Unit One The Concept of Archaeology

Introduction to the Archaeology of Ethiopia and the Horn
Unit One
The Concept of Archaeology
Dear students! This introductory unit introduces you to the discipline of archaeology.
It particularly enables you to answer questions like what is archaeology; why archaeology is
studied as a discipline; what are its branches; what are the steps followed in its application and
finally, the dating techniques for measuring the age of the archaeological findings.
Objectives:
Upon the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define what archaeology is.

 Enumerate the merits for studying the discipline of archaeology.
 Identify the different types of archaeology.
 Discuss the steps to be followed in every archaeological field research.
 List and explain each of the various dating techniques applied to measure the age of an
archaeological finding.
1.1. The Definition and Use of Archaeology

Jimma University, Department of History and Heritage Management Page 1
What is Archaeology? How do you define it?

The term archaeology was derived from the Greek words: archaio and logia which
respectively means “ancient (old)” and “to study”. Thus, archaeology is the study of the past of
human society primarily through the excavation and analysis of the material culture and
environmental data the human being left behind like artifacts, monuments and biofacts.
Archaeology is an academic discipline that deals with the study of past human life in
terms of behavior and culture. Archaeology aims in correlating human culture, starting from the
origin to the present. The past human societies are studied on the basis of material remnants
(fossils) and human artifacts (jewelry and crafts) that are lying on or under the earth's surface.
Most of these archaeological information are collected through human impacts on the
environment. By examining and analyzing such past evidences, the scholars try to reconstruct
and interpret what had happened in the past human life.
Those scholars specialized in archaeology are called archaeologists. Since it applies a

wide range of procedures, archaeology can be considered both as a science and humanity at the
same time.
Why do you study Archaeology? What do you think is the merit?
Archaeology studies the human past (both historical and pre-historical times) since the
development of the first stone-age tools in Eastern Africa (including Ethiopia) 3.4 million years
ago till the recent past. However, it is very essential to study about pre-historic societies when
there are no written records. The period before the beginning of the art of writing which is called
pre-history constitutes more than 99% of the human past. This covered a period from Paleolithic
age to literacy age in any given society. The other period after the beginning of the art of writing
is historical times which could be studied by history, through the use of written documents.

However, for the longer pre-historical times, there had not been the art of writing. The
pre-historic societies could not leave behind written records about themselves that we can study
today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about the prehistoric societies is to
use archaeology.
Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory including the
evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominids developed from the
australopithecines through to the early homos in Africa and finally into modern Homo sapiens.
Archaeology also sheds light on many of the humanity's technological advances. For
instance, the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, the
beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Without archaeology, we would know
nothing of these evolutionary and technological changes in humanity that pre-date writing. Thus,
the main purpose of archaeology is to learn more about the past societies and the development of
the human race.
Most of our ancestors’ material culture disappeared through the

passage of time. The purpose of archaeology is, therefore, to generate any
possible information from the remains of the past which could be recovered
using whatever methods is available to it. It is thus a making of the past in
a present time. In other words, it is a discipline that attempts to watch the
past from the present. It employs scientific methods to conduct its study.
However, it is not only prehistoric (pre-literate) cultures that can be studied using archaeology.
Historic (literate) cultures can also be studied through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For
many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often
incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such
as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been
restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the
lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people being more representative of
the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity.
Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a
limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records

cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society,
though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation. Samuel Jones
justified the value of archaeology stating: ‘’All that is really known of the ancient state of Britain is
contained in a few pages... We can know no more than what old writers have told us.’’
1.2. Types of Archaeology
Archaeology is classified into different types depending upon the scope and method of
study. It is a multidisciplinary science that encompasses many academic subjects like biology,
chemistry, geology, history and art. It is considered as a branch of anthropology, which involves
the study of biology along with human culture.
Archaeology is different from paleontology (the study of fossils), as it deals only with the past
life of humans. Let's take a look at the different types of archaeology hereunder:
A. Historical Archaeology: This type of archaeology includes the study of ancient

history based on historical sites, artifacts and other historical documents that help in
arranging the cultural chronology of ancient historic times. It is more or less similar to
biblical archaeology that encompasses the study based on written records. It is, however,
to be noted that historical records are not always correct and hence, they should be
supplemented with other evidences.
Historical archaeology pays great attention to the everyday world of all people. It is a
conjunction of history and anthropology whereby the archaeologist seeks to
understand the cultural processes and human experiences that produced the world we
live in today through examination of the forms of writing and recording of
information by past cultures.
Writing in some form or another was known to have been used thousands of years
ago. However, historical archaeologists study only recent history. Using only written
evidence as the foundation of their research, historical archaeologists often work in
partnership with historians. This type of archaeology developed in Britain and North

America, where it continues to thrive in academic centers. Researchers in this field

are particularly interested in books, manuscripts, seals, engravings, paintings,
drawings and the like. Historical archaeology is, therefore, the study of the material
remains of past societies that also left behind historical documentary evidence. An
interesting type of archaeology, it studies the emergence, transformation and nature of
our modern world.
B. Ethno-Archaeology: This archaeology type attempts to link the past with the present
life. The basics of ethno-archaeology involve anthropology, which is associated with
the archaeological theories. For example, studying the present day hunter-gatherer
groups helps in examining the mode of hunting and gathering food in the ancient
times. The archaeologists found that the past and the present day hunter-gatherers
share some common aspects of life.
Ethno-archaeologists spend much time among the people they are

studying, keeping detailed records of their daily activities and behaviors.
They attempt to make accurate records of any abandoned settlements,
including rubbish pits, discarded food and artifacts including tools for
hunting, trapping, or food preparation. These are compared with patterns
observed in excavated archaeological sites. Ethno-archaeologists can
provide an important angle for interpreting the accumulations of artifacts
and other remains found at excavation locations. They become particularly
helpful in recognizing associations between activities such as tool making
or animal slaughtering.
Generally, ethno-archaeology is the archaeological study of living people. It is the use

of ethnography to increase and improve analogs, which are then used as analogies to
interpret the archaeological record. In short, ethno-archaeology is the application of
ethnography to archaeology.

C. Classical Archaeology: Classical archaeology, in simpler terms, can be considered as

the study of the most civilized cultures of the world, namely, the Greek and Roman
civilizations. By investigating and researching on these two ancient cultures, a 2000
years span of the classical history can be studied. Athens and Rome form the main
sites of study for classical archaeology.
D. Environmental Archaeology: Environmental archaeology deals with the study of

environment by applying the archaeological principles. This is an interesting field for
the science students, as the main focus is on studying soil science, sediments, pollens,
diatoms and other environment-related archaeological factors. Environmental
archaeology encompasses field studies along with laboratory experiments.
E. Archaeometry: Archaeometry, also known as archaeological science, deals with the

study archaeology, along with the application of scientific methods and techniques.
Some of the scientific techniques include radiocarbon dating, dendrochronology, artifact
analysis, mathematical methods, remote-sensing, microscopes and environmental
studies.
Archaeometry aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the

application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a
lively field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical
composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry also
investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing such methods as space
syntax and geodesy, which can be analyzed using computer-based geographic
information system technologies. Though nascent in its development, archaeometry is
generally designed to enhance the understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture
through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with
human activity.

F. Underwater Archaeology: Underwater archaeology is the other interesting type of

archaeology. It is associated with the study of underwater evidences such as shipwrecks,
water-buried cities and other inundated archaeological sites. Archaeologists practicing in
this field attempt to discover the submerged evidences by diving underwater along with
sophisticated excavating tools.
There is significant danger involved when working at low depths and with little
visibility. The use of robotic divers, armed with strong lights and cameras, helps greatly
in the safety of underwater archaeology.
Much like today, ships were the primary mode of transport for international trade in
ancient times. Many a full cargo, along with the entire crew, was lost at sea never to
arrive at its destination. Yet more often than not, it is the rocky, shallow waters that
mostly took their toll. Underwater archaeologists find lucrative bounty in these shallow
water shipwrecks. These archaeologists are not searching for gold and sunken treasure
chests but instead are trying to discover more about the society that lived at the time of
the sinking. Cups, plates, weapons, food items and cargos will all piece together to bring
the shattered jigsaw of past cultures to life again.
G. Pseudo-Archaeology: Another type of archaeology is pseudo-archaeology. As the

name suggests, it aims at non-scientific approach and deals with real as well as imagined
evidences to reassemble past life. The pseudo-archaeologists mainly focus on the
evidences that contributes to the lost of continents like Atlantis and Mu.
H. Experimental archaeology
Experimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to

develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the
archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its
goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies, the
experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial

component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological

record.
How do you distinguish each of the eight types of archaeology from one
another?
1.3. Methods of Archaeological Studies
What methods do you think should an archaeologist follow during field

archaeological research?
An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which

employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear
objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. After this
one is done, firstly, the site will be surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the
surrounding area. Secondly, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features
buried under the ground. And, thirdly, the data collected from the excavation is studied and
evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then
considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other
archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.
Step I. Field Surveying
A modern archaeological project often begins with a survey. Regional survey is the
attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt
to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of
these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.
Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and
prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from

the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey
pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of
coastal Peru and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology
some years later.
Monte Alban, an example of archaeological site
Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place
of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require
processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region
or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms
of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant
peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some
forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are
commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.
The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves

combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of
mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the
surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are
completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface
survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers,
corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed
is deemed sterile.
Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, or even kites. A
bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are
used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many
things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a
stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as
middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes color rapidly
at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at
different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial
survey also employs infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR (Light Detection
And Ranging, also LADAR) and thermography.
Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground.
Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts,
kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the
electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical
resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some
archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than
typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower
resistivity.
Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to

treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of
formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English
Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th century ship
wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to
archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising
artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for
involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.
Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices

such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.
Step II. Excavation
Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs,
and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal
several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-
dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.
Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features,
known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their
horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of
Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs
to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and
features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For
example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of
distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient
cultures.

Extensive excavations at Beit She'an, Israel
Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in

relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns.
As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the
percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and
"method statement" issued. In places 90% excavation is common.
Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is
common for large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs, i.e. J
C Bamford Excavators Limited) to be used in excavation, especially to
remove the top (overburdensoil), though this method is increasingly
used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the
exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that
all features are apparent.

Excavations at the 3800-year-old Edgewater Park Site, Iowa
The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of
excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a
visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of
two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets
the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will
often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers
for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site,
black and white and color photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in
describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-
destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.
Step III. Analysis
Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is
necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as
post-excavation analysis, and is usually the most time-consuming part of the archaeological
investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to
be published.
At its most basic, the artifacts found are cleaned, cataloged and
compared to published collections, to classify them typologically and to
identify other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much
more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through
archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their
compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site
can all be analyzed (using the techniques of zooarchaeology,
paleoethnobotany, and palynology), while any texts can usually be
dicephered.
These techniques frequently provide information that would not

otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding
of a site.
1.4. Dating the past
What do you think does dating the past in archaeology mean?
Dating material drawn from the archaeological record can be made by a direct study of

an artifact or may be deduced by association with materials found in the context the item is
drawn from or inferred by its point of discovery in the sequence relative to datable contexts.
Dating is carried out mainly during post-excavation, but to support good practice, some

preliminary dating work called spot dating is usually conducted in tandem with excavation.

Dating is very important in archaeology for constructing models of the past as it depends
on the integrity of datable objects and samples. Many disciplines of archaeological science are
concerned with dating evidence.
Archaeological scientists have two primary ways of telling the age

of artifacts and the sites from which they came: relative dating and
absolute dating.
1.4.1. Relative Dating in Archaeology

Relative dating in archaeology presumes the age of an artifact in relation and by
comparison to other objects found in its vicinity. Relative or indirect dating methods tend to use
associations built from the archaeological body of knowledge. An example is seriation.
Ultimately, relative dating relies on tying into absolute dating with reference to the present. One
example of this is dendrochronology which uses a process of tying floating chronologies of tree
rings together by cross referencing a body of work.
In practice, several different dating techniques must be applied in some circumstances.

Thus, dating evidence for much of an archaeological sequence recorded during excavation
requires matching information from known absolute or some associated steps, with a careful
study of stratigraphic relationships.
The style of the artifact and its archaeology location stratigraphically

are required to arrive at a relative date. For example, if an artifact, say an oil
lamp, is found co-located on the same floor of a governor's dwelling, and
that floor can be dated in archaeology terms by reason of the patterns
employed in the mosaic, then it is assumed that in relation to the floor that
the lamp is of the same age.
1.4.1.1. Stratigraphy as a Dating Technique

The underlying principle of stratigraphic analysis in archaeology is that of superposition.

Superposition means that older artifacts are usually found below younger items, or the younger
strata will be deposited on top of the strata that are older given normal conditions of depositions.
When an archaeological site is excavated, the sides of the unexcavated baulk reveal layering of
subsequent settlements and activity. Stratigraphic excavation is the recording and study of these
different strata as they are removed from the area. In other words, stratigraphy refers to the
application of the Law of Superposition to soil and geological strata containing archaeological
materials in order to determine the relative ages of layers. In addition, stratigraphy can tell us
much about the processes affecting the deposition of soils, and the condition of sites and
artifacts. These are called post-depositional processes, and their study is part of Middle Range
Theory.
Stratigraphy

Map showing the structure of Superposition
layer E(older)
1.4.1.1.1. Age Equivalent Stratigraphic Markers

A. Paleomagnetism: The polarity of the Earth changes at a knowable rate. This polarity is stored
within rocks. Through this, the rock can be dated.
B. Tephrochronology: Volcanic ash has its own signature for each eruption. In a sedimentary
sequence, the associated material within the ash layer can be dated giving a date for the eruption.
If this ash is found anywhere else in the world, a date will already be known (bearing in mind
transportation time).
C. Oxygen isotope chronostratigraphy: This is based on the climatic stages displayed

in SPECMAP (Mapping Spectral Variability in Global Climate Project) relating to different cold
and warm stages experienced in deep time. For example, point 5.5 in the SPECMAP chronology
describes the peak of the last interglacial (a geological interval of warmer global average
temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice
age) 125,000 years ago.
How do you compare and contrast the above three Age Equivalent
Stratigraphic Markers?
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1.4.1.1.2. Stratigraphic relationships
Archaeologists investigating a site may wish to date the activity rather than artifacts on
site by dating the individual contexts which represents events. Some degree of dating objects by
their position in the sequence can be made with known datable elements of the archaeological
record or other assumed datable contexts deduced by a regressive form of relative dating which
in turn can fix events represented by contexts to some range in time. For example, the date of
formation of a context which is totally sealed between two datable layers will fall between the
dates of the two layers sealing it. However, the dates of contexts often fall in a range of
possibilities. So using them to date others is not a straightforward process.
Fig. A

Fig. B
Take the hypothetical section fig A. Here, we can see 12 contexts each numbered with a unique
context number and whose sequence is represented in the Harris matrix in fig B.
1. A horizontal layer
2. Masonry wall remnant
3. Backfill of the wall construction trench (sometimes called construction cut)
4. A horizontal layer, probably the same as 1
5. Construction cut for wall 2
6. A clay floor abutting wall 2
7. Fill of shallow cut 8

8. Shallow pit cut
9. A horizontal layer
10.A horizontal layer, probably the same as 9
11.Natural sterile ground formed before human occupation of the site

12. Trample in the base of cut 5 formed by workmen's boots constructing the structure wall 2
and floor 6 is associated with.
If we know the date of context 1 and context 9 we can deduce that context 7, the backfilling
of pit 8, occurred sometime after the date for 9 but before the date for 1, and if we recover an
assemblage of artifacts from context 7 that occur nowhere else in the sequence, we have isolated
them with a reasonable degree of certainty to a discrete range of time. In this instance, we can
now use the date we have for finds in context 7 to date other sites and sequences. In practice a
huge amount of cross referencing with other recorded sequences is required to produce dating
series from stratigraphic relationships such as the work in seriation.
What do you think is cross dating?

Cross-dating is a technique used to take advantage of consistencies

in stratigraphy between parts of a site or different sites, and objects or strata
with a known relative chronology. A specialized form of cross-dating,
using animal and plant fossils, is known as biostratigraphy.
1.4.1.1.2.1. Residual and intrusive finds

One issue in using stratigraphic relationships is that the date of artifacts in a context does
not represent the date of the context, but just the earliest date the context could be. If we look at
the sequence in fig A, we may find that the cut for the construction of wall 2, context 5, has cut
through layers 9 and 10 and in doing so has introduced the possibility that artifacts from layers 9
and 10 may be re-deposited higher up the sequence in the context representing the backfill of the
construction cut, context 3. These artifacts are referred to as "residual" or "residual finds". It is
crucial that dating a context is based on the latest dating evidence drawn from the context. We
can also see that if the fill of cut 5 — the wall 2, backfill 3 and trample 12 — are not removed
entirely during excavation because of "undercutting", non-residual artifacts from these later
"higher" contexts: 2, 3 and 12 could contaminate the excavation of earlier contexts such as 9 and
10 and give false dating information. These artifacts may, therefore, be termed intrusive finds.
1.4.1.2. The Weakness of Relative Dating
Limits to relative dating are that it cannot provide an accurate year or a specific date of
use. Simply assuming that an artifact is older because it was found at a lower depth in the record
is only subjective science. There are many instances of deep holes being dug for rubbish pits or
to locate well water that protrude into the record of older strata injecting more modern material
as they are filled in over time. Landslides and slips can completely change the topography of an
entire archaeology site burying what was once on top by that which is much older, hence
reversing the strata layers. In general, relative dating does not tell us when an event occurred or
just the order in which events occurred.

As the above picture shows, post depositional processes, both natural and human, can
result in very complex stratigraphy. Although stratigraphy and the Law of Superposition can help
us determine the relative ages of occupations, one must be very alert to alterations in stratigraphy
that may throw chronological reckoning off. Various phenomena, such as hole digging or
mudslides, can completely reverse stratigraphy. Thus, long profiles or profiles from a number of
units are necessary to avoid misinterpretation.
1.4.2. Absolute Dating in Archaeology

A more precise and accurate archaeology dating system is known as absolute dating and
it can, in most circumstances, provide a calendar year to the object. In other words, absolute
dating methods rely on using some physical property of an object or sample to calculate its age.
The method is highly dependent on laboratory analysis. There are a number of techniques that
have come to archaeology through the nuclear research efforts during WWII.
Some of the types of absolute dating are discussed as follows:
1.4.2.1. Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon, or Carbon-14, dating is probably one of the most widely used and best
known absolute dating methods. It was developed by J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby in 1949, and
has become an indispensable part of the archaeologists’ tool kit since then. It is development
revolutionized archaeology by providing a means of dating deposits independent of artifacts and
local stratigraphic sequences. This allowed for the establishment of world-wide chronologies.

Radiocarbon dating uses the biological assumption that all living

things absorb carbon, both ordinary carbon, C12, and radioactive carbon,
C14, into their living tissue. At the moment of death, the C14 begins to
decay at a rate that scientists already know from other experiments. The
missing amount can then determine how long it took to be lost and therefore
date the object to a precise period. C14 Radiocarbon dating can only be used
on organic matter.
Where does C -14 come from?

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Radiocarbon dating relies on a simple natural phenomenon. As the Earth's upper

atmosphere is bombarded by cosmic radiation, atmospheric nitrogen is broken down into an
unstable isotope of carbon, carbon 14 (C-14). The unstable isotope is brought to Earth by
atmospheric activity, such as storms, and becomes fixed in the biosphere. Because it reacts
identically to C-12 and C-13, C-14 becomes attached to complex organic molecules through
photosynthesis in plants and becomes part of their molecular makeup. Animals eating those
plants in turn absorb Carbon-14 as well as the stable isotopes. This process of ingesting C-14
continues as long as the plant or animal remains alive.
C-14 Decay Profile
The C-14 within an organism is continually decaying into stable carbon isotopes, but
since the organism is absorbing more C-14 during its life, the ratio of C-14 to C-12 remains
about the same as the ratio in the atmosphere. When the organism dies, the ratio of C-14 within
its carcass begins to gradually decrease. The rate of decrease is 1/2 of the quantity at death every
5,730 years. That is the half-life of C-14.

C-14
The Limitations of Carbon-14 Dating
What do you think are some of the limitations of the Carbon-14

dating?
Using carbon-14 dating, almost any sample of organic material can be directly dated. There are a
number of limitations, however.
1. The size of the archaeological sample is important. Larger samples are better, because
purification and distillation remove some matter. Although new techniques for working
with very small samples have been developed, like accelerator dating, these are very
expensive and still somewhat experimental.
2. Great care must be taken in collecting and packing samples to avoid contamination by
more recent carbon. For each sample, clean trowels should be used, to avoid cross
contamination between samples. The samples should be packaged in chemically neutral
materials to avoid picking up new C-14 from the packaging. The packaging should also
be airtight to avoid contact with atmospheric C-14. Also, the stratigraphy should be
carefully examined to determine that a carbon sample location was not contaminated by
carbon from a later or an earlier period.
3. Because the decay rate is logarithmic, radiocarbon dating has significant upper and lower
limits. It is not very accurate for fairly recent deposits. In recent deposits so little decay
has occurred that the error factor (the standard deviation) may be larger than the date
obtained. The practical upper limit is about 50,000 years, because so little C-14 remains
after almost 9 half-lives that it may be hard to detect and obtain an accurate reading,
regardless of the size of the sample.
4. The ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the atmosphere is not constant. Although it was originally
thought that there has always been about the same ratio, radiocarbon samples taken and
cross dated using other techniques like dendrochronology have shown that the ratio of C-
14 to C-12 has varied significantly during the history of the Earth. This variation is due to
changes in the intensity of the cosmic radiation bombardment of the Earth, and changes
in the effectiveness of the Van Allen belts and the upper atmosphere to deflect that
bombardment. For example, because of the recent depletion of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere, we can expect there to be more C-14 in the atmosphere today than there was
20-30 years ago. To compensate for this variation, dates obtained from radiocarbon
laboratories are now corrected using standard calibration tables developed in the past 15-
20 years. When reading archaeological reports, be sure to check if the carbon-14 dates
reported have been calibrated or not.
5. Although radiocarbon dating is the most common and widely used chronometric
technique in archaeology today, it is not infallible (perfect). In general, single dates
should not be trusted. Whenever possible multiple samples should be collected and dated
from associated strata. The trend of the samples will provide a ball park estimate of the
actual date of deposition. The trade-off between radiocarbon dating and other techniques,
like dendrochronology, is that we exchange precision for a wider geographical and
temporal range. That is the true benefit of radiocarbon dating, that it can be employed
anywhere in the world, and does have a 50,000 years range. Using radiocarbon dating,

archaeologists during the past 30 years have been able to obtain a much needed global
perspective on the timing of major prehistoric events such as the development of
agriculture in various parts of the world.
1.4.2.2. Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology is another traditional technique for establishing the absolute date of

events. This is also called Tree-Ring Dating. Tree-Ring dating is based on the principle that the
growth of rings on certain species of trees reflects variations in seasonal and annual rainfa ll. Trees
from the same species growing in the same area or environment will be exposed to the same
conditions, and hence, their growth rings will match at the point where their lifecycles overlap.
The method is generally used for dating trees and objects made from wood, and also very important
for calibrating radiocarbon dates
Dendrochronology
Limitations of Dendrochronology
There are limitations on dendrochronology. Some of those limitations include:
 In some areas of the world, particularly in the tropics, the species available do not have
sufficiently distinct seasonal patterns that they can be used.

 Where the right species are available, the wood must be well enough preserved that the
rings are readable. In addition, there must be at least 30 intact rings on any one sample.
 There also must be an existing master strip for that area and species. There is an absolute
limit on how far back in the past we can date things with tree rings. Although bristle cone
pine trees can live to 9,000 years, this is a very rare phenomenon. As we try to push our
matching of archaeological specimens beyond the range for which we have good
controlled data, our confidence in the derived dates diminishes.
 Finally, the prehistoric people being studied had to have built fairly substantial structures
using wood timbers. In most of the world that did not begin to happen until about 4,000
to 5,000 years ago!
How do you compare the C-14 dating technique with that of

Dendrochronology?
1.4.2.3. Potassium-Argon Dating
Potassium-Argon dating is the only viable technique for dating very old archaeological
materials and also for dating fossilized hominid remains. Geologists have used this method to
date rocks as much as 4 billion years old. It is based on the fact that some of the radioactive
isotope of Potassium, Potassium-40 (K-40), decays to the gas, Argon, as Argon-40 (Ar-40). By
comparing the proportion of K-40 to Ar-40 in a sample of volcanic rock, and knowing the decay
rate of K-40, the date that the rock formed can be determined.

Potassium-Argon Dating
How Does the Reaction Work?
Potassium (K) is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust (2.4% by mass).
One out of every 100 Potassium atoms is radioactive Potassium-40 (K-40). These each have 19
protons and 21 neutrons in their nucleus. If one of these protons is hit by a beta particle, it can be
converted into a neutron. With 18 protons and 22 neutrons, the atom has become Argon-40 (Ar-
40), an inert gas. For every 100 K-40 atoms that decay, 11 become Ar-40.
How is the Atomic Clock Set?
When rocks are heated to the melting point, any Ar-40 contained in them is released into
the atmosphere. When the rock re-crystallizes it becomes impermeable (resistant) to gasses
again. As the K-40 in the rock decays into Ar-40, the gas is trapped in the rock.

Limitations on K-Ar Dating
The Potassium-Argon dating method is an invaluable tool for those archaeologists and
paleoanthropologists studying the earliest evidence for human evolution. As with any dating
technique, there are some significant limitations.
 The technique works well for almost any igneous or volcanic rock, provided that the rock
gives no evidence of having gone through a heating-recrystallization process after its
initial formation. For this reason, only trained geologists should collect the samples in the
field.
 This technique is most useful to archaeologists and paleoanthropologists when lava flows
or volcanic tuffs form strata that overlie strata bearing the evidence of human activity.
Dates obtained with this method then indicate that the archaeological materials cannot be
younger than the tuff or lava stratum. Because the materials dated using this method are
NOT the direct result of human activity, unlike radiocarbon dates for example, it is
critical that the association between the igneous/volcanic beds being dated and the strata
containing human evidence is very carefully established.
 The standard deviations for K-Ar dates are so large that resolution higher than about a
million years is almost impossible to achieve. By comparison, radiocarbon dates seem
almost as precise as a cesium clock! Potassium-argon dating is accurate from 4.3 billion
years (the age of the Earth) to about 100,000 years before the present. At 100,000 years,
only 0.0053% of the potassium-40 in a rock would have decayed to argon-40, pushing the
limits of present detection devices. Eventually, potassium-argon dating may be able to
provide dates as recent as 20,000 years before present.
What possible similarity and difference do you

observe between the C-14 dating and K-Ar Dating?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
1.4.2.4. Archaeomagnetic dating
Clay lined fire hearths take on a magnetic moment pointing to the North Pole each time,
they are fired and then cool. The position of the North Pole for the last time the fire hearth was
used can be determined and compared to charts of known locations and dates.
Magnetic Properties of Lead used to establish dates. Chemistry Professor Shimon Reich,

a specialist in superconductivity, has demonstrated a method for dating artifacts based on the
magnetic properties of lead, which is a material widely used in Israel and elsewhere in antiquity.
Reich and co-workers found that at cryogenic temperatures, lead becomes a superconductor, but
the corrosion products formed from centuries of exposure to air and water (lead oxide and lead
carbonate) do not super conduct. On the basis of magnetic measurements and comparison with
artifacts that were known (using other techniques) to be up to 2500 years old, the group showed
that the mass of lead corrosion products is directly proportional to an object's age.
1.4.2.5. Luminescence dating

Artifacts that are made from crystalline materials and uncovered in an excavation can be
dated using luminescence analysis. Crystalline minerals when subjected to intense heat will burn
with differing colors of flame. Mostly used to date pottery in archaeology, this method is very
effective but costly.
The greatest problem with dating an artifact from an archaeology site is that nearly every
absolute dating process requires the destruction of at least a piece of the object in conducting the
analysis. There are relatively few dating laboratories and having an artifact dated can be an
expensive exercise especially if the artifact is not of great value itself.

1.4.2.6. Uranium - Lead Dating

Lithic items cannot be dated by C-14 radiocarbon methods but the same principle can be
used using radioactive uranium. Rocks, when formed by volcanic reaction or other cataclysmic
event, contain a minute quantity of radioactive substance. From the day of the rock's creation this
radioactivity begins to deplete. Like C-14, by measuring the loss, a scientist can attribute an age
according to known loss rates.
1.4.2.7. Thermoluminescence dating
This dating technique is used for dating inorganic material including ceramics.
1.4.2.8. Numismatics
Many coins have the date of their production written on them or their use is specified in
the historical record.
1.4.2.9. Obsidian hydration dating
This is a geochemical method of determining age in either absolute or relative terms of

an artifact made of obsidian.
1.4.3. Rehydroxylation dating

This method is used for dating ceramic materials.
How do you sum up the particular feature of each of

the ten absolute dating techniques?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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Activity
Provide a brief and precise response to each of the following

questions.
1. Define what archaeology means and enumerate the merit of its application.
2. List the types of archaeology and discuss each of them.
3. Enumerate the steps one should follow in field archaeological research in

their order and discuss the activity at each step briefly.
4. Point out each of the dating techniques used for measuring the age of an
Check List
Put a tick mark () in the boxes given to prove if you have understood the
respective issues well.
I can:
1. Define what archaeology means……………………………
2. Enumerate the merits of studying archaeology…………….
3. List and discuss the types of archaeology……………………..

Jimma University,4.Department ofelaborate
Point out and History the
andprocedures
HeritageanManagement
archaeologist Page
follow32
in field
research……………… ………………………………..
5. Enumerate the various dating techniques in archaeology……
6. Explain the difference between relative dating and absolute

Self-check Exercise 1
Part I. Read the following statements carefully, and if the statement is correct, write
“True”; if not, write “False” on the space provided.
1. The information obtained through archaeology is relatively more accurate and detailed
than the information obtained from written records.______________________
2. Archaeology becomes useful solely in the absence of written records.________________
Part II. Questions are presented below with possible alternative answers. Choose the best
answer from the given alternatives and write the letter of your choice on the space
provided.
3. Which one of the following limitations of written records may NOT be significantly
addressed by archaeology?________
A. Biasness B. Neatness C. Incompleteness D. Unavailability
4. Of the following dating techniques, which one is an absolute method used to date both
organic and inorganic materials? ___________

A. C-14 B. K-Ar C. Tephrochronology D. Paleo-magnetism

Part III: Match the concepts provided under Column “A” with the items provided under
Column “B”, and write the letter of your matching item on the space provided.
“A” “B”
5. Archaeological study of living people ______ A. Archaeometry

6. The period of the human past witnessing B. History
the longest human evolution_____ C. Ethnoarchaeology
D. Prehistory
Unit Two
History of Archaeology
Dear students! This second unit of the module enables you explore the
historical development of the concept of archaeology from the global to a national level.
It highlights how the world and African experience was in developing the concept of
archaeology, and it lastly treats the Ethiopian experience in a better manner.
Objectives
After completing this unit of the module, you will be able to:
 Examine the historical development of the discipline of archaeology both at the global,
continental and national level.

 Identify the influential personalities and explain their role in developing the discipline of
archaeology at all levels.
 Analyse the problem of particularly African archaeology.
2.1. World Archaeology
Gathering antique artifacts and producing art were common in the ancient world since
Babylon in the 6th century BC to classical civilizations and rarely during the medieval times.
Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic and

documented guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century for which
he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli or Cyriacus of Ancona
(31 July 1391 — 1453/55) was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist who came from a prominent
family of merchants in Ancona. Ciriaco traveled all around the Eastern Mediterranean, noting
down his archaeological discoveries in his day-book, Commentaria, that was eventually filled in
six volumes. He has been called father of archaeology.
Modern archaeology has its origins in the antiquarianism of Europe in the mid-19th
century, where it developed soon after the scientific advancement of geology, which had shown
that the Earth was billions rather than thousands of years old, as was then commonly believed.
Soon after this, in 1859, Charles Darwin's “On the Origin of Species” was published, outlining his
theory of evolution, eventually leading scientists to believe that humanity was in fact millions of

years old, thereby providing a time limit within which the developed archaeological movement
could study. Meanwhile, in 1836, the Danish historian Christian Jürgensen Thomsen published A
Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed (Guideline to Scandinavian Antiquity), which was translated
into English in 1848. Thomsen proposed in the book the idea that collections of European
artifacts from prehistory could be divided up into a three age system: the Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age.
Thomsen was not the first scholar to propose the three age system (that
idea dated back to Greek and Roman thinkers), but he was the first to apply
these categories to material culture, and with that innovation came significant
advances in the concept of seriation or stylistic changes through time.
They were these three concepts of human antiquity, evolution and the Three-Age system
that are often thought of as the building blocks for modern archaeology.

The early archaeologists soon began to investigate various areas around the world, with
the study of ancient Aegean civilization being stimulated by the excavations of Heinrich
Schliemann at Troy, and of Arthur Evans at Crete, whilst John Lloyd Stephens was a pivotal
figure in the rediscovery of Maya civilization throughout Central America. However, the
methodologies employed by these archaeologists were highly criticized by today's standards,
often having a eurocentric bias, and many early European archaeologists often relied on
anthropological and ethnographic accounts provided by the likes of Edward Tylor and Lewis
Henry Morgan, thereby comparing contemporary "savage" peoples like the Native Americans
with the historical peoples of Europe who lived in similar societies. Soon the new discipline of
archaeology spread to North America, where it was taken up by figures like Samuel Haven and
William Henry Holmes, who excavated ancient Native American monuments.
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is given the credit for conducting the first scientific
excavation in 1784, when he excavated the Native American burial mound on his property in
Virginia. Based on the systematic approach and the logical deduction Jefferson used in this
excavation, he is considered to have been ahead of his time.
However, archaeology only became fully established during the 19th century following
the understanding that human evolution dates back over seven million years. Prior to that, we
have the less organized antiquarianism. This is not a discipline, but it is rather disorganized study
or interest in antiquities. The Society of Antiquaries of London was established in 1717. In
1770, it started to publish remarkable periodical, Archaeologia, whose style and format altered
little till today.
Further advancements in archaeological field methodology arose in the late 19th century.
One of the pioneering figures in this was Augustus Pitt Rivers, who meticulously excavated on
Cranborne Chase in southern England, stressing that it was not only items of beauty or value that
should be recorded but mundane items as well; he therefore helped to differentiate archaeology
from antiquarianism. Other important archaeologists who further refined the discipline in the late
19th and early 20th centuries were Flinders Petrie (who excavated in Egypt and Palestine), Sir
Mortimer Wheeler (India), Dorothy Garrod (the Middle East), Max Uhle (Peru) and Alfred

Kidder (Mexico). Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued throughout the
20th century, in particular in the 1960s, when maritime archaeology was popularised by George
Bass, urban archaeology became more prevalent with redevelopment in many European cities,
and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.
Could you provide a brief description on how World archaeology developed?
2.2. African Archaeology
The origins of archaeology in the African continent can be traced back to the 19th
century, which coincides with the scramble for African land. Thus, as Holl (1990: 226) described
it, archaeology is the “child of the colonial enterprise”.
The development of archaeology in other regions did not follow the same trend, although
similarities do exist. Amongst them are the roles played by amateur archaeologists, especially
during the colonial era. Furthermore, politics seems to have significantly shaped the development
of archaeology. Let us see some African countries which have emerged as centers of rich
archaeological explorations and discoveries.
2.2.1. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
Olduvai Gorge in the Great Rift Valley of Tanzania was excavated by Louis and Mary
Leakey in the mid-1950s. The site, or rather group of sites, is nine miles long and 350 feet deep
and includes almost 2 million years of occupation.

Olduvai Gorge, East Africa, a region of numerous excavations yielding finds that were essential
to the prehistory of Africa.
Sites at Olduvai are primarily stream and lake-side occupations, where stone working
occurred. A stone-hut structure is in evidence at the DK locality, dated approximately 1.8 million
years ago. Other site types include butchery sites, home bases, and storage caches.
Fossil hominids identified at Olduvai include Australopithecus boisei, Homo habilis and
Homo erectus. Stone tool assemblages recognized there include Acheulean and Oldowan.
The excavations at Olduvai were important because they established the African origin of
humankind.
2.2.2. South Africa
South Africa has had the most archaeological activity in the southern African sub-
continent. In South Africa, archaeology as a profession probably dates back to the early 20th
century when Astley John Hilary Goodwin, the first professionally trained archaeologist, was
appointed in 1923. Goodwin went on to teach the first archaeology course in the late 1920s at
the University of Cape Town. Prior to the election of the National Party into Government in
1948, South African archaeology enjoyed much support from the Government led by General
Jan Christian Smuts.

Van Riet Lowe, a civil engineer by training and, at one stage, Secretary of the Historical
Monuments Commission, served as the Public Relations Officer for archaeology. He had served
with General Jan Christian Smuts during the First World War. As Public Relations Officer for
archaeology, Van Riet Lowe ensured that it received support from the highest office in the
country.
This special support became evident in 1947 when the South African delegation to the
first Pan-African Congress on Prehistory held in Nairobi was flown to the conference on a
military aircraft. Around the same time, Goodwin left his mark on the archaeological landscape
in South Africa by establishing the South African Archaeological Society (SAAS) in 1945.
Today, the SAAS has four chapters within South Africa, with membership drawn from across the
globe.
Things changed dramatically when the United South African
National Party, led by General Jan Smuts, lost the elections in 1948. The
new National Party Government and its apartheid policies limited the
interaction of archaeologists in South Africa. They were prevented from
either attending international conferences or hosting them.
After Nelson Mandela’s release from prison in February 1990, South African
archaeologists were only allowed to participate in World Archaeology Congress (WAC)
meetings as observers. The ban was formally lifted in 1994 following the first democratic
elections.
The lack of support by the Nationalist Government sent a strong message that things had
changed for the archaeological discipline. Archaeologists in the country were prevented from
hosting the next Pan-African Congress on Prehistory in 1952 as had been planned. The new
government did not want archaeologists to produce findings that would compromise their
political dominance. Evidence showing that South Africa had been occupied long before the
arrival of the European colonists would have threatened the government.
Archaeology in South Africa has always been political. It became a lot more low-profile
Due to political meddling and the apartheid policies of South Africa.

Despite these challenges, this period saw not only the appointment of R. R. Inskeep from
Cambridge, but also an upsurge in the number of students trained in archaeology. This
transformed the archaeological discipline and wrestled it away from the so-called “amateur”
archaeologists – those who did not necessarily have formal qualifications in archaeology.
Amateur archaeologists published more than 50% of publications in

the South African Archaeological Bulletin prior to 1960, but this decreased
sharply to about 10% by the 1970s. These publications were mainly on the
Stone Age, as Iron Age studies were not yet a priority for political reasons. It
was for this reason that South Africa became famous for the discoveries of
hominid fossil materials from Taung, Sterkfontein, Mapagansgat and
Kroomdraai.
In 1970 a group of archaeologists formed the Southern African Association of

Archaeologists (SA3). Their main intention was to create a base of trained archaeologists with
the necessary expertise to manage the rich and diverse heritage, while promoting public
awareness.
Over the ensuing years the discipline of archaeology grew and became well established in
many southern Africa universities and museums. The profile of archaeology in southern Africa
has changed over time, and archaeologists now operate in many different sectors – from the
public and educational sector to trade and industry.
SA3 was transformed from a body promoting archaeology into the Association of
Southern African Professional Archaeologists (ASAPA). The new professional structure aims to
protect and serve the interests of archaeologists operating within the research and contract
resource management sector, to develop and promote the research and management of
The lack of transformation in the archaeological discipline is the

current challenge within South Africa. It has been described in some circles
archaeological resources and to promote the exchange of archaeological information within

southern Africa and abroad.
How do you evaluate the historical development of the discipline of

archaeology in South-Africa?
2.2.3. Botswana
The development of archaeology in Botswana took a different course to the rest of the
sub-continent. The first known archaeological activity in Botswana was conducted in the 1940s
by H. S. Gordon. It involved a surface collection of Stone Age artifacts in the Tati (Francistown)
district. These stone artifacts made their way to the Bulawayo museum in Zimbabwe. In the late
1940s, E. J. Wayland followed on from H. S. Gordon by conducting the first systematic study of
archaeology.
The lack of archaeological development in Botswana is closely linked to

the political environment within South Africa. This is because the British Crown
managed the then Bechuanaland Protectorate from an office in Mafikeng on the
South African border. No investment in a national museum had ever been
envisaged and this discouraged the development of archaeology.

What do you think is the reason for the negative attitude of colonial powers
towards the development of African archaeology?
When archaeology finally developed during the post independence period, it seems that it
began unsystematically, with influence from beyond its borders. The lack of archaeological
activity in Botswana changed completely during the 1970s, and Botswana became one of the
archaeological research capitals. During the colonial era, Botswana had been perceived as the
peripheral destination, previously unoccupied because of its harsh desert conditions. The
advantage of Botswana was that, unlike its neighboring countries, there were no colonially
derived stereotypes about the archaeology of the country.
Archaeology became an academic discipline in Botswana during the

late 1980s, when the University of Botswana initiated an archaeological
programme. During this time, research gathered momentum and a number of
ethnological studies of hunter-gather communities were conducted. This
made the Basarwa (Bushmen, San) ethnography more important in the
broader understanding of archaeology in Southern Africa.
The Botswana government has expressed concern for what they call an over-researched
Basarwa community. This may not be a general concern though, considering the tense social
relations between the government and the Basarwa, which have seen the parties going to courts
over land rights issues in recent years.
The significant factor in Botswanan archaeology is the transformation the discipline has
gone through. There are a number of indigenous Tswana archaeologists in the country who are
making their mark in various spheres of the discipline.

How do you compare and contrast South African archaeology with that of
Botswana?
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____________________________________________________________________________________
2.2.4. Namibia
Rock art and related studies constitute the traditional area of interest in Namibian
archaeology. This is also the field in which the former parental colonizer, Germany, has made a
significant contribution.
Rock art placed Namibian archaeology on the world map in the late 19th century. The
human figure accidentally discovered by Reinhardt Maack in 1917 caused a lot of controversy.
Abbe Henri Breuil later named it the White Lady, a misinterpretation of Maack’s description,
who correctly identified it as a male figure. The parental art excavated from Apollo 11 in the late
1960s has been dated by carbon to about 26 000 Before Present (BP), making it the oldest art in
the subcontinent. Twyfelfontein is one of the greatest tourism destinations in Namibia and was
inscribed into the lists of World Heritage Sites in 2007 – a testimony to the significance of rock
art in the country.
2.2.5. Mozambique
What is the distinctive feature of Namibian archaeology?
____________________________________________________________________________________
Archaeology in Mozambique began in the early 18th century, focusing mainly on the
____________________________________________________________________________________
Stone Age period with isolated reference to rock paintings. The country has not had a long
history of archaeological activity compared to its immediate geographic neighbors. The
Department of Archaeology and Anthropology was established at Eduardo Mondlane University
in Maputo in 1980. The involvement of the University of Bergen and its partners, such as the
Rock Art Research Institute, has increased interest in the archaeology of Mozambique.
Compare and contrast Mozambican archaeology with that of Namibia.

2.2.6. Zimbabwe
Unlike other countries that prioritized Stone Age research, Zimbabwean archaeology
focused mainly on the study of the Iron Age period. The origins of the stone-walled monuments,
particularly Great Zimbabwe, caused a lot of controversy.
Cecil John Rhodes realized that portraying Great Zimbabwe as

having a foreign origin would give him legitimacy to rule over the country.
During Ian Smith’s rule over Rhodesia, Smith controlled and censored all
archaeological writings which were to be made accessible to the public.
Research into recent periods was significantly discouraged as it could have
provided liberation struggle fighters with cultural pride and political
consciousness and thus be an even greater threat to the Rhodesian Front
Regime.
As a direct result of this political interference, similar to that of the Nationalist

Government in South Africa, Stone Age studies became part of archaeological research in
Rhodesia. Independence in 1980 not only encouraged the development of archaeology, but the
transformation of the discipline. The new crop of African archaeologists focused mainly on the
recent pre-colonial past, while, in contrast, their white counterparts focused on Stone Age
studies.

2.2.7. Ethiopia
The history of Ethiopian archaeological studies is not old enough. In the beginning of the
19th century, Henry Salt, during his tour to Ethiopia, lent due attention and copied some
inscriptions. However, the first person to work real research on the archaeology of Ethiopia was
Theodore Bent. During his four months stay in Ethiopia, he visited the ancient sites of Axum,
Adulis, Yeha and Coloe (Cohaito), where Sabaean, Ge’ez and Greek inscriptions and other
ancient relics were discovered. The inscriptions were copied, translated and commented upon by
D. Mulller, a specialist from Vienna University, Austria. Bent included this suggestion into his
book.
In 1906, the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, who had an enthusiastic

interest in the gathering of antiquities, dispatched an archaeological mission to
Ethiopia under the guidance of E. Littman. Working hard for three months in
Ethiopia, this mission went back to its country, Germany. The mission’s work
covered a wide area of northern Ethiopia, and six years later, the mission
published the result of its study in four volumes: the first volume containing
the information on travel, topography and the history of Aksum, while the
second volume dealing with ancient architecture, the third volume with the
material and building methods employed in Ethiopia in ancient and modern
times, and the last volume containing the rare Sabean, Ge’ez and Greek
inscriptions with translations and comments. The fact that the book was
published in German language reduces its accessibility by students and
specialist alike. But the work is very detailed and has invaluable information
about ancient Ethiopia.
How do you evaluate the German mission’s archaeological research on

Ethiopia?

In 1907, the Italian government sent its own mission to Ethiopia that conducted
excavation at ancient and famous Axumite port of Adulis. The mission’s aim was to discover the
famous monument of Adulis, though the mission did not find it at the end. Nevertheless, many
other articles and objects which were important for the history of the city and the country at large
were discovered in the region such as a quite number of coins, foundations of houses, different
types of pottery, etc. The entire research and discoveries are discussed by Gallina-Pariberi. For
the period of more than half a century during which the Italians were settled in Eritrea, this is the
first and the last serious archaeological expedition because the Italians prohibited excavations
during the time of their occupation. This situation also continued during the era of the British
administration. In general, the Italians could add something to the German mission. They,
however, did not contribute much towards the archaeological studies of Eritrea and Ethiopia.
The French also sponsored the mission of two monks of their country
by the name F. Azais and R. Chambard to study pre-history in southern and
eastern parts of Ethiopia. The finding of the mission was published in two
volumes, and the work is the first of its kind and useful as a means of
enriching our knowledge about Ethiopia’s pre-history.
All the aforementioned efforts were, however, occasional studies which were not pursued
with sustainability. It was only in 1952 that in collaboration with the French government that the
Ethiopian government founded the Archaeological Institute. Its goal was to promote and expand
the study of the antiquities of the country. The institute remained in charge of the study and
excavations of different ancient sites ever since. It had already undertaken a number of
excavations at pre-historic and historic sites. The results of these excavations are published in the
scientific journal in Ethiopia, Annales d’Ethiopie, prepared in French language.
Ten years later in 1962, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) came into existence when
the Haile-Sellassie I University (today’s Addis Ababa University) was founded. The main fields
of study of this Institute are literature, art and history. In general, it is the national depository of
Ethiopia. Since 1963, it has had its own biannual organ, the Journal of Ethiopian Studies.

IES Building, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa

Activity
Provide a brief and precise response to each of the following questions.
1. Discuss briefly how archaeology developed at the global level.

2. Explain how colonialism influenced African archaeology.
3. Enumerate the leading personalities contributing a lot for the development of
Archaeology at both the global, continental and national levels.
4. Compare and contrast Ethiopian archaeology with that of the other African
states discussed.
Check List
Put a tick mark () in the boxes given to prove if you have understood the
respective issues well.
I can:
1. Briefly discuss the development of World archaeology …….
2. Explain the major feature of African archaeology…………….
3. Analyze the impact of colonialism on the development of African

archaeology…………………….………………..…………….
4. Provide a brief account on how Ethiopian archaeology developed ……………..

5. Identify the similarities and differences between Ethiopian archaeology and
archaeology of the rest African states…………
6. List the leading contributors in both the World, African and Ethiopian
1. Euro-centrism was less in archaeology of colonial South Africa as compared to that of

colonial Botswana.______________________
Part II: Match the concepts provided under Column “A” with the items provided under
Column “B”, and write the letter of your matching item on the space provided.
“A” “B”
2. A man making the 1st serious research on A. R.Chambard

Ethiopian archaeology___ B. Henry Salt
3. Expert in translating Sabean and Greek inscriptions___ C. Journal of Ethiopian Studies
4. Specialist of south and eastern Ethiopian prehistory ___ D. Theodore Bent
5. The pioneering journal of Ethiopian archaeology___ E. Galina Paribeni
F. D. Muller
G. Annales d’Ethiopie

Unit Three
The Human Evolution
Dear students, this third unit of the module introduces you to the human
evolutionary process particularly in Ethiopia and the Horn. The unit outlines the theories on the
origin of human beings, the various hominid species discovered and the human evolution process
in the world generally and in Ethiopia and the Horn specifically.
Objectives:
Upon the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the theories on the origin of human beings.

 Identify the various hominid species discovered in the world in general and in Ethiopia
and the Horn in particular.
 Discuss the human evolution process well.

3.1. The Human Evolution
What are the theories on the origin of human beings?
All human beings belong to the same species and the origin of these species is to be
found in Africa, particularly in Ethiopia. Scientific researches conducted mainly after the 1950s
in the various parts of Africa are proving that Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular is
indeed “the cradle of humankind.”
There are two theories regarding the origin of human beings: creation theory and
evolutionary theory. The creation theory underlines that human beings are created by God, while
the evolutionary theory, unlike the creation theory, underlines that all living things including
human beings are results of a gradual development called evolution.
According to the evolutionary theory, all human beings descended from

primates (ape like creatures). The great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas and
orangutans) and the hominids (the human branch) had one common
ancestor, and the split between the two (the apes and the hominids)
occurred between five and ten million years ago.
The origin of the human evolutionary theory may go back to the middle of the 19 th
century when people in the Neander valley, Germany, discovered a skull in 1856. The people
thought that the odd and strange skull belonged to a person who had been suffering from rickets.

Later people, however, came to believe that there could have been creatures that were half-
human and half-ape. Then a German scientist named Ernst Heinrich said that the creature should
be named “Pithecanthropus erectus” meaning an upright ape-man. Following this development,
the work of Charles Darwin entitled “The Origin of Species” was published in 1859.
In 1924, the South African anthropologist, Raymond Dart, discovered the skull of a six
year old creature, ape like in appearance but with certain human like characteristics, in Taung,
South Africa. The large rounded skull, the small canine teeth and the position of the foramen
magnum (the hole in the skull through which the spinal cord pass) convinced Dart that the
creature was bipedal human ancestor. He named the creature “Australopithecus Africanus”
meaning “African Southern Ape.”
The skull of the Taung child, uncovered in South Africa. The child was an infant of the
Australopithecus africanus species, an early form of hominid.
Dart’s discovery was followed in the early 1960s by Mary and Louis Leakey’s discovery
of many fossils in the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania belonging to the hominid species.
In 1980, the Dutch physician, Eugenne Dubois, discovered an ape like skull in Java,
Indonesia. He also discovered a human like bone near the site the skull was discovered. He
consequently concluded that the creature was the link between humans and apes.
The above discoveries, therefore, paved the way for the rise and consolidation of the
human evolution theory.
Enumerate
Jimma University, the historical
Department milestones
of History and in the development
Heritage Management Page 52 of the human
evolutionary theory chronologically?
3.1.1. The Hominids
What does hominid mean?
The word “hominid” refers to members of the family of human beings. It particularly
refers to a biological name for human or humanlike creatures with enlarged brains and the ability
to walk upright on two legs. As discussed earlier, humans and apes had common ancestor.
Through time, however, the hominids (the human branch) had formed a super family different
from the great apes. The hominids super family includes living humans, all human ancestors and
the extinct members of Australopithecus genus.
Australopithecus is a name given to the ape like creatures which are

believed to be the oldest species of the hominid family. The numerous
fossils discovered so far in African continent belong to the
Australopithecus genus, which is a division of animals or plants below a
family and above species.
The numerous Australopithecus fossils discovered so far in the African continent are
classified into eight species. Their names are as follows:
No Species’ Name Age (in million Discovery Place Discovery Year

. years) (Country)
1. Australopithecus Africanus 2-3 South Africa 1924, 1947
2. Australopithecus Robustus 1.5-2.0 South Africa 1950
3. Australopithecus Boisei 1.7-1.8 Tanzania, Kenya 1959,1970
4. Australopithecus Anamnesis 4.0 Kenya 1965,1994
5. Australopithecus Afarensis 3.18 Ethiopia 1974, 1991
6. Australopithecus Aethiopicus 2.5 Kenya 1985

7. Australopithecus Ramidus 4.4 Ethiopia 1992, 1994

8. Australopithecus Garhi 2.5 Ethiopia 1997
As the above table shows, the east African region was the home for six of the eight
Australopithecus species discovered in the entire Africa and Ethiopia was particularly the home
for the oldest Australopithecus species, Australopithecus Ramidus.
The first hominid to evolve in the homo line was Homo Habilis, which was clever or
handy human being, who had developed manipulative hands. This hominid is dated to between
1.5 and 2.5 million years old. Fossils of such hominid were discovered in eastern and southern
Africa. In Ethiopia, such hominid remains were unearthed in the lower Omo valley.
 The brain size of Homo Habilis was between 65-800cc.

 The back teeth of Homo-Habilis are smaller but larger than that of
modern humans.
 Homo Habilis was very similar to the Australopithecus species in
many ways.
 The brain is larger than Australopithecus and smaller than modern
humans.
 The shape of the brain is also more like human.
 Homo-Habilis was possibly capable of rudimentary speech.
The second hominid in this homo line was Homo Erectus, which was an upright man and
is dated to 1.5 million years ago. It was the first hominid to move out of Africa. Its oldest and
most complete skull was found in the area east of Lake Turkana in 1975.
 Homo Erectus had definitely language and probably used fire

and better stone tools than that of Homo Habilis.
 The brain size of Homo Erectus was between 900 - 1100cc,
and had thick brow ridges.
 His skeleton was stronger than that of modern humans.
 Homo Erectus had protruding jaws with larger molars but no
chin like Homo Habilis.
The third hominid was Homo Sapiens (Archaic). The hominid provides the bridge
between Homo Erectus and Homo Sapiens Sapiens (the late form of modern man) during the
period: 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. Many skulls have been found with features intermediate
between the two. The brain size of the hominid was about 1200cc and was able to communicate

well using language. Skulls are more rounded and with smaller features. Molars and brow ridges
are smaller. The skeleton shows a stronger build than modern human but was well proportioned.
From ape to modern man: The human evolution theory
The fourth hominid was Homo Sapiens Neandertalensis, who lived in Europe and the
Mideast between 150,000 and 35,000 years ago. Neandertals coexisted with H.Sapiens (archaic)
and early H.Sapiens Sapiens. It is not known whether he was of the same species and
disappeared into the H. Sapiens Sapiens gene pool or he may have been crowded out of existence
(killed off) by the H. Sapiens Sapiens. Recent DNA studies have indicated that the Neandertal
was an entirely different species and did not merge into the H. Sapiens Sapiens gene pool. His
brain size averaged larger than modern man at about 1450cc but the head was shaped differently,
being longer and lower than modern man. His nose was large and was different from modern
man in structure. He was a massive man at about 1.68m tall with an extremely heavy skeleton
that showed attachments for massive muscles. He was far stronger than modern man. His jaw
was massive and he had a receding forehead, like Homo Erectus.
Homo Sapiens Neandertalensis is the early form of modern human

being. Hominid of the late form of modern human being is called Homo
Sapiens Sapiens, which is a “thinking thinking human being.” It is
believed to have first appeared in Africa by about 40,000BC. The
average brain size of the hominid was about 1350cc.

All the hominids trace their origin in Africa, particularly to the eastern part of Africa. It
was by originating from this continent, Africa, that the last hominid, Homo Sapiens Sapiens,
spread to the rest parts of the world by 10,000BC.

3.1.2. The Human Evolution in Ethiopia and the Horn

Remains of one of the Australopithecus species, Australopithecus Afarensis, was first
discovered in Ethiopia, particularly at a place called Hadar, in Afar, on 24 November 1974 by
the scientists known by the name: Donald Johanson and Tom Gray. The scientists named the
discovered fossil of an adult female of 25 years “Lucy” , after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky
with Diamonds", which was being played loudly and repeatedly on a tape recorder at the place,
while the Ethiopians call it “Dinkinesh”. It was 40% of Lucy’s skeleton which the
aforementioned scientists discovered in Hadar.
Lucy is about 3.18 million years old and is the most complete. She
was also bipedal (walked on two feet with upright position) with 107 cm
height and 28 kgs weight.
She was given the scientific name of Australopithecus Afarensis

since it was discovered in the Afar region of Ethiopia.
A year later in 1975, Johanson’s team discovered the remains of thirteen individuals of
all ages in the same region of Hadar. All of them were about 3.2 million years old.
Focusing on the same Afar region, Bill Kimbel and Yoel Rak discovered a complete skull
of an adult male at Hadar in 1991. The discovered fossil was about 3 million years old belonging
to the Australopithecus Afarensis species. One year later in 1992, an archaeologist team led by
Birhane Asfaw and Tim White discovered fossils of 17 individuals at Aramis in the same Afar.
Most of the remains were teeth and skull fragments. The three bones from the left arm of a single
individual show a mixture of human and ape features. The fossils were 4.4 million years old.
Since the discovered fossils are much older than the Australopithecus Afarensis species, they are
given a separate scientific name called Australopithecus Ramidus. The name Ramidus was
derived from the name of the place where the fossils were discovered – Aramis.

Like Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Ramidus was also

bipedal. The teeth of Ramidus are intermediate between those of the earlier apes
and the Afarensis species. Ramidus was much older (4.4 million years) than
Afarensis. But it was Afaresis which was more closer to modern humans than
Ramidus.
In 1996, a team of multi-national scientists headed by Birhane Asfaw discovered a partial

skull and an upper jaw with teeth in the Afar region. The fossil is about 2.5 million years old.
The scientists named this new fossil Australopithecus Garhi. Garhi’s teeth are much bigger than
those of Afarensis. That makes Garhi closer to true human beings. But like Afarensis, Garhi’s
face projects forward. The brain is smaller, though the premolars and molars are enormous.
These features caused scientists to believe that Garhi has intermediate features and lived in the
period between Afarensis species and Homo Habilis (3.2 - 1.9 million years).
Near the same site, another archaeologist from Indiana University, Sileshi Semaw,
discovered stone tools of 2.5 million years age. This discovery provides evidence that about 2.5
million years ago, human ancestors had already developed the ability to make stone tools such as
stone knives and the ability meat and marrow.
3.1.2.1. The Discovery of Ardi

The name Ardi stands for the fossilized skeletal remains of a female Ardipithecus
ramidus, which is an early human-like species aging 4.4 million years old. It is the most
complete early hominid specimen with most of the skull, teeth, pelvis, hands and feet.
The first fragmentary specimens of Ardipithecus ramidus were found in the Rift Valley
Afar Region of Ethiopia, particularly at Aramis, in 1992. But the archaeologists described the
fossils and gave them the name, Australopithecus ramidus, as noted above, thereby making the
discovery public through the popular Journal, “Nature”, two years later, i.e. in 1994. It was
during this time that more bone fragments of Ardi amounting 45% of its total skeleton were
recovered. It, however, has taken fifteen years more involving forty seven international scientists
to piece together, analyze and describe the bone fragments of the later Ardipithecus ramidus.

The scientists have pieced together 125 fragments of bone including much of Ardi’s
skull, hands, feet, arms, legs and pelvis, which were dated to 4.4 million years ago using the
volcanic layers of soil above and below the discovered fossil: the basal Gila Tuff
Complex(GATC) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff(DABT).
The results were surprising. Previously, scientists believed that our common ancestor
would have been very chimpanzee like, and that ancient hominids such as Ardi would still have
much in common with them. But Ardi was not suited like a modern day chimpanzee to swinging
or hanging from trees or walking on her knuckles. This suggests that chimpanzees and gorillas
developed those characteristics after the split with humans challenging the view that they are
merely an “undeveloped” version of us.
Ardi, a more complete set of remains than Australopithecus Lucy

cannot be a common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans. The feet of
chimpanzee are specialized for grasping trees. The feet of Ardipithecus
ramidus are, however, better suited for walking. The canine teeth of
Ardipithecus ramidus are smaller and equal in size between males and females.
This suggests reduced male to male conflict, pair bonding, and increased parental
investment. Thus fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes
probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to
use stone tools.
The Ardipithecus ramidus fossils were discovered in the middle Awash region of Ethiopia just
46 miles (74km) from where Lucy’s species, Australopithecus Afarensis, was discovered in 1974.
Radiometric dating of the aforementioned two layers of volcanic ash that tightly sandwiched the
fossil deposits of Ardipithecus ramidus revealed that Ardi lived 4.4 million years ago.

The site of Aramis in the middle Awash region
The word Ardi means “ground”/ “floor”, while the word ramid means “root” in the Afar
language. The “pithecus” portion of the name is derived from the Greek word “ape”.
Ardi is a more primitive hominid than the well known Lucy. Standing at 4 feet (120cm tall and
weighing around 110 pounds (50kg), Ardi was about 6 inches taller than Lucy, but almost double of her
weight. Although it is not known whether Ardi’s species developed into Homo Sapiens, the discovery is
of great significance as Ardi is the oldest known hominid fossil.
Ardi’s complete discovery was made public on 1 st October 2009 on the journal, “Science”, and
the discovery was made by a team of scientists led by UC Berkley anthropologist, Tim D.white and was
analyzed by an international group of scientists that included Owen Lovejoy heading the biology team.

The fossil of Lucy (3.18million years old) The fossil of Ardi (4.4million years old)
Analysis of the ape skeleton of Ardi, found in Ethiopia in 1994, reveals humans and chimps
evolved separately from a common ancestor

Activity
questions.
1. Explain the theories on the origin of human being.

2. Discuss the major discoveries consolidating the human evolution theory.
Check List
Put a tick mark () in the boxes given to prove if you have understood
the respective issues well.
I can:
1. Explain the difference between australopithecines and hominids

………………………………………………………………….
2. Distinguish the major theories on the evolution of human beings

…………………………………………………..…………….
3. List out the major fossil discoveries in Africa and mainly in Ethiopia and the
Horn ………………………..…………………………..
4. Identify the similarity and difference between Australopithecus Afarensis

and Australopithecus Ramidus……………………...
5. Explain the hominids development from Homo Habilis to Homo Sapiens

Sapiens……………………………………….…………

Part I. Read the following statements carefully, and if the statement is correct,
write “True”; if not, write “False” on the space provided.
1. Ardipithecus Ramidus is much older than Australopithecus Ramidus in her age.________

2. Unlike Lucy, Ardi was an upright human being.______________
3. Lucy is excelled by Ardi in both its height and weight.______________
Part II. Questions are presented below with possible alternative answers.
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write the letter of
your choice on the space provided.
4. Which one of the following hominids was the 1st to evolve in the homo line? _________
A. Homo Habilis B. Homo Erectus C. Homo Sapiens D. Homo Sapiens Sapiens
5. Ardi was discovered completely in _______________
A. 1974 B. 1992 C.1994 D.2009
Part III: Match the concepts provided under Column “A” with the items
provided under Column “B”, and write the letter of your matching item on
the space provided.
“A” “B”
6. The discovery of the 1st fragmentary specimens of A. “Nature”

Ardipithecus Ramidus ___ B. 1994
7. The 1st journal reporting the complete discovery of Ardi___ C. “Science”
D. 1992

Unit Four
The Horn of Africa according to archaeology
Dear students! This unit of the module is concerned with the early historical
development in the greater African horn region. It particularly assesses the politico-economic
relation of the ancient state of Punt in the horn of Africa and the Pharaohs of the ancient
Egyptians.
Objectives
Up on the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Identify the relative location of the ancient state of Punt.
 Explain the politico-economic relation between the ancient state of Punt and that of
Egypt.
 List out the trade items exchanged between the ancient state of Punt and that of Egypt.
The Horn of Africa according to archaeology

Lying among the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean and the Ethiopian highlands, the Horn
of Africa was known to the ancient Romans as REGIO AROMATIFERA referring to the large
quantities of incense, myrrh, cinnamon, aromatic gums and various spices exported from the
region. The same region of the Horn of Africa was known to the ancient Egyptian dynasties as
“Punt” and “God’s Land”, while to the Greeks of the Ptolemaic period as “Notu-Keras” to mean
“the Southern Horn”, in order to refer to the area around the Cape of Spices which is modern
Cape Guardafi.
4.1. The Pharaonic Egyptians: Punt
Since the old kingdom times, particularly from the ruling period of the V th and VIth
Egyptian dynasties, the Egyptians used to send expeditions to the land of Punt, a region situated
toward the southern part of the Red Sea. In ancient writings, Punt is associated with To-Notir,
which means “Land of the God”.
The Egyptian expedition to the land of Punt continued during the reign of Queen
Hatshepsut of the XVIII dynasty (r. 1490 - 1468BC), and the expeditionary force was
commanded by a black captain named Nehasi. The Egyptian hieroglyphic writings which are
accompanied by vivid paintings describe and illustrate this campaign well. Nehasi took with
him five ships and came safely to the land of Punt where the Egyptian sailors admired the sight of
the huts of the inhabitants which were accessible from the ground only by means of ladders.
The king of Punt named Perehu came out with his wife named Ati, his sons and daughters
to welcome and greet the strangers. Soon trading began. The Puntites brought the products of
their land, especially great quantities of myrrh and gold. The Egyptians loaded their ships very
heavily with marvels of the country of Punt: all goodly fragment woods of the “God’s Land”,
heaps of myrrh- resins, fresh myrrh-trees, ebony and pure ivory, green gold of Emu, cinnamon-
wood, incense, eye cosmetic, leopards and leopard skins, as well as different kinds of live
monkeys.

The king of Punt, “Perehu”[right] and his wife “Queen Ati"[left]
The Queen, Hatshepsut, was so delighted by the success of this expedition that she
immediately presented a portion of the goods to Amon, her god.
These events were regarded as one of the greatest achievement of the Egyptian Navy and
as a rediscovery of distant Punt. Expeditions continued during the successive dynasties,
particularly during the time of Ramses III in about 1180BC.
The main purpose of the Egyptian expedition organized by Queen

Hatshepsut was commercial. There is no doubt that there was
commercial relationship between ancient Egypt and the Land of Punt.
Scholars, however, have not reached at an agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The
varieties of incense and myrrh brought back from the land of Punt during the course of the
Egyptian expedition have suggested northern or north-eastern Somalia to some scholars. Others
are inclined more towards northern Ethiopia because of the reference made to gold, ebony
and monkeys. The latter point of view is reinforced by the fact that, at that early stage in Egyptian
history, its sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the Strait of Bab el-
Mandab into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Wherever its precise location, it is clear

that there was a state in North-east Africa which had extensive trade links with Pharaonic Egypt
over a long period of time.
Enumerate the major trading items of people of Punt?
The supposed location of the state of Punt around the Red Sea and major travel routes by land
and sea
The activities of the ancient Egyptians in Ethiopia are not well known because, in the first
place, there has been no systematic archaeological excavation in Ethiopia to enable us estimate
the extent of the Egyptian influence.
In the second place, we must bear in mind that the relationships were strictly limited to
commerce (trade). The Egyptians who came to the land of Punt stayed in this region only long
enough to collect the commodities they wanted. Following that, they returned home. So we must
not expect extensive influence from this short-lived stay. However, they left with vivid memories
of Ethiopia.
4.2. The Greeks: Notu-Keras

By about 200BC, the Greeks reached again the eastern point of the Horn which they
called “Notu Keras” (Artemidoros), which means the “Southern Horn”. This, therefore, brought
the African coast to be integrated into the international trading network.
During the third century BC, the Ptolemaic successors of Alexander the Great had
established trading posts on the African shore of the Red Sea and some of these trading posts
included Arsinoe, Myos Hormes, Berenice, Ptolemais and Epitheras.
Navigation developed in the Red Sea in the 1 st century AD. Mariners were already well
acquainted with the use of the winds (Hippalos). The expansion of the trade was at its higher
point during the Roman administration of the region under Emperor Augustus (27BC - 14AD).
The demand for ivory, incense and other aromatic gums grew very widely and rapidly during this
time necessitating the sailing of as many as 120 trading ships from Myos-Hormes to India every
year.
This developed trading interaction on the Red Sea between the

African Horn (mainly Aksum) and the Greco-Roman World is well
documented in the important eye-witnessed account entitled The Periplus
of the Erythrean Sea written by a Greek merchant of Alexandria around the
middle of the 1st century AD.
The book describes the important ports of the Red Sea and also the Indian Ocean, the
main trade items and even the name of particularly the Aksumite king, who is further
characterized as mean but with a mastery of the Greek language, which was by then the lingua-
franca of the Mediterranean World.
Which Red Sea ports do you think were mentioned in the book of the
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea?

From the trading Red Sea ports mentioned in the book of the Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea, the following are the major ones: Avalites (which has been identified with Zeila), Malao
(which has been identified with Berbera), Mondos (probably the modern Bandar Hais),
Mosyllom (around Ras Hantara or Ras Khamzir), Opone and to the south, Rhapata, the main
place of Azania.
As per the description of the Periplus, the major export items of
these trading Red Sea ports constituted mainly of natural products: ivory
(extracted from the huge herds of elephants which abounded in the area at
the time and which were systematically hunted down), myrrh, emeralds,
frankincense, spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros
horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, and some curiosity animals like
apes. In return, a number of manufactured goods were imported like
different kinds of garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Italy and Persia,
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places, metallic sheets, tools
and utensils of various kinds and even olive oil and wine from Italy and
Asia Minor (Laodicea).
The second important document providing information on the trading interaction of states
in the Horn of Africa is an inscription published in a book entitled The Christian Topography.
The book was written by a traveler named Cosmas Indicopleustes.
It was Cosmas, who copied the Greek inscription of the unknown Aksumite king, who
was believed to have been skillful in the Greek language, and included it in his book, The
Christian Topography. The inscription is generally referred to as The Inscription of Adulis since
it was discovered in Adulis. The inscription was clearly written before the introduction of
Christianity in Aksum and clearly describes the various campaigns of the Aksumite king on both
sides of the Red Sea. The main reasons for these campaigns were commercial considerations,
particularly the safeguarding of trade routes and the control of natural resources which were so
vital for the trade.
Another historical value of the Christian Topography is its

description of the “silent trade” which was practiced in the southwestern
periphery of the Aksumite kingdom. According to the so-called “silent
trade”, the two parties, i.e. the buyer and seller exchanged their goods
without verbal communication.
Activity
questions.
1. Explain to which areas do the names “Punt” and “Notu-Keras” refer.
2. List out the major export and import items of people of Punt.
3. Compare and contrast the two documents: The Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea and The Christian Topography.
4. Provide a brief account on the campaign of Queen Hatshepsut.
Check List
Put a tick mark () in the boxes given to prove if you have
understood the respective issues well.
I can:
1. Discuss the different names used by foreign powers to refer to the Greater African
Horn………………………………… ……….
2. Explain who Queen Hatshepsut was……………..…………….
3. Examine the Punt-Egyptian relation….…………..…………….
4. Elaborate the content of the two documents: The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and
The Christian Topography well……….…..
5. Compare and contrast the two documents: The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and
The Christian Topography briefly …………
Jimma University, Department of History

6. Define and Heritage
what “Silent Management Page 71
Trade” means….………………………….
1. The Greeks’ influence on the Horn of Africa was preceded by that of the Romans.______
2. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea was NOT prepared by a native Alexandrian
merchant._______
Part II. Questions are presented below with possible alternative answers. Choose the best
answer from the given alternatives and write the letter of your choice on the space
provided.
3. All were export trade items from the Ethiopian region according to the Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea BUT
A. Gold B. Slaves C. Ivory D. Myrrh
4. Of the following, which commodity was common to both Italy, Egypt and India
according to the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea?
A. Wine B. Metallic Sheets C. Garments D. Olive oil
Unit Five
The Historical Archaeology of the kingdom of Aksum
Dear students! This fifth unit of the module is dedicated to exploring the historical
archaeology of the pre-Aksumite and Aksumite cultures. It particularly enables you have a
better understanding of archaeological sites of pre-Aksumite and Aksumite cultures, their
achievement and their unique features.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Distinguish sites of pre-Aksumite and Aksumite cultures.

 Explain the archaeological significances of these pre-Aksumite and Aksumite cultural
centres.
 Provide a brief description on the historical archaeology of each of these pre-Aksumite
and Aksumite cultural centres.
5.1. The Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Cultures
The initial (early) period of the pre-Aksumite time extends from 450 - 300BC, while its
intermediate period lasts from about 300BC to the 1st century AD. The Aksumite time, on the
other hand, ranges from the 1st century AD to the 8th century AD as the available historical and
archaeological evidences prove.
5.1.1. The Pre-Aksumite Culture
A. The Initial (Early) Period
The dating proposed for this period is based on the paleographical evidences. It was a
period during which there occurred an interaction between the Ethiopic culture and that of South
Arabians. In fact, the emergence of an organized agricultural and cattle breeding complex society
in the region predated the development of the initial period. The agricultural communities used
to perform their farming activities together with their activity of cattle breeding thereby using
both of the two activities as pillars of their economy.
The archaeological sites of the initial (early) period are numerous in number. The most
important of them are, however, Yeha, Hawulti, Melazo, Kaskase, Matara, Goboshela, Enda-
Cherqos, Sobea, Addi-Gelamo, Addi-Kewih, Damat, Addi Keramaten and Ghidget in Northern
Ethiopia and Eritrea. They have witnessed an abundant documentation related to architecture,
sculpture, metal artifacts, pottery and inscriptions. Part of this material culture indicates the
relation with the South Arabian culture from the kingdom of Saba, which was particularly
flourishing at that time.
a. Yeha
Yeha is a large Bronze Age archaeological site located to the northeast of Aksum.
Specifically, it is found at about 25km northeast of the modern town of Adwa.
The first reference to Yeha was made by Francisco Alvarez who visited the site in 1520
and mentioned the Pre-Aksumite temple of Yeha in his book. The second European visitor of the
site was James Bruce who visited Yeha in 1769. Henry Salt was the 3 rd European traveler to visit
Yeha in 1810. Salt copied the inscription he found at Yeha.
In 1906, members of the German expedition visited Yeha and prepared architectural
designs of the temple and copied the inscription he found at the site.
Yeha probably emerged around 1000BC and appears to have reached the
zenith of its power between 750 and 500BC. It is the largest and most
impressive site in the Horn of Africa showing evidence of contact with South
Arabia. According to scholars, Yeha was probably the oldest town in
Ethiopia.

According to Gedle Afsé, which was the hagiography of Aba Afsé, one of the Nine
Saints, the South Arabians came and settled in Yeha even before 1000BC (probably around
1990BC). They brought technicians from Babylon to build great buildings, and dug earthen
caves like boxes for their treasury, and put their precious stones in. They built a great palace
which took fifteen years to complete. In the palace, there lived two kings of Semitic origin by the
name Soba and Noba.
Who made the first excavation at Yeha and when? What was also
the achievement?
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The first excavation at Yeha was carried out by Francis Anfray in 1960.
Anfray discovered 17 tombs. He also found artifacts such as ceramics
and fine bronze objectives. Between 1971 and 1973, Anfray undertook
additional excavations and revealed a Pre-Aksumite building.
The major excavation sites in Yeha include the Great Temple, a “palace” (perhaps an
elite residence) at Grat Be’al Gebri and the cemetery at Daro Mika’el with shaft tombs. The
German expedition to Aksum had also found some fragments of Sabean inscriptions. An altar
with Sabean inscriptions was also found in the same region in 1955. The temple of Yeha which
is still found in a good condition belongs to the 6 th century BC. Alvarez described the temple of
Yeha as “a very large and handsome tower both for its height and the good workmanship of its
walls.” Except the roof and the wall on the western side, the temple still stands.

Ruins of the temple of Yeha
The archaeological mission to Yeha in 1959 also discovered well-hewn box like caves in
which many objects were found which today are displayed in the Archaeological Museum (like
pottery, axes, etc). Generally, the chronology of Yeha archaeology is as follows:
Yeha I: 8th - 7th centuries BC = During this time, a small temple was built at the
place where the latter Great Temple was built. The earliest structure was also set
at the palace at Grat Be’al Gebri.
Yeha II: 7th - 5th centuries BC = During this time, the Great Temple and the
palace at Grat Be’al Gebri were built, and the construction of the elite cemetery at
Daro Mika’el was begun.

Yeha III: Late first millennium BC = This is the late phase of construction at
Grat Be’al Gebri, tombs T5 and T6 at Daro Mikael.
Nineteen fragmentary inscriptions written in South Arabian script on stone

slabs, altars and seals have been discovered at Yeha.
Yeha is in general one of the notable Pre-Aksumite sites witnessing the Pre-Aksumite
technology of architecture, metal working (metallurgy), pottery and inscriptions. The material
objects provide a precise knowledge of the nature of the Pre-Aksumite culture during this early
time.
b. Hawulti - Melazo
For what archaeological achievements were Hawulti and Melazo

noted?
Hawulti and Melazo are the two adjoining Pre-Aksumite sites located southeast of
Aksum. The first excavation was conducted in 1955/56 by Leclant with the support of the
Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology. Leclant discovered stones with Sabean inscriptions at
Melazo. The excavation carried out in the region revealed a complex structure with staircases. In
1958, additional excavations were undertaken under the leadership of Contenson. The excavation
revealed building structures dated to the pre-Christian period.
Contenson embarked on a large scale excavation at Hawulti covering a site about 3000
square meters in 1959. The excavation uncovered two small temples made of dressed (cut and
shaped) stones. In addition, statues of seated women, bronze sculptures of a bull and an ibex
were uncovered. All these artifacts were products of the Pre-Aksumite culture.

What similarities do you observe between the Pre-Aksumite

states of Yeha and Hawulti-Melazo?
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The similarities between Yeha and Hawulti-Melazo could be as follows:
 Both of them are found in the resent Tigray region not far from
Aksum.
 Both bear the discovery of pre-Aksumite temples.
 Both were excavated by archaeologists, and still are
archaeological sites.
 Both of them witnessed the discovery of various artefacts.
c. Metara
The other Pre-Aksumite settlement site found half way between the town of Aksum and
the ancient port city of Adulis is Metara. It is one of the well documented and intensively
excavated sites. Before the arrival of the German expedition, individual travelers reported the
existence of ancient architectural remains at Metara. In 1906, the German team visited the site
and drew sketches of a stele and a stone–throne found there.
In 1959, the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology sent a team to Metara under the
leadership of Anfray. The first excavation was conducted at a site located 100 meters northwest
of the Metara stele. The excavation witnessed a building complex, several tombs and many
artifacts. Excavations continued until 1965 under Anfray’s supervision. The excavations
conducted between 1961 and 1963 uncovered multi-room architectural complex with fine objects

made of gold, bronze and stone. The excavations of 1965 also witnessed similar multi-room
structures. The various architectural remains indicate that Metara was an important urban center
during the Pre-Aksumite era.
Some of the sites in Metara were excavated as deep as five meters. The excavated sites
show two layers: the lower layer belongs to the Pre-Aksumite and the upper one to the Aksumite
times. Some of the artifacts are dated to 500 – 300BC. There are also remains of the late
Aksumite period dated to 700AD.
How do you summarize the excavations conducted at Metara?

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Excavations were undertaken at Metara between 1959 and 1965 by the

Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology under the leadership of Anfray. The
excavations uncovered multi-room architectural complexes and various
artefacts made of gold, bronze and stone. The dating of the artefacts
discovered ranges between 500BC and 700AD.
d. Kaskase, Kohaito (Qohaito) and Tekonda
Kaskase, Kohaito (Qohaito) and Tekonda are the other Pre-Aksumite states located north
of Metara. They yield some pre-Aksumite remains. Particularly Kaskase revealed the discovery
of undecorated stele and an inscription to which reference is made to the people living there,
while Kohaito witnessed the discovery of a dam. It is believed that both of the three states had
been important settlements, possibly small towns, during the Pre-Aksmite times.
The inscriptions of Kaskase, Yeha, Enda-Cherqos near Melazo, Metara

and even Aksum are similar in their content. In most of them are found those
names of of
Jimma University, Department DMT (to and
History referHeritage
to the Management
state of Damat)
Pageand
79 WRN (to refer Damat’s
king). From this, it is possible to conclude that they are speaking about the same
people and place. From paleography and the content, it is clear that even though
they were not written during the reign of the same king, they were written
e. Addi-Gelamo, Addi-Kewih and Goboshela
In Addi-Gelamo, Addi-Kewih and Goboshela, as well as Metara, various incense burners

with Sabean inscriptions in a round or square on a relatively pyramidal bases have been
discovered in the mid 20th century. Particularly in Addi Gelamo, there also discovered the statute
of a seated lady with Sabean inscription at the bottom dating to the 5th century BC.
The columns of a ruined structure at Kohaito
f. Damat
The state of Damat was the immediate precursor of the state of Aksum with its centre a little
to the south of Aksum. It is the first locally identified state in Ethiopian history. Inscriptions of the
king of Damat, tentatively dated to the fifth century BC, show that he used the South Arabian

politico-religious title of mukarrib. The people also worshiped the principal god of South Arabia,
Almouqah, in addition to Astar, god of heaven, and Sin, god of moon.
What do you think was the major cause for the great South Arabian cultural
influence on Damat?
One peculiar feature of the Sabean inscriptions is the absence of vowels in the written
words. Most of the words written are consonants. For instance, the state of Damat was described
as D’mt, while its three consecutive kings as RDM, RBH and LMN.
It is quite possible that the port of Adulis, which was to attain international fame in
Aksumite times, was used by Da'mat and perhaps also by its predecessors.
g. Adulis
Being located south of the present port of Massawa, Adulis was visited in the 6 th century
AD by Cosmas Indicopleustes, who copied the Greek inscription there and included it in his
great book, “The Christian Topography”. Later, in the modern period of 1868,th the British
It is an undeniable fact that beginning from the late 6 century BC,
military expedition which was sent against
South Arabian (Sabean)Emperor
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and whichtheisindigenous
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as the Napier Expedition, because
visited of the
Adulis andmigration
discovered of ruins
the South
of theArabians to the different
ancient buildings there. places
But
in northern Ethiopia: Yeha, Metara and Coloe; and the cause of their
it was in 1906 that the first scientific excavation was undertaken in Adulis by the German
migration was the existing close commercial relation between their country
expedition. Membersandof the expedition
Ethiopia. As aunder
resulttheofsupervision
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R. Sundstorm excavated
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northern part of Adulis. The largeofrectangular
this period structure
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the excavation also
used another south Arabian title, mlkn, in addition to Mukarrib.

called by Sundstorm “the Palace of Adulis.” The team also found coins of the Aksumite period.
Through another excavation, two other structures were discovered.
Adulis as described in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Could you note other excavations undertaken in the same region of Adulis in
the later period?
The archaeological research in Adulis continued between 1961 and 1962

during which time the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology conducted
excavations under the leadership of Anfray. The remains of buildings
discovered indicate that fired bricks were used. Fragments of pottery and
grinding stones were also found at Adulis. In addition to locally made
artefacts, amphoras of Mediterranean origin were discovered.
The charcoal and ash discovered in Adulis caused scholars to believe that Adulis might have been
pillaged and destroyed by fire.
Dear students! You need to underline that some of the artifacts discovered in Adulis belong to the
Pre-Aksumite times, while others are dated to the Aksumite period. This, therefore, indicates that Adulis
remained as an important port both during the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite times.

Amphora is a clay pot used in the past for storing wine or oil. The
amphoras found in Adulis were imported from the Mediterranean region.
The discovery of amphoras indicates that wine and oil were also imported
to Ethiopia from the Mediterranean world.
B. The Intermediate Period
For this period, the archaeological documentation is very scanty. Some inscriptions in the
region of Zeban Mororo in Eritrea are ascribed to this second Pre-Aksumite period. Few objects
such as bronze bowls from Addi-Gelamo seem to provide evidence of relations between the
northern part of Ethiopia and Meroe. In Hawulti, ex-votes in the form of animals (oxen and
birds) and small scale copies in a clay of houses in addition to some clay figurines of Indian
origin may be attributed to this Intermediate period.
5.1. The Aksumite Culture
Our knowledge about the Aksumite civilization has been acquired from various sources,
particularly from authors of antiquity such as Pliny, who mentions Adulis in his “Natural
History”, the author of the book “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea”, Ptolemy the Geographer,
Cosmas Indicopleuustes’s “The Christian Topography” and from ancient inscriptions as well as
archaeological observations.

The geographical sites of the Pre-Aksumite archaeological sites: Yeha, Hawulti, Melazo, Adulis,
Kaskase, Kohato, Tekonda and Metara
It was in the “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” (a commercial guide book compiled by a
merchant from Egypt and written in Greek) that the existence of Aksum appears for the first
time. The Periplus provides information about Adulis, its commercial importance and its eight
days’ journey distance from the city of Aksum. The book further lists the type of the import and
export items.
How did Cosmas describe Aksum in his “The Christian Topography”?

(Refer the previous Unit Four)

Giant stelae, a huge stone table, massive throne bases, fragments of pillars, large tombs
and other material evidences including stone inscriptions enlighten a vast stretch of the past of
Aksum.
Geographical setting of Ancient Aksum
As the state of Aksum expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the
unique architectural technologies of this time was the engraving of stelae. According to the
“Book of Aksum”, there were totally 58 (fifty eight) stelae in and around Aksum; and these
stelae can be grouped into three: well made and decorated, half completed and megaliths (not
hewn). As local tradition says, the stelae were engraved in east Adwa region specifically at a
place called Hinzat and it was from this place that they were transported and were planted in
Aksum.
From among the 58 stelae of Aksum, the longest one measures 33meters height and it
is the first in the world in its height. Unlike the rest stelae, this giant stelae is highly decorated
in all of its four sides. It represents a - 14 storied building with many windows and a false door
at the bottom. It also bears a pre-Christian symbol which is a disc and a crescent (half moon) at
the top. Archaeologists have conducted a research on how this giant stele was engraved.
However, the stele has been broken down and is still lying on the ground. Different
assumptions are there on the reasons for the fragmentation of the stele. Some suggest that it
was broken while the people were trying to erect it. Some others conclude that it was broken
during war especially during those destructive years of Yodit (Gudit). Whatever the reasons,
therefore, the giant stele has been broken down and is changed into pieces in its original place
in Aksum.
The broken stele of Aksum, 33m height
The second longest stele measures 24 meters height and it was successfully erected at
Aksum. It was there until the Fascist occupation of 1935. During the occupation period
particularly in 1937, however, it was looted and was taken to Rome, Italy, by the Fascist rulers.
In 1947, both Ethiopia and Italy signed a Peace Agreement by which Italy promised to
return the looted obelisk to Ethiopia and this promise was to be practical after 68 years in
2005.
The stele was cut into three pieces for the transportation purpose, and being loaded on
the huge Antonov An-124 cargo plane, the first piece of the stele, which was the middle part of
the stele, arrived in Ethiopia on 19 April 2005, while the second piece of the stele, which was
the upper part of the stele, arrived in Ethiopia on 22 April 2005. Finally, the third and last
piece of the stele, which was the bottom part of the stele, arrived in Ethiopia on 25 April 2005.

The middle section of the looted stele when dropped from the loading Antonov An-124 cargo
plane in Ethiopia
The stele remained in storage in Ethiopia until the Ethiopia decided how to reconstruct it
without disturbing other ancient treasures still in the area of Aksum (especially the standing
stele). By March 2007, the foundation in Aksum had been poured for the re-erection of the stele
near the standing stele, structurally consolidated in this occasion. Reassembly began in June
2008, with a team chosen by UNESCO and led by Engineer Giorgio Croci (who had also
surveyed the stele’s dismantling in Rome in 2003) and the monument was resurrected in its
original homeland in Aksum and unveiled on 4 September 2008.
This second longest standing stele of Aksum represents a ten storied building with many
windows and a false door at the bottom.

The second longest standing stele of Aksum taken to Rome by the Fascists in 1937 and
successfully re-erected at Aksum after 71 years in 2008, 24m height
The second longest standing stele of Aksum in Rome, Italy, in 2002, before its return to Ethiopia
The third longest stele of Aksum measures 21 meters and it represents a nine storied
building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. Unlike the first longest but broken
stele, this third longest stele of Aksum is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any
decoration.

The third longest standing stele of Aksum, 21 m height
In addition to the above decorated stelae, there are also stelae without any decoration in
and around Aksum.
What differences do you observe between the Aksumite stelae and the
Egyptian pyramids
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What make the stelae of Aksum different from other monuments in the
world is their common shape at the top. All are monk-head shaped at the top.
Regarding the Egyptian pyramids, however, they are sharp pointed at the top.
In some of the stelae, there also disc and crescent shapes at the top indicating
the worshiping of gods by the people. In some others, there are small holes at
the same top part; and in these holes, bronze and iron objects were inserted.
The reason why the people put these objects in the holes is still obscure.
The Aksumite stelae witness the much technical talent of the Aksumite people and also
the high standard of their civilization. Most of them were engraved around the 3 rd century AD,
i.e. before the introduction of Christianity. Nevertheless, the purpose for the erection of these
stelae is still controversial among scholars. The stelae say nothing about the purpose of their
erection: No inscription describing the purpose is there on them.
Concerning the Egyptian pyramids, it is obvious to everyone that they were tombs for
the rulers; i.e. the Pharaohs. But to those stelae of Aksum, the purpose remains hidden. Some
suggest that they were erected for the Sun god. While others propose that they were erected as
tombs for the prominent persons of the time. According to archaeological evidence, however,
the latter suggestion; i.e. their erection as tombs for the prominent individuals, seems probable
since most of the stelae are located near the tombs.
The stelae of Aksum can be compared to the obelisks (pyramids) of Egypt in length. In
other aspects, however, they are different. Inscription written from bottom to top is there on
Egyptian obelisks, but is absent on most of the stelae of Aksum. Moreover, the obelisks
(pyramids) are sharp pointed at the top, while the stelae are monk-head shaped.
In erecting the stelae, the Ethiopians most probably employed the Egyptian method for
raising obelisks; i.e. pulling the stelae using ropes.
The other technology of the Aksumite architecture was the construction of tombs.
Different tombs have been discovered in and around Aksum, especially around the stelae sites,
and most of these tombs have horse-shoe shaped entrances sometimes to underground rooms
(classes). The dead bodies of kings and noblemen together with some ornaments and goods
were put in a stone coffin, and were buried in these tombs. The stone coffin was used to
protect the treasures from robbers. One good example of this architectural technology could be
the tomb of Kaleb and Gebre-Mesqel found to the north of the town of Aksum.

The tomb of King Kaleb The stone coffin inside the tomb of King Kaleb
The outstanding achievements of the Aksumite times were not

confined only to the city of Aksum, instead extended to those urban
centers of Henzat, Aratuh, Cohaito, Takonda, Metara, Haghero-
Deragoueh, Etch-Mare and Addi-Awhne.
Activity
questions.
1. Enumerate sites of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Cultures

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Describe the major archaeological findings at the Pre-Aksumite
sites.
Check List
I can:
1. List out the major pre-Aksumite and Aksumite archaeological

sites…………………………………………………………
2. Discuss the historical archaeology of Aksum……………….
3. Identify the location of Yeha………………………………..

Part I. Read the following statements carefully, and if the statement is correct,
write “True”; if not, write “False” on the space provided.
1. The inscriptions of Kaskase, Yeha, Endacherqos, Metara and Aksum are similar in their
content because they talk about the same people under the rule of a single king.________
2. Omission of vowel letters in words written characterizes Sabean inscriptions.________

3. The earliest Sabean inscription at Yeha is believed to be written as of the 5th century BC.
___________
Part II. Questions are presented below with possible alternative answers.
4. Yeha’s civilization witnessed the pre-Aksumite technology of all BUT

A. Metallurgy B. Pottery C. Architecture D. Sculpture
5. Which one of the following sites bears the discovery of undecorated stele?
A. Melazo B. Kaskase C. Hawulti D. Yeha
6. All could be sites of testimony to the intermediate period civilization of the Pre-Aksumite time
EXCEPT
A. Hawulti B. Addi Kewih C. Zeban Mororo D. Addi Gelamo
Unit Six
A Brief survey on the archaeological sites of

southern and eastern Ethiopia

Dear students! This sixth unit of the module enables you briefly survey the major
archaeological sites in Ethiopia. It particularly enables you explore the major archaeological
findings in these archaeological sites.
Objectives:
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 List out the major archaeological sites in Ethiopia.

 Explain the archaeological findings in each of the archaeological sites listed.
6.1. The Lower Valley of Awash
The Awash valley contains one of the most important groupings of palaeontological sites on
the African continent. The remains found at the site, the oldest of which date back at least 4.4
million years, provide evidence of human evolution which has modified our conception of the
history of humankind. The most spectacular discovery came in 1974, when 52 fragments of a
skeleton enabled the famous Lucy to be reconstructed. After 35 years in 2009, the same Awash

Valley witnessed the discovery of the most oldest hominid of the world, Ardipithecus Ramidus
aging 4.4 million years. The archaeological site is found in the Afar region of Ethiopia being
inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980.
6.2. The Lower Valley of Omo
A prehistoric site near Lake Turkana, the lower valley of the Omo is renowned the world
over. The discovery of many fossils there, especially Homo gracilis, has been of fundamental
importance in the study of human evolution. The site is found in the SNNP region and is
inscribes on the World Heritage list in 1980.
The lower valley of Omo
6.3. The Tiya Stelae
Tiya is among the most important of the roughly 160 archaeological sites discovered so far in
the Soddo region, south of the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa. The site contains 36 monuments,
including 32 carved stelae covered with symbols, most of which are difficult to decipher. They
are the remains of an ancient Ethiopian culture whose age has not yet been precisely determined.
The site is inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980.

One of the Tiya stelae
6.4. Melka Kuntre

Melka Kuntre is found about 50 kms south of Addis Ababa on the main road to the town of
Butajera. Up to the mid-1960s, the existence of human beings on the highlands of Ethiopia was
believed not to exceed 40,000 to 60,000 years. But this idea was altered by the discovery of Melka
Kuntre in 1963, by Dr. Gerard Dekker, Hydrologist. Dekker found stone tools pertaining to the
Acheulian tradition of Early Stone Age. The site of Melka Kuntre yielded numerous stone tools,
fossil fauna and flora.
Surface collection at Melka Kuntre was first undertaken by Gerard Bailloud, who was
studying cave paintings around Harar. During the field season from September 1963 up to
January 1964, Bailloud collected more than 5,000 stone tools pertaining to the Middle through the
Late Stone Age. But none of the artifacts collected were from excavation. Stone tools were
scattered on the surface everywhere around Melka Kuntre. Bailloud published his work in a
journal which was then prepared by the Institute of Ethiopian Archaeology. The work on the site
continued in 1965 by a French archaeologist, Jean Chavaillon, and more than fifty archaeological

levels have been identified during thirteen campaigns and about thirty living-floors have been
excavated.
The Early Stone Age sites of Melka Kuntre include Gombore I, Garba IV, Sibiro III, Gombore
II and Garba I, while the Middle Stone Age sites of Melka Kuntre include Garba III. The New
Stone Age sites of Melka Kuntre finally include Kella, Woffi and Balchit.
4.6. Lake Basaka

Lake Basaka is found in the main Ethiopian Rift Valley, 180 km south east of Addis Ababa.
Research in 1974 revealed the presence of four open-air sites on the western side of the lake.
Research in the area continued in 1975 and 1977.
9
The stone tools found at the Lake Basaka site were blades, burins and scrapers typical to
New Stone Age. The settlers of this site were probably using blades for fishing as well as
hunting. Almost all the stone tools recovered were made of obsidian. The Fentale volcanic
materials were generally the sources for the manufacture of tools found at the Basaka sites.
However, the exact source of raw materials used around this site is not clear. It was suggested
that the settlers of these sites probably obtained raw materials from Garibaldi area, 25-35 km
east of Lake Basaka.
Activity
questions.
1. Enumerate the major archaeological sites in southern and eastern

Ethiopia.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check List
I can:
1. ofDescribe
Jimma University, Department the Heritage
History and archaeological findings
Management at the
Page 99 lower valley of Awash
and Omo……………………………………………………
2. Discuss the historical archaeology of Melka Kuntre.……..
Part I. Questions are presented below with possible alternative answers.
1. The oldest fossil discovered in the lower valley of Awash was _________________

A. Australopithecus Afarensis C. Australopithecus Africanus

B. Australopithecus Garhi D. Ardipithecus Ramidus
2. The lower valley of Omo is noted for one of the following hominids_____________
A. Homo Sapiens Sapiens B. Homo Erectus C. Homo Sapiens D. Homo Gracilis
3. Which one of the following is Not an archaeological site in Melka Kuntre _____________
A. Sibiro III B. Addi Kewih C. Woffi D. Garba I
Answer Key
1. True 2. False 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. D
1. False 2. D 3. F 4. A 5. G
1. False 2. False 3. True 4. A 5. D 6. B 7. C
1. False 2. True 3. B 4. C
1. False 2. True 3. True 4. D 5. B 6. B
1. D 2. D 3. B
Assignment (30%)
Provide brief and precise answer to each of the following questions
1. Explain the similarity and difference of Ethno-Archaeology and Classical archaeology.

(3%).
2. How do you explain the view that “African archaeology is the childhood of colonialism”?
(3%)
3. Discuss the leading personalities in Ethiopian archaeology. (3%)
4. Elaborate the major historical milestones in the development of the human evolution
theory. (3%)
5. Compare and contrast the two documents: The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and The
Christian Topography. (3%)

6. Discuss the early scholars providing evidence about the pre-Aksumite state of Yeha.
(3%)
7. Explain the reason for the great South Arabian cultural influence on the state of Damat.
(3%)
8. Point out the features making the Aksumite stelae unique as compared to the other giant
monuments of the World. (3%)
9. What caused the Lower Valley of Awash to be inscribed on the World Heritage list?
(3%)
10. Discuss briefly how archaeological researches developed in Melka Kuntre. (3%)

Unit One The Concept of Archaeology

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Introduction to the Archaeology of Ethiopia and the Horn

The Concept of Archaeology

 Define what archaeology is.

1.1. The Definition and Use of Archaeology

What is Archaeology? How do you define it?

Those scholars specialized in archaeology are called archaeologists. Since it applies a

Why do you study Archaeology? What do you think is the merit?

Jimma University, Department of History and Heritage Management Page 2

Most of our ancestors’ material culture disappeared through the

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1.2. Types of Archaeology

A. Historical Archaeology: This type of archaeology includes the study of ancient

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America, where it continues to thrive in academic centers. Researchers in this field

Ethno-archaeologists spend much time among the people they are

Generally, ethno-archaeology is the archaeological study of living people. It is the use

Jimma University, Department of History and Heritage Management Page 5

C. Classical Archaeology: Classical archaeology, in simpler terms, can be considered as

D. Environmental Archaeology: Environmental archaeology deals with the study of

E. Archaeometry: Archaeometry, also known as archaeological science, deals with the

Archaeometry aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the

Jimma University, Department of History and Heritage Management Page 6

F. Underwater Archaeology: Underwater archaeology is the other interesting type of

G. Pseudo-Archaeology: Another type of archaeology is pseudo-archaeology. As the

Experimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to

Jimma University, Department of History and Heritage Management Page 7

component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological

1.3. Methods of Archaeological Studies

What methods do you think should an archaeologist follow during field

An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which

Step I. Field Surveying

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Monte Alban, an example of archaeological site

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves

Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to

Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices

Step II. Excavation

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Extensive excavations at Beit She'an, Israel

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in

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Excavations at the 3800-year-old Edgewater Park Site, Iowa

Step III. Analysis

These techniques frequently provide information that would not

1.4. Dating the past

What do you think does dating the past in archaeology mean?

Dating material drawn from the archaeological record can be made by a direct study of

Dating is carried out mainly during post-excavation, but to support good practice, some

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Archaeological scientists have two primary ways of telling the age

1.4.1. Relative Dating in Archaeology

In practice, several different dating techniques must be applied in some circumstances.

The style of the artifact and its archaeology location stratigraphically

1.4.1.1. Stratigraphy as a Dating Technique

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The underlying principle of stratigraphic analysis in archaeology is that of superposition.

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Map showing the structure of Superposition

1.4.1.1.1. Age Equivalent Stratigraphic Markers