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U Dynamics
Newton's Laws
The rapid advance in aviation in the first half of the last century can be attributed in large part to
a science of motion which was presented to the world three centuries ago by Sir Isaac Newton,
a British physicist. Published in 1686, Newton's treatise on motion, The Principia, showed how
all observed motions could be explained on the basis of three laws. The applications of these
laws have led to great technological advances in the aerodynamics, structure, and power plant
of aircraft. It is safe to say that any future improvements in the performance of aircraft will be
based on these laws. This chapter will be devoted to Newton's laws, examining some of their
applications in aviation.
o Newton's First Law

The old magician's trick of pulling a cloth out from under a full table setting is not only a
reflection of the magician's skill but also an affirmation of a natural tendency which dishes and
silverware share with all matter. This natural tendency for objects at rest to remain at rest can
be attested to by any child who ever tried kicking a large rock out of his path. It is also a well
known fact that once a gun is fired, the command "stop" has no effect on the bullet. Only the
intervention of some object can stop or deflect it from its course. This characteristic of matter to
o persist in its state of rest or continue in whatever state of motion it happens to be in is called
inertia. This property is the basis of a principle of motion which was first enunciated by Galileo in
the early part of the 17th century and later adopted by Newton as his first law of motion.
n The first law of motion is called the law of inertia. It can be summarized:
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o A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues to move at constant
velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced external force.
The importance of the law of inertia is that it tells us what to expect in the absence of forces,
n either rest (no motion) or straight line motion at constant speed. A passenger's uncomfortable
U experience of being thrown forward when an aircraft comes to a sudden stop at the terminal is
o an example of this principle in action. A more violent example is the collision of a vehicle with a
stationary object. The vehicle is often brought to an abrupt stop.
Unconstrained passengers continue to move with the velocity they had just prior to the collision
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LJ only to be brought to rest (all too frequently with tragic consequences) by surfaces within the
vehicle (dashboards, windshields, etc.).
o A less dramatic example of Newton's first law comes from the invigorating activity of shovelling
snow. Scooping up a shovel full of snow, a person swings the shovel and then brings it to a
lr sudden stop. The snow having acquired the velocity of the shovel continues its motion leaving
tc.J' the shovel and going off onto the snow pile.
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II
Newton's Second Law
A Learjet accelerates down the runway a distance of 3,000 feet, takes off and begins its climb at
6,000 feet per minute quickly reaching a cruising altitude of 35,000 feet, where it levels off at a
speed of 260 knots. Subsequently, the plane may have to perform a variety of manoeuvres
involving changes in heading, elevation, and speed. Every aspect of the aeroplane's motion is
governed by the external forces acting on its wings, fuselage, control surfaces and power plant.
The skilled pilot using his controls continually adjusts these forces to make the plane perform as rl
desired. l J
The interplay between force and motion is the subject of Newton's second law. An
understanding of this law not only provides insight into the flight of a plane, but allows us to
analyse the motion of any object.
While Newton's first law tells us that uniform velocity is to be expected when an object moves in
the absence of external forces, the second law states that to have a change in speed or
direction an unbalanced force must act on the object. Using acceleration to describe the change
in motion of an object, the second law can he expressed
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Fnet = ma
Li
In words, the second law states that a net or unbalanced force acting on an object equals the
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mass of the object times the acceleration of that object. , I
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Here, the net force is the total force acting on the object, obtained by adding vectorially all of the
forces influencing the object. The mass is a scalar quantity. However, both the net force and the n
acceleration are vector quantities. Mathematically, this means that they must always point in the l J
same direction. That is, at each instant the acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.
Before we consider cases where the net force acting on a body is not zero, it is most important
:]
to understand that sometimes the net force acting on a body is zero. The vector sum of the
forces acting on the body in the x-direction is zero and the vector sum of the forces acting on
the body in the y-direction is also zero. In this case we say that the body is in equilibrium. From
the law, net force equals mass times acceleration, we know that since the net force is zero the
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acceleration is also zero. Zero acceleration means that the velocity of the body in not changing
in direction or in magnitude. This means that the body is moving in a straight line with constant n
speed or it has the constant speed, zero (it is at rest). If we observe that a body is at rest we
know that all of the forces on this body are balanced. Similarly, if a body is moving in a straight 1
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line with constant speed, all of the forces acting on this body are balanced.
For example, if a plane is travelling on a straight stretch of runway at constant speed, there are
four forces acting on this plane: the earth is pulling down on the plane (its weight), the earth is
pushing up on the plane (the normal force), the engine is giving a forward thrust to the plane, ,....,
. and frictional forces (air resistance, tires on runway. etc.) are acting backward. This is illustrated \
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in figure 2.50.
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c Next, we must consider some examples where the net force acting on a body is not zero. The
body is accelerating. The body is experiencing a change in its direction or in its speed or both.
As a first example, a plane accelerating down a runway gets a change in velocity in the direction
of its motion. This is the same direction as the thrust provided by the power plant.
"
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LJ In figure 2.51, note that the thrust is greater than the frictional forces. The net forward force is
the thrust minus the friction. It is this net forward force that results in the acceleration of the
plane.
o THRUST
• •• II 01' II ••
FRICTION
THRUST = FRICTION
o w
WEIGHT = NORMAL FORCE
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Thrust - Drag ~ (mass) (acceleration)
o T-D~ma
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, i ACCELERATION
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o THRUST
0.000001 0 0000 Q • • @lSooo ••• o 00 • • • • 011 • • • • 0
c.
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FRICTION = D
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Figure 2.51: Thrust, drag and acceleration forces
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Newton's Third Law I

Newton's third law is sometimes referred to as the law of action and reaction. This law focuses lJ
on the fact that forces, the pushes and pulls responsible for both the stability of structures as
well as the acceleration of an object, arise from the interaction of two objects. A push, for
example, must involve two objects, the object being pushed and the object doing the pushing.
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

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The third law states that no matter what the circumstance, when one object exerts a force an a
second object the second must exert an exactly equal and oppositely directed force on the first.
An apple hanging from a tree is pulled by the earth with a force which we call its weight.
Newton's third law tells us that the apple must pull back on the earth with an exactly equal force.
The weight of the apple is a force on the apple by the earth, directed downward. The force
which the apple exerts back on the earth, is a pull on the earth directed upward. Another force
acting on the apple is the upward pull exerted by the branch. The law of action and reaction tells
us that the apple must be pulling down on the branch with the same magnitude of force.
People are often confused by this principle because it implies, for instance, that in a tug of war
the winning team pulls no harder than the losing team. Equally enigmatic is how a horse and
wagon manage to move forward if the wagon pulls back on the horse with the same force the n
horse pulls forward on the wagon. We can understand the results of the tug of war by realizing lJ
that the motion of the winning team (or losing team) is not determined exclusively by the pull of
the other team, but also the force which the ground generates on the team members feet when
they "dig in". Recall, it is the net force, the sum of all of the acting forces which determines the
motion of an object.
The results of a "tug of war" can be quite different if the "winning team", no matter how big and
strong, is standing on ice while the "losing team" is able to establish good solid footing on rough
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terrain. n
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Similarly, the horse moves forward because the reaction force which the ground exerts in the
forward direction on its hooves is greater than the backward pull it receives from the wagon. By n
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focusing now on the wagon, we see that it moves forward because the forward pull of the horse
is greater than the backward pull of friction between its wheels and the ground.
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- - ? ; : E APPLE PULLS DOWN
~~ THE BRANCH
THE EARTH PULLS DOWN

oi THE BRANCH PULLS UP
ON THE APPLE
ON THE APPLE
THE APPLE PULLS UP

ON THE EARTH
Figure 2.52: Gravitational force between two objects

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2-114
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U Figure 2.53: Equal and opposite forces of Newlon's 3rd Law
rl One of the main difficulties people have with the third law comes from not realizing that the
U action and reaction forces act on different objects and therefore can never cancel. Another
difficulty comes from forgetting that the motion of an object is determined by the sum of all of
I-i the forces acting on that object.
u
In canoeing or rowing, a paddle is used to push water backward. The water reacts back on the
r-: paddle generating a forward force which propels the boat.
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Consider now a propeller as shown in figure 2.55.
The plane of rotation of the propeller is assumed to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The flow of air is from left to right. We can imagine the action of the propeller is to take a mass
Il
u
(m) of air on the left and accelerate it from some initial velocity (u) to a final velocity (v) to the
right of the propeller. The acceleration of this air mass requires a force which is provided by the
propeller. The air mass, in turn, reacts with an equal and
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o FORCE OF FORCE OF
WATER ON PADDLE
PADDLE ON WATER
Figure 2.54: Equal and opposite forces of an oar
o -------------- ------------ --------------------------
__ VI_ -vt_
r, ------------ ------------
- ------ ------------------
U PROPELLER
Figure 2.55: Action of a propeller

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opposite force on the propeller. This reaction force of the air on the propeller provides the thrust ,...,
for a propeller driven plane. The acceleration of the air mass is: i I
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v-u 'I
a=-- U
t
n
Substituting this into Newton's second law, we find for the net force on the air mass:
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v-u
F=m--
t
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Both of the velocities (u and v) are the velocities relative to the plane of rotation of the propeller. n
The time (t) is the time involved in accelerating the air mass from u to v. II
By Newton's third law, the thrust, which is the force the air mass exerts back on the propeller, is
equal in magnitude to F. Therefore, the thrust (T) is given by:
u-v
T=m-- n
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t U
Recall that we have a symbol for "change in", this means that we can write the above formula
as:
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T = mLiV
t
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The velocities of the air mass are relative to the plane, and therefore change as the plane's
speed changes. Also the time involved in accelerating the air mass changes with the speed of n
the plane. This causes considerable variation in the thrust provided by a propeller.
EXAMPLE:
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Each second a propeller accelerates an air mass of 12.2 slugs from rest to a velocity of 137
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ft.lsec. How much thrust is provided?
T = (12.2 slugs) 137 ft I sec- 0

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1 sec
T = 1,670 Ibs.

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In contrast to the reciprocating engine driven propeller which imparts a small change in velocity
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U to a relatively large mass of air, a turbojet induces a large change in velocity to a relatively small
mass of air. Here, the sole action of the Jet engine is considered to be the intake of a mass of
air at some velocity (u) and its exhaust at a higher velocity (v).
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Figure 2.50 is a sketch of a turbojet engine. The velocity (u) in the figure denotes the relative
intake velocity and v denotes the exhaust gas velocity. The thrust formula which was obtained
above for the propeller will now be applied to a Jet engine. The thrust formula above can be
rewritten:
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U m m
T=-v--u
t t
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c The gross thrust is provided by the exhaust gases. The ram drag of the incoming air is due to
the speed of the aeroplane. The effect of the ram drag is to reduce the thrust provided by the
engine as the speed of the plane increases.
o COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Nn77I.E
o u v
o DIFFUSER
BURNER
o Figure 2.57: Principle of the turbojet engine
EXAMPLE:
The Pratt & Whitney J60 has a mass air flow of 23 kg/sec. During a static test (initial velocity =
rl 0) the exhaust velocity was measured to be 580 m/sec. Determine the thrust produced.
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Note that the ram drag is zero since v1 is zero. Therefore, the thrust is equal simply to the
gross th rust.
o Substituting the given values we have:

T=-v
t
m
T = 23 kg (580 m/sec) = 13,300 N
o 1 sec
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EXAMPLE: n
What would the thrust have been if the J60 of the previous example had been in a plane
moving at 250 knots? Assume the same mass flow and exhaust velocity.
Note that the ram drag is not zero in this case. In order to calculate this ram drag we must use
n
the formula:
ram drag = -u
t
m n
Before substituting, we must express the initial velocity in m/sec. o
1.668 ftl sec 0.30480 m n
u= 250 knosx
t x---- lJ
1 knot 1 ft
= 129 m/sec.
23 kg
n
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ram drag = 129m/sec

1 sec
-0
ram drag = 2,970 N
T = gross thrust - ram drag
T = 13,300 N - 2,970 N n
u
T = 10,300N
EXAMPLE:
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During a static test (initial velocity = zero), a Pratt & Whitney J75 produced a thrust of 16,000
Ibs. with an air mass flow of 8.23 slugs/sec. Determine the exhaust gas velocity of the engine.
Since u is zero, the ram drag is zero and T = gross thrust.

n
T=-v
t
m n
We solve for the final velocity: n
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v=-
~
16,000 Ibs
n
v=--'-----
8.23 slugs/sec
n
v = 1,940 ft.lsec.
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The air intake velocity of a turbojet will be approximately equal to the airspeed of the plane. Let
us again examine the thrust formula.
m
T=-(v-u)
t
It can be seen that the thrust may be increased in two ways, either by increasing the air mass
flow through the engine (M/t) or increasing the exhaust gas velocity (v).
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Iw ' EXAMPLE:
A French Dassault Falcon 30 is powered by two Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines. Flying
at sea level with a velocity of 154 m/sec. the air intake velocity is 154 m/sec. and the air
exhaust velocity is 224 m/sec. The airflow through each engine is 109 kg per second.
Determine the thrust of each engine ..
109 kg
T= (224 m/sec-154 m/sec)
1 sec
o T=7,630N
o EXAMPLE:
A Lockheed Jet Star is equipped with four Pratt & Whitney JT12 engines. Cruising at 220
Ii knots, each engine was found to be providing 1,420 Ibs. of thrust. If the airflow through each
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U engine was 1.55 slug/sec., what was the exhaust gas velocity?
o U = 220 knots = 371 ftlsec.
Tt
-=v-u
n
u
m
Tt
v=-+u
m
(1,420 Ibs)(1 sec) 371 ft /

v= + sec
1.55 slug
rl v = 1,290 ft.lsec.
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o Motion in a Circle
A ball whirled in a circle experiences an
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circle.
rl This can be proven by considering that

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as it moves in a circle. Newton's first
law tells us that the ball would prefer to
follow a straight path, and that for it to
deviate from a straight path, a force
must be applied to it.
It is a direct result of Newton's first law
o that a hammer thrower (Figure 2.58)

must continually pull towards the centre
of rotation, applying his full
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weight to make the hammer accelerate
u continually towards the centre of
rotation. As soon as the Figure 2.58: Centripetal force exerted by a
o athlete stops applying the force towards

the centre (i.e. releases the hammer) the
hammer thrower
hammer travels in a straight line, at a tangent to the circle.
o This acceleration is in the same direction as the force which makes it move in a circle. This
force is called centripetal force (from the Latin meaning centre-seeking)
Since we have a constant change in the direction of the motion of the hammer, we have a
constant acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration and can be calculated by the
o square of the velocity divided by the radius of the circular path, thus:
rl Centripetal acceleration =~
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o Newton's Second Law connects acceleration and force, by Force = Mass x Acceleration. Thus,
we can write the equation:
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F net = mac or Fnet= R
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Units of Force , I
The units which we will use in our discussion of Newton's laws are the same as the units used U
in the formula relating weight to mass (w = mg). These units are reviewed and summarized in
Table 2.4.
Each set of units, pound, slug, ft.lsec. 2 ) in the English system, or (Newton, kilogram, m/sec. 2 ) in
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the metric system is said to be consistent in the following sense: a force of 1 lb. when applied n
to a mass of 1 slug gives it an acceleration of 1 ft.lsec 2 • !
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UNITS ENGLISH METRIC

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Force pound (lb.) newton (N) U
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Mass ~Iug kilogram (kg)
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Acceleration ff./sec. 2 m/sec.2
Table 2.4: Units of Force, Mass and Acceleration
Similarly, a force of 1 Newton applied to a mass of 1 kilogram causes it to accelerate at 1

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m/sec 2 •
Using Newton's second law, we can write:

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1 Newton = 1 kilogram m/sec2 n
and
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1 pound = 1 slug ft.lsec 2
We note that Newton's second law is correctly written as:
Fnet= ma
However, we often assume that the force acting on mass (m) is the net force. Thus, we usually
write the second law simply as:
F= ma n
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mV 2
o F=--
R
(Centripetal Force)
c Newton's second law when applied to bodies moving in a circular path states that the force
directed toward the centre of the path must equal the mass of the body times the square of the
speed of the body divided by the radius of the path. This force is called the centripetal (centre-
[! seeking) force.
U
EXAMPLE:
ii
U Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object acted upon by a net force of 1.S Ibs.
o a=-
F
m
o a=
1.S Ibs
3 slugs
o EXAMPLE:
a = O.S ft.lsec 2
A mass of 6 kilograms accelerates at S rnlsec. 2 Find the force which is acting on this object.
F = ma
2
F = (6 kg) (S m/sec ) = 30 N
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Problems
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1. Find the mass of an object which accelerates at 5 m/sec2 when acted on by a net force of
one Newton.
D 2. Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object experiencing a net force of 12 Ibs.
3. Find the net force on a 5 slug object which is accelerating at 3ft1sec2
4. A Learjet Model 24 of mass 6,000 kg is observed to accelerate at the start of its takeoff at
4 m/sec2 . What is the net forward force acting on the plane at this time?
5. During a static test, a Continental engine driving a two blade constant speed propeller
flL.J was found to accelerate each second a mass of 140 kg from rest to a velocity of 40
m/sec. Determine the thrust on the propeller.
u 6. A Piper Archer ii has an Avco Lycoming engine driving a two blade propeller. Each
second 8 slugs of air are given a change in velocity of 122 ftlsec. How much thrust is
o 7.
generated on the propeller?
The Garrett TFE 731 turbofan engine which powers the Rockwell Saberliner 65 under
Cl static testing has an exhaust gas velocity of 321 m/sec and an airflow of
U 50 kg/sec. Find the static thrust of the engine.
o 8. A plane weighs 36,000 Ibs. The forward thrust on the plane is 20,000 Ibs. and the
frictional forces (drag) add up to 2,000 Ibs. What is the acceleration of this plane? Hint:
Be sure to find the mass of the plane from its weight.
o 9. What centripetal force is needed to keep a 3 slug ball moving in a circular path of radius
2 feet and speed 4ft1sec.?
o 10. A boy is swinging a stone at the end of a string. The stone is moving in a circular path.
The speed of the stone is 5 ftlsec. and the radius of the path is 1.5 ft. What is the
o centripetal acceleration of the stone?
o
o
o
o
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Answers
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r"--; 1. 0.2 kg
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2. 4 ft.lsec 2
3. 15 lb.
4. 24,000 N
[1
5. 5600 N
6. 976 lb.
Ll 7. 16,050 N
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8. 16 ft/sec 2
[ 9. 24 lb.
10. 16.67 ftlsec 2
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o Friction
When a body rests on a horizontal surface or is dragged or rolled on such a surface there is
r-, always contact between the lower body surface and the horizontal surface. This contact results
U in friction. Friction is work done as the surfaces rub against each other. This work heats the
surfaces and always results in wasted work.
We need to define a force known as the normal force. A body resting on a horizontal surface
experiences two forces, the downward force due to the gravitational pull of the earth on this
n
w
body (the weight of the body), and the upward push of the surface itself on the body (the normal
force).
r1 The weight (w) and the normal force (N) are equal to
LJ each other.
11 There are three kinds of friction:

1. Static friction
2. Sliding friction
n
u 3. Rolling friction
Figure 2.58: Weight and its
reaction
II Static Friction
U Static friction (or 'starting' friction) is the force between two objects that are not moving relative
to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped
o surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as /Js, is usually higher than the
coefficient of kinetic friction. The initial force to get an object moving is often dominated by static
friction.
li Another important example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping
as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with
the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as
u limiting friction, although this term is not used universally
Rolling Friction
Rolling friction is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of a wheel or other
circular objects along a surface. Generally the frictional force of rolling friction is less than that
associated with kinetic friction. One of the most common examples of rolling friction is the
ur ' movement of motor vehicle tyres on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-
products.
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I Kinetic Friction
Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub
o together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as Ilk,
and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Since friction is exerted in a direction
that opposes movement, kinetic friction usually does negative work, typically slowing something
o down. There are exceptions, however, if the surface itself is under acceleration. One can see
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this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides
backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the floor. Thus, the kinetic friction
between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing
o
positive work.
Examples of kinetic friction:

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• Sliding friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat
on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction
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• Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas.
The drag of air on an aeroplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid
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friction.
Calculating Friction
In all cases, the friction equation is the same.
The symbol "fl" (the Greek letter mu) is called the coefficient of friction.
Every pair of flat surfaces has two different coefficients of friction:
Coefficients of Friction
Material !-Istart flslide :]
Steel on Steel 0.15 0.09
Steel on ice
Leather on Wood
0.03
0.5
0.01
0.4
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Oak on Oak 0.5 0.3 n
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Rubber on Dry Concrete 1.0 0.7

Rubber on Wet Concrete 0.7 0.5
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Table 2.5: Some examples of Coefficients of Friction
The coefficient of starting friction - flstart

The coefficient of sliding friction - flslide
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Some values for the coefficients of starting and sliding friction are given in Table 2.5.
We note that the coefficients of sliding friction are less than the coefficients of starting friction.
This means that the force needed to start a body sliding is greater than the force needed to
keep a body sliding with constant speed.
When we deal with a body that rolls over a flat surface, we have another coefficient of friction to
consider: the coefficient of rolling friction.
2-130 Module 2.2 Mechanics n

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o The coefficients of rolling friction (f.!roll) are very small. Therefore, rolling friction is much smaller
than either starting or sliding friction. Some values are:
Rubber tires on dry concrete 0.02

Roller bearings 0.001 to 0.003
EXAMPLE:
A steel body weighing 100 Ibs. is resting on a horizontal steel surface. How many pounds of
force are necessary to start the body sliding? What force is necessary to keep this body
.r-l sliding at constant speed?
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Force to start sliding motion = (0.15)(100 Ibs.) = 15 Ibs.
Force to keep body sliding = (0.09) (100 Ibs.) =9 Ibs.
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Problems
1. An aircraft with a weight of 85,000 Ibs. is towed over a concrete surface. What force must
the towing vehicle exert to keep the aircraft rolling?
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2. It is necessary to slide a 200 lb. refrigerator with rubber feet over a wet concrete surface.
What force is necessary to start the motion? What force is necessary to keep the motion
going?
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2. 1401bs. 1001bs.
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Work, Energy and Power
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Work
Work is done on a body when a force acts through a distance. The definition of work involves
the force acting on the body (F) the distance through which this force acts (S) and the angle (8)
between the force vector and the distance vector. The definition of work is:
W= FS cos 8
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angle (8) is a zero degree angle. If you check on your calculator, you will find that the cosine of
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a zero degree angle is equal to one. This simplifies things in this case because then work is
simply equal to the product of force times distance.
The unit of work in the English system is the foot-lb. Note that the two units are multiplied by
each other. Students tend to write ft.llb. This is incorrect. The unit is not feet divided by pounds.
In the metric system, the unit is the Newton-meter or the Joule (J). Note that the Newton-meter
f' has a name, the Joule. The foot-lb. has no special name.
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EXAMPLE:
A puck lies on a horizontal air table. The air table reduces the friction between the puck and
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the table to almost zero since the puck rides on a film of air. A player exerts a force of 70 Ibs.
on this puck through a distance of 0.5 feet, and he is careful that his force is in the same
direction as the distance through the force is applied. The player has done 35 ft.-Ibs. of work
o on the puck.
EXAMPLE:
A book weighing 8 pounds is raised a vertical distance by a student demonstrating work. The
book is raised 2 feet. The student has done 16 ft.lbs. of work.
'I
U EXAMPLE:
o A sled is dragged over a horizontal snowy surface by means of a rope attached to the front of
the sled. The rope makes an angle of 28° with the horizontal. The sled is displaced a distance
a 50 ft. The worker exerts a force of 35 pounds. How much work does the worker do? We
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use the formula:
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r; W = (35 Ibs.) (50 ft.) cos 28°
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W = 1550 ft.lbs.
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Sometimes the force and the displacement are in the opposite directions. This situation gives '1
rise to negative work. Note, in this case, the angle between the force and the displacement is a :j
0
180 0 angle. The cosine of 180 is negative one.
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One example of negative work occurs when a body is lowered in a gravitational field. If a Li
student carefully lowers a book weighing 15 pounds through a distance of 2 feet, we note that
the displacement vector points downward and the force vector point upwards n
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W= FScos e
W = (15 Ibs.)(2 ft.) cos 1800
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W = -30 ft.lbs.
Energy
The concept of energy is one of the most important concepts in all of physical science. We often
hear of energy sources, alternate energy, shortage of energy, conservation of energy, light '1
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energy, heat energy, electrical energy, sound energy, etc. What is the exact meaning of this
word, energy? ('-)
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Sometimes energy is defined as the "capacity to do work". This definition is only a partial i1
definition. However, it has the advantage of immediately relating the concept of energy to the
concept of work. These two ideas are intimately related to each other.
Energy is a quality that a body has after work has been done on this body. Once work has been
done on a body of mass (m) this body has energy. The body can then do work on other bodies. i1.., )
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Consider the following situation:
A body of mass (m) was resting on a horizontal air table. A player exerted a horizontal force (F)
on this mass through a distance (s). Since the angle between the force and the displacement
was a zero degree angle, the work done on this body was simply Fs. At the instant the player r'>
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removed his hand from the body we note two facts. The body accelerated while the force (F) , I'
was acting on the body and the body has acquired a velocity (v) during this time of acceleration
(a). The body has moved through a distance (s) in time (t). n
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s = y. at2
Also note that the force (F) is related to the acceleration by the relation: [I
F= ma
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We now look again at this body at the instant the force (F) has ceased acting. We note that
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work (W) has been done on this body and that the body moves with speed (v).
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W = Fs = (ma) ( Y. at2)
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equation:
V= at
o Therefore, we can substitute v for at in the equation above.
o The equation we have obtained is the defining equation for a quantity known as kinetic energy.
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Usually, we use the symbol "KE" for kinetic energy.
o KE =Yz mV2
C After the work has been done on the mass (m) it moves off on the frictionless air table with this
kinetic energy. This body now is capable of doing work on other bodies that it contacts. For
example, it probably will strike the edge of the table. When this happens this kinetic energy will
o be changed into other types of energy such as sound energy or heat energy.
We note that the initial kinetic energy of the mass (m) was zero. This is true because the body
was initially as rest. We can say that the work done on the body is equal to the change in the
energy of the body.
Gravitational Potential Energy

Another equally important situation where an agent easily can do work on a body (and thus give
the body energy) occurs when the agent raises a body vertically in a gravitational field, at the
surface of the earth.
In this case, the work done on the body again equals the force applied multiplied by the
(i distance the body is raised.
I,.....,I
W= Fs
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U W = (weight of body) (distance raised)
o We recall that w = mg. Also since the distance is a vertical distance we use the symbol "h" for
height. In our discussion we will assume that the symbol "h" always represents the vertical
distance of the body above the surface of the earth.
Therefore, we write:
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W=mgh
Again we have a case where an agent did work on a body and the body has acquired "energy".
This type of energy is known as gravitational potential energy. however, we usually symbolize it !I
as "PE". U
PE = mgh f~
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If we neglect air resistance (which results in loss of energy to heat), we note that there is a
conservation of kinetic and potential energy of a body moving in a gravitational field. As a body
falls from a height (h) and moves closer to the surface of the earth, its potential energy
decreases and its kinetic energy in creases while it is falling. Therefore, there is an easy way of
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finding the speed of a falling body during any instant of its fall.
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The units for energy are the same as the units for work, the Joule (J) in the metric system and
the foot-pound in the English system.
o
EXAMPLE:
A body of mass 4 slugs is held by an agent at a distance of 6 ft. above the surface of the
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earth. The agent drops the body. What is the speed of the body when it is on the way down
and at a distance of 2 feet above the earth's surface? 1
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We note that the initial potential energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies on the way down (wd). .
PE = PEwd + KEwd
2
(4 slug) (32 ftIsec 2) (6 ft.) = (4 slug) (32 ftIsec ) (2 ft.) + % (4 slug) v 2
EXAMPLE:
A body of mass, 10 kg, falls to the earth from a height of 300 m above the surface of the
earth. What is the speed of this body just before it touches ground?
PEi = KEf
(10 kg) (9.8 m/sec2 ) (300 m) = (10 kg) V2
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v = 76.7 m/sec 1 L)
The kinetic energy that the body has just before it reaches the ground immediately changes to
sound energy and heat energy on impact. It may also "squash" any body in its path or make an
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indentation in the earth - this is strain energy (energy to deform).

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Power is the rate of doing work. The more rapidly a piece of work can be done by a person or a
machine the greater is the power of that person or machine.
We define power by the following equation:
f"' Power = work = force x dis tan ce

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o In symbols:
P= Fs
fl t
u
In the English system the unit of power is the horsepower and in the metric system the unit is
the Watt.
Conversion factors exist giving information regarding these units.

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ft.lbs.
sec.
- = 33000
, ft.lbs.
- .-
min.
1,000 Watts = 1 kilowatt
EXAMPLE:
An aircraft engine weighing 4,000 Ibs. is hoisted a vertical distance of 9 feet to install it in an
aircraft. The time taken for this piece of work was 5 minutes. What power was necessary?
\" ! Give the answer in ft.lb.lsec. and in horsepower.
w
u P = Fs
t
= (4,000Ibs)(9 ft)
300 secs.
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P = 120 ft.lbs.! sec. x - - - - - -
550 ft.lbs.! sec.
P =0.218 HP
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EXAMPLE:
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An elevator cab weighs 6,000 N. It is lifted by a 5 kW motor. What time is needed for the cab
to ascend a distance of 40 m?
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t = (6,000 N)(40 m)
5,000 Watts
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Alternate Form for Power
We can put our formula for power in another form by recognizing that ~ is speed (v). This leads
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to the formula:
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P= Fv
This form is particularly useful for obtaining an expression for the power output of a turbine
engine. These engines are ordinarily rated in terms of the thrust which they produce. To obtain
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an expression for their power output it is necessary to multiply their thrust by the speed of the
plane. This thrust power, which is usually expressed in units of horsepower (THP, thrust
horsepower), can be obtained by multiplying the thrust in pounds by the speed in ft./sec. and
dividing by 550 where the conversion
1 HP = 550 ft-Ibs./sec. is used. Thus:
THP = thrust in Ibs. x aircraft speed in ft.! sec.

550
Alternatively, we can take the speed of the aircraft in MPH and use the conversion
=
1 HP 375 mi.lbs'/hr. to obtain:
= thrust in Ibs. x aircraft speed in MPH.

THP ~
375 , I
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A gas turbine engine is producing 5,500 Ibs. of thrust while the plane in which the engine is in-
stalled is travelling 450 MPH. Determine the THP.
THP = (550 Ibs)(450 MPH) = 6600 HP

375 '
It is important to note that while the thrust of a gas turbine engine may not vary much over a
particular range of aircraft speeds, the power must be recalculated each time the plane changes
its speed.
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Problems
1. How much work is done by a person in raising a 45 lb. bucket of water from the bottom of .
r, a well that is 75 ft. deep? Assume the speed of the bucket as it is lifted is constant.
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2. A tugboat exerts a constant force of 5,000 N on a ship moving at constant speed through
a harbour. How much work does the tugboat do on the ship in a distance of 3 km?
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r-l distance of 6ft. How much work does the father do?
U 4. A 6 slug body has a speed of 40 ftIsec. What is its kinetic energy? If its speed is doubled,
what is its kinetic energy?
0 5. A 2 kg ball hangs at the end of a string 1 m in length from the ceiling of a ground level
11 room. The height of the room is 3 m. What is the potential energy of the ball?
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6. A body of mass 3 slug is a distance of 77 ft. above the earth's surface and is held there
by an agent. The agent drops the body. What is the speed of the body just before it hits
0 ground?
f' 7. An aircraft of mass 4 tonnes lands at 30 m/s and the pilot immediately applies the brakes
U hard. The brakes apply a retarding force of 2000N. How far will the aircraft travel before
it comes to rest.
("-1
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is the kinetic energy of the pile driver?
o 9. A pile driver of mass 1000 kg, hits a post 3 m below it. It moves the post 10 mm. With
what force does it hit the post when it hits the post?
10. An aircraft engine weighing 12,000 N is lifted by a 3.6 kW motor a distance of 10m. What
time was needed?
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distance of 8 ft. If the worker required 4 minutes to do this job, what horsepower was
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12. How long does it take a 5 kW motor to raise a load weighing 6,000 Ibs. a vertical distance
0 of 20 ft.? (Hint: convert KW to ft.lb.lsec first)
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Answers
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1. 3370 ft. lb.
2. 15,000,000 J
3. -270 ft.lb. (Note the negative sign!)

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U 4. 4800 ft.lb; 19,200 ft.lb.
5. 39.2 J (or 40 of g = 10m/s2)
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6. 70 ft.lsec.
u 7. 900 m
c 8. 30,000 J
9. 3 MN
10. 33 sec.
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11. 100 ft.lb .Isec. 0.182HP
12. 32.5 sec.
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[J Momentum
Definition of Momentum
Momentum is a vector quantity defined as the product of mass times velocity. Note that velocity
(V) is also a vector quantity. We write the defining equation as:
Momentum = mV
o Momentum is a very important quantity when we are dealing with collisions, because it is con-
served in all such cases.
Conservation of Momentum
In a collision, there are always at least two bodies that collide. We will deal only with collisions
of two bodies. We will also limit our discussion to collisions occurring in one dimension. Such
collisions are called "head-on" collisions.
At this time, we need to recall two of Newton's laws. We need Newton's second law,
o =
F ma, and Newton's third law, which tells us that if two bodies collide, the force that the first
body exerts on the second body is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that
the second body exerts on the first body. Also recall that the acceleration (a) equals the change
o in the velocity (symbolized by the Greek letter Delta, .i1) divided by the time (t).
Now let us visualize two bodies of masses, m1 and m2 on a one dimensional track.
If these two bodies collide, we have four different velocities to consider. We will name these
velocities very carefully.
o V1' = the velocity of body one before the collision

V t= the velocity of body one after the collision
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U V2' = the velocity of body two before the collision
V2" = the velocity of body two after the collision
From Newton's two laws, we can conclude that:
After cancelling't'; we obtain:
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The equation tells us that the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total
o momentum after the collision. Sometimes we say simply that "momentum is conserved".
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Recoil Problems
The simplest example of the conservation of momentum is in recoil problems.
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EXAMPLE: U
A boy and a man are both on ice skates on a pond. The mass of the boy is 20 kg and the
mass of the man is 80 kg. They push on each other and move in opposite directions. If the
recoil velocity of the boy is 80 m/sec., what is the recoil velocity of the man?
:1
First we note that both the man and the boy are at rest before the collision occurs. i~" J.I
(20) (0) + (80) (0) =(20) (80) + (80)W

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-1,600 = 80W' n
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V 2 " = - 20 m/sec.
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Collision Problems
Whenever two bodies collide, momentum is always conserved. This is simply the result of
applying Newton's second and third laws as we have done in the preceding discussion.
Sometimes kinetic energy is also conserved in a collision. This happens when the bodies are so
hard that there is very little deformation of the bodies in the actual collision process. Billiard balls
are a good example. These collisions are known as elastic collisions. We will derive a formula
for determining the velocities of the bodies after the collision has occurred. nl, J
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Another type of collision that we will discuss is the perfectly inelastic collision. In this type of
collision, the bodies are deformed so much that they actually stick together after the collision.
An example would be the collision of two masses of putty. We will also do some problems for
this type of collision.
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Inelastic Collisions
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We use the conservation of momentum for dealing with this type of collision. As we have said,
the colliding bodies stick together after impact Therefore, the equation is simply:
Note that we use the symbol V" for the common velocity of the two bodies (which are now one
body) after the collision.
It is important to include the signs of the velocities of the bodies in setting up momentum
equations. As usual, we use a positive sign for east and a negative sign for west, a positive sign
for north and a negative sign for south.
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U EXAMPLE:
A truck of mass 1,550 kg is moving east at 60 m/sec. A car of mass 1,250 kg is travelling west
at 90 m/sec. The vehicles collide and stick together after impact
What is the velocity of the combined mass after the collision has occurred?
V 1' = 60 m/sec.
o m1
V2'
= 1,550 kg
=-90 m/sec.
n m2 = 1,250 kg
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We will not include units in our substitution. However, we will note that the velocity, when we
obtain it, will be in m/sec.
(1,550) (60) + (1,250) (-90) = (1,550 + 1,250)V"

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-19,500 = 2,800 V"
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V" = -6.96 m/sec.
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travelling west after the impact has occurred.
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U Our answer is that the wreckage starts moving west with a speed of 6.96 m/sec.
Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of an inelastic collision can
o be used by the police to determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head-on collision.
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. © Copyright 2010
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Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of inelastic collision can be '\
used by the police to determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head -on collision. :I
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Suppose that a large truck with a weight of 12,000 Ibs. (mass of 375 slugs) travelling east with
an unknown velocity enters into a head-on collision with a smaller truck of weight 6.400 Ibs.
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(mass of 200 slugs) initially travelling west with a speed of 30 MPH (44 ft.lsec.). The trucks stick
together in the collision and marks on the highway indicate that the wreckage travelled a
distance of 120 feet east. The condition of the roadway (amount of friction) indicates that the
wreckage would travel for a time of 4 sec. Determine the initial speed of the large truck.
The equation:
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u
u+ v
s=--t
2
can be used to determine the initial velocity of the wreckage. Note that the final velocity of the
wreckage is zero.
u = 2s = 2(120 ft) = 60ft.! sec.

t 4sec
Next, we can use the conservation of momentum equation to determine the velocity of the large
tru9~at the instant of the impact. We will use the symbol V to represent this velocity.
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(375 slugs) (V) + (200 slugs) (- 44 ft.lsec.) = (575 slugs) (60 ft.lsec.)
375V = 43,300 'II

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V = 115 ft.lsec.
V = 78.4 MPH
Elastic Collisions
Elastic collisions are collisions that occur between bodies that deform very little in the collision.
Therefore we assume that no energy is lost. An example of such a collision is the collision
between pool balls.
In elastic collisions, both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved. In an ordinary elastic
collision problem, we know,the masses and the velocities of two bodies that will collide. We
want to predict, by a mathematical calculation, the velocities the bodies will have after the c .
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collision has occurred, the two unknowns. If we write the two conservation equations, we have
two equations in these two unknowns. It is possible to solve these two equations for these two
unknowns. However, one of the conservation equations, the energy equation, is a "second
order" equation. A "second order" equation contains the squares of the unknowns. This makes
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momentum conservation equation provide the two first order equations that we will use in
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Conservation of Energy
D (1 ) 1/
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1 + 1/2
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m2V2,2
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(2)
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(3) -- mV,,2
1 1 + mV,,2
2 2
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(4)
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(5)
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['I (6) m,(V , ' - V1') = m2(V2" - V2')

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(7) m,(V;2 - V1,2) = m2(V2,,2 - V2,2)
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D (8)
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V1 (V1'+V1") ::::::
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(9)
In words, this equation says that the relative velocity of the ba.lls before the collision is equal to
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Equation (9) has been obtained algebraically from two equations, the conservation of
momentum and the conservation of energy. We use equations (2), the conservation of 'I
momentum equation, and equation (9), called the relative veloc:ity equation, to solve for the U
velocities of the two bodies after an elastic collision.
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(2)
(9)
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two bodies after the collision has occurred. The known quantiti<~s are usually the two masses
and the velocities of the bodies before the collision. Also be careful to include the signs of the
velocities. If you forget to do this, you will always end up with incorrect results. n I •
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EXAMPLE: :i
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A billiard ball of mass 2 kg is moving east at 3 m/sec. and undergoes an elastic collision r-"1.
with another billiard ball of mass 3 kg moving west at 4 misec. Find the velocities of the
two balls after the collision.
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m1 = 2 V 1' = 3 (east)
m2 = 3 V 2' = -4 (west)
Substitute in equation (2):
(2)(3) + (3)(-4) = 2V1" + 3W'

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(10)
Substitute inequation (9):
3 - (-4) = W' - V{
(11 ) '(
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Rewrite equations (10) and (11) putting the unknowns in tl,e left members and in order.
(10) 2V1" + 3V2"= -6

-V1" + V 2" = 7
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(11)
We now have two equations and two unknowns. There an~ several methods of solving
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either or both of the equations by constants to make the coefficient of one of the unknowns
in one of the equations a positive number and to make the coefficient of this same
(, unknown in the other equation a negative number of the same magnitude. We then add
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We will multiply (11) by the number 2.
(12)
Add (10) and (12):
V 2" = 1.6 m/sec.
Substitute this value back into (11):

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r, 1I V1" =-5.4 m/sec.

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We note that we interpret a positive sign for the velocity as motion east and a negative sign
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Our final result is that the 2 kg ball is moving west with a speed of 5.4 m/sec after the
[-1 collision and the 3 kg ball is moving east with a speed of 1.6 m/sec. after the collision.
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is 750 m/sec. What is the recoil velocity of the gun?
2. An astronaut on a space walk has a mass of 5 slugs and is at rest relative to the space
r" station. She is working with a tool having a mass of 0,5 slug. She accidentally throws this
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tool away from herself with a speed of 6 ftlsec. With what speed does the astronaut
recoil?
3. An automobile having mass 1,500kg is travelling east on an expressway at 30m/sec. It

overtakes a truck of mass 2,000kg also travelling east and moving with a speed of 25
u m/sec. The automobile rear-ends the truck. The vehicles become locked together in this
collision and continue east. What is the velocity of this combined mass?
11 4. Two balls of putty become one mass of putty in a collision. The first, of mass 6 kg, was
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west at 9 m/sec, What is the velocity of the total mass after the collision has occurred?
5. Due to a controller's error two aircraft are directed to land in opposite directions on the
same runway in a fog, A Cessna 150 of mass 50 slugs and a Beechcraft Bonanza of
Cl mass 80 slugs undergo a direct head-on collision. The Beech-craft Bonanza was
LJ originally travelling north at a speed of 30 MPH and the Cessna was travelling south. The
wreckage travels a distance of 20 ft. south during a time of 3,6 sec, What was the original
r 1 speed of the Cessna?
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6. A 3 kg ball is moving right with a speed of 3 m/sec. before a collision with a
2 kg ball originally moving left at 2 m/sec, What are the directions and speeds of the two
balls after the collision?
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3. 27 m/sec. East
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4. 2.4 m/sec. East
5. 67.7 MPH
6. The 3 kg ball is moving left at 1 m/sec. and the 2 kg ball is moving right at
4 m/sec.
7. The 2 kg ball is moving right at 3 m/sec. and the 1kg ball is moving right at
6 m/sec.
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Torque
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Consider the diagrams 2.59 shown below. We define torque as the force (F) applied to a body
that is pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by the distance from the pivot point to the place where the
force is applied and multiplied by the sin of the angle between rand F. We will use the Greek
letter Tau (,) for torque. The distance mentioned in the preceding sentence is called the lever
o arm and symbolized by the letter r.
The defining equation is:

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sin 90° 1, this common case reduces to the more simple equation:
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Extensions
Figure 2.60 shows a typical beam type torque wrench which has an extension spanner
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Scale reading = specified torque x_L_

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X = length of extension spanner between centres
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Figure 2.60: A torque wrench fitted with an extension spanner

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following example, for which the specified torque loading is 300 Ib in and the lengths of the
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wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches respectively.
(a) Force required on wrench handle to produce a torque of 300 Ib in is 300 Ib in divided by
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300Ib.in.
which is 20 Ib
10 in.+5 in.
(b) Scale reading when force on handle is 20 Ib is, 20 Ib x 10 in 200 Ib in.
Force must therefore be applied to the wrench handle until a reading of 200 Ib in is shown on
the "Yrench scale, and this will represent a 300 Ib in torque load applied to the nut. With the
'break' type wrench, the adjustment must be preset at 200 Ib in. n
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NOTE: For the purpose of conversion, 1 Ib.in. = 115 kg cm or 0.113 N.m.
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When using an extension spanner with a torque wrench, the spanner and wrench U
should be as nearly as possible in line. If it is necessary to diverge by more than 15°
from a straight line (due, for example, to intervening structure), then the direct
distance (0) between the nut and wrench handle must be substituted for 'L + X' in the
formula for calculating wrench scale reading. This is shown in figure 2.61, and the scale reading
in this instance will be equal to specified torque x
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Figure 2.61: A torque wrench fitted with an extension

spanner positioned out-of-line with the wrench
o Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the spe"cified torque and the
wrench scale are in the same units; if not, then the specified torque should be converted, by
calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale, and any measurements taken in
c appropriate units.
When applying torque the wrench handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly
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at 90 to the axis of the wrench.
Couples
r, A 'couple' is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are equal and opposite but applied at points
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produces a torque Fd on the object on which they act.
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one end of the wrench handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre of rotation is just half of
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Torque applied by a couple
=one of the forces (F) x distance to centre of rotation (r) x 2

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1. Calculate the torque applied to a nut and bolt by a 12 in. spanner when a force of 12 lb.
Il is applied perpendicular at the end of the spanner.
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2. How much force is required to torque a nut and bolt to 50 Nm with a wrench 0.5 m long?
0 3. A nut is to be torqued to 50 in. lb. A torque wrench of 17 in is used with an extension of 3

in. What setting should the torque wrench be adjusted to?
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wheel is 0.8 m. What is the force applied on just one side of the wheel?
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1. 144 in. lb.

2. 100 N
3. 42.5 in. lb.
4. 75 N
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o The Gyroscope
Gyros are fascinating to study and a great deal of material is available on them. For the most
I' part, we will be concerned with only two of the properties of spinning gyros. The first is the
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such as bearing friction. This is the property of rigidity. Rigidity is used to measure position in
position gyros such as the HSI (gyro compass) and ADI (artificial horizon).
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The other property of a spinning gyro that concerns us is its right angle obstinacy. It never goes
o in the direction that you push it, but off to one side. Figure 2.62 illustrates this obstinate
characteristic.
c AXIS precesses in this DIRECTION
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Figure 2.62: Force and resultant movement obstinacy - 'Precession'
Whichever way you apply the force to the axis of a gyro, it will move in a direction 90 0 (in
direction of rotation) to the force. The speed at which it moves is proportional to the force
applied. This action is called precession. The force of procession is used in rate gyros, such
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as those in a turn and slip indicator, where the speed of turn is measured by the force that the
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fl Apparent Drift (or Wander)

L.J Figure 2.63 illustrates the behavior of a gyro. A perfect gyro would be one without any external
forces acting upon it, mounted in a perfect suspension system that would give it complete
o freedom of movement in all three axes. All the gyros in this figure are perfect gyros. Such gyros
are called free gyros.
o Only four gyros are represented - A, B, C, and D. The other gyro symbols shown illustrate the
various positions of B, C, and D as the earth rotates.
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Gyro A has its spin axis parallel with the spin axis of the earth, sitting on top of the North Pole. It
could maintain that position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axis parallel to the earth's spin axis, and is located above the equator. The
other gyros in its group represent Gyro B as it would appear at different times of the day. If we
were to look at Gyro B sitting on a table in front of us, we would see that the upper end of its
spin axis is pointing off toward the north star. As time goes on and the earth turns 360 0 , we
would not see any change in its attitude on the table. Its spin axis would always point toward the
north star.
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Gyro C is situated on the equator. The other gyros in its group represent Gyro C as it would n
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appear at different times of the day.
Let's say that we have the Gyro C in front of us on a table. Its spin axis is parallel to the earth's
surface. As time goes on and the earth rotates, we would see its spin axis gradually tilting
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upward at one end until, six hours later (90 0 of earth rotation), we would see it perpendicular to
the earth's surface, illustrated by the gyro shown to the right of the earth. Six hours later (behind
the earth out of sight in this drawing) the spin axis would once again be parallel to the earth, but
with the end which was first pointing east now pointing west. n
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Another six hours later,
the spin axis would once
again be perpendicular,
but this time the opposite
end of the axis would be
another six hours later.
When we get to the
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same time of day at
which we started, the
gyro will again be
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Gyro D and its group n

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tries to do but cannot
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Transport Drift (or Wander)

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I I The outer ring of gyros in Figure 2.64 demonstrates that a completely free gyro in an aircraft
U circling the earth would be perpendicular to the earth's surface at only two points.
The gyros drawn in the aircrafts are continuously being corrected to a vertical position as the
aircraft moves around the surface of the earth. The corrections are gentle and slow, since the
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LJ very stable during the pitch and roll maneuvers of the aircraft. Such a gyro is called an earth
gyro or tied gyro.
The gyro's stable position with respect to the movements of the aircraft makes it possible for the
pilot to know the actual attitude of his aircraft, nose up or down, and wings level or not. This is
r-'-, quite important to him when all he can see out of the window is a gray fog.
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The aircraft attitude information derived from the gyros is also used by such systems as the
o autopilot, radar antenna stabilization, flight recorders and flight directors.
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Figure 2.65: Horizon indication and Compass indication (Position Gyros)
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Figure 2.66: Turn Rate indication (Rate Gyro) ~J
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l'~,

o Newton's First Law

Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-111

2-112 Module 2.2 Mechanics

Newton's Third Law I

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

THE EARTH PULLS DOWN

THE APPLE PULLS UP

Figure 2.52: Gravitational force between two objects

Figure 2.54: Equal and opposite forces of an oar

o -------------- ------------ --------------------------

Figure 2.55: Action of a propeller

o Use and/or disclosure is

T = (12.2 slugs) 137 ft I sec- 0

2-116 Module 2.2 Mechanics

o Figure 2.57: Principle of the turbojet engine

o Substituting the given values we have:

T = 23 kg (580 m/sec) = 13,300 N

ram drag = 129m/sec

T = gross thrust - ram drag

Since u is zero, the ram drag is zero and T = gross thrust.

o U = 220 knots = 371 ftlsec.

(1,420 Ibs)(1 sec) 371 ft /

2-120 Module 2.2 Mechanics ~

rl This can be proven by considering that

It is a direct result of Newton's first law

o that a hammer thrower (Figure 2.58)

o athlete stops applying the force towards

hammer travels in a straight line, at a tangent to the circle.

UNITS ENGLISH METRIC

Similarly, a force of 1 Newton applied to a mass of 1 kilogram causes it to accelerate at 1

Using Newton's second law, we can write:

1 pound = 1 slug ft.lsec 2

We note that Newton's second law is correctly written as:

3. Find the net force on a 5 slug object which is accelerating at 3ft1sec2

o centripetal acceleration of the stone?

o Use and/or disclosure is

10. 16.67 ftlsec 2

11 There are three kinds of friction:

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Examples of kinetic friction:

Rubber on Dry Concrete 1.0 0.7

The coefficient of starting friction - flstart

2-130 Module 2.2 Mechanics n

Rubber tires on dry concrete 0.02

Integrated Training System

2-134 Module 2.2 Mechanics

Integrated Training System

Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-135

Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-137

Consider the following situation:

Integrated Training System

o Therefore, we can substitute v for at in the equation above.

Gravitational Potential Energy

(10 kg) (9.8 m/sec2 ) (300 m) = (10 kg) V2

indentation in the earth - this is strain energy (energy to deform).

We define power by the following equation:

f"' Power = work = force x dis tan ce

Conversion factors exist giving information regarding these units.