 19
The follow-up question illustrates an important principle in many different disciplines: avoidance of
unnecessary risk by choosing calculation techniques using given quantities instead of derived quantities.
This is a good topic to discuss with your students, so make sure you do so.
Notes 20
Ask your students to explain their method(s) of solution, including any ways to double-check the
correctness of the answer.
Notes 21
Capacitive voltage dividers find use in high-voltage AC instrumentation, due to some of the advantages
they exhibit over resistive voltage dividers. Your students should take special note of the phase angle for the
capacitor’s voltage drop. Why it is 0 degrees, and not some other angle?
Notes 22
This method of measuring capacitance (or inductance for that matter) is fairly old, and works well if
the unknown component has a high Q value.
Notes 23
This question has two different layers: first, how to reconcile the ”strange” voltage readings with
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law; and second, how to experimentally validate the accuracy of the voltmeters and the
fact that they are all registering the same type of voltage (RMS, peak, or otherwise, it doesn’t matter). The
first layer of this question regards the basic concepts of AC phase, while the second exercises troubleshooting
and critical thinking skills. Be sure to discuss both of these topics in class with your students.
Notes 24
Ask your students if this equation looks similar to any other mathematical equations they’ve seen before.
If not, square both sides of the equation so it looks like Z 2 = R2 + X 2 and ask them again.
Notes 25
Be sure to have students show you the form of the Pythagorean Theorem, rather than showing them
yourself, since it is so easy for students to research on their own.
99
Notes 26
This is an interesting question for a couple of reasons. First, students must determine how they will
measure phase shift with just the two voltage indications shown by the meters. This may present a significant
challenge for some. Discuss problem-solving strategies in class so that students understand how and why it
is possible to determine Θ.
Secondly, this is an interesting question because it shows how something as abstract as phase angle can
be measured with just a voltmeter – no oscilloscope required! Not only that, but we don’t even have to know
the component values either! Note that this technique works only for simple circuits.
A practical point to mention here is that multimeters have frequency limits which must be considered
when taking measurements on electronic circuits. Some high-quality handheld digital meters have frequency
limits of hundred of kilohertz, while others fail to register accurately at only a few thousand hertz. Unless
we knew these two digital voltmeters were sufficient for measuring at the signal frequency, their indications
would be useless to us.
Notes 27
Although capacitors do contain their own parasitic effects, ESR being one of them, they still tend to
be much ”purer” components than inductors for general use. This is another reason why capacitors are
generally favored over inductors in applications where either will suffice.
Notes 28
Nothing special here – just a straightforward exercise in series AC circuit calculations.
Students often have difficulty formulating a method of solution: determining what steps to take to get
from the given conditions to a final answer. While it is helpful at first for you (the instructor) to show them,
it is bad for you to show them too often, lest they stop thinking for themselves and merely follow your lead.
A teaching technique I have found very helpful is to have students come up to the board (alone or in teams)
in front of class to write their problem-solving strategies for all the others to see. They don’t have to actually
do the math, but rather outline the steps they would take, in the order they would take them. The following
is a sample of a written problem-solving strategy for analyzing a series resistive-reactive AC circuit:
Step 1: Calculate all reactances (X).

Step 2: Draw an impedance triangle (Z ; R ; X), solving for Z
Step 3: Calculate circuit current using Ohm’s Law: I = VZ
Step 4: Calculate series voltage drops using Ohm’s Law: V = IZ
Step 5: Check work by drawing a voltage triangle (Vtotal ; V1 ; V2 ), solving for Vtotal
By having students outline their problem-solving strategies, everyone gets an opportunity to see multiple
methods of solution, and you (the instructor) get to see how (and if!) your students are thinking. An
especially good point to emphasize in these ”open thinking” activities is how to check your work to see if
any mistakes were made.
Notes 29
Bring to your students’ attention the fact that total voltage in this circuit is given in ”peak” units rather
than RMS, and what effect this has on our answers.
100
Notes 30
Some students many wonder what type of numerical result best corresponds to a multimeter’s readings,
if they do their calculations using complex numbers (”do I use polar or rectangular form, and if rectangular
do I use the real or the imaginary part?”). The answers given for this question should clarify that point.
It is very important that students know how to apply this knowledge of AC circuit analysis to real-world
situations. Asking students to determine how they would connect an oscilloscope to the circuit to measure
Θ is an exercise in developing their abstraction abilities between calculations and actual circuit scenarios.
It is noteworthy that the low capacitances shown here approach parasitic capacitances between circuit
board traces. In other words, whoever designs a circuit to operate at 950 kHz cannot simply place components
at will on the board, but must consider the traces themselves to be circuit elements (both capacitive and
inductive in nature!). The calculations used to obtain the given answers, of course, assume ideal conditions
where the PC board is not considered to possess capacitance or inductance.

101
Notes 31
The first challenge of this question is for students to figure out how to reduce this series-parallel
combination to something simpler. Fortunately, this is very easy to do if one remembers the properties
of parallel capacitances.
Students may be surprised to discover the phase shift between VC and VR is the value it is. However,
this should not remain a mystery. Discuss this with your class, taking time for all of them to understand
why the voltage phasors of a resistor and a capacitor in a simple series circuit will always be orthogonal.

Notes 32
In this question, I purposely omitted any reference to voltage levels, so the students would have to set
up part of the problem themselves. The goal here is to build problem-solving skills.
Notes 33
Ask your students if this equation looks familiar to them. It should!
The answer to the challenge question is a matter of algebraic substitution. Work through this process
with your students, and then ask them to compare the resulting equation with other equations they’ve seen
before. Does its form look familiar to them in any way?
Notes 34
This question is another example of how multiple means of calculation will give you the same answer
(if done correctly!). Make note to your students that this indicates an answer-checking strategy!
Notes 35
Some students may wonder why every side of the triangle is represented by a Y term, rather than Y for
the hypotenuse, G for the adjacent, and B for the opposite. If students ask about this, remind them that
conductance (G) and susceptance (B) are simple two different types of admittances (Y ), just as resistance
(R) and reactance (X) are simply two different types of impedances (Z).
102
Notes 36
Have your students explain how they solved for each impedance, step by step. You may find different
approaches to solving the same problem(s), and your students will benefit from seeing the diversity of solution
techniques.
Notes 37
Some students will be confused about the positive phase angles, since this is a capacitive circuit and
they have learned to associate negative angles with capacitors. It is important for these students to realize,
though, that the negative angles they immediately associate with capacitors are in reference to impedance
and not necessarily to other variables in the circuit!
Notes 38
Discuss with your students the fact that electrolytic capacitors typically have more leakage (less R leakage )
than most other capacitor types, due to the thinness of the dielectric oxide layer.

Notes 39
Mention to your students that this capacitive loading effect only gets worse when a cable is attached to
the oscilloscope input. The calculation performed for this question is only for the input of the oscilloscope
itself, not including whatever capacitance may be included in the test probe cable!
This is one of the reasons why ×10 probes are used with oscilloscopes: to minimize the loading effect
on the tested circuit.
Notes 40
Have your students explain how they solved for each impedance, step by step. You may find different
approaches to solving the same problem(s), and your students will benefit from seeing the diversity of solution
techniques.
Notes 41
This circuit is so simple, students should not even require the use of a calculator to determine the current
figures. The point of it is, to get students to see the concept of superposition of voltages and currents.
Ask your students if they think it is important to keep track of voltage polarities and current directions
in the superposition process. Why or why not?
103
Notes 42
figures. If students are not familiar with current sources, this question provides an excellent opportunity to
review them. The main point of the question is, however, to get students to see the concept of superposition
of voltages and currents.
Notes 43
As the answer states, students have a multitude of resources to consult on this topic. It should not be
difficult for them to ascertain what this important theorem is and how it is applied to the analysis of circuits.
Be sure students understand what the terms linear and bilateral mean with reference to circuit
components and the necessary conditions for Superposition Theorem to be applied to a circuit. Point
out that it is still possible to apply the Superposition Theorem to a circuit containing nonlinear or unilateral
components if we do so carefully (i.e. under narrowly defined conditions).
Notes 44
I really enjoy covering the Superposition Theorem in class with my students. It’s one of those rare
analysis techniques that is intuitively obvious and yet powerful at the same time. Because the principle is so
easy to learn, I highly recommend you leave this question for your students to research, and let them fully
present the answer in class rather than you explain any of it.
Notes 45
Here is a circuit students will not be able to analyze by series-parallel analysis, since it is impossible to
reduce all the resistors in it to a single equivalent resistance. It is cases like this that really showcase the
power of Superposition as an analysis technique.
Notes 46
In order to answer this question correctly (without just looking up the answer in a book), students will
have to perform a few power calculations in simple, multiple-source circuits. It may be worthwhile to work
through a couple of example problems during discussion time, to illustrate the answer.
Despite the fact that resistor power dissipations cannot be superimposed to obtain the answer(s), it is
still possible to use the Superposition Theorem to calculate resistor power dissipations in a multiple-source
circuit. Challenge your students with the task of applying this theorem for solving power dissipations in a
circuit.
Notes 47
Though there are other methods of analysis for this circuit, it is still a good application of Superposition
Theorem.
Notes 48
Such ”power-plus-data” strategies are made possible by the Superposition Theorem and the linearity of
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. If time permits, this would be a good opportunity to discuss ”power-line
carrier” systems, where high-frequency data is transmitted over power line conductors. The venerable X10
network system is an example for residential power wiring, while power distribution utilities have been using
this ”PLC” technology (the acronym not to be confused with Programmable Logic Controllers) for decades
over high-voltage transmission lines.
104
Notes 49
It is no coincidence that the ”superposition principle” sounds a lot like the ”superposition theorem”
learned as a network analysis technique: consider the effects of all power sources one at a time, and add
those effects together to determine the final result.
The matter of ”irrevocable influence” is important to us because it dictates how difficult it would be
to separate the mixed signals from each other. When external noise couples to a circuit through capacitive
or inductive coupling, can we filter out the noise and obtain the true signal again, or has the signal been
corrupted in such a way that restoration is impossible by mere filtering? The key to answering this question
is whether or not the ”network” formed from parasitic capacitive/inductive coupling is linear. Discuss
with your students what determines linearity in a math equation, and apply these criteria to the equations
describing resistor, capacitor, and inductor behavior.
Notes 50
Students with a musical background (especially piano) should be able to add substantially to the
discussion on this question. The important concept to discuss here is that multiple frequencies of any
signal form (AC voltage, current, sound waves, light waves, etc.) are able to exist simultaneously along the
same signal path without interference.
Notes 51
Spectrum analyzers capable of analyzing radio-frequency signals are very expensive, but low-cost
personal computer hardware and software does a good job of analyzing complex audio signals. It would
be a benefit to your class to have a low-frequency spectrum analyzer setup available for student use, and
possible demonstration during discussion.
Notes 52
A common misconception among students is that the ”DC” setting is used for measuring DC signals
only, and that the ”AC” setting is used for measuring AC signals only. I often refer to the ”DC” setting as
direct coupling in order to avoid the connotation of ”direct current,” in an attempt to reinforce the idea that
with ”DC” coupling, what you see is all that’s really there. With ”AC” coupling, only part of the signal is
being coupled to the input amplifier circuitry.
Notes 53
In order for students to answer this question, they must review the internal operation of an oscilloscope.
This does not have to be rigorous – a block-diagram understanding is good enough. The important thing is
that they understand what the capacitor does for the oscilloscope input. Once this is understood, students
will have a much better understanding of why and where the coupling control is used.
Notes 54
As usual, what I’m looking for in an answer here is an explanation for what is happening. If a student
simply tells you, ”the vertical input is DC-coupled,” press them for more detail. What does it mean for the
input to be ”DC-coupled,” and why does this cause the line to disappear from the screen when we increase
the vertical sensitivity? What alternative do we have to ”DC coupling” on an oscilloscope?
One nice thing about oscilloscopes is that they cannot be damaged by ”pegging” the display, as can
analog multimeters. The same concept applies, though, and is useful in explaining to students why waveforms
disappear from the screen when the vertical sensitivity is too great.
Notes 55
The answer I give here is correct, but does not address why the coupling control does what it does, nor
does it describe why the square wave signal appears all distorted on the first oscilloscope’s screen. I leave
this for your students to research and for you and your students to discuss together in class.
105
Notes 56
Ask your students how they arrived at their answers for these qualitative assessments. If they found
difficulty understanding the relationship of frequency to impedance for reactive components, I suggest you
work through the reactance equations qualitatively with them. In other words, evaluate each of the reactance
formulae (XL = 2πf L and XC = 2πf1 C ) in terms of f increasing and decreasing, to understand how each of
these components reacts to low- and high-frequency signals.
Notes 57
Low-pass and high-pass filter circuit are really easy to identify if you consider the input frequencies in
terms of extremes: radio frequency (very high), and DC (f = 0 Hz). Ask your students to identify the
respective impedances of all components in a filter circuit for these extreme frequency examples, and the
functions of each filter circuit should become very clear to see.
Notes 58
Ask your students to describe what type of filter circuit a series-connected capacitor forms: low-pass,
high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop? Discuss how the name of this filter should describe its intended function
in the sound system.
Regarding the follow-up question, it is important for students to recognize the practical limitations of
certain capacitor types. One thing is for sure, ordinary (polarized) electrolytic capacitors will not function
properly in an application like this!
Notes 59
Discuss with your students why inductors were chosen as filtering elements for the DC power, while
capacitors were chosen as filtering elements for the AC data signals. What are the relative reactances of
these components when subjected to the respective frequencies of the AC data signals (many kilohertz or
megahertz) versus the DC power supply (frequency = 0 hertz).
This question is also a good review of the ”superposition theorem,” one of the most useful and easiest-
to-understand of the network theorems. Note that no quantitative values need be considered to grasp the
function of this communications network. Analyze it qualitatively with your students instead.
Notes 60
The plot given in the answer, of course, is for an ideal high-pass filter, where all frequencies below
fcutof f are blocked and all frequencies above fcutof f are passed. In reality, filter circuits never attain this
ideal ”square-edge” response. Discuss possible applications of such a filter with your students.
Challenge them to draw the Bode plots for ideal band-pass and band-stop filters as well. Exercises such
as this really help to clarify the purpose of filter circuits. Otherwise, there is a tendency to lose perspective
of what real filter circuits, with their correspondingly complex Bode plots and mathematical analyses, are
supposed to do.
Notes 61
The plot given in the answer, of course, is for an ideal low-pass filter, where all frequencies below f cutof f
are passed and all frequencies above fcutof f are blocked. In reality, filter circuits never attain this ideal
”square-edge” response. Discuss possible applications of such a filter with your students.
Challenge them to draw the Bode plots for ideal band-pass and band-stop filters as well. Exercises such
as this really help to clarify the purpose of filter circuits. Otherwise, there is a tendency to lose perspective
of what real filter circuits, with their correspondingly complex Bode plots and mathematical analyses, are
supposed to do.
106
Notes 62
Be sure to ask students where they found the cutoff frequency formula for this filter circuit.
When students calculate the impedance of the resistor and the capacitor at the cutoff frequency, they
should notice something unique. Ask your students why these values are what they are at the cutoff frequency.
Is this just a coincidence, or does this tell us more about how the ”cutoff frequency” is defined for an RC
circuit?
Notes 63
This is an exercise in algebraic substitution, taking the formula X = R and introducing f into it by
way of substitution, then solving for f . Too many students try to memorize every new thing rather than
build their knowledge upon previously learned material. It is surprising how many electrical and electronic
formulae one may derive from just a handful of fundamental equations, if one knows how to use algebra.
Some textbooks present the LR cutoff frequency formula like this:
1
fcutof f = L
2π R
If students present this formula, you can be fairly sure they simply found it somewhere rather than
derived it using algebra. Of course, this formula is exactly equivalent to the one I give in my answer – and
it is good to show the class how these two are equivalent – but the real point of this question is to get your
students using algebra as a practical tool in their understanding of electrical theory.
Notes 64
The most important part of this question, as usual, is to have students come up with methods of solution
for determining R’s value. Ask them to explain how they arrived at their answer, and if their method of
solution made use of any formula or principle used in capacitive filter circuits.
Notes 65
If your students have never encountered decibel (dB) ratings before, you should explain to them that -3
dB is an expression meaning ”one-half power,” and that this is why the cutoff frequency of a filter is often
referred to as the half-power point.
The important lesson to be learned here about cutoff frequency is that its definition means something
in terms of load power. It is not as though someone decided to arbitrarily define f cutof f as the point at
which the load receives 70.7% of the source voltage!
Notes 66
Point students’ attention to the scale used on this particular Bode plot. This is called a log-log scale,
where neither vertical nor horizontal axis is linearly marked. This scaling allows a very wide range of
conditions to be shown on a relatively small plot, and is very common in filter circuit analysis.
Notes 67
In this question, I’ve opted to let students draw Bode plots, only giving them written descriptions of
each filter type.
Notes 68
Aside from getting students to understand that band-function filters may be built from sets of low-
and high-pass filter blocks, this question is really intended to initiate problem-solving activity. Discuss with
your students how they might approach a problem like this to see how the circuits respond. What ”thought
experiments” did they try in their minds to investigate these circuits?
107
Notes 69
Bandwidth is an important concept in electronics, for more than just filter circuits. Your students may
discover references to bandwidth of amplifiers, transmission lines, and other circuit elements as they do their
research. Despite the many and varied applications of this term, the principle is fundamentally the same.
Notes 70
Ask your students to explain why an open R2 would cause this filter to act as a high-pass instead of a
band-stop. Then, ask them to identify other possible component failures that could cause a similar effect.
By the way, this filter circuit illustrates the popular twin-tee filter topology.
Notes 71
Use a sine-wave function generator for the AC voltage source. I recommend against using line-power
AC because of strong harmonic frequencies which may be present (due to nonlinear loads operating on the
same power circuit). Specify a standard capacitor value.
If students are to use a multimeter to make their current and voltage measurements, be sure it is capable
of accurate measurement at the circuit frequency! Inexpensive digital multimeters often experience difficulty
measuring AC voltage and current toward the high end of the audio-frequency range.
Notes 72
same power circuit). Specify standard resistor and capacitor values.
An extension of this exercise is to incorporate troubleshooting questions. Whether using this exercise as
a performance assessment or simply as a concept-building lab, you might want to follow up your students’
results by asking them to predict the consequences of certain circuit faults.
Notes 73
An extension of this exercise is to incorporate troubleshooting questions. Whether using this exercise as
a performance assessment or simply as a concept-building lab, you might want to follow up your students’
results by asking them to predict the consequences of certain circuit faults.
Notes 74
I recommend using components that produce a phase shift of approximately 45 degrees within the low
audio frequency range (less than 1 kHz). This allows most multimeters to be used for voltage measurement
in conjunction with the oscilloscope.
One way for students to do this assessment is to have them predict what the sine waves will look like,
based on circuit component values. They sketch the predicted waveforms on the grid provided before actually
hooking up an oscilloscope, then the instructor assesses them based on the conformity of the real oscilloscope
display to their prediction.
108
Notes 75
This is a very interesting circuit to built and test. You may build one using 1 µF capacitors, 2.7 kΩ
resistors, and a 100 kΩ potentiometer that will successfully operate on 60 Hz power-line excitation. If you
prefer to use audio frequency power, try 0.047 µF capacitors, 1 kΩ resistors, a 100 kΩ potentiometer, and
3.386 kHz for the source frequency.
An interesting thing to note about using line power is that any distortions in the excitation sine-wave
will become obvious when the potentiometer wiper is turned toward the differentiating position (where Θ is
positive). If listened to with an audio detector, you may even hear the change in timbre while moving the
wiper from one extreme to the other. If excited by a ”clean” sine-wave, however, no change in timbre should
be heard because there are no harmonics present.
Notes 76
The idea of a troubleshooting log is three-fold. First, it gets students in the habit of documenting
their troubleshooting procedure and thought process. This is a valuable habit to get into, as it translates
to more efficient (and easier-followed) troubleshooting on the job. Second, it provides a way to document
student steps for the assessment process, making your job as an instructor easier. Third, it reinforces the
notion that each and every measurement or action should be followed by reflection (conclusion), making the
troubleshooting process more efficient.
Notes 77
The purpose of this assessment rubric is to act as a sort of “contract” between you (the instructor) and
your student. This way, the expectations are all clearly known in advance, which goes a long way toward
disarming problems later when it is time to grade.
Notes 78
This is an excellent point of crossover with your students’ studies in elementary physics, if they are
studying physics now or have studied physics in the past. The energy-storing actions of inductors and
capacitors are quite analogous to the energy-storing actions of masses and springs (respectively, if you
associate velocity with current and force with voltage). In the same vein, resistance is analogous to kinetic
friction between a moving object and a stationary surface. The parallels are so accurate, in fact, that the
electrical properties of R, L, and C have been exploited to model mechanical systems of friction, mass, and
resilience in circuits known as analog computers.
Notes 79
The current is not difficult to calculate, so obviously the most important aspect of this question is not
the math. Rather, it is the procedure of calculation: what to do first, second, third, etc., in obtaining the
final answer.
Notes 80
A common misconception many students have about capacitive reactances and impedances is that they
must interact ”oppositely” to how one would normally consider electrical opposition. That is, many students
believe capacitive reactances and impedances should add in parallel and diminish in series, because that’s
what capacitance (in Farads) does! This is not true, however. Impedances always add in series and diminish
in parallel, at least from the perspective of complex numbers. This is one of the reasons I favor AC circuit
calculations using complex numbers: because then students may conceptually treat impedance just like they
treat DC resistance.
The purpose of this question is to get students to realize that any way they can calculate total impedance
is correct, whether calculating total capacitance and then calculating impedance from that, or by calculating
the impedance of each capacitor and then combining impedances to find a total impedance. This should be
reassuring, because it means students have a way to check their work when analyzing circuits such as this!
109
Notes 81
This question asks students to identify those variables in each circuit that vectorially add, discriminating
them from those variables which do not add. This is extremely important for students to be able to do if
they are to successfully apply ”the triangle” to the solution of AC circuit problems.
Note that some of these triangles should be drawn upside-down instead of all the same as they are shown
in the question, if we are to properly represent the vertical (imaginary) phasor for capacitive impedance and
for inductor admittance. However, the point here is simply to get students to recognize what quantities add
and what do not. Attention to the direction (up or down) of the triangle’s opposite side can come later.
Notes 82
I want students to see that there are two different ways of approaching a problem such as this: with
scalar math and with complex number math. If students have access to calculators that can do complex-
number arithmetic, the ”complex” approach is actually simpler for series-parallel combination circuits, and
it yields richer (more informative) results.
Ask your students to determine which of the approaches most resembles DC circuit calculations.
Incidentally, this is why I tend to prefer complex-number AC circuit calculations over scalar calculations:
because of the conceptual continuity between AC and DC. When you use complex numbers to represent
AC voltages, currents, and impedances, almost all the rules of DC circuits still apply. The big exception, of
course, is calculations involving power.
Notes 83
Some electronics textbooks (and courses) tend to emphasize scalar impedance calculations, while others
emphasize complex number calculations. While complex number calculations provide more informative
results (a phase shift given in every variable!) and exhibit conceptual continuity with DC circuit analysis
(same rules, similar formulae), the scalar approach lends itself better to conditions where students do not
have access to calculators capable of performing complex number arithmetic. Yes, of course, you can do
complex number arithmetic without a powerful calculator, but it’s a lot more tedious and prone to errors
than calculating with admittances, susceptances, and conductances (primarily because the phase shift angle
is omitted for each of the variables).
Notes 84
Too many students blindly use impedance and voltage triangles without really understand what they
are and why they work. These same students will have no idea how to approach a problem like this. Work
with them to help them understand!
Notes 85
This is a very practical application of resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits: to introduce a phase shift to an
AC signal. Examples of where a circuit such as this may be used include oscillators (to introduce phase shift
into a feedback network for a total phase shift of 360o ) and thyristor firing control circuits (phase-shifting
the triggering voltage in relation to the source voltage).
Notes 86
This is a very practical application of resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits: to introduce a phase shift to an
AC signal. Examples of where a circuit such as this may be used include oscillators (to introduce phase shift
into a feedback network for a total phase shift of 360o ) and thyristor firing control circuits (phase-shifting
the triggering voltage in relation to the source voltage).
Notes 87
Phase-shifting circuits are very useful, and important to understand. They are particularly important
in some types of oscillator circuits, which rely on RC networks such as this to provide certain phase shifts
to sustain oscillation.
110
Notes 88
Notes 89
Notes 90
Notes 91
Discuss with your students what a good procedure might be for calculating the unknown values in this
problem, and also how they might check their work.
do the math, but rather outline the steps they would take, in the order they would take them.
Notes 92
111
Notes 93
Notes 94
Notes 95
Notes 96
Ask your students to share their problem-solving techniques for this question: how they solved for each
parameter and in what order they performed the calculations.
112
Notes 97
It is essential, of course, that students understand the operational principle of this circuit before they
may even attempt to diagnose possible faults. You may find it necessary to discuss this circuit in detail with
your students before they are ready to troubleshoot it.
In case anyone asks, the symbolism Rpot >> R means ”potentiometer resistance is much greater than
the fixed resistance value.”
Notes 98
Notes 99
Notes 100
figures. The point of it is, to get students to see the concept of superposition of voltages and currents.
Notes 101
figures. If students are not familiar with current sources, this question provides an excellent opportunity to
review them. The main point of the question is, however, to get students to see the concept of superposition
of voltages and currents.
Notes 102
Though there are other methods of analysis for this circuit, it is still a good application of Superposition
Theorem.
Notes 103
Some students will erroneously leap to the conclusion that another generator will send twice the current
through the load (with twice the voltage drop across the motor terminals!). Such a conclusion is easy to
reach if one does not fully understand the Superposition Theorem.
Notes 104
This is s very practical question, as induced noise is no academic matter in real industrial control systems.
This is especially true around motor drive circuits, which are well known for their ability to generate lots of
electrical noise!
Some students may suggest that the distinction between voltage and current signals is moot because
shielded-pair cable is suppose to all but eliminate induced noise. In answer to this (good) question, it should
be noted that real-life conditions are never ideal, and that induced noise (to some degree) is an unavoidable
fact of life, especially in many industrial environments.
The challenge question may seem unanswerable until one considers the unavoidable resistance along the
length of the signal cable and calculates the effects of voltage drop along the wire length for a huge input
resistance versus a small input resistance.
113
Notes 105
Note that the capacitor size has been chosen for negligible capacitive reactance (X C ) at the specific
frequency, such that the 10 kΩ DC bias resistors present negligible loading to the coupled AC signal. This
is typical for this type of biasing circuit.
Aside from giving students an excuse to apply the Superposition Theorem, this question previews a
circuit topology that is extremely common in transistor amplifiers.
Notes 106
Note that the capacitor size has been chosen for negligible capacitive reactance (X C ) at the specific
frequency, such that the 10 kΩ DC bias resistors present negligible loading to the coupled AC signal. This
is typical for this type of biasing circuit.
Aside from giving students an excuse to apply the Superposition Theorem, this question previews a
circuit topology that is extremely common in transistor amplifiers.
Notes 107
I highly recommend to students that they should build a transformer-isolation circuit if they intend to
use a pair of audio headphones as a test device (see question file number 00983 for a complete schematic
diagram).
Notes 108
The reason for this choice in filter designs is very practical. Ask your students to describe how a
”shunting” form of filter works, where the reactive component is connected in parallel with the load, receiving
power through a series resistor. Contrast this against a ”blocking” form of filter circuit, in which a reactive
component is connected in series with the load. In one form of filter, a resistor is necessary. In the other
form of filter, a resistor is not necessary. What difference does this make in terms of power dissipation within
the filter circuit?
Notes 109
Your students may have to do a bit of refreshing (or first-time research!) on the meaning of ESR before
they can understand why large ESR values could cause a capacitor to explode under extreme operating
conditions.
Notes 110
The follow-up question is yet another example of how practical the superposition theorem is when
analyzing filter circuits.
Notes 111
Bandwidth is an important concept in electronics, for more than just filter circuits. Your students may
discover references to bandwidth of amplifiers, transmission lines, and other circuit elements as they do their
research. Despite the many and varied applications of this term, the principle is fundamentally the same.
Notes 112
Although ”bandwidth” is usually applied first to band-pass and band-stop filters, students need to
realize that it applies to the other filter types as well. This question, in addition to reviewing the definition
of bandwidth, also reviews the definition of cutoff frequency. Ask your students to explain where the 70.7%
figure comes from. Hint: half-power point!
Notes 113
Answering this question is simply a matter of research! There are many references a student could go
to for information on twin-tee filters.
114

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ELTR 110 (AC 1), section 2

Practice and challenge problems

Skill standards addressed by this course section

C Technical Skills – AC circuits

B Basic and Practical Skills – Communicating on the Job

Common areas of confusion for students

Difficult concept: Phasors, used to represent AC amplitude and phase relations.

Difficult concept: Conductance, susceptance, and admittance.

Difficult concept: Identifying filter circuit types.

Difficult concept: The practical purpose(s) for filter circuits.

coarse fine DC output

Explain why this happens, with reference to capacitive reactance (XC ).

coarse fine DC output

coarse fine DC output

Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)

C1 C2 C3 Ztotal @ 4 kHz = ???

C1 33n R1 510 Ztotal @ 7.9 kHz = ???

Also, draw an admittance triangle for this circuit.

100 Hz 470 Ω 290 Hz 1.5 kΩ

3.3 µF 0.1 µF 0.22 µF

Ideal capacitor Leakage resistance

Oscilloscope input (typical)

Calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in this circuit.

Calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in this circuit.

(Currents not shown for simplicity)

Fuse 0.15 Ω Fuse 0.25 Ω Fuse 0.85 Ω

- 244 VDC 245 VDC

coarse fine DC output

coarse fine timebase

Draw a schematic diagram of this circuit, to make it easier to analyze.

coarse fine DC output

coarse fine DC output

• Inductor as it ”appears” to a low frequency signal: (high or low) impedance?

Vout Vin Vin Vout

Vin Vout Vout Vin

Hint: this only requires a single component per tweeter!

Digital data Digital data

Be sure to note the ”cutoff frequency” on your plot.

Be sure to note the ”cutoff frequency” on your plot.

Vin 300 mH Vout

Block diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

Preamp Cathode-ray tube

Competency: Measuring capacitance by AC reactance Version:

Cx (With C meter) Cx (Average)

Competency: Series RC circuit Version:

Competency: Parallel RC circuit Version:

Competency: Time-domain phase shift measurement Version:

Competency: Variable phase shift bridge circuit Version:

θVout Potentiometer at full-right position

Vout Potentiometer at full-right position

100 % (Must meet or exceed all criteria listed)

60 % (Must meet or exceed these criteria)

0 % (If any of the following conditions are true)

Show your work using three different problem-solving strategies:

Ztotal @ 400 Hz = ???

Calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in this circuit.

Calculate the resistor’s voltage drop and current in this circuit.

Fuse 0.15 Ω Fuse 0.20 Ω Fuse 0.85 Ω

250 VDC 246 VDC