1

Re-Authoring: Some answers to commonly asked

questions
compiled by
Maggie Carey & Shona Russell

The understanding that our lives are shaped by the stories that we create about them
underpins all narrative practice. This practice-based paper, which was created through
collaborative processes involving narrative practitioners in a number of different countries,
seeks to answer some commonly asked questions about re-authoring conversations. Practical
examples are offered throughout, as are explanations of the thinking that informs re-authoring
conversations.

This paper was originally published in the 2003 No.3 issue of The International Journal of
Narrative Therapy and Community Work. DCP. Adelaide

1. What are re-authoring conversations?

When someone comes to see a therapist it is often because terrible and/or complex
circumstances have given rise to highly negative conclusions about themselves. This might
include understanding themselves to be ‘a loser’ or ‘hopeless’ or ‘deserving of unhappiness’
or ‘depressed’ or ‘crazy’ or any other number of problematic identity conclusions.

Events happen in all of our lives that cannot be changed. People experience traumas
and losses that cannot be undone. The ways in which these events are understood and
interpreted, however, makes a considerable difference to their effects. For instance, if you
believe you were subject to a particular trauma because it was ‘your fault’, because you have
always been ‘a loser’ and that these sorts of events are going to continue to happen for the
rest of your life, then this has a very different effect than if you believe what occurred was a
singular, horrific, unjustifiable act of abuse or injustice. What sort of story-line an event is
placed into makes a significant difference as to the effects of that event in a person’s life.
People do not just make these story-lines up out of the blue. They are shaped by many
influences, relationships, events and broader relations of power.

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Re-authoring conversations take place between a therapist and the person(s) who have
come to see them and involve the identification and co-creation of alternative story-lines of
identity. The practice of re-authoring is based on the assumption that no one story can
possibly encapsulate the totality of a person’s experience, there will always be
inconsistencies and contradictions. There will always be other story-lines that can be created
from the events of our lives. As such, our identities are not single-storied – no one story can
sum us up. We are multi-storied. Re-authoring conversations involve the co-authoring of
story-lines that will assist in addressing whatever predicaments have brought someone into
counselling.

These alternative story-lines are also not simply made up out of nothing. They are not
invented. Just as the dominant problematic story will consist of past events linked into a
theme that have been interpreted in a certain way, so too will alternative stories. Later in this
piece, we will explain how alternative stories can be co-constructed through therapeutic
conversations. First though, it is relevant to explore what we mean by a story.

David Epston and Michael White introduced the narrative metaphor and the re-
authoring metaphor to the therapeutic field (Epston & White 1990; Epston 1992; White
2001a).One of the key considerations that their work introduced was to consider how stories
shape people’s identities. In turn this led to an exploration of what makes up a story. There
are four elements that go into the development of a story-line. A story-line is comprised of:

i) events,

ii) in a sequence,

iii) across time,

iv) organised according to a plot or theme.

If any of these elements is missing then it is not possible to have a story-line. So,
considerations of each of these elements are critical in re-authoring conversations.

For instance, Germaine may have come to the conclusion that she is ‘a doormat’. Her
therapist may want to understand this conclusion and may seek to explore its history. In doing
so, Germaine begins to tell stories of how certain events that have occurred in a sequence
across time have led her to believe that she is a ‘doormat’ and that she is therefore deserving
of the hardships that she is currently experiencing. Germaine can rattle off any number of
times that she has let others dominate her, when she has not stood up for herself, and she is
quick to link these together in a theme of ‘unworthiness’ and ‘being a doormat’. This is the
dominant, problematic story of Germaine’s life. It is one story of her identity.

Hearing this, the therapist, might begin by looking at the effects that this story is
having on Germaine’s life: how it is affecting her sense of self, her relationships, her dreams.
She might also trace its history in some detail … and discover that Germaine has not always
felt like a ‘doormat’, in fact this was a term she was not familiar with until her ex-partner
(who had been demeaning of Germaine) used it to describe her. While this historicising of the

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problem story and locating it within a history of inequitable gender relations may have
assisted Germaine to see the unfairness of this ‘doormat’ description, without an alternative
story-line of identity Germaine would remain extremely vulnerable to negative thoughts
about herself.

The therapist is therefore always on the look-out for moments, actions, thoughts, or
stories that might contradict the problematic story-line. In this instance, the therapist was on
the look-out for anything that contradicted the description of Germaine as a ‘doormat’. A
possible exception to the dominant plot, or what is known within narrative therapy as a
unique outcome, was noticed when Germaine mentioned that she had recently made a
decision to change her phone number. Germaine had reported that she had decided to start
afresh. She didn’t want certain people (her ex-partner included) to be able to call her any
more and so she was only going to give her new numbers to those friends and family
members who were supportive of her. While some of her friends thought this was an
excessive step, Germaine had remained resolute and had carried through.

This sort of event could possibly become the catalyst for the co-creation of an
alternative story of identity for Germaine. But initially it is only one event. It might not even
be an event that Germaine initially thinks is particularly significant. A re-authoring
conversation is required to make it possible for Germaine to attribute significance to this
event and to explore whether this event can be linked to other events, across time, in a
sequence and according to a theme (a different theme from the problematic story). Only this
linking can enable the development of an alternative story-line. This is the role of re-
authoring conversations.

2. How do you begin a re-authoring conversation?

There are many ways to begin a re-authoring conversation, but one key principle involves the
therapist taking a position of inquiry and seeking to notice any event that contradicts the
dominant story. If one is looking closely and carefully, these events are always apparent –
even if they are small. There is always at least a glimmer of an action or of an intention that is
at variance to the problematic story. We call these unique outcomes because they are unique
to, and outside of, the territory of the problem-story (sometimes they are also referred to as
‘sparkling moments’). We see it as our role as therapists to be on the look-out for these
events.

For example, in consultations with Mary who has been experiencing anxiety, the
therapist is on the look-out for anything that Mary might have done which would run contrary
to what ‘the anxiety’ usually dictates. It isn’t the therapist’s role to point out the

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contradiction, but instead to use this as a point of entry for the development of an alternative
story.

For example, the therapist might ask: Mary, I’ve heard you describe how hard it is for
you to get out of the house, the obstacles that you face. In previous sessions, we have looked
in some detail at how the Anxiety works and the times when you feel its presence most
strongly. Today, you mentioned that you managed to walk your son to pre-school this
morning. Can I ask you some questions about this? Was this the first time you have been able
to do this? Is this a common phenomenon? Or do you think this could have been a
significantly different event?

If Mary stated that this was a new development, or at least something that is not
common, the therapist might then go on to ask further questions about it. She might ask, for
instance: What do you think made this possible? Did you take any steps leading up to this
event? Were there any preparations that you made? What were some of the things you were
thinking about at the time that made it easier? What do you think spurred you on to make
these preparations, and to take this step? What do you think was guiding you in taking this
step – what was it you were hoping for, seeking out? What does it say about you, do you
think, that despite the effects of the anxiety you were able to evade its invitations this
morning?

In asking these sorts of questions, the therapist is drawing out more information about
the event and Mary’s understanding of it. At the same time these questions are enabling Mary
to imbue the event (of accompanying her son to pre-school) with meaning and significance.
This is not imposed by the therapist but occurs through a process of questioning. If an event
like this one can be rendered significant then the person’s curiosity about it can be enlisted
and harnessed. It then becomes possible to ask questions that lead to a fascination with these
neglected events.

Once an event like this has been richly described, the therapist might then seek to link
it with another event. This is because, no matter how significant a single event might become,
no matter how strongly it may contradict the dominant problematic story-line, one event on
its own will always be vulnerable. It is vitally important to link the unique outcome to other
events, to link these into an alternative story-line.

So, the therapist might then ask questions such as:

Have you ever done anything like that before? Have you ever made similar preparations or
taken similar steps? Have there been other times when your care and love for your son has
enabled you to slip away from Anxiety? Have there been other times either recently or in the
distant past when you have demonstrated a similar sense of strength of will, or a similar sense
of determination?

If just one other similar event can be located in Mary’s history then these can be
linked together across time in a sequence according to a theme, and this can be the very
beginning of an alternative story-line. In this situation, Mary might remember a time when

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she was able to visit a friend who was in need. She was able to limit the influence of the
Anxiety by talking quietly to herself and by breathing slowly and this meant that the visit was
possible. Mary might identify that this was similar in some way to walking her son to school
because it was another example of a time when she didn’t let the anxiety stop her from doing
something that was important to her. If the therapist asked her to name this other story that
seemed to be taking shape, Mary might call it ‘reclaiming my relationships and my life’. The
next processes of re-authoring would involve ‘thickening’ this alternative, preferred story.

3. What is the re-authoring conversations ‘map’?

To act as a guide to re-authoring conversations, Michael White has developed what is known
as the re-authoring conversations ‘map’(White 2003a). No two re-authoring conversations are
the same, but the re-authoring conversations map can assist in understanding what directions
we are taking in a conversation and why. Once a unique outcome has been identified there
are a number of different places the conversation could go that will create an opportunity for
the co-authoring of a preferred story of identity.

The re-authoring conversations map divides the questions that we ask as therapists
into two categories. One category involves questions that inquire about the ‘landscape of
action’ and the other category involves questions that inquire about the ‘landscape of
identity’ of the preferred story. These two categories of questions are based on Jerome
Bruner’s description that every story consists of both a ‘landscape of action’ and a ‘landscape
of consciousness’ (see Bruner 1986; Epston & White 1990; White 1995a).

Landscape of action questions involve inquiries into events and actions. Once a
unique outcome has been articulated then the following sorts of landscape of action questions
might be asked:

• Can you tell me a bit about what happened there?

• Where were you?

• Who was around?

• What were the steps that you took to get yourself ready to do what you did?

• What do you think was the turning-point that led to you being able to do what you
did?

• Was this event unusual or have there been times when you’ve done this sort of thing
before?

• Have there been other occasions when you have managed to do this?

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• How did you manage this then?

As mentioned above, re-authoring conversations then assist people to link these

events into an alternative story-line according to a particular theme or plot.

Landscape of identity questions encourage people to explore a different territory.

They relate to the implications that this alternative story-line has in terms of the person’s
understanding of their identity. Landscape of identity questions invite people to reflect
differently on their own identities and the identities of others. For instance:

• As you have been describing these times when you have been able to evade the
influence of the problem, or how you have been able to outsmart it, what do you think this
says about you as a person?

• When you held firm to your views about changing your phone number, what were
you hoping for? What does this action say about your hopes for your life?

• When you walked your son to school, even though this meant that you had to
somehow evade the feelings of anxiety, why was it important for you to do this? What does
this say about your values in relation to the care of your child? Why is this something that is
important for you? What do you think it says about you that you care about this?

• If he was older, what might your son say this reflects about you as a person?

Re-authoring conversations zigzag between ‘landscape of action questions’ and

‘landscape of identity questions’. Let’s look at an example: Tracey who is twenty-two years
old and has two children, Alex (4) and Melissa (2). Tracey has been separated from the
children’s father for about a year, and says that this was the best thing that she has ever done
as ‘he was becoming more and more aggressive and the children were starting to be afraid of
him’. Lately, however, Tracey has been feeling really depressed, as though there’s nothing to
look forward to in life. She has started to feel worried when she goes to the shopping centre,
doesn’t feel like going out much, and is afraid that she’s not being a good enough mother to
the children.

Tracey used to spend some time going out with girlfriends but lately she hasn’t been
able to get anyone that she feels comfortable with to look after the children. Her mother, who
has been a big part of the children’s care since they were born, is away at the moment visiting
relatives.

It was Alex’s birthday a couple of weeks ago and Tracey organised a party for six of
Alex’s friends from the local kindergarten, and although she was worried beforehand, she
found that somehow she managed okay and everyone had a good time.

Apart from this event though, there hasn’t been much happening. Tracey says that she
doesn’t feel too bad while the kids are awake, but at night she can’t help feeling bad about
herself and worries about what effect her depression and worry will have on the children.

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Tracey says that she hadn’t been keen to come for counselling because she thought that she
would be judged as a bad mother and that she could have the children taken away from her.

Within this initial conversation there are a number of themes that Tracey is
identifying as problematic for her, including ‘depression’, ‘worry’ and ‘being not a good
enough mother’. After some conversation, one or more of these might be externalised as ‘the
depression’, ‘the worry’ or the ‘not good enough mother voice’. The effects of these
dominant plots might be thoroughly explored and acknowledged and their history detailed. In
this conversation the effects of the current problems would be traced not only in Tracey’s life
but also in the lives of the children.

There would then be opportunities to return to the numerous unique outcomes or

events that Tracey mentioned that contradict the problematic stories. One of these events was
when Tracey managed okay with the birthday party even though the depression or worry
could have had her not go ahead with it. Another involved Tracey coming for counselling
even though the fear of judgement or blame could have had her stay away. Other openings to
a preferred story were implied by some of the statements that Tracey has made, and these
could be other possibilities for beginning a re-authoring conversation. For instance there were
a number of Tracey’s statements that were inconsistent with her story of herself as a bad
mother:

i) her comment about not having anyone that she is comfortable leaving the children
with;

ii) her concern about the effect that her depression and anxiety are having on her children
and seeking counselling as a result,

iii) her action of leaving the children’s father because he was starting to make the
children fearful of him.

Within all these statements of concern and action are implied commitments to her
children that are not present in Tracey’s descriptions of herself as ‘not good enough’ and as a
failure as a mother. Having noticed these unique outcomes, a re-authoring conversation could
then begin.

It might begin firstly with some landscape of action questions:

Tracey, can we talk a little about Alex’s birthday party? You said that this was a time that
you had kept ‘worry’ at bay. Can you tell me more about how you did this? What steps did
you take? What name would you give to these steps? Were there any things that you said to
yourself at the time? What was it that made the difference do you think?

One of the key aims of these landscape of action questions is to enable Tracey to
imbue these events with significance. Another key aim is to create the opportunity for Tracey

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to think more about the foundation of these events, including particular skills that she used in
order to make the unique outcomes possible.

Tracey replied that she had put a lot of thought into the preparations for the party, that
she had started some days before, and that she knew how much it meant to Alex to have this
party and that she was just determined to do it for him.

This might then be an opportunity to ask some landscape of identity questions. These
questions invite people to reflect on specific events of their lives to determine what these
might say about their identity.

So, Tracey, can I get this straight … you knew that the worry would try to get in the way of
the party organising, so you started earlier than usual and was more thorough than you once
would have been. And that despite the effects of the worry, which we have talked about
before, and which are sometimes quite overwhelming for you, you were nevertheless able to
proceed because of how much you knew it would mean to Alex … what do you think this
says about your care for Alex, what you want for him? What do you think it says about your
hopes as a parent?

Tracey then went on to describe her many hopes for Alex and also for Melissa. These
were hopes that included a safe and loving home and a chance to build friendships and to
have fun. When asked what the history of these hopes might have been, Tracey said that
much of her childhood was not loving and that this was something she knew from the minute
she was first pregnant with Alex that she wanted to be different for her children. When asked
whether this determination was linked to the care that she takes in not leaving her children in
anyone’s company unless she really trusts them, and also how she had sought counselling
because of her concern about the effects of her depression on her children at present, Tracey
said that yes, these were all linked, they all have to do with her love and care for her children.

This is the beginning of the development of new conclusions about Tracey’s identity
– that she is someone who loves and cares for her children, despite obstacles that have at
times been placed in her way. When asked what she would call this care and her hopes for
her children’s lives, Tracey decided to call it ‘hopes for a better life’.

As these new identity conclusions develop, it then becomes time to return to the
landscape of action:

• Can you tell me other times that you have acted according to your ‘hopes for a better
life’?

• What would I have seen you doing in the past that would have told me that these
hopes were important to you back then?

• If your mother was here, are there any actions that she might remember you doing that
would fit with you being someone who holds onto hopes for the future?

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These landscape of action questions can also project the preferred story-line into the
future:

• If we look at these recent acts of caring that you have demonstrated for your children
– leaving the past relationship; holding the birthday party despite the influence of the worry;
not leaving your children with adults you don’t completely trust; seeking counselling because
of your concern for your children – what other steps do you think might be available to you in
the future?

• How long do you expect to live your life according to these beliefs about what is
important?

After hearing responses to these sorts of questions it might be then be time to ask
some additional landscape of identity questions in order to contribute further to new identity
conclusions:

Tracey, it seems to me that you are telling me various stories that demonstrate your care and
love for your children and that also involve you holding onto hope that things can be different
in the future. Are these things that are important to you? Can you tell me more about how you
have come to believe in this? Have there been others in your life who have taught you about
the love of children, and about holding onto hope even when things are difficult? If so, what
do you think they would say about you and your actions at the moment?

4. How do you ask questions about people’s identities in ways that will
make a difference?

In thinking about the landscape of identity it is relevant to reconsider the understandings of

identity that underpin this work. Narrative practices are interested in notions of ‘intentional
states of identity’ which contrast with notions of ‘internal states of identity’ (White 2001b).
In other words, we are interested in exploring the intentions, hopes, values and commitments
that shape people’s actions rather than any internal deficits or deficiencies, or for that matter
any internal ‘resources’, ‘strengths’ or ‘qualities’.

Locating identity as something internal to us generally limits the possibilities for re-
authoring conversations. If you identify the reason someone acts as due to internal qualities
such as their ‘strength’, their ‘compassion’, their ‘determination’, it can be difficult to know
where to go next with the conversation. While we do not exclude conversations about internal
‘strengths’, ‘resources’ or ‘qualities’, as these are usually identified as positive elements of a
person’s life, we seek to trace the history of these qualities: explore how they came to be
meaningful to the person; place them into story-lines; and link them to the person’s values,
hopes and commitments.

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We are always interested in inviting people to speak about their identities in terms of
‘intentional states’ because this makes story-making more possible. If we seek out the values,
hopes and dreams that are guiding someone’s actions, there are ways to trace the history of
these, to link them to the hopes and dreams of other people, and to forecast what future
actions will flow from these commitments. Intentional states of identity include:

Intentions or purposes

Values / beliefs

Hopes and dreams

Principles for living

Commitments

The ways in which we engage with our commitments, purposes, beliefs, values and
dreams shape our actions and how we live our lives. Inviting people to think about these
intentional states and linking them to alternative story-lines (formed from unique outcomes)
provides a fertile ground for re-authoring conversations.

Michael White describes a ‘hierarchy’ of these intentional states (White 2003b). It

seems that it is easier for people to respond to questions about intentional states if we start by
asking questions about:

• their intentions or purposes that shaped a particular action,

• then ask about the values and beliefs that are supporting these,

• then the hopes and dreams that are associated with these values,

• then the principles of living that are represented by those hopes and dreams,

• and finally the commitments, or what it is that people are standing for in life.

Looked at like this, each level encompasses the level below it and extends upon it in
some way. There is a significant difference between an intention that informed an action on a
particular occasion, to on the other hand articulating a way of being in life, or what you really
stand for in life. The further you go up the hierarchy (towards commitments), the thicker the
alternative story becomes. If someone can clearly articulate their principles of living and what
it is they are standing for in life, the more likely it is they will know what future steps they
can take in order to act in accordance with these commitments.

Re-authoring conversations are also relevant for us as therapists. In this next example,
Joucquin has struggled recently with feeling a lack of confidence in his skills as a therapist.
In a supervision consultation, the conversation initially traced some of the effects of this

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problem that included questioning whether he would continue in this line of work, and looked
at the times when the problem was most present.

It seemed that a range of institutional practices (demands of seeing a certain number

of persons in half a day, and some of the ways in which the people who consult the mental
health centre were discussed in team meetings) were the triggers for increasing Joucquin’s
lack of confidence in his counselling abilities. It turned out that the reason he was thinking of
changing careers was that he didn’t know if he was offering enough to those consulting him.

In this same supervision consultation, a number of facts that contradicted the

problematic story were identified. The one thing that Joucquin did feel confident about in his
work was the time and care that he takes in talking with people. Joucquin was able to identify
a considerable number of examples, both recently and in the more distant past, where he had
gone the extra mile with those he was working with. He was also able to identify a range of
times when he had received feedback from those he worked with that they had greatly
appreciated his calm and measured manner.

While some institutional practices had led Joucquin to think that perhaps he was
‘slow’ because he was unskilled, an alternative understanding began to evolve that perhaps
the time he takes was due to particular ideas and beliefs that Joucquin has about being a
therapist. Gradually, Joucquin identified an alternative story about his identity as a therapist,
that he is a ‘good listener’.

The following questions aimed to thicken this story in ways that would enable
Joucquin to become clearer about what he stood for in this work, as it was thought that this
would then enable him to make clearer decisions about his work and career. These questions
were informed by the idea of a hierarchy of intentional states.

Supervisor: When you think about ‘being a good listener’, how do you want to use this
quality in your work? What is it that you want to do with it? (This will describe an intention
or purpose that Joucquin holds).

Joucquin: Well, I want to use my good listening to make sure that the person that I am talking
to feels that they have been heard.

Supervisor: Why is it important to you that people feel that they have been heard? What is it
that you are valuing in having people be heard? (This will describe a value).

Joucquin: I guess it’s important to me that they feel heard because I want them to know that I
believe in them, and I think that it’s respectful to listen well to people.

Supervisor: What hopes or dreams do you hold for your work in relation to people knowing
that you believe in them and want to respect them? (hopes and dreams)

Joucquin: I hope that if people sense that I believe in them and I act respectfully, that they
will start believing in themselves a bit more.

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Supervisor: When you think now about your hopes that people will start believing in
themselves a bit more, what does this reflect about the ways of being in the world that are
important to you? (This will describe a principle of living that Joucquin holds)

Joucquin: Well I guess I’ve always thought that everyone needs to believe in themselves.

Supervisor: What do you reckon it is that you’re standing for in your work in relation to
everyone needs to believe in themselves? (This will describe a commitment)

Joucquin: I’m standing for people having the chance to be respected and believed in, and that
everyone has the right to this.

Having articulated what he wishes to stand for in his working life, Joucquin then
looked again at his current work and the institution for which he worked. In further
conversations he was able to identify more clearly those times and ways in which the work he
was doing was adhering to his commitment to ‘people having the chance to be respected and
believed in’ and times where it was not. In meeting with colleagues in his workplace they
were able to initiate some small steps that would lead to more flexibility in responding to
those in their care.

Joucquin also decided that he would speak up in staff meetings whenever he believed
that the ways of speaking were not fitting with a commitment to respect. Being able to
articulate his commitments made it easier for Joucquin to determine what he wanted to do. It
also greatly ‘thickened’ the notion of ‘being a good listener’ into something that was linked
to much broader commitments.

The re-authoring of a story of ‘lack of confidence’ to one of ‘a good listener’ with a

commitment to respect made a significant difference to Joucquin’s understanding of his work
and therefore to the ways in which he acted as a counsellor.

5. How does re-authoring fit with other narrative understandings and

practices?

Re-authoring conversations are intimately connected to other narrative practices such as

externalising conversations (Epston & White 1990; Morgan 2000; Carey & Russell 2002), re-
membering conversations (White 1997; Russell & Carey 2002), outsider-witness practices
and definitional ceremonies (White 1995, 1999), and the use of documents and letters
(Epston & White 1990; Epston 1994).

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Externalising conversations are often, but by no means always, the first step as they
enable ways of talking about the problem and the problem story that have the effect of
separating this from the identity of the person. For instance,

it was only in talking about the effects of ‘the worry’ on Tracey’s life (see above) that she
was able to separate from the idea that she was a bad mother. Instead she came to see that the
‘worry’ was having powerful influences upon her life and her children’s lives and that she
was doing everything she could to address this. Externalising conversations involve naming
the problem (as separate from the person), mapping the effects of the problem through
various domains of a person’s life, and also tracing the history of the problem in the person’s
life. This enables the problem to be placed into a story-line. This process makes it clearer that
the problem is not something that exists within the person. It is instead something that has
developed over time, a development that has been influenced by a range of factors. For
example, externalising conversations play a key part in acknowledging that problems are
often influenced by broader relations of power (class, culture, gender, sexual identity, etc).
Placing the externalised problem into a story-line can be very freeing. In Tracey’s situation,
Worry began to influence her life after Tracey had left a relationship in which the man had
been becoming increasingly aggressive and when she had become the sole carer for her
children, and when her mother had left town for a period of time. Rather than Tracey seeing
herself as somehow ‘neurotic’, the articulation of this story-line enabled Tracey to place the
problem as something external to herself and as something which has a specific history and a
broader context.

These sorts of externalising conversations are often the backdrop to re-authoring

conversations. Often it is only after the problem has been externalised and thoroughly
acknowledged that the unique outcomes, the contradictions to the dominant plots of people’s
lives, become noticed and significant.

Once the zigzagging questions develop the landscapes of action and the landscapes of
identity of the preferred story, it then becomes possible to take up other options to further
‘thicken’ it. This process can take many forms. Re-membering conversations, documents and
letters, and the use of outsider witnesses can all be extremely helpful in this process.

It is often not enough for an alternative story to be named. Even when it has been
created from the linking of key unique outcomes, it will still be very fragile and tenuous. For
instance, Mary’s story of ‘reclaiming my relationships and my life’ could easily be shaken if
an event occurred that sparked a reoccurrence of Anxiety. Tracey’s story of ‘hopes for a
better life’ could quickly be overshadowed by feelings of failure if another person expressed
doubts about her parenting. And Joucquin’s story of ‘a good listener and a commitment to
respect’ could be at risk if an event occurred at work that led him to step back to a place
where ‘lack of confidence’ got the better of him.

Re-membering conversations (White 1997; Russell & Carey 2002) are one way of
thickening the preferred story. These involve the therapist asking questions such as:

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• Tracey, this commitment to holding onto hope that you’ve been describing, is there
anyone who would not be surprised to hear you talking in this way?

• Is there someone who would recognise and appreciate what your commitment to hope
means to you?

• Was there someone who introduced you to the idea of holding onto hope for a
different future?

• If so, why do you think they chose you to share this lesson with?

• What do you think they saw in you that made them think you might be able to carry
this commitment through in your life?

• Was there something they might have seen you doing in the past that would have told
them that this commitment was important to you back then?

• What do you think it might have meant to them to be able to share this commitment
with you?

• What would it mean to them to see you taking these actions now, that despite the
effects of Worry you are finding ways to honour your commitment to love and care and also
to hold onto hope that life will be different for your children?

• What do you think they would say if they were here with us now?

• How would they say it?

• Would there be some way of keeping this person‘s presence close to you in the
coming days?

These re-membering questions evoke the views and perspectives of people who can
contribute to the further development of the alternative story – in this case, ‘holding onto
hope’. They link the newly co-authored story of identity to a sense of history and also to the
stories of the lives of other people. Narrative practice is based upon the belief that our sense
of self is socially constructed and exists in relationship to other people.

Another way of involving other people in the process of richly describing preferred
stories is through the use of outsider witnesses to the therapy conversations. These might be
friends of family members of the person concerned, or they might be other therapists. Chosen
relatives, friends, acquaintances, peers can play a very powerful part in the re-authoring
process.

For instance, Joucquin might have identified that it was from his relationship with his
older sister that he learnt the value of ‘good listening’. If so, then this might be an opportunity
to invite Joucquin’s sister to the next therapy session. Joucquin could then be interviewed and
speak about his commitments to ‘good listening’ and what he is trying to achieve in his work,

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and his sister could be invited to offer some reflections as to what it means to her to know
that something generated from their relationship is continuing to shape Joucquin’s life in
significant ways.

Finding supportive audiences who can witness and authenticate preferred stories is a
vital element of this work. If Joucquin’s sister wasn’t available, it might be possible to gather
together a team of other therapists to act as an outsider witness group who could offer
reflections as to what it means to them as therapists to hear of Joucquin’s commitments and
how Joucquin’s stories might touch their own practices. These sorts of ‘definitional
ceremonies’ can make a profound difference to the richness of alternative stories and
therefore the effects that these stories have on people’s lives.

Problems are often extremely successful at separating and isolating people from
others, and so a key aspect of re-authoring work is to open spaces of connection and
reconnection. This means that others have a vital role to play in re-authoring stories of
people’s lives.

Sometimes therapeutic documents and letters can be co-written with the person
concerned and these can then be shared with others, for example, friends and family
members. These can act to catch people up on what has been happening for the person
concerned and the steps that they have been taking. At the same time, these letters and
documents can provide support to the person in between therapy sessions. They can be read
and re-read and this can be a part of the re-authoring process.

6. When do we know if enough re-authoring has taken place?

When the effects of the problem story are no longer prevalent, then this is a sign that the
alternative/preferred story of identity is beginning to take hold. So too, are any examples of
times in which the person takes new initiatives that they identify as linked to the preferred
story. Even when these new initiatives are plentiful and the effects of the problem story seem
to be receding, it is often necessary to prepare for the comebacks that the problem-story
might attempt to make. If preparations and plans can be made for these contingencies then
this also reduces the risk of any experience of failure or disappointment.

It seems important to note that re-authoring does not only occur in the therapy room.
We are all constantly writing and re-writing the stories that shape our lives. Re-authoring
conversations seek to create the possibilities for the generation of alternative, preferred
stories of identity. Once these have been co-created (between the therapist and the person
consulting the therapist and the outsider witnesses), then the person concerned will have a
foundation to continue to link events and meanings around this new story.

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For instance, as Joucquin continues his work as a therapist he will now be more
actively aware of the ways in which his actions are shaped by a ‘commitment to respect’ and
being a ‘good listener’. He will be seeking to further hone his skills and join with others in
shaping his work context. It is our role as therapists to do enough in the therapy room
(perhaps involving outsider witnesses, documents, re-membering practices) that will sustain
the person in their own re-authoring practices outside the therapy room.

We are all constantly authoring and editing stories about our lives. This does not
occur in isolation but in constant negotiation with others around us and within the cultural
context in which we live. Therapy consultations occur in this context. They are an
opportunity for deliberate and focussed re-authoring practices that can then be continually
taken up in the broader context of people’s lives.

So in some respects, re-authoring never ceases. It is an ongoing aspect of all of our

lives.

7. Are there any dilemmas to address when participating in re-

authoring conversations? If so, how can we respond to them?

What would this work be without dilemmas to reflect upon? We asked a range of
practitioners to be honest and share with us what they find most difficult about re-authoring
conversations. Here are some of there responses and ideas as to how to respond to various
dilemmas:

• Co-authoring

One of the biggest dilemmas I struggle with is how to ensure that I am not imposing
my idea of what would be a good alternative story on the person who has come to consult
with me. I always worry a lot about this, about my position of power as a therapist. I don’t
think this concern is ever going to go away and nor do I think it should. I have come up with
some ideas though. I think it is important for me to acknowledge that this work involves co-
authoring. As a therapist, I am involved in the process through the questions that I ask, the
events that I pay attention to. But I am not the primary author of these alternative stories.
Through my questions I invite the person to be the one who is doing the interpreting of the
experiences of his or her life. These interpretations of what is important, what is preferred,
are not up to me to make. I guess the other thing I am trying to do is to constantly question
any assumptions that I might be making. Am I assuming what this person wants out of their
life? Am I assuming that this was a significant event for them?

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• Talking about problems

I’ve found it important to remind myself that re-authoring conversations are not
linear, they do not follow a straight and narrow pathway, nor do they head in one direction!
Even when I might think it’s time to be talking about the alternative story, a session might
occur in which the problem makes a comeback and we need to talk more about this. When
people attend counselling it is often in a state of some anguish about their lives and
relationships. So, it really is important to spend a considerable time externalising the problem
and mapping the effects of it, really acknowledging the effects the problem is having upon
the person’s life and their relationships. At these times I also try to consistently ask questions
about how broader relations of power are influencing the situation. I see all of this as setting
the foundation for re-authoring conversations.

• Enthusiasm

At times I have felt considerable excitement, hope, and enthusiasm in response to

noticing some of the steps that people have taken in their lives. I’ve learnt in time that
expressing this enthusiasm of mine can be fraught. Any expression of enthusiasm on my part
puts my experience and perspective at the centre of the conversation when what is required
are questions that explore whether the step is significant to the person concerned and why. I
have learnt that I need to funnel my enthusiasm into good questions. This is also important
because if we inflate the significance of a certain event then we run the risk of inadvertently
setting a context in which people might experience a sense of failure if they cannot match
these hard-won achievements. Now I have a keen ear listening out and taking note of actions
that people take, whether they be very small or quite gigantic, and at the same time I am
committed to asking questions about what these steps mean for them.

• Significance

Sometimes what I find the most difficult is asking the questions that will determine
whether a certain event that seems to contradict the problem story is significant enough to be
considered a unique outcome. I’ve found that if I don’t ask these questions well, if I rush this
part of the process, an event that could well be significant can be brushed over and forgotten.
Then again, if I ask the questions in a way that implies I want the person to say it is
significant to them, this can come across as condescending or directive! One hint that I’ve
found helpful is to ask the person what they would think it meant if they saw someone else
acting in this way, in this context. Rather than the person seeing the significance through their
own eyes, it is sometimes easier to acknowledge it in this way. This sort of question provides
a different place for the person to stand from which to view their own experience.

• Pointing out positives

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When I first began this work, occasionally I would notice that, rather than engaging in
re-authoring conversations, I was simply pointing out positives. But I know that when people
simply point out positives to me I can feel really jarred and not listened to. To avoid this
hazard, not only do I try to ensure that I am always acknowledging of the real effects of the
problem story, I am also always trying to involve other people in the therapy process. I often
ask whether someone wants to bring a friend, a partner, or a family member to the sessions.
This way, I can ask this other person how they understand the steps that the person is taking,
what they see as significant and why. This helps to de-centre me in this process and I find it a
relief. It’s not up to me to point out positives. My role involves asking questions!

• Catching others up on the new story

When someone is actively re-authoring their stories of identity, it can be vital to catch
others up on the news! Otherwise friends and family members may not know how to respond
to the new developments. In order to keep significant others up to date with what is
happening in the therapy room, sometimes we have held celebrations, rituals and parties.
These events acknowledge in a community-setting the new story of life that someone is
stepping into and they are a chance to invite other people’s support in this process. Other
times we have used a letter for the same purpose, which simply states what has been taking
place and clearly asks people to notice and respond to signs they notice that fit with the
preferred story.

• Reminders

At times, I have sessions which the person concerned states have been really helpful,
but when we meet up the next time it’s as if everything that took place last time has been
forgotten. I was puzzled about this for a while until I realised that we hadn’t created any way
to assist the person to stay connected to the new story between sessions. What’s made the
difference recently has been either writing a letter to the person concerned that summarises
what we have discussed – and especially the developments of the preferred story – or creating
some sort of document for people to take home with them. These act as reminders and when
they are read during the week, or shared with others, they can make a real difference to the
re-authoring process.

Well, that’s all for now. In this paper we have just tried to introduce some of the practices of
re-authoring and the understandings that shape this work. And we’ve tried to do so by sharing
the stories of Germaine, Mary, Tracey and Joucquin. The understanding that our lives are
shaped by the stories that we create about them is an exciting one to us. In many ways it
underpins all narrative practice.

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Developing the skills of questioning that contribute to the development of the

landscapes of action and the landscapes of identity of the preferred story takes a lot of time
and practice! So too does getting accustomed to noticing unique outcomes and finding ways
to co-author these into alternative story-lines. The stories of our lives are rich, complex and
so different for every one of us. Then again, that is what leads to the delicate beauty of this
work.

About this paper

This paper was created through collaborative processes. We sent off a list of questions
to a range of narrative practitioners in Australia, Spain, Austria, Mexico and the UK. When
people’s responses came in, we compiled these and edited them and then sent them back to
ensure that everyone was happy with the final result. Please note that the examples of practice
used in this paper are composites, some details have been changed to preserve identity, and
some literary license has been applied. They are, however, all realistic examples of work and
based on real-life examples.

We would like to acknowledge all those who have been involved in this process: Rudi
Kronbichler, Marta Campillo, Hugh Fox, Maggie Carey, David Denborough, Imma Lloret &
Shona Russell.

We would also like to acknowledge those men and women with whom we have
worked in therapy whose ideas, perspectives and challenges are represented in this paper.

References
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Other recommended reading in relation to re-authoring practices:

Freeman, J., Epston, D. & Lobovits, D. 1997: Playful Approaches to Serious Problems. New
York: W.W.Norton.

Freedman, J. & Combs, G. 1996: Narrative Therapy: The social construction of preferred
realities. New York: W.W.Norton.

Payne, M. 2000: Narrative Therapy: An introduction for counsellors. London: SAGE

Publications.

Re-Authoring: Commonly asked questions Maggie Carey& Shona Russell