Thesis Sample

STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF QUALITY AND SATISFACTION
IN ONLINE EDUCATION
by
JILL MASK SIMPSON
ANGELA BENSON, COMMITTEE CHAIR

DOUG BARRETT
ELIZABETH FISHER
MARGARET RICE
VIVIAN WRIGHT
A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Department of Educational Leadership,
Policy, and Technology Studies
in the Graduate School of
The University of Alabama
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA
2012
Copyright Jill Mask Simpson 2012
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine student perceptions of quality and satisfaction
in regionally accredited online courses. This study intended to answer the following four
research questions (1) Is there a significant difference in levels of student satisfaction between
online courses that have undergone a systematic faculty peer review process and online courses
that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review process?; (2) Is there a significant
difference in levels of student satisfaction between online courses that have not undergone a
systematic faculty peer review process but are affiliated with a peer review program and online
courses that have no affiliation with a peer review program?; (3) Which factors of quality
instruction most directly relate to increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that
have been faculty peer reviewed?; and (4) Which factors of quality instruction most directly
relate to increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have not been faculty peer
reviewed but are affiliated with a peer review program? A total of 157 responses (out of 1,774
solicited) were obtained from the student satisfaction questionnaire, which is a 9% student
response rate. A total of 7 responses (out of 54 solicited) were obtained from the course designer
questionnaire, which is a 13% course designer response rate. Results of the study confirmed with
statistical significance that students who were more comfortable with distance learning reported
higher satisfaction with their online course. Results of the study also indicated that online
courses that have undergone a formal peer review may lead to higher student satisfaction in the
course. Surprisingly, however, results also indicated that courses that have not undergone a
formal peer review but that are offered at institutions that are subscribed to a peer review
ii
program may lead to lower student satisfaction of the course. Both of these results were non-
significant. The researcher recommends striving for statistical significance in future research by
using a larger sample size. Additionally, the researcher recommends future research regarding
the correlation of student satisfaction to peer review subscriptions, even without a formal peer
review.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am overwhelmed at the many colleagues, friends, and family who have supported me in
this educational goal. I appreciate Angela Benson, the chairman of this dissertation, for her
encouragement throughout every step of this journey. Her expertise in online education is
invaluable. I would also like to thank all of my committee members, Doug Barrett, Elizabeth
Fisher, Margaret Rice, and Vivian Wright for their contribution and support of this dissertation.
I want to thank my mom, Amerilous Mask, for always believing in me--she is my
inspiration. I also want to thank my mother-in-law, Brenda Simpson, for going out of her way to
keep me on track in my doctoral studies. I want to thank my sister, Lesa Mask, who gave me the
confidence to succeed. Most of all, I want to thank my husband, Jon Simpson, for his endless
love and support; for without him, I would not be the person I am today. Finally, I want to thank
my son, Bay Simpson, for his patience. Throughout this doctoral journey he has shown a great
deal of tolerance and maturity as schoolwork monopolized a great deal of my time. He has
grown into a special young gentleman, and I am so proud to have him in my life.
iv
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................x
1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................1
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework.....................................................................................1
Statement of the Purpose .....................................................................................................2
Significance of the Problem .................................................................................................3
Research Questions ..............................................................................................................4
Assumptions of the Study ....................................................................................................5
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................5
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................5
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................6
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ....................................................................................................8
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................8
Regional Accreditation ........................................................................................................8
Quality in Online Education ................................................................................................9
Best Practices ...............................................................................................................11
Sloan-C Quality ...........................................................................................................12
QM ...............................................................................................................................12
v
U21G ............................................................................................................................13
Satisfaction in Online Education .......................................................................................14
Seven Principles ...........................................................................................................15
Sloan-C Satisfaction.....................................................................................................15
TAM.............................................................................................................................16
Determinants of Learning Effectiveness ......................................................................16
ADL Network ..............................................................................................................17
Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh Framework .............................................................17
Observational Case Study Design ................................................................................18
Quality Equals Satisfaction ................................................................................................18
Retention in Online Education ...........................................................................................19
Quality Matters ..................................................................................................................20
Course Overview and Introduction ..............................................................................22
Learning Objectives .....................................................................................................22
Assessment & Measurement ........................................................................................23
Instructional Materials .................................................................................................24
Learner Interaction and Engagement ...........................................................................24
Course Technology ......................................................................................................26
Learner Support ...........................................................................................................27
Accessibility.................................................................................................................28
Additional QM Case Studies .............................................................................................29
Aman’s Research ...............................................................................................................30
Aman’s Findings ..........................................................................................................34
vi
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................35
3 METHODS ..............................................................................................................................36
Introduction ........................................................................................................................36
Setting of the Study............................................................................................................36
Participants .........................................................................................................................37
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................40
Quantitative Student Satisfaction Survey ....................................................................40
Qualitative Course Design Survey ...............................................................................42
Research Questions ............................................................................................................44
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................45
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................47
Chapter Summary ..............................................................................................................49
4 RESULTS ................................................................................................................................50
Introduction ........................................................................................................................50
Response Rates ..................................................................................................................50
Demographics ....................................................................................................................51
Gender ..........................................................................................................................52
Age ...............................................................................................................................52
Prior Online Courses Taken .........................................................................................54
Comfort with Distance Learning .................................................................................55
Background Data ...............................................................................................................56
Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................................56
t Test Overall Satisfaction: Peer Reviewed versus Not Peer Reviewed ......................57
vii
t-Test Mean of QM Factor Means: Peer Reviewed versus Not Peer Reviewed ..........58
Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of Peer Review in Predicting

Overall Student Satisfaction ........................................................................................60
t-Test Overall Satisfaction: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated ...................................61
t-Test Mean of QM Factor Means: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated........................63
Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of a Subscription to Peer

Review Tools in Predicting Overall Student Satisfaction............................................64
Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Peer Reviewed Courses

to Overall Satisfaction..................................................................................................65
Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Subscribed Courses to

Overall Satisfaction ......................................................................................................67
Qualitative Data .................................................................................................................68
Chapter Summary ..............................................................................................................69
5 DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................70
Introduction ........................................................................................................................70
Purpose, Framework, and Research Questions ..................................................................70
Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................................72
Demographics ..............................................................................................................72
Research Question 1 ....................................................................................................73
viii
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................77
Recommendations for Practice ..........................................................................................78
Limitations .........................................................................................................................79
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................80
Concluding Remarks ..........................................................................................................81
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................84
APPENDICES:
A INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL .......................................................96
B PERMISSION TO UTILIZE AMAN’S STUDENT SATISFACTION

QUESTIONNAIRE ...........................................................................................................98
C AMAN’S STUDENT SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................100
D RESEARCH INVITATION TO QM INSTITUTIONAL REPRESENTATIVE

AND/OR COURSE DESIGNER .....................................................................................105
E QUALITATIVE COURSE DESIGNER QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................108
F RESEARCH INVITATION TO STUDENTS.................................................................111
G INFORMED CONSENT FOR STUDENTS ...................................................................113
H INFORMED CONSENT FOR COURSE DESIGNERS .................................................115
I HUMAN SUBJECTS TRAINING COMPLETION CERTIFICATES ..........................117
ix
LIST OF TABLES
1 Quality Matters Standards Included in Aman’s Research .......................................................33
2 Aman’s Satisfaction Survey Measures ....................................................................................41
3 Research Invitation Timeline for Students and Course Designers ..........................................45
4 Demographic Statistics ............................................................................................................51
5 Gender Descriptives .................................................................................................................52
6 Gender One-Way ANOVA ......................................................................................................52
7 Age Descriptives ......................................................................................................................53
8 Age One-Way ANOVA ...........................................................................................................53
9 Prior Online Courses Taken Descriptives ................................................................................54
10 Prior Online Courses Taken One-Way ANOVA .....................................................................54
11 Comfort with Distance Learning Descriptives ........................................................................55
12 Comfort with Distance Learning One-Way ANOVA .............................................................55
13 Background Data Descriptive Statistics...................................................................................56
14 Statistics for Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed Courses .................................................57
15 Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed
Courses .....................................................................................................................................57
16 t Test for Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed Courses .......................................................58
17 Statistics for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer Reviewed Courses......................................59
18 Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer
Reviewed Courses ....................................................................................................................59
19 t Test for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer Reviewed Courses ...........................................59
x
20 Linear Regression Model Summary of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction ..........................60
21 Linear Regression ANOVA of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction ......................................60
22 Linear Regression Coefficients of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction .................................60
23 Statistics for Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed Courses ........................................................62
24 Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed

Courses .....................................................................................................................................62
25 t Test for Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed Courses .............................................................62
26 Statistics for Mean of QM Factor Means in Subscribed Courses ............................................63
27 Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Mean of QM Factor Means in

Subscribed Courses ..................................................................................................................63
28 t Test for Mean of QM Factor Means in Subscribed Courses .................................................64
29 Linear Regression Model Summary of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction ..........................64
30 Linear Regression ANOVA of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction ......................................65
31 Linear Regression Coefficients of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction .................................65
32 Correlation Matrix of Peer Review to Factors .........................................................................66
33 Correlation Matrix of Subscription to Factors .........................................................................68
xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Allen and Seaman (2010) suggested growth in online course enrollment is increasing
more rapidly than in higher education courses offered overall. As online education continues to
expand, institutions of higher education are determined to find ways of ensuring quality in online
course development (Chua & Lam, 2007; Dringus, 2000; Puzziferro & Shelton, 2008; Ross,
Batzer, & Bennington 2002). Puzziferro and Shelton (2008) insisted that developing an online
course is a “complex and multifaceted process” (p. 119) that cannot be completed by one person
alone. They also suggested that online course development needs a “common framework for
consistency, design, pedagogy and content” (Puzziferro & Shelton, 2008, p. 119)
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The Quality Matters (QM) framework is a faculty-centered, peer review process designed
to ensure quality in online and hybrid courses. QM’s peer-based approach for continuous
improvement has received national recognition in online education (Quality Matters, 2010). The
QM rubric was originally developed by MarylandOnline, through The Fund for the Improvement
of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE) grant and is continuously reviewed and improved upon
based on scholarly research. Now, it is a self-supporting organization with an objectives-based
framework focusing on course design rather than course delivery. This framework is structured
around eight general standards: course overview and introduction, learning objectives
1
(competencies), assessment and measurement, instructional materials, learner interaction and
engagement, course technology, learner support, and accessibility.
QM course designers followed the ADDIE (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement,
Evaluate) framework of instructional design by working closely with faculty to create the
standards included in their rubric (MarylandOnline, 2010). “The ADDIE framework is a cyclical
process that evolves over time and continues throughout the instructional planning and
implementation process” (Peterson, 2003, p. 228). The analyze phase allows the designers to
determine the learning needs of their audience. The design phase allows course designers to
research and plan the design of the course. The development phase allows course designers to
use the information gained in the first two phases to physically construct a course. The
development phase gathers formative evaluations to help designers improve a course before
implementation. The implementation phase allows designers to work with faculty and students to
analyze, redesign, and enhance the course. The final phase, evaluation, can actually occur
throughout the previous four phases, as course designers continually evaluate and improve upon
the course structure (Peterson, 2003).
Statement of the Purpose
in regionally accredited online courses. A review of the literature suggested there may be
specific factors in online courses that increase students’ perceived quality of an online course
(Ross et al., 2002). This study reviewed the existing body of literature to determine which factors
were significant with regard to student perceived quality and satisfaction in online education,
which led the researcher to Aman’s (2009) dissertation “Improving student satisfaction and
2
retention with online instruction through systematic faculty peer review of courses.” Aman’s
recommendations for future research included a time-lag study and a replication study for other
types of online courses outside of the community college general education courses. This study
intended to satisfy both of those recommendations, as well as build upon Aman’s research by
further exploring the QM framework as significant with regard to student satisfaction in online
graduate courses that have not been faculty peer reviewed by QM but who subscribe to the
program. Aman found no statistical significance in the diffusion of treatment between courses
that have not been formally peer reviewed by QM but that are offered at institutions where
faculty peer reviewed courses are also offered and courses that have no affiliation to QM.
However, this led the researcher to an interesting question: Could there be a significant
difference in levels of student satisfaction between online courses that have not undergone a
systematic faculty peer review process but that are affiliated with a peer review program and
online courses that have no affiliation with a peer review program? The Quality Matters website
identifies 435 institutions that are current subscribers to QM, but that are not recognized by QM
as being peer reviewed. Is it possible that simply being subscribed to the QM framework may
enhance course design, leading to higher student satisfaction with an online course even without
a formal peer review?
Significance of the Problem
Traditional educators have doubted the quality control in distance education (Casey,
2008). Accrediting bodies continue to search for ways to assess quality in online course design
(Council for Higher Education Accreditation, 2002). The Quality Matters (QM) program rubric
was created based on the “Best Practices for Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate
3
Programs,” which is the same set of principles implemented by the eight regionally accrediting
bodies in the United States (Legon, 2006). The QM program is similar to traditional accreditation
processes in that they are both essentially peer review processes. Traditional accreditation
processes, however, are focused on evaluating overall programs and institutions; while the QM
program is focused on evaluating the quality of individual online courses (Legon, 2006). The
significance of this study lies in supporting online education accreditation standards for peer
reviewed online courses (Lewis et al., 2011; Shattuck, 2010).
Research Questions
The four research questions in this study were as follows:
1. Is there a significant difference in levels of student satisfaction between online courses
that have undergone a systematic faculty peer review process and online courses that have not
undergone a systematic faculty peer review process?
that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review process but are affiliated with a peer
review program and online courses that have no affiliation with a peer review program?
3. Which factors of quality instruction most directly relate to increased levels of student
satisfaction in online courses that have been faculty peer reviewed?
satisfaction in online courses that have not been faculty peer reviewed but are affiliated with a
peer review program?
4
Assumptions of the Study
Survey participants were assumed to be 19 years of age or over, per the letter of informed
consent. It was assumed that participants would answer the survey questions honestly and
completely. The sample of students who participated in this study was assumed to represent the
greater population of students enrolled in regionally accredited online courses.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of this study included the possibility of unreliable data collection. Using a
web-based survey posed the potential problem of incomplete data and duplicate submissions
(Schmidt, 1997). It is also possible that there was a great variance in the courses offered between
participating institutions.
Definition of Terms
Diffusion of treatment--treatment group pedagogy may carry over to controlled groups
within the same institution by proximity of faculty (Aman, 2009).
Mean of QM factor means--the combined mean of all QM factors included in the study to
measure student satisfaction (Aman, 2009).
Student satisfaction--students’ expectations were met in their online learning experience
with respect to orientation, learning outcomes, services, and instructor and peer interaction
(Aman, 2009; Moore 2005).
Peer review--outside experts evaluate and judge an institution’s performance in relation
to mandatory standards (Dill, Massy, Williams, & Cook, 1996).
Upper-level courses--junior and senior level undergraduate courses.
5
Recognized--institutions have undergone a formal QM peer review by three QM-certified
peer reviewers (including one from an institution outside of the one being reviewed and one who
is a content area specialist) and are recognized as including all standards deemed by QM as
essential in addition to obtaining a minimum of 85% of the possible 95 rubric points required to
meet the QM course design level of acceptance (Legon & Runyon, 2007; MarylandOnline,
2011).
Subscribed--institutions have not undergone a formal peer review process; however, a
subscription allows those institutions access to the automated, web-based tools, trainings, and
materials available through Quality Matters (MarylandOnline, 2010).
Non-affiliated--institutions have not undergone a formal QM peer review and do not hold
a subscription to QM.
Chapter Summary
Chapter 1 of this dissertation outlined the statement of the problem, theoretical/
conceptual framework used for the study, statement of the purpose, significance of the problem,
and research questions. Additionally, the assumptions and limitations of the study were
discussed, as well as the operational definition of terms. Chapter 2 of this dissertation outlines
the review of literature, which includes a review of regional accreditation, quality in online
education, satisfaction in online education, the assumption that quality equals satisfaction,
retention in online education, the conceptual framework of Quality Matters, and a review of
Aman’s research.
Chapter 3 describes the methods used to determine student satisfaction in online courses
that are (1) faculty peer reviewed; (2) not faculty peer reviewed but offered at institutions that are
6
subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials; and (3) not faculty peer reviewed and
offered at institutions that have no affiliation with a peer review program. It also addresses the
setting of the study, participants, instrumentation, research questions, data collection and data
analysis.
Chapter 4 analyzes the response rates, demographics, and research questions associated
with this study. Qualitative data obtained from the QM Institutional Representative and the
course designer(s) are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 5 recaps the purpose, framework, and research questions of this study. In
addition, this chapter summarizes a discussion of the findings, the researcher’s conclusions, and
recommendations for practice. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research
are also included. The chapter ends with the researcher’s concluding remarks.
7
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter outlines the review of literature, which includes a review of regional
accreditation, quality in online education, satisfaction in online education, the assumption that
quality equals student satisfaction, and retention in online education. Additionally, this chapter
reviews the conceptual framework of Quality Matters, as well as, a review of Aman’s research.
Regional Accreditation
“Accreditation can be viewed as a seal of academic approval and proof of scholarly
legitimacy” (Casey, 2008, p. 49). Page, Bradford, and Canova (1997) defined accreditation as the
“official certification that a model is acceptable for use within the context of a specific objective”
(p. 396). Dill et al. (1996) defined accreditation as a way to govern that “an institution or a
program meets threshold quality criteria and therefore certifies to the public the existence of
minimum educational standards” (p. 20). Hayward (2006) defined accreditation as “a process of
self-study and external quality review used in higher education to scrutinize colleges, universities
and higher education programs for quality assurance and quality improvement” (p. 5).
Head and Johnson (2011) discussed the significance of regional accreditation as
enhancing academic excellence, safeguarding against groundless criticism, and stimulating
improvement of courses and educational programs. The United States Department of Education
(DOE) uses regional accrediting agencies as proxies for enforcing DOE educational
8
requirements (Schmadeka, 2011). The Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS)
Commission on Colleges (2011) is “the regional body for the accreditation of degree-granting
higher education institutions in the Southern states” (para. 1). Their mission is to certify the
quality of education in the states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Mississippi, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. To achieve SACS accreditation,
institutions must comply with all standards and requirements set forth by the accrediting agency.
When the American College of Surgeons (ACS) began offering regional accreditation to
simulation-based surgical education programs, the University of Washington in Seattle (UW),
who was already working with simulation, proposed a new center entitled Institute for Surgical
and Interventional Simulation. Their goal was to promote their School of Medicine with ACS
accreditation. In 2008, Sachdeva, Pellegrini, and Johnson conducted a case study on UW’s
journey to accreditation. This study reinforced the importance of accreditation by showing that
the establishment of this new center and the achievement of accreditation for the center
generated growth in both student enrollment and faculty recruitment at the institution.
Benson (2003) conducted a study evaluating NetEd, a state undergraduate degree
program initiative to provide distance learning to undergraduate degrees in areas where shortages
had been declared. Those who participated in this qualitative study emphasized that meeting
established accreditation standards was strongly related to online course quality.
Quality in Online Education
There is a plethora of literature claiming to identify quality characteristics of online
education. Ternus, Palmer, and Faulk (2007) created a rubric to evaluate the quality of an online
course, which included structure (context, organization, and environment), content (presentation
9
of information), processes (relationships and interactions), and outcomes (mastery of content and
course evaluation) (p. 51). McGorry (2003) emphasized that a quality online course should
include flexibility, responsiveness and student support, self-reported (perceived) learning,
interaction, perceived usefulness and ease of use of technology, technical support, and student
satisfaction. Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, and Jones (2010) found that including multiple
media was related to quality online instruction when the student was able to control the media.
Their study also found that student reflection was critical for student success in an online
learning environment. Herrington, Herrington, Oliver, Stoney, and Willis (2001) found that
pedagogies, resources, and delivery strategies were crucial for quality in online education.
Frydenberg (2002) compiled a review of literature that outlined quality standards
published by various authors in the U.S. and found that the most commonly cited standards for
quality assurance in online education during that time were executive commitment, technological
infrastructure, student services, design and development, instruction and instructor services,
program delivery, financial health, legal and regulatory requirements, and program evaluation.
Phipps and Merisotis (2000) argued that institutional support, course development, teaching and
learning, course structure, student support, faculty support, and evaluation and assessment are
essential to quality in online education. Deubel (2003) indicated that “instructor’s attitude,
motivation, and true commitment toward instruction delivery via distance education programs
affect much of the quality of instruction” (para. 5). Deubel also stressed that social presence,
course materials, and technical support were related to online course quality. Bickle and Carroll
(2003) suggested several items that should be included in online education to ensure a quality
course, including course introduction, timely feedback, consistency in delivery of information,
relevancy, learning objectives, and technical support. Sonwalkar (2007) insisted that quality in
10
an online course could be measured by its medial elements, learning styles, and interactivity.
Wiesenberg and Stacey (2005) identified teaching support, learning support, and administrative
support as important factors in quality online education.
Best Practices
The Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications (WCET) at the Western
Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) is one framework that targets quality
assurance in distance education (Johnstone & Krauth, 1996). WICHE drafted the “Best Practices
for Electronically Offered Degree and Certification Programs” (Western Cooperative for
Educational Telecommunications, 2001), which was later established by the eight regional
accrediting agencies in response to the increased demand for distance education in institutions of
higher education. The “Best Practices” are not new standards; they simply aim to clarify how the
existing accreditation standards are applicable to the emerging online environments. Eaton
(2001) agreed that classroom accreditation standards are not appropriate for the online learning
environment and that those standards need to be modified specifically for distance education.
The five standards identified by “Best Practices” include the following: institutional context and
commitment, curriculum and instruction, faculty support, student support, and evaluation and
assessment (WCET, 2009). The practices are periodically reviewed and revised as needed, with
the latest update being implemented in 2009. WCET joined with the State Higher Education
Executive Officers (SHEEO, 2003) to examine the “goals, functions, challenges, and outcomes”
of distance education across the United States (p. 1). This study included a survey sent to all
state-wide and system-wide virtual colleges and universities, as well as, multiple interviews with
system administrators. The results of this study concluded that successful institutions were those
11
that focused on the up-front learner support. Additionally, institution consortia were found to be
significant to the quality of virtual education.
Sloan-C Quality
The Sloan Consortium (Sloan-C) is another framework that strives for quality assurance
and student satisfaction in online education (Sloan-C, 2011). Sloan-C is a community that
“shares techniques, strategies, and practices in online education that have worked for them”
(Sloan-C, 2011, para. 1). All practices identified as effective are peer reviewed to ensure quality.
The five pillars identified by Sloan-C include learning effectiveness, cost effectiveness and
institutional commitment, access, faculty satisfaction, and student satisfaction (Moore, 2005).
Zhao (2003) conducted a study to explore issues that may affect the quality of online education.
Sloan-C was incorporated as the framework for this study but was extended by emphasizing
course effectiveness, which was considered the “core of the overall quality of online higher
education” (Zhao, 2003, p. 218). After surveying participants of this study, Zhao concluded that
universities should implement their own quality assurance plan specific to their institution, using
the framework as a guide. More research was needed to determine significance of the framework
to quality in online education.
QM
Quality Matters (QM) is another framework that has developed a rubric for online course
design that sets a standard for measuring quality assurance, as well as accreditation standards, in
online education (Legon, 2006; Lewis et al., 2011; Shattuck, 2010). This rubric can be used to
design online higher education courses, as well as hybrid/blended higher education courses, with
12
the intention of increasing student learning, retention, and satisfaction (Legon, 2009). The QM
framework is structured around eight broad standards: course overview and introduction,
learning objectives, assessment and measurement, instructional materials, learner interaction and
engagement, course technology, learner support, and accessibility. In 2008, Ralston-Berg and
Nath surveyed students to find out how much they valued the QM rubric standards in their online
course. Students were informed that by value the researchers meant “how much they wanted the
feature in an online course” (Ralston-Berg & Nath, 2008, p. 2). Students were asked to rank the
features according to their perspective of importance. Analyses showed that students ranked 40
out of 41 standards of the QM rubric (Quality Matters, 2010) as somewhere between 2 to 3 (very
important to essential), disregarding the standard for netiquette. The researchers performed
correlations between student satisfaction, as perceived by the student, and all QM features. This
analysis indicated that students who claimed high satisfaction in their online course were
correlated with those who ranked the QM features as more valuable; whereas the students who
claimed low satisfaction in their online course were correlated with those who ranked the QM
features as less valuable. Artino (2011) also conducted a study designed to explore students’
perceptions of quality in their online courses that were designed with the QM framework. The
results of this study indicated that students viewed almost all of the QM standards as valuable to
their online course.
U21G
Chua and Lam (2007) investigated the use Universitas 21 Global (U21G) as a method of
assuring quality in online education. U21G is a network that includes 18 international
universities across four continents. The purpose of creating U21G was to allow all participating
13
institutions to pool their resources and offer high quality online education via collaboration
between the institutions. The quality assurance processes measured through this program include
content authoring (authored by multiple stakeholders), courseware development, adjunct faculty
recruitment, pedagogy, and delivery. All course content is peer reviewed through a double-blind
review process. Online courses offered through this program contain “textual material, graphics,
interactive exercises, assignment questions, test questions, online library and links to other online
resources” (Chua & Lam, 2007, p. 135). At the end of the course, students were given a 5-point
Likert-type survey to assess their perception of course quality. Chua and Lam concluded that the
quality assurance measures implemented by U21G greatly improved the overall quality of the
program and student learning.
Satisfaction in Online Education
Opinions on what constitutes student satisfaction vary across the discipline. Lee (2010)
claimed that timely feedback from instructors is essential to student satisfaction in an online
learning environment. Social presence is another factor emphasized as leading to higher student
satisfaction in online education (Abdous & Yen, 2010; Richardson & Swan, 2003). Support
services have also been characterized as a predictor for student satisfaction in online courses
(Lee, 2010). McGorry (2003) indicated that student satisfaction is affected by the flexibility in a
course, social presence, technical support, and course technology. Lorenzo and Moore (2002)
declared that student satisfaction is a product of responsive, timely, personalized services and
support; high-quality learning outcomes; academic and administrative support services; and
learner interaction and collaboration.
14
Seven Principles
Babb, Stewart, and Johnson (2010) studied student perceptions in a hybrid course using
the framework by Chickering and Gamson (1983): Seven Principles for Good Practice in
Undergraduate Education. This framework encouraged student-faculty contact, cooperation
among students, active learning, prompt feedback, emphasis on time on task, communication of
high expectations, and respect of diverse talents and ways of learning. The study conducted by
Babb et al. (2010) found that students who were active in their learning were likely to be more
satisfied with their online experience. By allowing students to bring personal experiences into
discussions, it brings a more personal atmosphere altogether into the online course. Students
should be encouraged to participate in active learning, peer reviews, and team-building problem-
solving activities (Chickering & Gamson, 1983).
Sloan-C Satisfaction
Fredericksen, Pickett, Shea, Pelz, and Swan (2000) collected data from a student
satisfaction survey in 1999 based on the Sloan-C framework for quality and satisfaction in online
education. The results of this study indicated that students were more satisfied with their course
when they had higher levels of interaction with their teacher and their classmates. However,
students also stated higher levels of satisfaction with their online course when they were satisfied
with the reliability of the technology and when they were satisfied with the level of technical
support they received during technical difficulties. Students who were taking the online course
for its flexibility reported higher levels of satisfaction than those who were taking it only because
they could not find a campus course to take.
15
TAM
Arbaugh (2000) conducted a study using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
framework, which focuses on the usefulness of technology and the perceived ease of use of
technology as predictors for user satisfaction. Arbaugh concluded that the usefulness of
technology and the user-friendliness of technology implemented in online courses were
positively related to student satisfaction in their online course. Flexibility in the course was also a
positive factor in student satisfaction. Swan’s (2001) study found that students were more
satisfied with their online course when the course structure was consistent and easy to use.
Participants in this study also reported higher levels of satisfaction when they were satisfied with
the level of instructor/student, student/student, and student/content interaction. Carr and Hagel
(2008) conducted a study in which students were surveyed to assess their perceptions of quality
in online and face-to-face courses in Australia. This study found that student satisfaction
increased with the increase in online activity.
Determinants of Learning Effectiveness
Eom, Wen, and Ashill (2006) conducted a study to assess factors related to student
learning and satisfaction in online education. They used the conceptual framework Determinants
of Learning Effectiveness, created by Piccoli, Ahmad, and Ives (2001), which points to both
human and design factors as essential to online course quality. In this framework, human factors
include students and instructors; whereas, design factors include technology, learner control,
course content, and interaction. More specifically, Eom et al. predicted that student satisfaction
would be related to student self-motivation, student learning style, instructor knowledge and
facilitation, instructor feedback, interaction, and course structure. The results of this study
16
concluded that all six of these factors were significant with regard to student satisfaction in their
online course.
ADL Network
Artino (2008) conducted a study aimed at predicting characteristics that would contribute
to student satisfaction of their online course. Artino used the Advanced Distributed Learning
(ADL) network as a framework for the study. Online courses developed by the U.S. Navy were
evaluated in this study. An anonymous, Likert-type survey was distributed to U.S. service
academy students at the completion of their online course. Results of this study indicated that
student’s self-reported “task value, self-efficacy beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality”
(Artino, 2008, p. 266) were significant predictors of overall student satisfaction of the online
course.
Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh Framework
Sun et al. (2008) conducted a study using a framework designed specifically for the
study, which included six dimensions based on a review of literature: learner, instructor, course,
technology, design, and environment. Validity of the framework was established through a series
of interviews with experienced e-learners and then reliability was established via a pilot test of e-
learners. The final questionnaire included a Likert-type scale that was distributed to e-learners
who had not already participated in the pilot test. The purpose of this study was to examine
factors that influenced student satisfaction in online education. The study concluded that
computer anxiety, instructor attitude, flexibility, course quality, usefulness, ease of use, and
17
diversity in assessments were the factors that most influenced student satisfaction with their
online course.
Observational Case Study Design
Hong (2002) conducted a study using the observational case study design (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1998) to evaluate student satisfaction in their problem-based online course. Hong
interacted with students participating in the research. Data were collected by distribution of
questionnaires, faculty records, and interviews with the students. The results of this study
indicated that gender, age, and learning styles showed no relation to student perceptions of
satisfaction in their online course; however, students who were more skilled with computers
perceived higher satisfaction with their online course.
Quality Equals Satisfaction
In reviewing the literature for online course quality and student satisfaction, it appeared
that the same factors were identified as promoting both quality and satisfaction. It also appeared
that an online course that included quality standards would lead to higher student satisfaction of
that course. Sloan Consortium (2011) identifies effective online education as including the
element of student satisfaction. Rodriguez, Ooms, and Montanez (2008) conducted a study of
student perceptions regarding online quality instruction and found that student satisfaction was
related to perceived quality of course delivery. Sun et al. (2008) agreed that online course quality
was a critical factor in student satisfaction. Zhao (2003) also agreed that student satisfaction is
affected by course quality. McGorry (2003) acknowledged student satisfaction as an essential
standard in quality online education. Based on the literature, the researcher assumed that an
18
online course designed with a reputable quality framework would result in higher student
satisfaction of that course.
Retention in Online Education
Rovai (2003) insisted that student retention was an important factor for determining
quality assurance and student satisfaction in higher education. Rovai claimed that retention rates
in higher education are “strongly related to the ability of educational programs to satisfy adult
needs” (p. 2). Tinto (1975) claimed that insufficient social presence may result in lower retention
rates in online education. He also believed that teamwork and collaboration supported greater
retention rates in higher education. Workman and Stenard (1996) concluded that the degree to
which distance learner’s needs are met influenced their retention rates. These needs included
“detailed information about the school, educational programs, and courses,” “an online student
manual that covers the e-learning system in detail,” the “names, e-mail addresses, and phone
numbers of online instructors, advisers, and technicians,” “prompt feedback and replies,”
nurturing of “student self-esteem,” “sense of community,” “social integration,” and “access to
support services” (Workman & Stenard, 1996, pp. 10-11). Morris, Wu, and Finnegan (2005)
suggested that retention rates in higher education distance education may be related to student
demographic characteristics, such as high school GPA, educational background, age, and gender.
Lorenzo and Moore (2002) indicated that retention rates in online education were related to
student satisfaction.
Nash’s (2005) study of student retention in online education suggested that better course
development, instruction, management, and timely feedback might increase student retention.
Herbert (2006) researched student satisfaction and retention in online courses and found that
19
students who claimed to be satisfied with the factors of their online course tended to be related to
the completion rate of the online course; however, a model for predicting student retention was
never produced as significant. Rovai (2003) disagreed with Hebert and further claimed that
student persistence, and therefore retention, is generally based on both external and internal
student characteristics, such as hours of employment, family responsibilities, study habits, stress,
etc. Nichols’ (2010) study agreed with Rovai by showing that most students who dropped out of
their online course named personal reasons for their withdrawal. Eom et al. (2006) agreed that
student self-motivation is a major factor affecting retention in online education. Dietz-Uhler,
Fisher, and Han (2007-2008) specifically studied the use of the QM framework on student
retention. Although this study showed a 95% retention rate in all courses that were designed
using the QM rubric, there was no scientific comparison to show whether or not the QM
framework aided in student retention rates because the study did not include courses that were
designed without the QM rubric.
Quality Matters
Although there are varying definitions of what constitutes quality and satisfaction in
online education, and varying frameworks for evaluating these characteristics in online courses,
this study focused on the Quality Matters framework due to the shortage of literature
documenting quality and satisfaction in online education using QM. One case study was
documented in 2006, and a few case studies were found from 2009 and thereafter, but the
literature on QM is still thin. This research expected to add to that body of literature.
Quality Matters has received “national recognition for their research-based rubric and
inter-institutional peer review processes” (Puzziferro & Shelton, 2008, p. 125). The values that
20
initiated the creation of the rubric include those established by The Guiding Principles for
Distance Learning in a Learning Society and the Distance Learning Evaluation Guide (Shattuck,
2010). Quality Matters routinely collects feedback from QM Rubric subscribers and peer
reviewed institutions and uses that feedback to revise the rubric as needed. This rubric can be
used to design online higher education courses, as well as hybrid/blended higher education
courses, with the intention of increasing student learning, retention, and satisfaction (Legon,
2009).
Quality Matters is a faculty-centered, peer review process that certifies the quality of
online courses that are built upon the QM framework. This framework is structured around eight
broad standards: course overview and introduction, learning objectives, assessment and
measurement, instructional materials, learner interaction and engagement, course technology,
learner support, and accessibility. Within these broad standards, there are 41 specific standards
that are assigned a rating of 1, 2, or 3, where 3 = essential, 2 = very important, and 1 =
important. According to the QM rubric, all essential standards with a 3-point rating must be
present in an online course. Furthermore, out of 95 possible rubric points, a course must obtain a
minimum of 85% (or 81 points) to meet the QM course design level of acceptance. Peer review
of a course includes three QM-certified reviewers, one of which must be from an institution
outside of the one being reviewed, and one of which must be a content area specialist (Legon &
Runyon, 2007; MarylandOnline, 2011). Course reviews provide institutions with
recommendations for existing course improvement, as well as, quality thresholds for new
courses. Additionally, course reviews provide institutions with quality process indicators for
accreditation self-studies (MarylandOnline, 2011).
21
Course Overview and Introduction
Conrad (2002) suggested that students feel anxiety when starting a new course. He
suggested giving a thorough orientation at the beginning of each online course to relieve some of
this apprehension. Conrad also identified students as preferring an organized course structure,
introduction from the instructor, and clear expectations of the course. Achtemeier, Morris, and
Finnegan (2003) agreed that giving students clear expectations at the beginning of the course, as
well as structured deadlines to keep students on pace, is preferred by students. Workman and
Stenard (1996) suggested that students should be given a detailed online student manual at the
beginning of a course to assist in learning the policies, procedures, and technical requirements
for that online course. Shea, Pickett, and Pelz (2003) indicated that an effective online course
will include setting the curriculum, designing methods, establishing time parameters, utilizing
the medium effectively, and establishing netiquette at the start of the course. Setting the
curriculum was defined as the instructor clearly communicating important course outcomes and
course topics. Designing methods was defined as the instructor providing clear instructions on
participation expectations. Establishing time parameters was defined as the instructor clearly
communicating the course schedule and deadlines. Utilizing the medium effectively was defined
as the instructor providing clear instructions regarding how to use the course media. Establishing
netiquette was defined as the instructor providing students with clear instructions and examples
on the types of behavior that were expected in an online learning environment.
Learning Objectives
“Designing effective learning environments and developing strategies to achieve student
learning outcomes continue to be important factors in educational institutions in the online
22
sphere” (Artino, 2011). Providing learning objectives to students at the beginning of a course
(whether online or face-to-face) is important for a clear understanding of what is expected from
that course. Students should be told what outcomes are expected of them and any assessment
taken by that student should measure those expected outcomes (Achtemeier et al., 2003;
Hatziapostolou & Paraskakis, 2010; Palomba & Banta, 1999). Workman and Stenard (1996) also
claimed that identifying clear and measurable learning objectives is critical to student success in
an online learning environment.
Assessment and Measurement
The impersonal nature of online exams, varying levels of technology expertise,
technological problems during exams, and learner anxiety are disadvantages of taking online
assessments (Yates & Beaudrie, 2009). In an effort to offset these disadvantages, students should
be assessed using a variety of methods (Rovai, Ponton, & Baker, 2008; Palomba & Banta, 1999),
such as assessing asynchronous interaction in addition to standardized tests. A study conducted
by Thurmond, Wambach, Connors, and Frey (2002) found that the strongest predictor of student
satisfaction was being assessed by a variety of methods. Another predictor of student satisfaction
included prompt feedback from instructors. Feedback on assessments should be prompt and
specific to each student (Chickering & Gamson, 1983; Hatziapostolou & Paraskakis, 2010;
Palomba & Banta, 1999), as many students are motivated by the satisfaction or repercussion of
grades (Rovai et al., 2008). Effective feedback should be “timely, constructive, motivational,
personal, manageable and directly related to assessment criteria and learning outcomes”
(Hatziapostolou & Paraskakis, 2010, p. 111). Soon, Sook, Jung, and Im (2000) participated in a
study to assess student satisfaction in an online course via a questionnaire at the end of the
23
course and found negative responses in relation to inadequate feedback from professors.
Workman and Stenard (1996) claimed that students need a sense of self-esteem to be successful
in an online course. He stated that students’ self-esteem can be nurtured by timely feedback.
Instructional Materials
Achtemeier et al. (2003) suggested that when planning an online class, it is important to
assign tasks where resources for that task are easily accessible to every student in the class. With
the expansion of online education, these resources may largely be electronic and available
through a digital library or course management system (Dong, Xu, & Lu, 2009). Dong et al.
found that students reported lower rates of satisfaction with their online education when certain
factors, such as inadequate resources, were identified. Deubel (2003) agreed that appropriate use
of media and interactivity with content contributed to course quality and student satisfaction.
Deubel advised that instructional materials be centrally located for ease of access and that a list
of additional resources (such as supplementary texts and websites) may be helpful for students
seeking further exploration of course content. Deubel (2003) also indicated that instructor
websites should include online help and technical assistance, frequently asked questions, plug-
ins needed to view course content, online libraries and databases, and a list of supplementary
websites related to course content, and that graphics and other visuals should be relevant for
course content and sized appropriately to reduce student frustration from long download times.
Learner Interaction and Engagement
Moore (1989) introduced us to the concept of transactional distance, which is the measure
of distance one feels between himself and his peers or between himself and his instructor. Tomei
24
(2006) believed that the most important thing in an online course is teacher-student interaction.
Grandzol and Grandzol (2010) supported this in their study, which found learner to instructor
interaction showed the strongest correlation with student perceptions of learning. Walther,
Anderson, and Park, as quoted in Casey (2008, p. 50), claimed, “When cues are filtered out,
communication becomes more ‘task oriented, cold and less personal than face-to-face
communication.’” Casey suggested using available technologies, such as blogging and
podcasting, to mediate this communication gap. Lack of feedback, communication, and
interaction with their instructor leads to student dissatisfaction with their online course, as well
as higher withdrawal rates from that course (Abdous & Yen, 2010; Steinman, 2007). To reduce
transactional distance between students and instructors, Steinman (2007) suggested that
instructors set virtual office hours for students, which is most effective if the student can both see
and hear the instructor.
Steinman (2007) indicated that discussion boards and chat tools help facilitate
communication between students, which helps to reduce transactional distance between students
to other students. Baturay and Bay (2010) studied problem-based learning (PBL) and learned that
students were more satisfied in PBL courses due to the social interaction increasing students’
perceptions of “connectedness” (p. 51). Rovai (2002) suggested using team-building activities to
reduce transactional distance between students, although Baturay and Bay’s study contradicted
this by showing that students working in team environments showed poorer achievement levels,
possibly due to inactive or overbearing students.
Baturay and Bay (2010) concluded that problem-based learning minimizes the effects of
transactional distance between students and their content. Swan (2002) showed that students who
had higher interaction with their instructor, other students, and course content combined reported
25
higher levels of satisfaction with their online course. Interestingly, Grandzol and Grandzol
(2010) found that higher levels of interaction in an online course environment appeared to have a
relationship with decreased student retention rates in those courses. This is supported by Rourke,
Anderson, Garrison, and Archer (2001) who found that although social presence is important for
an online learning environment, too much interaction may actually lead to lower achievement.
Grandzol and Grandzol (2010) also found that even though student-instructor interaction showed
a positive correlation with student perceptions of learning in their online course, there was no
statistical significance found in this category as related to student retention.
Course Technology
Augustsson (2010) stated that online education has now become more of a collaborative
student learning process, rather than just a way for instructors to deliver instruction. Within this
rapidly changing environment, it is essential to incorporate multiple technologies into a course
(Cohen, Carbone, & Beffa-Negrini, 2011). This may include Virtual Lecture Halls (VLH) such
as Tegrity, Camtasia, and Captivate (Cramer, Collins, Snider, & Fawcett, 2006); e-mail; web
sites; discussion boards; chats; wikis; podcasts; videocasts; social bookmarking; social
networking; blogs; and document sharing services (An, 2010; Arnold & Paulus, 2010;
Augustsson, 2010; Halic, Lee, Paulus, & Spence, 2010; Kear, Woodthorpe, Robertson, &
Hutchison, 2010; Preston, Phillips, Gosper, McNeill, Woo, & Green, 2010). Web 2.0 software,
such as social networking and wikis, allow higher levels of interaction between students,
instructors, and course content (Schroeder, Minocha, & Schneider, 2010).
Cohen et al. (2011) noted that “using technology for the sake of technology” (p. 84) may
decrease student learning in an online course. Additionally, Schroeder et al. (2010) found that
26
incorporating technological features into a course is not sufficient unless the instructor facilitates
the use of those tools. Course management systems (CMS), such as Angel, Blackboard, Moodle,
etc., were designed to incorporate technologies into a manageable course environment (Arnold &
Paulus, 2010; Schroeder et al., 2010).
Learner Support
Rovai et al. (2008) suggested that online students expect the same type of and
convenience of access to support services that is offered to on-campus students. This may
include enrollment support, instruction support, and particularly technical support. Workman and
Stenard (1996) agreed that students need “ready access to support services such as bookstores,
library, financial aid offices, and advisers” (p. 11). They also suggested that students in an online
learning environment need access to tutoring, study preparation, and technology training.
Additionally, they suggested using tools that support multiple learning styles to accommodate
students with varying needs. Lee (2010) agreed that students need support services such as
assistance with registration, financial aid, and technical support. McGorry (2003) stated that
students in an online course need access to institutional resources as well as electronic resources
that keep the student engaged in their course. Shea and Armitage (2002) argued that many
institutions have neglected support services for their distance education students due to lack of
resources and flexibility. They further indicated that online education will never see the same
level of success or retention as campus-based education until online students have access to all
student services made available to on-campus students. Shea and Armitage insisted that services
that cannot be offered online be offered in some format that is an accessible and affordable
27
alternative to students, such as e-books or mail-order textbooks, online library resources, test
proctoring arrangements, and online support held during non-traditional hours.
Accessibility
“Online courses can inadvertently erect barriers for students and instructors with
disabilities” (Burgstahler, Corrigan, & McCarter, 2004, p. 234). The Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) requires that online courses be compatible with assistive technologies. Section 504,
which is an extension of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, prohibits institutions from
discriminating against students with disabilities regardless of whether they are federally funded
(Burgstahler et al., 2004). Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act requires that information and
data be accessible nationwide by individuals with disabilities (United States Government, 2011).
The Assistive Technology Act, enacted by the United States Congress (1998) requires states
(including collegiate institutions) to comply with Section 508. Pearson and Koppi (2001) created
a set of guidelines entitled Guidelines for Accessible Online Courses that could be used to assist
course developers in creating online courses that are accessible. These guidelines include the
following:
1. Ensure consistent and appropriate use of graphics, icons and other visual cues,
2. Ensure all graphics, figures, and other illustrations include a text equivalent,
3. Organize content to take account of the transition to an online environment,
4. Use the features provided by WebCT [or other learning management systems] to
organize and structure your course content,
5. Make PDF and other read only file formats accessible,
6. Be aware of the limitations of screen readers in interpreting unusual text, characters,
and abbreviations,
7. Ensure that tables are carefully and appropriately used,
8. Ensure appropriate use of colors and contrasts in screen design,
9. Provide alternative sources of information for video or audio or other moving images,
and
10. Use style sheets to format text and control layout. (Pearson & Koppi, 2001, pp. 7-19)
28
Additional QM Case Studies
In 2011, Swan, Matthews, Bogle, Boles, and Day conducted a study that implemented
both the QM and the Community of Inquiry (COI) frameworks to redesign one online course,
hoping to enhance student learning. The COI framework is primarily a subjective, constructivist
framework embedded in course implementation (Swan et al., 2011). The idea was to redesign a
course to meet QM design standards and then tweak it based on COI ratings. Results of the study
suggested that using the two frameworks simultaneously may positively improve student
outcomes.
Legon (2006) conducted a study to compare the “Best Practices for Electronically
Offered Degree and Certificate Programs”--which was adopted in 2001 by the eight regional
accrediting bodies across the United States--with the QM rubric to see if an online course
designed upon the QM framework would meet the accreditation guidelines for online education.
Legon provided a one-to-one correspondence with the Best Practices for Electronically Offered
Degree and Certificate Programs and QM principles. Although there were a few Best Practices
principles that could not be paralleled with QM principles, those principles were not found to be
in conflict with QM. Overall, Legon (2006) found the QM rubric to be “fully consistent with
published accreditation standards for online education” (p. 9) and he suggested the rubric could
even serve as a record of accreditation compliance.
Little (2009) conducted a study using two sets of online course standards: the 2006
College of Public Health (COPH) Online Course Standards and the 2005 Quality Matters (QM)
Peer Course Review Rubric. The purpose of the study was to observe a convenience sample,
consisting of 2 out of 10 online courses, in an RN-to-Bachelors of Science in Nursing (BSN)
program. In the end, the study suggested that either instrument could provide accurate
29
evaluations of online courses, so deciding which tool to use should be based on other measures,
such as user-friendliness, as the reviewers declared that the COPH standards were “time
consuming and difficult to use” (Little, 2009, p. 413). The peer reviewers for this study
suggested adoption of the QM rubric based on its “ease of use, content validity, and national
recognition” (Little, 2009, p. 415).
McFerrin, Duchardt, Furr, Horton, and Gentry (2009) studied the design and
implementation of online programs at Northwestern State University in Natchitoches, Louisiana,
using the QM rubric as the basis for designing these online courses. To measure the effectiveness
of each online course, faculty participated in peer evaluations for each course via a survey with
both closed and open-ended questions. Additionally, students enrolled in each course completed
a survey at the end of their term giving feedback for the course. Finally, an external evaluation
was completed by an objective third-party that analyzed both the peer and the student feedback.
While the courses were still being developed and tweaked at the time of this study, there is no
cumulative data to show the effectiveness of the QM rubric in designing these courses.
In 2009, Pollacia, Russell, and Russell engaged in a study that created an online minor in
Computer Information Systems (CIS), using the QM rubric as the basis for development. As of
the publication date, there were no data to show whether or not this effort increased enrollment
in the CIS department.
Aman’s Research
Aman (2009) began his research by determining whether online courses that were faculty
peer reviewed would increase student satisfaction and retention rates, compared to online courses
that were not faculty peer reviewed. He also studied courses that were not faculty peer reviewed,
30
but that were offered by institutions in which faculty peer reviewed courses were offered, to see
if there was a diffusion of treatment between faculty at those institutions. He categorized these
into three sections:
1. Reviewed--formally reviewed by a QM rubric,
2. Non-Reviewed--not formally reviewed by a QM rubric, but offered at institutions who
also offer QM peer reviewed courses, and
3. No-Review--not affiliated with Quality Matters (Aman, 2009)
His study also looked at which specific quality standards were most directly related to student
satisfaction and retention rates. The research questions for Aman’s (2009) study included the
following:
1. Is there a significant difference in levels of student satisfaction between online
courses that have undergone a systematic faculty peer review process and non-peer
reviewed courses?
2. Is there a significant difference in course retention rates between online courses that
have had a systematic faculty peer review process and non-peer reviewed online
courses?
satisfaction in online courses?
4. Which factors of quality online instruction are most important in terms of increased
retention levels of students in online courses? (pp. 3-4)
Participants in this study included 455 students, among 41 courses. To gather data on student
satisfaction, Aman used a quasi-experimental method, which included an online Likert-type
scale survey administered to students enrolled in online courses. Data on student retention were
31
obtained at the course level and compared student enrollment during the end of the first week of
class with student enrollment at the end of the course for each course included in the study.
Aman (2009) participated in QM training to become a certified peer reviewer for the process
of implementing online courses through the institution from which he was employed. Being
familiar with the QM rubric, Aman chose this as his peer reviewed framework. The rubric
outlined eight critical standards:
1. Course Overview and Introduction,
2. Learning Objectives,
3. Assessment and Measurement,
4. Instructional Materials,
5. Learner Interaction and Engagement,
6. Course Technology,
7. Learner Support, and
8. Accessibility,
Aman (2009) found only seven of those standards supported in his theoretical research:
1. Course Overview and Introductions,
2. Learning Outcomes or Objectives,
3. Student Assessment and Measurement,
4. Learning Resources and Materials,
5. Learner Interactions (Instructor, Student, Content),
6. Course Technology, and
7. Learner Support. (p. 38)
32
He then concluded that two of the standards, “Course Overview and Introductions” and “Learner
Support” were not significantly supported theoretically because (1) Course Overview and
Introductions was not discussed in the majority of his research, and (2) Learner Support was
typically found to be out of the faculty member’s control. Therefore, Aman (2009) proceeded
with his research assessing only five of the QM standards (see Table 1).
Table 1
Quality Matters Standards Included in Aman’s Research
Standard Aman Name of Standard QM Name of Standard

1. Learning Outcomes or Objectives Learning Objectives
2. Student Assessment & Measurement Assessment & Measurement
3. Learning Resources & Materials Instructional Materials
4. Learner Interactions (Instructor, Student, Content) Learner Interaction & Engagement
5. Course Technology Course Technology
Based on his review of the literature, Aman (2009) explored the following demographic
variables, to see if they provided any correlation to student satisfaction: (1) student age, (2)
sudent gender, (3) number of prior online courses taken, and (4) student level of comfort with
online technology.
After an extensive review of literature, Aman (2009) defined student satisfaction in two
ways. First, students were questioned about their levels of satisfaction with QM factors of quality
found to be present in their online peer reviewed course. The assumption was that courses
containing factors of quality would stimulate higher satisfaction among students than courses
that did not contain the same factors of quality. Second, student retention rates were compared
within their online course and other similar courses that had not been peer reviewed. The
assumption was that students would drop an online course they felt did not satisfy their needs.
33
Aman’s Findings
Aman’s study found that comfort with distance learning, age, and gender may be related
to student satisfaction in their online courses. A review of the literature supported that students’
prior level of computer skills may be conducive to success and satisfaction with their online
course (Abdous & Yen, 2010; Koroghlanian & Brinkerhoff, 2008; Lim, 2001; Menchaca &
Bekele, 2008; Sahin & Shelley, 2008; Thurmond et al., 2002). Richardson and Swan (2003),
however, found that age was not a significant factor in student satisfaction, which is supported
by Thurmond et al. (2002), Hong (2002) and Lim (2001). The review of literature found mixed
reviews regarding gender. Kim and Moore (2005) and Richardson and Swan (2003) found
gender to be a significant factor in student satisfaction with online courses; whereas, Hong
(2002) and Lim (2001) found no statistical significance with gender in relation to student
satisfaction with their online course.
Aman’s (2009) research found no significance in the number of prior online courses
taken, which is supported by Richardson and Swan (2003), whose research showed that the
number of college credits earned online showed no significant relationship to student satisfaction
in online courses. Thurmond et al. (2002) also showed that the number of previous online
courses taken was not a predictor of student satisfaction in an online learning environment.
Arbaugh (2001) found that prior student experience with online courses was actually negatively
associated with student satisfaction of their course. Arbaugh and Duray’s (2002) study, however,
disagreed by showing that students with more experience in online learning reported higher
levels of satisfaction with their online course.
Diffusion of treatment was found to have no statistical significance for courses called
“non-reviewed;” therefore, for the remainder of Aman’s (2009) study he combined the “non-
34
reviewed” and “no-review” courses into a category called “all other.” The last question, which
asked for student overall satisfaction, was not found to be significant with regard to faculty peer
reviewed courses; so Aman calculated a mean of QM factor means, based on the combined
means calculated for all of the QM standards included in the study. The mean of QM factor
means did result in a significant difference in satisfaction between courses that were categorized
as “reviewed” and “all other.” None of the variables identified in Aman’s research showed a
statistical significance to student retention. A review of literature supported that identifying best
practices for student retention is difficult to quantify and is non-consistent (McGivney, 2004;
Nichols, 2010; Patterson & McFadden, 2009; Tait, 2004; Woodley, 2004).
Conclusion
To further validate Aman’s (2009) questionnaire, the five QM factors identified by Aman
as significant to student perceptions of quality and satisfaction will be included in this study.
This consisted of learning outcomes or objectives, student assessment and measurement, learning
resources and materials, learner interactions (instructor, student, content), and course technology.
The demographic variables, comfort with distance learning, age, and gender, showed a
possible relationship with student satisfaction in Aman’s research. The review of literature,
however, did not show consistency pertaining to significance of these variables. Number of prior
online courses taken did not show a significant relationship with student satisfaction in Aman’s
study, and the review of literature also dismissed the significance of this variable. However, to
maintain the validity and reliability of the survey instrument, all four demographic variables
were included in this study.
35
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Introduction
This chapter describes the methods used to determine student satisfaction in online
courses that are (1) faculty peer reviewed; (2) not faculty peer reviewed but offered at
institutions that are subscribers to peer review tools, trainings, and materials; and (3) not faculty
peer reviewed and are offered at institutions that have no affiliation with a peer review program.
It also addresses the setting of the study, participants, instrumentation, research questions, data
collection, and data analysis.
Setting of the Study
The setting of this study included senior institutions accredited by the Southern
Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) in which upper-level and/or graduate courses were
offered in an online format. Institutions asked to participate in this study included some that
offered online courses peer reviewed by the QM rubric; some that offered online courses not
peer reviewed by the QM rubric but offered at institutions that were subscribed to QM tools,
trainings, and materials; and some that offered online courses not peer reviewed by the QM
rubric and offered at institutions that had no affiliation with QM. To avoid a potential diffusion
of treatment, institutions that were identified in one category were excluded from the other
categories.
36
Participants
This study included upper-level and/or graduate online classes offered at senior
institutions accredited by SACS. The participants identified in this study included three groups of
participants over the age of 19: students who were enrolled in online courses at regionally
accredited institutions that had been peer reviewed using the QM rubric; students who were
enrolled in online courses at regionally accredited institutions that had not been peer reviewed
using the QM rubric but that were offered at institutions who were subscribed to QM tools,
trainings, and materials; and students who were enrolled in online courses at regionally
accredited institutions that had not been peer reviewed using the QM rubric and that had no
affiliation with QM. For the remainder of this study, the three categories were known as follows:
1. Recognized--have undergone a formal peer review through QM;
2. Subscribed--have not undergone a formal peer review through QM but are subscribed
to QM tools, trainings, and materials; and
3. Non-affiliated--have not undergone a formal peer review through QM and are not
subscribed to QM.
According to the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges
Member, Candidate, and Applicant List (2011), there were 805 institutions regionally accredited
through SACS. A comparison of the SACS Member, Candidate, and Applicant List; the QM
website; and the individual websites of each of the institutions included in these two references
determined that 10 institutions met criteria for the “recognized” category, 72 institutions met
criteria for the “subscribed” category, and 453 institutions met criteria for the “non-affiliated”
category. The remaining 270 institutions did not meet research criteria for inclusion in this study.
37
To maintain the confidentiality of data, institutional names of participants have not been
disclosed. Upon receiving Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from the researcher’s
home institution (Appendix A), the QM Institutional Representative was contacted at each of the
10 institutions that met research criteria for the “recognized” category to request support for this
study. Of the 10 institutions who were contacted, 4 agreed to participate in this study, 3 declined
participation, and 3 did not respond. IRB approval was granted from the 4 institutions who
agreed to participate. A total of 334 students were enrolled in the 8 online courses recognized by
QM across these 4 institutions, and were solicited for participation in this study. Those who
declined participation gave the following reasons for not participating: (1) institution is closing
for restructure, (2) solicitation of students is prohibited, (3) students are already participating in
another study and the institution does not want to burden them with a second request. Non-
respondents were sent follow-up requests anywhere from one to four times, in 2-week intervals
between April 26, 2012 and July 30, 2012. Research invitations and follow-ups are further
discussed under the section entitled Data Collection.
The researcher used Research Randomizer (http://www.randomizer.org/) to randomly
select 10 of the 72 institutions that met research criteria for the “subscribed” category. Of the 10
selected, IRB approval was granted from 3 of those institutions, IRB approval was denied from 2
of the institutions, and 5 of the institutions did not respond. Of the institutions who agreed to
participate, online courses were chosen that were similar to the courses studied from other
participating institutions. A total of 764 students were enrolled in the 26 online courses chosen
from these 3 institutions, and were solicited for participation in the study. Those who declined
IRB approval gave the following reasons for not participating: (1) solicitation of students is
prohibited, (2) institution is in transition with implementing QM and therefore not a good
38
candidate for this study. Non-respondents were sent follow-up requests anywhere from one to
four times, in 2-week intervals between April 26, 2012 and July 30, 2012. Research invitations
and follow-ups are further discussed under the section entitled Data Collection.
The researcher used Research Randomizer to randomly select 10 of the 453 institutions
that met research criteria for the “non-affiliated” category. Of the 10 selected, IRB approval was
granted from 3 of those institutions, IRB approval was denied from 3 institutions, and 4
institutions did not respond. Of the institutions who agreed to participate, online courses chosen
that were similar to the courses studied from the other participating institutions. A total of 676
students were enrolled in the 24 online courses chosen from these 3 institutions, and were
solicited for participation in this study. Those who declined IRB approval gave the following
reasons for not participating: (1) it is not a good time to solicit student participation as it would
conflict with other data collection and activities currently underway, (2) student solicitation is
prohibited, (3) students are already involved in another study and a second request would be
burdensome. Non-respondents were sent follow-up requests anywhere from one to four times, in
2-week intervals between April 26, 2012 and July 30, 2012. Research invitations and follow-ups
are further discussed under the section entitled Data Collection.
Students enrolled in the courses solicited were emailed a research invitation requesting
their participation in an online quantitative satisfaction questionnaire. Additionally, the QM
institutional representative (where applicable) or the course designer for each course included in
this study was sent a research invitation requesting their participation in an online qualitative
survey to assess if and how they use peer review in the design of the courses. Institutional reps
(or course designers) were sent research invitations anywhere from one to four times, in 2-week
39
intervals between April 26, 2012 and July 30, 2012. Research invitations and follow-ups are
further discussed under the section entitled Data Collection.
Instrumentation
Quantitative Student Satisfaction Survey
With Dr. Aman’s permission (Appendix B), this study used Aman’s Satisfaction
Instrument, which included a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree), with a neutral midpoint. This questionnaire began by asking a few questions
pertaining to each of the five QM standards that could be directly related to student satisfaction
in their online course: learning outcomes, assessment and measurement, learning resources and
materials, learner interactions (student-faculty, student-student, student-materials), and course
technology. Each question attempted to establish the importance of that standard to the student,
as well as the student’s satisfaction with that particular standard in their online course.
Importance was defined as “a general, student reported, benchmark for the value placed on each
of the factors,” while satisfaction was defined as “the student’s level of approval for that specific
factor with the online course” (Aman, 2009, p. 75).
Additionally, this questionnaire assessed demographic variables that may be indirectly
related to student satisfaction with their online course: comfort level with technology, gender,
number of prior online courses completed, and age. Questions 1, 27, 28, and 29 were used to
measure the demographic variables. This questionnaire also assessed background information
about the online course, including course introduction, technology support, and student support,
which were measured in questions 2, 3, and 4, respectively. One final question (question 30) was
used to determine students’ overall satisfaction with their online course. The independent
40
variable identified in this research was faculty peer review in online courses. Table 2 shows the
breakdown of which dependent variables were measured and by which questions.
Table 2
Aman’s Satisfaction Survey Measures
Standard Category Questions Measure

Learning Outcomes Importance of Factor to Student Question 5 Importance
Factors Directly Related to Questions 6, 7, and Satisfaction
Online Learning 8
Assessment & Importance of Factor to Student Question 9 Importance
Measurement
Factors Directly Related to Questions 10, 11, Satisfaction
Online Learning 12, 13
Learning Resources Importance of Factor to Student Question 14 Importance
& Materials
Online Learning 17, 18
Learner Interactions Importance of Factor to Student Question 19 Importance
Online Learning 22
Online Course Importance of Factor to Student Question 23 Importance
Technology
Online Learning 26
Aman (2009) used his review of literature to create construct validity of the questionnaire
by designing the questionnaire around the QM framework. He tested this questionnaire for
content validity by asking a panel of online learning experts and QM experts to review the
questionnaire. After eight revisions, the questionnaire was pilot-tested on two treatment and two
control groups. During this pilot test, the participants were surveyed twice during a semester,
once at midterm and once at the end of the semester (prior to final exams). Factor analyses
showed a strong positive correlation between the QM factors chosen for this study and the
satisfaction questions that were created based on the QM framework. A mean Cronbach’s alpha
41
of .84 confirmed reliability of the questionnaire. The final questionnaire used to survey
participants in Aman’s study included 30 questions (Appendix C). This questionnaire was
administered to participants via an online survey to obtain student-perceived satisfaction with
peer reviewed and all other online courses. Student enrollment was obtained from the course
instructors to gather data on retention rates in the online courses.
Qualitative Course Design Survey
The QM Institutional Representative of the institutions included in the “recognized”
category was sent a research invitation (Appendix D) by email that asked questions regarding the
level of QM implementation across their institution. The QM Institutional Representative (or the
course designer if the QM Representative was unavailable) of the institutions in the “subscribed”
category was sent a research invitation by email that asked questions regarding how many of the
QM resources were implemented in their courses and which specific tools were used. The course
designer of the institutions in the “non-affiliated” category was sent a research invitation by
email that asked questions to determine if the institution was using another type of peer review
evaluation (other than QM) and, if so, was it being used institution-wide or just in particular
courses. Also, questions were asked of this category to determine what specific peer review
tools/resources were being implemented.
The qualitative questions asked of the QM Institutional Representative and/or the course
designers in hopes of clarifying data were as follows (Appendix E):
Recognized
1. What QM tools/resources do you have implemented in your QM-recognized online
course(s)? Select all that apply.
42
a. Rubric
b. Faculty development
c. Course development checklists
d. QM peer-review
e. Self-study
f. Other (please describe)
Subscribed
1. What QM tools/resources do you have implemented in your online course(s)? Select
all that apply.
 Rubric
 Faculty development
 Course development checklists
 QM peer-review
 Self-study
 Other (please describe)
2. If using the QM rubric, how are you using it?
 As a blueprint for designing courses
 For improvement in courses that have already been designed
 Both
3. Other (please describe)
4. Are these tools/resources required of every online course?
 Select Yes or No
5. How are these tools/resources being used?
43
Non-affiliated
1. Are you subscribed to any type of peer-review quality assurance program for your
online courses/programs?
If yes,
 What tools/resources are implemented in your online courses?
 Are these tools/resources required of every online course?
 How are these tools/resources being used?
Research Questions
The four research questions included in this study were as follows:
44
Data Collection
Upon receiving IRB approval, the researcher requested student email addresses of the
students enrolled in courses meeting research criteria from each institution’s registrar. In a few
cases, when email addresses were not released, the QM Institutional Representative or the course
instructor (where applicable) was asked to forward the research invitation to their students on the
researcher’s behalf. Student research invitations (Appendix F) were sent anywhere from one to
four times, in 2-week intervals between April 26, 2012 and July 30, 2012, as shown in Table 3.
The institution who only received one invitation (with zero follow-ups) insisted that follow-ups
would not be allowed for their students. This study included data from the Spring 2012 term and
data from the Summer 2012 term. Students were contacted between the midterm and end of their
enrollment in the online course(s).
Table 3
Research Invitation Timeline for Students and Course Designers
Term Univ. IRB IRB Duration of Initial Follow- Follow- Follow-

Sent Approved Course(s) Research up #1 up #2 up #3
Invitation
SP ‘12 Univ. 1 4/12/12 4/23/12 Jan - May 4/26/12 5/9/12 5/24/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 1 4/12/12 4/23/12 Jun-Jul 6/14/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 2 5/11/12 5/16/12 May-Jun 6/17/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 3 4/18/12 5/16/12 Jun-Jul 6/25/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 4 4/30/12 6/15/12 May-Aug 7/2/12 7/16/12 7/30/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 5 4/23/12 5/24/12 May-Jul 6/25/12 7/9/12 7/23/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 6 4/26/12 5/29/12 May-Jun 6/4/12 6/23/12 7/8/12 7/23/12
SP ‘12 Univ. 7 4/2/12 5/1/12 Jan-May 5/1/12 5/10/12 5/24/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 7 4/2/12 5/1/12 Jun-Jul 6/14/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 8 4/18/12 6/4/12 Jun-Jul 6/14/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
SP ‘12 Univ. 9 3/28/12 4/25/12 Jan-May 4/27/12 5/10/12 5/24/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 9 3/28/12 4/25/12 Jun-Jul 6/17/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
SP ‘12 Univ. 10 4/12/12 4/25/12 Jan-May 5/4/12 5/10/12 5/24/12
SU ‘12 Univ. 10 4/12/12 4/25/12 Jun-Jul 6/18/12 7/1/12 7/16/12
45
SurveyMonkey was used to distribute the student satisfaction questionnaire to
participants of this study due to its anonymous collection of data. Participation was voluntary. A
letter of informed consent (Appendix G) was posted on the opening page of the survey. If a
student agreed to participate, he was asked to click “Continue” at the bottom of the screen and
proceed answering the questions that followed. If a student chose not to participate, he was asked
to “Exit” the survey and no further action was required of that student. This survey did not
collect internet protocol (IP) addresses, or any other identifiable information, of its participants.
The survey did not require a response for every question; therefore, the participant had the option
to not answer some or all of the questions. The participant was able to withdraw participation at
any time during the survey.
The QM institutional representative was sent a research invitation (Appendix D) at
institutions in the “recognized” category to request participation in a short qualitative
questionnaire to determine the level of QM being implemented in online course design.
Institutions in the “subscribed” and “non-affiliated” categories were sent research invitations to
request participation in a short qualitative questionnaire to determine the level of QM or other
peer review being implemented in online course design, if any. These research invitations were
sent were sent anywhere from one to four times, in 2-week intervals between April 26, 2012 and
July 30, 2012, as shown in Table 3.
SurveyMonkey was used to distribute the qualitative questionnaire to participants of this
study due to its anonymous collection of data. Participation was voluntary. A letter of informed
consent (Appendix H) was posted on the opening page of the survey. Participants were asked to
click “Continue” at the bottom of the screen and proceed to answering the questions that
followed. Anyone who chose not to participate was asked to “Exit” the survey and no further
46
action was required of that individual. The survey did not collect internet protocol (IP) addresses,
or any other identifiable information, of its participants. The survey did not require a response
for every question; therefore, the participant had the option to not answer some or all of the
questions. The participant was able to withdraw participation at any time.
Data Analysis
Student satisfaction was measured by (1) students’ overall satisfaction with their online
course, and (2) students’ satisfaction with each of the five QM framework factors included in this
study: learning outcomes, assessment and measurement, learning resources and materials, learner
interactions, and course technology. Demographic variables included in this study were student
age, student gender, number of prior online courses completed, and student level of comfort with
online technology. Background data was collected to determine the whether the online course
included a course introduction, technology support, and student support. Finally, data was
collected to determine the level of peer review that was included in the design of each online
course.
The demographic variables were analyzed using the following procedure:
 A one-way ANOVA determined whether there was a mean difference between
any of the demographic variables and overall student satisfaction in their online
course.
Descriptive statistics were calculated on the background data to determine whether
course introduction, technology support, and student support were included in the online course.
The first research question, “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
satisfaction between online courses that have undergone a systematic faculty peer review process
47
and online courses that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review process?,” was
analyzed using the following procedures:
 A t-test analysis determined whether the satisfaction score means of the two groups
were different. Significance was measured at p < .05.
 A simple linear regression analysis was calculated to predict overall student
satisfaction based on a course that has been peer reviewed. Significance was
measured at p < .05.
The second research question, “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
satisfaction between online courses that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review
process but are affiliated with a peer review program and online courses that have no affiliation
with a peer review program?,” was analyzed using the following procedures:
 A t-test analysis determined whether the satisfaction score means of the two groups
were different. Significance was measured at p < .05.
 A simple linear regression analysis was calculated to predict overall student
satisfaction based on a course that has not been peer reviewed but is offered from an
institution that is subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials.
Significance was measured at p < .05.
The third research question, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly relate to
increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have been faculty peer reviewed?,”
was analyzed using the following procedure:
 A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine if there was a
relationship between peer review and student satisfaction with each of the five QM
factors included in this study. Significance was measured at p < .05.
48
The fourth research question, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly relate to
increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have not been faculty peer reviewed
but are affiliated with a peer review program?,” was analyzed using the following procedure:
 A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine if there was a
relationship between being subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials
(even without a formal peer review) and student satisfaction with each of the five QM
factors included in the study. Significance was measured at p < .05.
It was hypothesized that online courses that had undergone a formal peer review, as well
as courses that had not undergone a formal peer review but were offered at institutions that were
subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials, would receive higher student
satisfaction ratings than online courses that had not undergone a formal peer review and were
offered at institutions who had no affiliation with a peer review program.
Course designer data was collected as part of a descriptive research analysis pertaining to
the level of peer review used in the design of each online course.
Chapter Summary
Aman’s (2009) satisfaction questionnaire was used to obtain data regarding student
satisfaction in online courses that had been faculty peer reviewed and online courses that had not
been faculty peer reviewed. Institutions were contacted requesting participation and those who
agreed to participate were included in the sample for this study. The hypotheses were tested
through a one-way ANOVA, a t-test analysis, a simple linear regression analysis, and a Pearson
correlation analysis.
49
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Introduction
This chapter analyzes the response rates, demographics, and research questions
associated with the study. Qualitative data obtained from the QM Institutional Representatives
and the course designers are also evaluated.
Response Rates
The “recognized” category included participant solicitation from 334 students enrolled in
eight online courses across four institutions. Of those, 22 students chose to participate and were
included in the sample for the “recognized” category. The “subscribed” category included
participant solicitation from 764 students enrolled in 26 online courses across three institutions.
Of those, 48 students chose to participate and were included in the sample for the “subscribed”
category. The “non-affiliated” category included participant solicitation from 676 students
enrolled in 24 online courses across three institutions. Of those, 87 students chose to participate
and were included in the sample for the “non-affiliated” category. This comes to a total of 157
responses out of 1,774 solicited, which is a 9% student response rate. This low response rate
most likely contributed to the insignificance of the statistical analyses.
Additionally, one Quality Matters Institutional Representative (out of four solicited)
chose to participate in the qualitative course designer survey for the “recognized” category.
Three course designers (out of 26 solicited) chose to participate in the qualitative course designer
50
survey for the “subscribed category. Three course designers (out of 24 solicited) chose to
participate in the qualitative course designer survey for the “non-affiliated” category. This comes
to a total of 7 responses out of 54 solicited, which is a 13% course designer response rate. The
low participant rate reduces the level of significance for this study.
Demographics
The following demographic variables were included in this study: age, gender, comfort
with distance learning, and number of prior online courses taken. As shown in Table 4, the age
range of participants was 20 years old to 58 years old, with a mean age of 33.87. The gender was
split between 107 female respondents and 49 male respondents, with one respondent’s gender
unknown. Using a Likert-type scale of 1 to 5 (with one being very uncomfortable and 5 being
very comfortable), the reported comfort level with distance education was varied with a mean of
3.54. This diversity may be attributed to the range of previous online courses taken, which was
reported between 0 courses to 42 courses, with a mean of 10.68.
Table 4
Demographic Statistics
N Range Minimum Maximum M SD

Age 150 38 20 58 33.87 10.608
Comfortability 156 4 1 5 3.54 1.555
Gender 156 1 1 2 1.69 .466
Previous Online Courses 157 42 0 42 10.68 8.627
51
Gender
A one-way ANOVA determined if there was a mean difference between gender and
overall student satisfaction in their online course. Table 5 shows that overall satisfaction was
reported slightly higher in females (M = 3.98, SD = 1.258) than in males (M = 3.75, SD = 1.102).
The differences between the means were non-significant at the .05 level (p = .300), as shown in
Table 6.
Table 5
Gender Descriptives
95% Confidence Interval

for Mean
Std. Lower Upper
N M SD Error Bound Bound Minimum Maximum
Male 44 3.75 1.102 .166 3.41 4.09 1 5
Female 97 3.98 1.258 .128 3.73 4.23 1 5
Table 6
Gender One-Way ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 1.593 1 1.593 1.084 .300
Within Groups 204.209 139 1.469
Age
A one-way ANOVA determined if there was a mean difference between age and overall
student satisfaction in their online course. The results of this factor were categorized into six
groups: the first group included results where age was not reported, the second group included
52
results reported as less than 25 years old, the third group included results reported as between 25-
35 years old, the fourth group included results reported as between 35-45 years old, the fifth
group included results reported as between 45-55 years old, and the sixth group included results
reported as 55 years of age or older. Data in Table 7 indicate that overall satisfaction was
reported higher in the age groups 25 to 35 years (M = 4.21, SD = .925) and 55 years or older (M
= 4.20, SD = .447) than in the other age groups: less than 25 years (M = 3.73, SD = 1.202), 35 to
45 years (M = 3.86, SD = 1.357), 45 to 55 years (M = 3.75, SD = 1.372), and not answered (M =
3.29, SD = 1.704). Table 8, however, shows the differences between the means were non-
significant at the .05 level (p = .326).
Table 7
Age Descriptives
95% Confidence Interval for

Std. Mean
N M SD Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Not Answered 7 3.29 1.704 .644 1.71 4.86 1 5
Less than 25 30 3.73 1.202 .219 3.28 4.18 1 5
Between 25 and 35 42 4.21 .925 .143 3.93 4.50 2 5
Between 35 and 45 37 3.86 1.357 .223 3.41 4.32 1 5
Between 45 and 55 20 3.75 1.372 .307 3.11 4.39 1 5
Greater than or equal 5 4.20 .447 .200 3.64 4.76 4 5
to 55
Table 8
Age One-Way ANOVA

Between Groups 8.560 5 1.712 1.172 .326
Within Groups 197.241 135 1.461
53
Prior Online Courses Taken
A one-way ANOVA determined if there was a mean difference between number of prior
online courses taken and overall student satisfaction in their online course. The results of this
factor were categorized into two groups: the first group included results reported as less than 10
previous online courses; and the second group included results reported as 10 or more previous
online courses. Overall satisfaction was reported slightly higher from students who had taken 10
or more previous online courses (M = 3.94, SD = 1.282) than from students who had taken less
than 10 previous online courses (M = 3.88, SD = 1.150), as shown in Table 9. Table 10 indicates
the differences between the means were non-significant at the .05 level (p = .744).
Table 9
Prior Online Courses Taken Descriptives
95% Confidence Interval for

Std. Mean
N M SD Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Less than 72 3.88 1.150 .136 3.60 4.15 1 5
10
10 or more 69 3.94 1.282 .154 3.63 4.25 1 5
Table 10
Prior Online Courses Taken One-Way ANOVA

Between Groups .158 1 .158 .107 .744
Within Groups 205.643 139 1.479
54
Comfort with Distance Learning
A one-way ANOVA determined if there was a mean difference between comfort with
distance learning and overall student satisfaction in their online course. The results of this factor
were categorized into two groups: the first group included results reported as very
uncomfortable, uncomfortable, and neutral; and the second group included results reported as
comfortable and very comfortable. Table 11 showed overall satisfaction was reported higher
from students who were reportedly very comfortable and comfortable with distance learning (M
= 4.06, SD = 1.131) than from students who were neutral, uncomfortable, or very uncomfortable
with distance learning (M = 3.58, SD = 1.323). The differences between the means were
significant at the .05 level (p = .026), as shown in Table 12.
Table 11
Comfort with Distance Learning Descriptives
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Lower Upper
N M SD Std. Error Bound Bound Minimum Maximum
Very 45 3.58 1.323 .197 3.18 3.98 1 5
Uncomfortable,
Uncomfortable,
Neutral
Comfortable, Very 96 4.06 1.131 .115 3.83 4.29 1 5
Comfortable
Table 12
Comfort with Distance Learning One-Way ANOVA

Between Groups 7.199 1 7.199 5.038 .026
Within Groups 198.603 139 1.429
55
Background Data
Descriptive statistics were calculated to assess background information about the online
course, including course introduction, technology support, and student support, which were
measured in questions 2, 3, and 4. According to the reported results in Table 13, most
participants agreed that a clear course introduction was available at the beginning of the course
(M = 4.19, SD = .956), technology support was available for using the online features of the
course (M = 3.96, SD = .992), and student support was available in using the online format of the
course (M = 3.89, SD = 1.025).
Table 13
Background Data Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum M SD
Q2 141 1 5 4.19 .956
Q3 139 1 5 3.96 .992
Q4 140 1 5 3.89 1.025
Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
and online courses that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review process?” A t-test
analysis determined if the satisfaction score means of the peer reviewed group (“recognized”)
were different from the two groups that had not been peer reviewed (“subscribed” and “non-
affiliated”).
56
t Test Overall Satisfaction: Peer Reviewed versus Not Peer Reviewed
Statistical significance of student overall satisfaction between the peer reviewed group
and the non-peer reviewed group was determined with a two-tailed independent sample t test
with a significance measured at p < .05. Peer review was identified as the independent variable,
while overall satisfaction was defined as the dependent variable. Using a Likert-type scale of 1-5
(with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree) the mean overall satisfaction for the
peer reviewed group was higher (M = 4.14, SD = .910) than the mean overall satisfaction for the
two groups that were not peer reviewed (M = 3.87, SD = 1.256), as shown in Table 14. Because
the Levene’s test for equality of variances, shown in Table 15, showed a sig. value of .201,
which is greater than .05, equal variances are assumed (Holcomb, 2006). The difference between
the means was determined to be non-significant at the .05 level (p = .337), as shown in Table 16.
Table 14
Statistics for Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed Courses
Peer Reviewed N M SD Std. Error Mean

Q30 Yes 21 4.14 .910 .199
dimension1
No 120 3.87 1.256 .115
Table 15
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed Courses
Levene's Test for Equality of

Variances
F Sig.
Q30 Equal variances assumed 1.651 .201
Equal variances not assumed
57
Table 16
t Test Overall Satisfaction in Peer Reviewed Courses
t test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference
t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Q30 Equal variances assumed .963 139 .337 .276 .287 -.291 .843
Equal variances not assumed 1.204 34.909 .237 .276 .229 -.190 .742
t-Test Mean of QM Factor Means: Peer Reviewed versus Not Peer Reviewed
Because the t test for overall satisfaction was non-significant, an additional t-test analysis
was calculated based on the mean of QM factor means. Statistical significance of the mean of
QM factor means between the peer reviewed group and the non-peer reviewed group was
determined with a two-tailed independent sample t test with a significance measured at p < .05.
Peer review was identified as the independent variable, while the mean of QM factor means was
defined as the dependent variable. Using a Likert-type scale of 1-5 (with 1 being strongly
disagree and 5 being strongly agree) the mean of QM factor means for the peer reviewed group
was higher (M = 4.2440, SD = .56130) than the mean of QM factor means for the two groups
that were not peer reviewed (M = 4.1266, SD = .75574), as shown in Table 17. Equal variances
were assumed, as shown in Table 18. Table 19 showed the difference between the means was
non-significant at the .05 level (p = .509).
58
Table 17
Statistics for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer Reviewed Courses
Peer Reviewed N M SD Std. Error Mean

Mean of QM Factor Yes 20 4.2440 .56130 .12551
dimension1
Means No 113 4.1266 .75574 .07109
Table 18
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer Reviewed
Courses
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
F Sig.
Mean of QM Factor Means Equal variances assumed .465 .497
Table 19
t Test for Mean of QM Factor Means in Peer Reviewed Courses

95%
Confidence
Interval of the
Mean of QM Equal variances .662 131 .509 .11736 .17727 - .4680
Factor Means assumed .23332 5
Equal variances not .814 32.57 .422 .11736 .14425 - .4109

assumed 9 .17625 8
59
Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of Peer Review in Predicting
Overall Student Satisfaction
A simple linear regression was calculated to predict overall student satisfaction based on
a course that has been peer reviewed. Peer review was identified as the independent variable,
while overall satisfaction was identified as the dependent variable. Tables 20, 21, and 22 showed
the regression equation was not significant (p = .337), which indicated that peer review cannot be
used to predict overall student satisfaction.
Table 20
Linear Regression Model Summary of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction
Model R R2 Square Adjusted R2 Square Std. Error of the Estimate

a
Dimension 0 1 .081 .007 -.001 1.213
Table 21
Linear Regression ANOVA of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1.363 1 1.363 .927 .337a
Residual 204.438 139 1.471
Table 22
Linear Regression Coefficients of Peer Review to Overall Satisfaction
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model β Std. Error β t Sig.
1 (Constant) 4.143 .265 15.654 .000
Peer Reviewed -.276 .287 -.081 -.963 .337
60
Research Question 2
The second research question asked: “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
with a peer review program?” A two-tailed independent sample t test with a significance
measured at p < .05 determined if the satisfaction score mean of the group that had not
undergone a systematic faculty peer review process, but was affiliated with a peer review
program (“subscribed”), was different from the group that had no affiliation with a peer review
program (“non-affiliated).
t-Test Overall Satisfaction: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated
Statistical significance of student overall satisfaction between the group that has not
undergone a systematic faculty peer review process but is affiliated with a peer review program
(“subscribed”) and the group that has no affiliation with a peer review program (“non-affiliated”)
was determined with a two-tailed independent sample t test with a significance measured at p <
.05. Subscription to a peer review program was identified as the independent variable, while
overall satisfaction was defined as the dependent variable. Using a Likert-type scale of 1-5 (with
1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree), the mean overall satisfaction for the group
that is subscribed to a peer review program was actually lower (M = 3.73, SD = 1.245) than the
mean overall satisfaction for the group that had no affiliation with a peer review program (M =
3.94, SD = 1.264), as shown in Table 23. Equal variances were assumed, as shown in Table 24.
Table 25 showed the difference between the means was non-significant at the .05 level (p =
.399).
61
Table 23
Statistics for Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed Courses
Category N M SD Std. Error Mean

Subscribed 41 3.73 1.245 .195
Q30
NonAffiliated 79 3.94 1.264 .142
Table 24
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed Courses
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
F Sig.
Q30 Equal variances assumed .019 .891
Table 25
t Test Overall Satisfaction in Subscribed Courses

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Q30 Equal variances -.847 118 .399 -.205 .242 -.684 .274
assumed
Equal variances not -.851 82.173 .397 -.205 .241 -.684 .274
assumed
62
t-Test Mean of QM Factor Means: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated
Since the t test for overall satisfaction was non-significant, an additional t-test analysis
was calculated based on the mean of QM factor means. Statistical significance of the mean of
QM factor means between the subscribed group and the non-affiliated group was determined
with a two-tailed independent sample t test with a significance measured at p < .05. Having a
subscription to peer review tools, trainings, and materials was identified as the independent
variable, while the mean of QM factor means was defined as the dependent variable. Using a
Likert-type scale of 1-5 (with 1 being Strongly Disagree and 5 being Strongly Agree), data in
Table 26 indicated the mean of QM factor means for the subscribed group was actually lower (M
= 4.1085, SD = .61886) than the mean of QM factor means for the non-affiliated group (M =
4.1369, SD = .82758). Equal variances were assumed, as shown in Table 27. Table 28 showed
the difference between the means was non-significant at the .05 level (p = .849).
Table 26
Statistics for Mean of QM Factor Means in Subscribed Courses
Category N M SD Std. Error Mean

Mean of QM Factor Means Subscribed 41 4.1085 .61886 .09665
Non-affiliated 72 4.1369 .82758 .09753
Table 27
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances for Mean of QM Factor Means in Subscribed Courses
Levene's Test for Equality of

Variances
F Sig.
Mean of QM Factor Means Equal variances assumed .695 .406
63
Table 28
t Test for Mean of QM Factor Means in Subscribed Courses

95% Confidence
Sig. Interval of the
(2- Mean Std. Error Difference
Mean of Equal variances -.191 111 .849 -.02841 .14850 -.32267 .26586
QM Factor assumed
Means
Equal variances not -.207 102.855 .837 -.02841 .13731 -.30073 .24392
assumed
Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of a Subscription to Peer

Review Tools in Predicting Overall Student Satisfaction
A simple linear regression was calculated to predict overall student satisfaction based on
a course that is offered at an institution that is subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and
materials; although the course has not been formally peer reviewed. Subscription was identified
as the independent variable, while overall satisfaction was identified as the dependent variable.
Tables 29, 30, and 31 showed the regression equation was not significant (p = .399), which
indicated that subscribing to a peer review program cannot be used to predict overall student
satisfaction.
Table 29
Linear Regression Model Summary of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction
Std. Error of the

2 2
Model R R Adjusted R Estimate
Dimension 0 1 .078a .006 -.002 1.258
64
Table 30
Linear Regression ANOVA of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1.134 1 1.134 .717 .399a
Residual 186.732 118 1.582
Table 31
Linear Regression Coefficients of Subscription to Overall Satisfaction
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model β Std. Error β t Sig.
1 (Constant) 3.732 .196 18.995 .000
Subscribed .205 .242 .078 .847 .399
Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly
relate to increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have been faculty peer
reviewed?” A correlation analysis determined if there was a relationship between peer review
and student satisfaction with each of the five QM factors included in this study.
Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Peer Reviewed

Courses to Overall Satisfaction
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for the relationship between peer review
and student satisfaction with each of the five factors included in this study: learning outcomes,
assessment and measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and online
course technology. Table 32 showed that all correlations were non-significant at the .05 level (p
65
= .485, p = .221, p = .415, p = .787, p = .564), indicating that peer review is not related to student
perceived satisfaction with each of the five factors.
Table 32
Correlation Matrix of Peer Review to Factors
Learning Online
Learning Assessment Resources Learner Course Peer
Outcomes Measurement Materials Interactions Technology Reviewed
Learning Pearson 1 .815** .821** .699** .713** -.060
Outcomes Correlation
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .485
(2-tailed)
N 139 135 137 139 139 139
Assessment Pearson .815** 1 .786** .673** .641** -.106
Measurement Correlation
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .221
(2-tailed)
N 135 136 134 136 136 136
Learning Pearson .821** .786** 1 .679** .758** -.070
Resources Correlation
Materials Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .415
(2-tailed)
N 137 134 138 138 138 138
Learner Pearson .699** .673** .679** 1 .611** -.023
Interactions Correlation
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .787
(2-tailed)
N 139 136 138 140 140 140
Online Pearson .713** .641** .758** .611** 1 -.049
Course Correlation
Technology Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .564
(2-tailed)
N 139 136 138 140 140 140
Peer Pearson -.060 -.106 -.070 -.023 -.049 1
Reviewed Correlation
Sig. .485 .221 .415 .787 .564
(2-tailed)
N 139 136 138 140 140 157
66
Research Question 4
The fourth research question asked, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly
relate to increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have not been faculty peer
reviewed but are affiliated with a peer review program?” A correlation analysis determined if
there was a relationship between being subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials
and student satisfaction with each of the five QM factors included in this study.
Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Subscribed

Courses to Overall Satisfaction
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for the relationship between peer review
and student satisfaction with each of the five factors included in this study: learning outcomes,
assessment and measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and online
course technology. Table 33 showed that all correlations were non-significant at the .05 level (p
= .565, p = .866, p = .950, p = .913, p = .997), indicating that subscribing to a peer review
program is not related to student perceived satisfaction with each of the five factors.
67
Table 33
Correlation Matrix of Subscription to Factors
Learning Online
Learning Assessment Resources Learner Course
Outcomes Measurement Materials Interactions Technology Subscribed
Learning Pearson Correlation 1 .815** .821** .699** .713** .054
Outcomes Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .565
N 139 135 137 139 139 118
Assessment Pearson Correlation .815** 1 .786** .673** .641** .016
Measurement Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .866
N 135 136 134 136 136 116
Learning Pearson Correlation .821** .786** 1 .679** .758** .006
Resources Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .950
Materials N 137 134 138 138 138 117
Learner Pearson Correlation .699** .673** .679** 1 .611** .010
Interactions Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .913
N 139 136 138 140 140 119
Online Pearson Correlation .713** .641** .758** .611** 1 .000
Course Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .997
Technology N 139 136 138 140 140 119
Subscribed Pearson Correlation .054 .016 .006 .010 .000 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .565 .866 .950 .913 .997
N 118 116 117 119 119 135
Qualitative Data
Results of the “recognized” course designer survey indicated that the one institution that
responded had online courses formally recognized by the QM program and used the rubric,
faculty development, the course development checklist, and QM peer review tools. None of the
seven institutions reported using the self-study tool. Results of the “subscribed” course designer
survey indicated that all three of the institutions that are subscribed to the Quality Matters
program used the QM rubric to guide course design, while two of those (66.7%) used the course
development checklists, and one (33.3%) used the faculty development tool. Zero participants
indicated using the self-study tool. When asked how the QM rubric was being used, all seven
participants reported using the rubric for improvement in existing courses, while only one
(33.3%) reported using the rubric as a blueprint for designing new courses. While two (66.7%) of
68
the institutions agreed that a subscription to the Quality Matters Program required all courses at
their institutions to use the available tools, one (33.3%) declared that these tools were not
required of every online course at their institution. Results of the “non-affiliated” course designer
survey indicated that none of the three institutions were subscribed to any type of peer review
program.
Chapter Summary
This chapter provided a description of the response rate and demographics of participants
in the study. The first two research questions were analyzed via a t-test analysis and a simple
linear regression analysis, while the last two research questions were analyzed via a Pearson
correlation analysis. Finally, the qualitative data collected from the QM Institutional
Representatives and the course designers were discussed.
69
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter concludes the study summarizing the purpose, framework, and research
questions of this study. Also included is the discussion of findings, conclusions,
recommendations for practices, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future
research. This chapter closes with the researcher’s concluding remarks.
Purpose, Framework, and Research Questions
in regionally accredited online courses. A review of the literature suggested there may be
specific factors in online courses that increase students’ perceived quality of that course (Ross et
al., 2002), which, in turn, would increase students’ perceived satisfaction with the course
(McGorry, 2003; Sloan Consortium, 2011; Sun et al., 2008; Zhao, 2008). The factors identified
as promoting quality vary depending on the researcher, including frameworks from Best
Practices (WCET, 2009), Sloan-C (Sloan-C, 2011), QM (Quality Matters, 2010), and U21G
(Chua & Lam, 2007). The factors identified as promoting satisfaction also vary, including
frameworks from Seven Principles (Chickering & Gamson, 1983), Sloan-C (Sloan-C, 2011),
TAM (Arbaugh, 2000), Determinants of Learning Effectiveness (Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001),
ADL Network (Artino, 2008), Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh Framework (Sun et al., 2008),
and Observational Case Study Design (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998).
70
The Quality Matters (QM) program was chosen as the framework for this study. QM is a
peer-based approach structured around eight general standards: course overview and
introduction, learning objectives (competencies), assessment and measurement, instructional
materials, learner interaction and engagement, course technology, learner support, and
accessibility. The QM program is comparable to traditional accreditation processes; however,
QM focuses on evaluating the quality of individual online courses, rather than overall programs
and institutions (Legon, 2006).
The four research questions identified in this study were as follows:
71
Discussion of Findings
Demographics
Age, gender, comfort with distance learning, and previous online courses taken were
included in this study as demographic variables. The descriptive statistics showed that the mean
age of participants was 33.87, while the gender was primarily female (68%). Students’ comfort
with distance learning was varied, possibly because the number of previous online courses
ranged from 0-42. A one-way ANOVA was calculated for each of these demographic variables
to determine if there was a mean difference between the variable and overall satisfaction
reported. The analyses showed that gender, age, and prior online courses taken were non-
significant to student perceptions of overall satisfaction of their online course. Student comfort
with distance learning, however, was shown to have a significant relationship with student
perceptions of overall satisfaction with their online course.
The significant results for the comfort with distance learning factor were supported by the
literature. Abdous and Yen (2010) agreed that comfort with distance learning was a useful
predictor of overall satisfaction, although it should be noted that the significance of the
contribution was weak. Lim (2001) also found that students who had more years of experience
with computer use, especially in an online class, reported higher levels of satisfaction with their
online course. Thurmond et al. (2002) also found a positive relationship between student comfort
with distance learning and overall satisfaction.
The review of literature supported the researcher’s finding by indicating that age was
non-significant to student satisfaction. Richardson and Swan (2003) found that age was not
significant to students’ perceptions of an online course. Thurmond et al. (2002) found that age
does not help predict a student’s level of satisfaction. Hong (2002) also found no relationship
72
between student age and student satisfaction in an online course. The review of literature
regarding gender as a predictor for student satisfaction in an online course was varied.
Richardson and Swan (2003) found gender to be positively related to student satisfaction in an
online course. Neither Hong (2002) nor Lim (2001) found a statistical significance between
gender and student satisfaction in an online course. The literature mostly indicated that the
number of prior online courses taken was non-significant to student satisfaction with online
education (Richardson & Swan, 2003; Thurmond et al., 2002); although, Arbaugh and Duray
(2002) argued that students with more experience in online learning showed a positive
relationship to student satisfaction with an online course.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
and online courses that have not undergone a systematic faculty peer review process?” A two-
tailed independent samples t-test analysis determined that the overall satisfaction mean of the
peer reviewed group (“recognized”) was higher (M = 4.14, SD = .910) than the overall
satisfaction mean of the two groups that had not been peer reviewed (“subscribed” and “non-
affiliated”) (M = 3.87, SD = 1.256). This finding was determined to be non-significant at the .05
level (p = .337). Next, a t-test analysis was calculated based on the mean of QM factor means,
which included the means from all questions included in the five factors of this study: learning
outcomes, assessment and measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions,
and course technology. A two-tailed independent samples t-test analysis determined that the
mean of QM factor means for the peer reviewed group was higher (M = 4.2440, SD = .56130)
73
than the mean of QM factor means for the two groups that were not peer reviewed (M = 4.1266,
SD = .75574). This finding was determined to be non-significant at the .05 level (p = .509).
Although non-significant, these results are supported by Ralston-Berg and Nath (2008)
who found that students who claimed higher perceived satisfaction in an online course was
positively correlated with all Quality Matters features embedded in the course design: learning
objectives, assessment and measurement, instructional materials, learner interaction and
engagement, course technology, learner support, and accessibility. Artino’s (2011) study also
found that students viewed almost all of the QM standards as valuable to their online course.
Swan et al. (2011) and Aman (2009) also found peer review to be significantly related to student
satisfaction in an online course.
A simple linear regression analysis was also calculated to predict overall student
satisfaction based on a course that has been peer reviewed. The regression analysis was non-
significant at the .05 level (p = .509), indicating that peer review cannot be used to predict
overall student satisfaction. This contradicts the researcher’s hypothesis that courses that have
undergone a formal peer review will lead to higher student satisfaction than courses that have not
undergone a formal peer review. This also contradicts Aman’s (2009) study, which found that
undergoing a formal peer review would lead to higher student perceived satisfaction in an online
course, and Swan et al. (2011) who found that a formal peer review would lead to higher student
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “Is there a significant difference in levels of student
74
with a peer review program?” A two-tailed independent samples t-test analysis determined that
the overall satisfaction mean of the group that had not undergone a systematic faculty peer
review process but were subscribed to a peer review program’s tools, trainings, and materials
(“subscribed”) was actually lower (M = 3.73, SD = 1.245) than the overall satisfaction mean of
the group with no affiliation to a peer review program (“non-affiliated”) (M = 3.94, SD = 1.264).
The difference was determined to be non-significant at the .05 level (p = .399). Next, a t-test
analysis was calculated based on the mean of QM factor means, which included the means from
all questions included in the five factors of this study: learning outcomes, assessment and
measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and course technology. A
two-tailed independent samples t-test analysis determined that the mean of QM factor means for
the subscribed group was lower (M = 4.1369, SD = .82758) than the mean of QM factor means
for the non-affiliated group (M = 4.1369, SD = .82758). The difference was determined to be
non-significant at the .05 level (p = .849).
The findings did not support the hypothesis for this study. The findings also contradicted
Ralston-Berg and Nath (2008), Artino (2011), Swan et al. (2011), and Aman (2009), who found
peer review tools, trainings, and materials to be positively related to increased student
Finally, a simple linear regression analysis was calculated to predict overall student
satisfaction based on a course offered from an institution that is subscribed to a peer review
program, although the course had not undergone a formal peer review process. The regression
analysis was non-significant at the .05 level (p = .849), indicating that subscription to peer
review tools cannot be used to predict overall student satisfaction. This contradicted the
75
researcher’s hypothesis that being subscribed to a peer review program, even without undergoing
a formal peer review, would lead to higher student satisfaction with their online course. The
findings also contradicted Ralston-Berg and Nath (2008), Artino (2011), Swan et al. (2011), and
Aman (2009), who found peer review tools, trainings, and materials to be positively related to
increased student satisfaction in an online course.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly relate to
increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have been faculty peer reviewed?”
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between peer
review and each of the five factors included in this study: learning outcomes, assessment and
measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and online course
technology. All correlations were non-significant at the .05 level (p = .485, p = .221, p = .415,
p = .787, p = .564), indicating that peer review is not related to student perceptions of satisfaction
with any of the five factors. This contradicts previous literature regarding peer review and online
course quality. Ralston-Berg and Nath (2008) and Artino (2011) both found all five of these
factors to be positively related to increased student satisfaction in an online course. Aman (2009)
actually found learning outcomes, assessment and measurement, learning resources and
materials, learner interactions, and online course technology to all be positively related to
increased student satisfaction with an online course, with learning resources and materials being
the most significant predictor of student satisfaction.
76
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “Which factors of quality instruction most directly relate to
increased levels of student satisfaction in online courses that have not been faculty peer reviewed
but are affiliated with a peer review program?” A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated
to determine the relationship between subscription to peer review tools, trainings, and materials
and each of the five factors included in this study: learning outcomes, assessment and
measurement, learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and online course
technology. All correlations were non-significant at the .05 level (p = .565, p = .866, p = .950, p
= .913, p = .997), indicating that a subscription to peer review tools is not related to student
perceptions of satisfaction with any of the five factors. This contradicts Ralston-Berg and Nath
(2008), Artino (2011), Swan et al. (2011), and Aman (2009), who found peer review programs to
be positively related to increased student satisfaction in an online course.
Conclusions
Three major conclusions can be drawn from this study. First, the results indicated that a
formal peer review of an online course may lead to higher student satisfaction of that course. The
results of this study were non-significant, most likely due to the low response rate of participants.
However, since the mean overall satisfaction was higher in the groups that had been peer
reviewed, this is still a good sign that peer review of online course design may lead to higher
student satisfaction in a course. More research is needed to validate this finding. Second, results
of the t-test analyses indicated higher satisfaction rates of those in the group with no affiliation to
a peer review program (“non-affiliated”) than of those in the group affiliated with a peer review
program, although no systematic faculty peer review had been completed (“subscribed”).
77
Although these results were non-significant, this poses a supplementary question concerning
whether or not subscribing to peer review program tools, trainings, and materials (without a
formal peer review) provides any benefit to the quality of online course design. Third, the
Pearson correlation analyses showed that all correlations were non-significant, indicating that (1)
peer review is not related to student perceived satisfaction with each of the five quality factors
and (2) subscribing to faculty peer review tools, trainings, and materials without a formal peer
review is not related to student perceived satisfaction with each of the five quality factors. This is
a contradiction of the literature, which showed that peer review was a predictor for higher levels
of student satisfaction in online courses.
The high level of statistical insignificance found reduces the value of the researcher’s
findings. Because so many of the findings were determined non-significant, the researcher
concluded that the sample size was insufficient and that further research is needed (Johnson,
1999).
Recommendations for Practice
The researcher recommends that course designers strongly consider implementing a
formal peer review of online courses being developed because this research showed that the
mean overall student satisfaction of a peer reviewed online course was higher than the mean
overall student satisfaction for the two groups that had not been peer reviewed. Although this
finding was non-significant, it still indicated that a formal peer review of an online course may
be beneficial to student satisfaction of the course. This study did not find a subscription to peer
review tools, trainings, and materials to be beneficial to student satisfaction in an online course.
Therefore, it is recommended that those who are subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and
78
materials follow through with a formal peer review process to maximize the quality and student
satisfaction of their online courses.
Limitations
Limitations of this study should be taken into consideration with regard to the findings
and conclusions. There were four limitations identified as significant to this study, which are
discussed further under recommendations for future research.
The first limitation of the study was the population from which participation was invited.
The setting of this study included only senior institutions accredited by the Southern Association
of Colleges and Schools in which upper-level and/or graduate courses were offered in an online
format. Additionally, only 10 schools were selected from each study category (recognized,
subscribed, and non-affiliated) for potential participation in the study.
The second limitation of the study was the sample size of participants. Although 1,774
students were solicited for participation, only 157 chose to respond. Additionally, out of 54 QM
Institutional Representatives and course designers solicited for participation, only 7 chose to
respond to the qualitative course designer questionnaire.
The third limitation of the study was in the specifications of the survey. The online
survey did not collect IP addresses, names, or any other identifiable information of its
participants. Although follow-up research invitations were sent out at 2-week intervals, it was
impossible to personalize each follow-up invitation due to the anonymity of the survey data
collected.
79
Finally, the fourth limitation was identified as the structure of the student satisfaction
survey. Because all questions asked in this study were closed-ended questions, it was impossible
for participants to express supplementary information regarding their course.
Recommendations for Future Research
One recommendation for future research includes expanding the study to include all QM
“recognized” courses and all institutions who are currently “subscribed” to QM, which, in turn,
would call for a greater population from the “non-affiliated” category. Expanding the population
from which participants were solicited may result in a larger sample size.
A second recommendation for future research includes using a different technique for
soliciting participation to appeal to a greater sample of participants. An anonymous online survey
was implemented for data collection in this study. Because responses were collected
anonymously, it was impossible to personalize the research invitation or follow-ups to potential
participants. Wright (2005) suggested offering some type of financial incentive to increase
response rates, although implementing an incentive would require the questionnaire to obtain
identifiable information from its participants. Shannon and Bradshaw (2002) indicated that
response rates from electronic surveys are typically lower due to participants’ concern of
anonymity and confidentiality. Evans and Mathur (2005) suggested that low response rates to
online surveys may be a result of individuals perceiving the research invitation as internet spam.
Aman (2009) suggested that securing faculty acceptance of the study might lead to higher
student response rates of online surveys, as faculty may encourage their students to participate.
A third recommendation for future research is for a modification of the student survey
instrument to allow participants the opportunity to provide supplementary information via
80
open-ended questions, such as which online course the survey responses represent. This
recommendation came from an anonymous survey participant who contacted the researcher with
the following comment:
I recently completed the emailed survey on Student Perceptions of Quality and

Satisfaction in Online Education. I need to share with you that many of my answers are
marked Neutral, not because I am neutral about the sentiment, but because I am enrolled
in three online courses and would have marked Strongly Agree for two courses and
Strongly Disagree for the other one on those questions. Please, if you do this survey
again, I would recommend asking the participant how many online courses he or she is
currently enrolled in and then asking the same set of questions that many times (once for
each online course) to get accurate data from your survey. My data is not an accurate
reflection of my experience.
Finally, a fourth recommendation is for future research to be conducted on the
significance of being subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials. The researcher
expected to find that courses offered from institutions who were “subscribed” to peer review
tools, trainings, and materials (even without a formal peer review) would result in higher
satisfaction rates than courses offered from institutions that have no affiliation with a peer review
process. The analysis showed otherwise, although it should be noted that the analysis was
determined non-significant.
Concluding Remarks
The purpose of this study was to determine if a formal peer review process, or if
subscription to peer review tools, trainings, and materials (even without a formal peer review),
would affect student perceptions of quality and satisfaction in online education. Using data
collected through a Likert-type scale online questionnaire, a t-test analysis determined that online
courses that had undergone a formal peer review resulted in a higher mean overall satisfaction
than online courses that had not undergone a formal peer review; however this difference was
81
found to be non-significant. Additionally, a simple linear regression analysis determined that
peer review could not be used to predict student overall satisfaction.
On the other hand, a t-test analysis determined that online courses that had not undergone
a formal peer review but that were subscribed to peer review tools, trainings, and materials,
resulted in a lower mean overall satisfaction than online courses that had no affiliation with a
peer review program. This difference, too, was found to be non-significant. A simple linear
regression analysis determined that subscription to peer review tools, trainings, and materials
could not be used to predict student overall satisfaction.
This study also considered which factors of quality instruction were related to overall
student satisfaction in both courses that have undergone a formal peer review and in courses that
have not undergone a formal peer review but that are offered at institutions with a subscription to
peer review tools, trainings, and materials. A Pearson correlation determined that satisfaction
with the five factors included in this study were not significantly related to peer review or to a
peer review subscription.
Finally, a one-way ANOVA determined whether there was a relationship between four
demographic variables (age, gender, comfort with distance learning, and number of previous
online courses taken) and overall student satisfaction in their online course. This analysis showed
no statistical significance in age, gender, or number of previous online courses taken. However, a
statistical significance was found between overall satisfaction and student comfort with distance
learning. This analysis showed that students who were reportedly comfortable or very
comfortable with distance learning were more satisfied overall with their online course.
82
Implications from this study were difficult to project because most of the results were
found to be non-significant. However, although non-significant, the results indicated that a
formal peer review of an online course would lead to higher student satisfaction of that course.
It is recommended that further research be conducted to include an expansion of the
population/sample size, a revision of the solicitation procedures, and a revision of the survey
instrument to include open-ended questions. Also, it is recommended that further research take
place to determine whether being subscribed to a peer review program (without undergoing a
formal peer review) offers any benefit to online course design.
83
REFERENCES
Abdous, M., & Yen, C. (2010). A predictive study of learner satisfaction and outcomes in face-
to-face, satellite broadcast, and live video-streaming learning environments. Internet and
Higher Education, 13, 248-257.
Achtemeier, S. D., Morris, L. V., & Finnegan, C. L. (2003). Considerations for developing
evaluations of online courses. Journal for Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(1), 1-13.
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the United States,
2009. Needham, MA: Babson Survey Research Group.
Alstete, J. W., & Beutell, N. J. (2004). Performance indicators in online distance learning
courses: A study of management education. Quality Assurance in Education, 12(1), 6-14.
Aman, R. R. (2009). Improving student satisfaction and retention with online instruction through
systematic faculty peer review of courses. Dissertation. Oregon State University.
An, Y. (2010). Scaffolding wiki-based, ill structured problem solving in an online environment.
Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(4), 1-12.
Arbaugh, J. B. (2000). Virtual classroom characteristics and student satisfaction with internet-
based MBA courses. Journal of Management Education, 24(1), 32-54.
Arbaugh, J. B. (2001). How instructor immediacy behaviors affect student satisfaction and
learning in web-based courses. Business Communication Quarterly, 64(4), 42-54.
Arbaugh, J. B., & Duray, R. (2002). Technological and structural characteristics, student learning
and satisfaction with web-based courses: An exploratory study of two on-line MBA
programs. Management Learning, 33(3), 331-347.
Arnold, N., & Paulus, T. (2010). Using a social networking site for experiential learning:
Appropriating, lurking, modeling and community building. Internet and Higher
Education, 13, 188-196.
Artino, A. R. (2008). Motivational beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality: Predicting

satisfaction with online training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 260-170.
Artino, K. A. (2011). Undergraduate students perceptions of a quality online course: online

experience versus no online experience. A Thesis. Akron, OH.
Augustsson, G. (2010). Web 2.0, pedagogical support for reflexive and emotional social
interaction among Swedish students. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 197-205.
84
Babb, S., Stewart, C., & Johnson, R. (2010). Constructing communication in blended learning
environments: Students’ perceptions of good practice in hybrid courses. Merlot Journal
of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(4), 839-851.
Baturay, M. H., & Bay, O. F. (2010). The effects of problem-based learning on the classroom
community perceptions and achievement of web-based education students. Computers &
Education, 55, 43-52.
Benson, A. D. (2003). Dimensions of quality in online degree programs. The American Journal
of Distance Education, 17(3), 145-159.
Bickle, M. C., & Carroll, J. C. (2003). Checklist for quality online instruction: Outcomes for
learners, the profession and the institution. College Student Journal, 37.
Billings, D. M. (2000). A framework for assessing outcomes and practices in web-based courses
in nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 39(2), 60-67.
Billings, D. M., Connors, H. R., & Skiba, D. J. (2001). Benchmarking best practices in web-
based nursing courses. Advancees in Nursing Science, 23(3), 41-52.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1998). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and methods (3rd ed.). London: Allyn and Bacon.
Burgstahler, S., Corrigan, B., & McCarter, J. (2004). Making distance learning courses
accessible to students and instructors with disabilities: A case study. The Internet and
Higher Education, 7, 233-246.
Burton, J., Lockee, B., & Potter, K. (2010). Examining standards for distance education systems.
11th International Conference on Education Research. Virginia Tech, VA.
Carmichael, P., & Burchmore, H. (2010). Social software and academic practice: Postgraduate
students as co-designers of Web 2.0 tools. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 233-241.
Carr, R., & Hagel, P. (2008). Students’ evaluations of teaching quality and their unit online
activity: An empirical investigation. Retrieved from Proceedings ascilite Melbourne:
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/carr-r.pdf
Carr-Chellman, A., & Duchastel, P. (2000). The ideal online course. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241.
Casey, D. M. (2008). A journey to legitimacy: The historical development of distance education

through technology. TechTrends, 52(2), 45-51.
Chickering, A. W., & Ehrmann, S. C. (1996, October). Implementing the seven principles:
Technology as lever. Retrieved October 16, 2011, from The Learning Technology (TLT)
Group: http://www.tltgroup.org/programs/seven.html
85
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1983). Seven principles for good practice in
undergraduate education. Retrieved January 13, 2009, from http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/
intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/7princip.htm
Chikering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate
education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3-6.
Chua, A., & Lam, W. (2007). Quality assurance in online education: The universitas 21 global
approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1), 133-152.
Cohen, N. L., Carbone, E. T., & Beffa-Negrini, P. A. (2011). The design, implementation, and
evaluation of online credit nutrition courses: A systematic review. Journal of Nutrition
Education and Behavior, 43(2), 76-86.
Conrad, D. L. (2002). Engagement, excitement, anxiety, and fear: Learners’ experiences of

starting an online course. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(4), 205-226.
Council for Higher Education Accreditation. (2002). Accreditation and assuring quality in
distance learning. Washington, DC: Author.
Cramer, K. M., Collins, K. R., Snider, D., & Fawcett, G. (2006). Virtual lecture hall for in-class
and online sections: A comparison of utilization, perceptions, and benefits. Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 38(4), 371-381.
Deubel, P. (2003). Learning from reflections: Issues in building quality online courses. Retrieved
from http://www.ct4me.net/building_online_courses.htm
Dietz-Uhler, B., Fisher, A., & Han, A. (2007-2008). Designing online courses to promote student
retention. J. Educational Technology Systems, 36(1), 105-112.
Dill, D. D., Massy, W. F., Williams, P. R., & Cook, C. M. (1996, Sep/Oct). Accreditation &
academic quality assurance: Can we get there from here? Council for Higher Education
Accreditation, 28(5), 16-24.
Dong, S., Xu, S., & Lu, X. (2009). Development of online instructional resources for earth
system science education: An example of current practice from China. Computers and
Geosciences, 35, 1271-1279.
Dringus, L. P. (2000). Towards active online learning: A dramatic shift in perspective for
learners. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(4), 189-195.
Eaton, J. S. (2001). Distance learning: Academic and political challenges for higher education
accreditation. Retrieved from Council for Higher Education Accreditation:
http://www.chea.org/
Edmonds, C. D. (2004). Providing access to students with disabilities in online distance

education: Legal and technical concerns for higher education. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 18(1), 51-62.
86
Eom, S. B., Wen, H. J., & Ashill, N. (2006). The determinants of students’ perceived learning
outcomes and satisfaction in university online education: An empirical investigation.
Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 4(2), 215-235.
Epper, R. M., & Garn, M. (2003). Virtual college and university consortia. Retrieved from
WCET: http://wcet.wiche.edu/wcet/docs/resources/Virtual_College_University.pdf
Evans, J. R., & Mathur, A. (2005). The value of online surveys. Emerald Group Publishing
Limited, 15(2), 195-219.
Fox, J. (1998). Distance education: is it good enough? The University Concourse, 3(4), 3-5.
Fredericksen, E., Pickett, A., Shea, P., Pelz, W., & Swan, K. (2000). Student satisfaction and
perceived learning with on-line courses: Principles and examples from the SUNY
Learning Network. Retrieved April 23, 2009, from Sloan Consortium:
http://www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/Vol4 issue2/le/
Frydenberg, J. (2002). Quality standards in e-learning: A matrix of analysis. International

Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 3(2), 1-15.
Grandzol, C. J., & Grandzol, J. R. (2010, Summer). Interaction in online courses: More is not
always better. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8(2), 1-13.
Halic, O., Lee, D., Paulus, T., & Spence, M. (2010). To blog or not to blog: Student perceptions
of blog effectiveness for learning in a college-level course. Internet and Higher
Education, 13, 206-213.
Harasim, L. (2000). Shift happens: Online education as a new paradign in learning. The Internet
and Higher Education, 3, 41-61.
Hatziapostolou, T., & Paraskakis, I. (2010). Enhancing the impact of formative feedback on
student learning through an online feedback system. Electronic Journal of E-Learning,
8(2), 111-122.
Hayward, F. M. (2006). Quality assurance and accreditation of higher education in Africa.

Conference on Higher Education Reform in Francophone Africa: Understanding the
Keys of Success (pp. 1-61). Ouagadougou: Council for Higher Education Accreditation.
Head, R. B., & Johnson, M. S. (2011). Accreditation and its influence on institutional
effectiveness. New Directions for Community Colleges, 153, 37-52.
Herbert, M. (2006). Staying the course: A study in online student satisfaction and retention.
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 9(4), 1-9.
Herrington, A., Herrington, J., Oliver, R., Stoney, S., & Willis, J. (2001). Quality guidelines for
online courses: The development of an instrument to audit online units. In G. Kennedy,
M. Keppell, C. McNaught, & T. Petrovic (Ed.), Meeting at the crossroads: Proceedings
of ASCILITE 2001 (pp. 263-270). Melbourne: The University of Melbourne.
87
Hollandsworth, R. J. (2007). A hybrid approach for online lectures in the business classroom.
TechTrends, 51(4), 39-44.
Hong, K. S. (2002). Relationships between students’ and instructional variables with satisfaction
and learning from a web-based course. Internet and Higher Education, 5, 267-281.
Johnson, D. H. (1999). The insignificance of statistical significance testing. The Journal of

Wildlife Management, 63(3), 763-772.
Johnson, S. D., Aragon, S. R., Shaik, N., & Palma-Rivas, N. (2000). Comparative analysis of
learner satisfaction and learning outcomes in online and face-to-face learning
environments. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 11(1), 29-49.
Johnstone, S. M., & Krauth, B. (1996). Balancing quality and access: Some principles of good
practice for the virtual university. Change, 28(2), 38-41.
Junco, R., Heibergert, G., & Loken, E. (2010). The effect of Twitter on college student
engagement and grades. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 1-14.
Kassop, M. (2003, May/June). Ten ways online education matches, or surpasses, face-to-face
learning. Retrieved January 13, 2009, from The Technology Source:
http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:8JWZOtftfscJ:pegmarc.com/csusb/pdf/
10WaysOnlineEducation.pdf+ten+ways+online+education+matches,+or+surpasses,+face
-to-face+learning
Kear, K., Woodthorpe, J., Robertson, S., & Hutchison, M. (2010). From forums to wikis:
Perspectives on tools for collaboration. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 218-225.
Kim, K. S., & Moore, J. L. (2005, November 7). Web-based learning: Factors affecting
students’ satisfaction and learning experience., 10(11). Retrieved October 14, 2011, from
First Monday: Peer Reviewed Journal on the Internet: http://www.firstmonday.org/htbin/
cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1294/1214
Koroghlanian, C. M., & Brinkerhoff, J. (2008). Online students’ technology skills and attitudes
toward online instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(2), 219-244.
Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Lee, J. (2010). Online support service quality, online learning acceptance, and student
satisfaction. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 277-283.
Legon, R. (2006, September). Comparison of the quality matters rubric to accreditation

standards for distance learning. Retrieved September 14, 2011, from Quality Matters:
https://confluence.delhi.edu/download/attachments/74055682/Comparison+of+the+Quali
ty+Matters+Rubric+-+Summary.pdf
Legon, R. (2009). The quality matters program. Baltimore, MD: IGI Global.
88
Legon, R., & Runyon, J. (2007). Research on the impact of the quality matters course review
process. 23rd Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning (pp. 1-5).
Milwaukee: Board of Regents, University of Wisconsin.
Lewis, K. O., Baker, R. C., & Britigan, D. H. (2011, Spring). Current practices and needs
assessment of instructors in an online masters degree in education for healthcare
professionals: A first step to the development of quality standards. Journal of Interactive
Online Learning, 10(1), 49-63.
Lim, C. K. (2001). Computer self-efficacy, academic self-concept, and other predictors of

satisfaction and future participation of adult distance learners. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 15(2), 41-51.
Little, B. B. (2009). The use of standards for peer review of online nursing courses: A pilot
study. Journal of Nursing Education, 48(7), 411-415.
Lorenzo, G., & Moore, J. (2002, November). Five pillars of quality online education. Retrieved
from The Sloan Consortium Report to the Nation: http://sloanconsortium.org/
Maki, R. H., Maki, W. S., Patterson, M., & Whittaker, P. D. (2000). Evaluation of a web-based
introductory psychology course: I. learning and satisfaction in on-line versus lecture
courses. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers. 32, pp. 230-239.
Lubbock: Texas Tech University.
Maryland Online, Inc. (2006). Quality matters: Inter-institutional quality assurance in online
learning. Retrieved October 10, 2008, from Quality Matters:
http://www.qualitymatters.org/
MarylandOnline. (2010). Retrieved October 2, 2011, from Quality Matters: http://www.

qmprogram.org/new-website-welcome-page
MarylandOnline. (2010). Higher Ed Program Subscriptions. Retrieved January 30, 2012, from
Quailty Matters: http://www.qmprogram.org/faq/statewide
McFerrin, K., Duchardt, B., Furr, P. F., Horton, S. G., & Gentry, V. (2009). Quality matters:
designing, implementing, and assessing alternate certification programs. Proceedings of
Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp.
1-9). Chesapeake, VA: Editlib.
McGivney, V. (2004). Understanding persistence in adult learning. Open Learning, 19(1), 33-46.
McGorry, S. Y. (2003). Measuring quality in online programs. Internet and Higher

Education(6), 159-177.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010, September). US Department
of Education. Retrieved from Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online
Learning: http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf
89
Menchaca, M. P., & Bekele, T. A. (2008). Learner and instructor identified success factors in
distance education. Distance Education, 29(3), 231-252.
Meyen, E. L., Lian, C. H., & Tangen, P. (1997). Teaching online courses. Focus on Autism and
Other Developmental Disabilities, 12(3), 166-174.
Meyer, K. (2010). A comparison of Web 2.0 tools in a doctoral course. Internet and Higher
Education, 13, 226-232.
Moallem, M. (2007-2008). Accommodating individual differences in the design of online

learning environments: A comparative study. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education, 40(2), 217-245.
Moller, L. (1998). Designing communities of learners for asynchronous distance education.

Educational Technology, Research and Development, 46(4), 115-122.
Moore, J. C. (2004). The Sloan consortium quality framework and the five pillars. Retrieved
October 14, 2011, from Sloan Consortium: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.115.4238&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Moore, J. C. (2005, August). A synthesis of Sloan-C effective practices. Retrieved January 11,
2012, from The Sloan Consortium: http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/books/
v9n3_moore.pdf
Moore, M. (1976). Investigation of the interaction between cognitive style of field independence
and attitude to independent study among adult learners who use correspondence
independent study and self-directed independent study. Doctoral Dissertation. University
of Wisconsin-Madison.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education,
3(2), 1-6.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: A systems view (2nd ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Morris, L. V., Wu, S., & Finnegan, C. (2005). Predicting retention in online general education
courses. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 23-36.
Nash, R. D. (2005, Winter). Course competion rates among distance learners: Identifying
possible methods to improve retention. Retrieved October 31, 2011, from University of
West Georgia, Distance Education Center: http://distance.westga.edu/~distance/
ojdla/winter84/nash84.htm
Neuhauser, C. (2002). Learning style and effectiveness of online and face-to-face instruction.
The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 99-113.
Nichols, M. (2010). Student perceptions of support services and the influence of targeted
interventions on retention in distance education. Distance Education, 31(1), 93-113.
90
North American Council for Online Learning. (2009). National standards for quality online
teaching. Retrieved January 12, 2009, from iNACOL: http://www.inacol.org/
resources/nationalstandards/index.php
Oblinger, D., & Hawkins, B. (2006). The myth about online course development. Educause
Review, 41(1), 14-15.
Page, E. H., Canova, B. S., & Tufarolo, J. A. (1997, July). A case study of verification,
validation and accreditation for advanced distributed simulation. ACM Transactions on
Modeling and Computer Simulation, 7(3), 393-424.
Palomba, C. A., & Banta, T. W. (1999). Assessment essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Patterson, B., & McFadden, C. (2009). Attrition in online and campus degree programs. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 12(2), 1-11.
Peterson, C. (2003). Bringing ADDIE to life: Instructional design at its best. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12(3), 227-241.
Phipps, R., & Merisotis, J. (2000). Quality on the line: Benchmarking for success in internet-
based distance education. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy.
Piccoli, G., Ahmad, R., & Ives, B. (2001). Web-based virtual learning environments: A research
framework and a preliminary assessment of effectiveness in basic IT skills training. MIS
Quarterly, 25(4), 401-426.
Pollacia, L., Russell, J., & Russell, B. (2009). Developing an online program in computer
information systems using quality matters standards. Journal of Online Learning and
Teaching, 5(2), 1-9.
Preston, G., Phillips, R., Gosper, M., McNeill, M., Woo, K., & Green, D. (2010). Web-based
lecture technologies: Highlighting the changing nature of teaching and learning.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(6), 717-728.
Puzziferro, M., & Shelton, K. (2008). A model for developing high-quality online courses:
Integrating a systems approach with learning theory. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
Networks, 12(3-4), 119-136.
Quality Matters. (2010). Program rubric. Retrieved October 2, 2011, from Quality Matters:
http://www.qmprogram.org/rubric
Ralston-Berg, P., & Nath, L. (2008). What makes a quality online course? The student
perspective. 24th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching & Learning (pp. 1-5).
Madison: WI.
Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. (2003). Examining social presence in online courses in relation to
students’ perceived learning and satisfaction. Journal for Asynchronous Learning
Networks, 7(1), 68-88.
91
Robels, M., & Braathen, S. (2002). Online assessment techniques. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal,
44(1), 39-49.
Roblyer, M. D., McDaniel, M., Webb, M., Herman, J., & Witty, J. V. (2010). Findings on
Facebook in higher education: A comparison of college faculty and student uses and
perceptions of social networking sites. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 134-140.
Rodriguez, M. C., Ooms, A., & Montanez, M. (2008). Students’ perceptions of online-learning:
Quality given comfort, motivation, satisfaction, and experience. Journal of Interactive
Online Learning, 7(2), 105-125.
Ross, K. R., Batzer, L., & Bennington, E. (2002). Quality assurance for distance education: A
faculty peer review process. TechTrends, 46(5), 48-52.
Rossin, D., Young, K. R., Klein, B. D., & Guo, Y. M. (2009). The effects of flow on learning
outcomes in an online information management course. Journal of information systems
education, 20(1), 87-98.
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing social presence in
asynchronous text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(2),
1-18.
Rovai, A. P. (2002). Sense of community, perceived cognitive learning, and persistence in

asynchronous learning networks. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(4), 319-332.
Rovai, A. P. (2003). In search of higher persistence rates in distance education online

programmes. Internet and Higher Education, 6, 1-16.
Rovai, A. P., Ponton, M. K., & Baker, J. D. (2008). Distance learning in higher education: A
programmatic approach to planning, design, instruction, evaluation, and accreditation.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Rutherford, C. (2010, December). Using online social media to support preservice student
engagement. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(4), 1-11.
Sachdeva, A. K., Pellegrini, C. A., & Johnson, K. A. (2008). Support for simulation-based
surgical education through American College of Surgeons--accredited education
institutes. World Journal of Surgery, 32, 196-207.
Sahin, I., & Shelley, M. (2008). Considering students’ perceptions: The distance education
student satisfaction model. Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 216-223.
Schmadeka, W. (2011). Case study of accreditation reaffirmation with emphasis on assessment-

related ambiguities. Journal of Case Studies in Accreditation and Assessment, 1-9.
Schmidt, W. C. (1997). World-wide web survey research: Benefits, potential problems, and
solutions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 29, 274-279.
92
Schroeder, A., Minocha, S., & Schneider, C. (2010). The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats of using social software in higher and further education teaching and learning.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 159-174.
Shannon, D. M., & Bradshaw, C. C. (2002). A comparison of the response rate, response time,
and costs of mail and electronic surveys. The Journal of Experimental Education, 70(2),
179-192.
Shattuck, K. (2010). Quality matters: A faculty-centered program to assure quality in online

course design. Collected Essays on Teaching and Learning, 3, 49-53.
Shattuck, K. (2011, September 28). Interview with director of research at quality matters. (J. M.
Simpson, Interviewer)
Shea, P. J., Pickett, A. M., & Pelz, W. E. (2003). A follow-up investigation of “teaching
presence” in the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks,
7(2), 61-80.
Shea, P., & Armitage, S. (2002). Guidelines for creating student services online. Retrieved from
WCET: http://wcet.wiche.edu/wcet/docs/beyond/overview.pdf
Sloan Consortium. (2004). Entering the mainstream: The quality and extent of online education
in the United States, 2003 and 2004. Retrieved April 17, 2009, from Sloan Consortium:
https://www.sloan-c.org/survey04.asp
Sloan Consortium. (2011). Effective Practices. Retrieved October 9, 2011, from Sloan
Consortium: http://sloanconsortium.org/effective
Sloan-C. (2011a). Effective practices. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from The Sloan Consortium:
http://sloanconsortium.org/effective
Sloan-C. (2011b). The Sloan Consortium. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from
http://sloanconsortium.org/
Sonwalkar, N. (2007, April 26). A new methodology for evaluation: The pedagogical rating of
online courses. Retrieved from Sloan-C: http://sloanconsortium.org/effective_practices/
new-methodology-evaluation-pedagogical-rating-online-courses
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges. (2011). Retrieved

November 2, 2011, from Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on
Colleges: http://sacscoc.org/index.asp
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges. (2011, August).

Member, candidate, and applicant list. Retrieved November 3, 2011, from SACS COC:
http://www.sacscoc.org/pdf/webmemlist.pdf
Spatariu, A., Quinn, L. F., & Hartley, K. (2007). A review of research on factors that impact
aspects of online discussions quality. TechTrends, 51(3), 44-48.
93
Steinman, D. (2007). Educational experiences and the online student. TechTrends, 51(5), 46-52.
Sun, P. C., Tsai, R. J., Finger, G., Chen, Y. Y., & Yeh, D. (2008). What drives a successful e-
learning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner
satisfaction. Computers & Education, 50, 1183-1202.
Swan, K. (2001). Virtual interaction: Design factors affecting student satisfaction and perceived
learning in asynchronous online courses.. Distance Education, 22(2), 306-331.
Swan, K. (2002). Building learning communities in online courses: The importance of

interaction. Education, Communication & Information, 2(1), 23-49.
Swan, K., Matthews, D., Bogle, L., Boles, E., & Day, S. (2011). Linking online course design
and implementation to learning outcomes: A design experiment. The Internet and Higher
Education, doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.07.002.
Tait, J. (2004). The tutor/facilitator role in student retention. Open Learning, 19(1), 97-109.
Ternus, M. P., Palmer, K. L., & Faulk, D. R. (2007). Benchmarking quality in online teaching
and learning: A rubric for coruse construction and evaluation. The Journal of Effective
Teaching, 7(2), 51-67.
Thach, E. C., & Murphy, K. L. (1995). Competencies for distance education professionals.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(1), 57-79.
Thurmond, V. A., Wambach, K., Connors, H. R., & Frey, B. B. (2002). Evaluation of student
satisfaction: determining the impact of a web-based environment by controlling for
student characteristics. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(3), 169-189.
Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent research.
Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89-125.
Tomei, L. A. (2006). The impact of online teaching on faculty load: Computing the ideal class
size for online courses. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 3(14), 531-541.
Tucker, S. (2001). Distance education: Better, worse, or as good as traditional education?

Retrieved April 18, 2009, from University of West Georgia: http://www.westga.edu/
~distance/ojdla/winter44/tucker44.html
United States Congress. (1998). Assistive technology act of 1998. Retrieved from Section 508:
http://www.section508.gov/docs/AssistiveTechnologyActOf1998Full.pdf
United States Government. (2011, October). Section 508. Retrieved from An Official Website of
the United States Goverment: http://www.section508.gov/
Vonderwell, S., & Zachariah, S. (2005). Factors that influence participation in online learning.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38(2), 213-231.
94
wcet. (2009, June). Best practice strategies to promote academic integrity in online education:
Version 2.0. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from wcet ADVANCE: http://wcet.wiche.edu/
wcet/docs/cigs/studentauthentication/BestPractices.pdf
Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications. (2001). Best practices for

electronically offered degree and certificate programs. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from
wcet ADVANCE: http://wcet.wiche.edu/wcet/docs/cigs/studentauthentication/
Accrediting_BestPractices.pdf
Wiesenberg, F., & Stacey, E. (2005). Reflections on teaching and learning online: Quality
program design, delivery and support issues from a cross-global perspective. Distance
Education, 26(3), 385-404.
Woodley, A. (2004). Conceptualizing student dropout in part-time distance education:

Pathologizing the normal? Open Learning, 19(1), 47-63.
Workman, J. J., & Stenard, R. A. (1996). Penn State University DEOS NEWS. Retrieved from
DEOS NEWS: http://www.ed.psu.edu/acsde/deos/deosnews/deosnews6_3.asp
Wright, J. B. (2005). Researching internet-based populations: Advantages and disadvantages of

online survey research, online questionnaire authoring software packages, and web
survey services. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(3), 1-30.
Wright, J. M. (2010). Effect of quality mattersTM training on faculty’s online self-efficacy. In M.

Clay (Ed.), Distance learning administration conference, (pp. 1-5). Jekyll Island, GA.
The Berkely Electronic Press.
Yates, R. W., & Beaudrie, B. (2009). The impact of online assessment on grades in community
college distance education mathematics courses. The American Journal of Distance
Learning, 23, 62-70.
Zhao, F. (2003). Enhancing the quality of online higher education through measurement. Quality
Assurance in Education, 11(4), 214-221.
95
APPENDIX A
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL
96
97
APPENDIX B
PERMISSION TO UTILIZE AMAN’S STUDENT SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
98
99
APPENDIX C
AMAN’S STUDENT SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
100
QUESTION ANSWER
1. How comfortable are you with online learning o Very uncomfortable with online
technology? learning technology
o Uncomfortable with online
learning technology
o Neutral
o Comfortable with online learning
technology
o Very comfortable with online
learning technology
2. A clear introduction (including overall design, o Strongly Disagree
navigation, and faculty information) was o Disagree
available at the beginning of this on-line course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
3. Technology support was available for using the o Strongly Disagree
online features of this course. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
4. Student support (for example, advising, o Strongly Disagree
financial aid, registration) was available in o Disagree
using the online format of this course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
5. I find it important to be provided with the o Strongly Disagree
learning objectives of a course. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
6. The objectives for this online course were o Strongly Disagree
provided at the beginning of this course and o Disagree
were clearly described. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
7. The course objectives for this online course o Strongly Disagree
were closely related to what I was expected to o Disagree
learn. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
8. The course objectives for this online course o Strongly Disagree
assisted with guiding my learning activities. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
101
course assessment methods at the beginning of o Disagree
a course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
10. The course assessment methods for this online o Strongly Disagree
course were provided at the beginning of the o Disagree
course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
course were clearly described. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
course included a variety of assessment o Disagree
methods. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
course were closely related to the course o Disagree
objectives. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
course resources and materials during a course. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
15. The course resources and materials for this o Strongly Disagree
online course were easily accessible during the o Disagree
course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
16. The purpose of course resources and materials o Strongly Disagree
for this online course were clearly described. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
online course helped me reach the course o Disagree
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
102
online course included a wide variety of o Disagree
resources and materials. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
19. I find it important to interact with the instructor o Strongly Disagree
during a course. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
20. The course instructor for this online course o Strongly Disagree
interacted with me in a timely fashion. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
21. The course interaction with the instructor for o Strongly Disagree
this online course helped me reach the course o Disagree
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
22. The amount of course interaction with other o Strongly Disagree
students for this online course was helpful in o Disagree
reaching the course objectives. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
23. I find it important to be provided with course o Strongly Disagree
technology that enhances learning during a o Disagree
course. o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
24. The course technology for this online course o Strongly Disagree
was readily available during the course. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
functioned very well. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
was helpful in reaching the course objectives. o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
o Strongly Agree
103
27. What is your gender? o Female
o Male
28. How many online courses have you taken in the
past (enter number)?
29. What is your age (optional)?
30. Overall, I am satisfied with this online course. o Strongly Disagree
o Disagree
o Neutral
o Agree
Strongly Agree
(Aman, 2009, pp. 187-190)
104
APPENDIX D
RESEARCH INVITATION TO QM INSTITUTIONAL REPRESENTATIVE AND/OR

COURSE DESIGNER
105
Dear _____ QM Institutional Representative or Course Designer (whichever is applicable for the
given institution),
You are being asked to take part in a research study. The study is called “Student Perceptions of
Quality and Satisfaction in Online Education.” The study is being conducted by principal
investigator Jill Simpson, a doctoral student in the College of Education at the University of
Alabama. The purpose of this study is to identify factors of online course design that are
significant to increased course quality and student satisfaction.
You must be 19 years old to take part in this study. The study involves completing a web survey
that will take about 10 minutes. This survey includes 1-4 questions (depending on the research
category the institution falls within).
To complete the survey, click here: _________*
This survey is completely anonymous and confidential. At no point will you be asked to give
your name, student number, or any other identification. As well, the link to this survey contains
no identifying information connected with your email address. The investigator is the only
person that will have access to the password-protected research data. Only summarized data
from all participants will be presented in publications or at meetings.
You will not be paid or receive any tangible benefits from this study. However, the results of the
study may benefit the online education community at large. There are no foreseen risks involved
with this study.
If you have questions about this study, you may contact the investigator, Jill Simpson, at (256)
335-1270 or by email at [email protected], or you may contact the investigator’s
advisor, Dr. Angela Benson at (205) 348-7824 or by email at [email protected] . If you
have any questions about your rights as a research participant you may contact Ms. Tanta Myles,
The University of Alabama Research Compliance Officer, at (205)-348-1355 or toll free at (877)
820-3066.
You may also ask questions, make suggestion, or file complaints and concerns through the IRB
Outreach website at http://osp.ua.edu/site/PRCO_Welcome.html or email them at
[email protected].
Your participation is completely voluntary. You are free not to participate or stop participating
at any time.
Sincerely,
Jill M. Simpson
Doctoral Student
University of Alabama
106
* Institutions in the “recognized” category will be directed to this survey
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/B3Y7N8Q.
Institutions in the “subscribed” category will be directed to this survey
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/BB7HJGQ
Institutions in the “non-affiliated” category will be directed to this survey
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/BP8DCNY
107
APPENDIX E
QUALITATIVE COURSE DESIGNER QUESTIONNAIRE
108
Recognized
1. What QM tools/resources do you have implemented in your QM-recognized online
course(s)? Select all that apply.
a. Rubric
b. Faculty development
c. Course development checklists
d. QM peer-review
e. Self-study
f. Other (please describe)
Subscribed
1. What QM tools/resources do you have implemented in your online course(s)? Select all
that apply.
 Rubric
 Faculty development
 Course development checklists
 QM peer-review
 Self-study
2. If using the QM rubric, how are you using it?
 As a blueprint for designing courses
 For improvement in courses that have already been designed
 Both
109
3. Are these tools/resources required of every online course?
4. How are these tools/resources being used?
Non-affiliated
1. Are you subscribed to any type of peer-review quality assurance program for your online
courses/programs?
If yes,
 What tools/resources are implemented in your online courses?
 Are these tools/resources required of every online course?
 How are these tools/resources being used?
110
APPENDIX F
RESEARCH INVITATION TO STUDENTS
111
Dear _____ Student*,
You are being asked to take part in a research study. The study is called “Student Perceptions of
Quality and Satisfaction in Online Education.” The study is being conducted by principal
investigator Jill Simpson, a doctoral student in the College of Education at the University of
Alabama. The purpose of this study is to identify factors of online course design that are
significant to increased course quality and student satisfaction.
You must be 19 years old to take part in this study. The study involves completing a web survey
that will take about 10 minutes. This survey includes 11 questions (which is broken down into
30 sub-questions).
To complete the survey, click here: https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/BCPZD9M
This survey is completely anonymous and confidential. At no point will you be asked to give
your name, student number, or any other identification. As well, the link to this survey contains
no identifying information connected with your email address. The investigator is the only
person that will have access to the password-protected research data. Only summarized data
from all participants will be presented in publications or at meetings.
You will not be paid or receive any tangible benefits from this study. However, the results of the
study may benefit the online education community at large. There are no foreseen risks involved
with this study.
If you have questions about this study, you may contact the investigator, Jill Simpson, at (256)
335-1270 or by email at [email protected], or you may contact the investigator’s
advisor, Dr. Angela Benson at (205) 348-7824 or by email at [email protected] . If you
have any questions about your rights as a research participant you may contact Ms. Tanta Myles,
The University of Alabama Research Compliance Officer, at (205)-348-1355 or toll free at (877)
820-3066.
You may also ask questions, make suggestion, or file complaints and concerns through the IRB
Outreach website at http://osp.ua.edu/site/PRCO_Welcome.html or email them at
[email protected].
Your participation is completely voluntary. You are free not to participate or stop participating
at any time.
Sincerely,
Jill M. Simpson
Doctoral Student
University of Alabama
*Greeting personalized to each institution being invited to participate.
112
APPENDIX G
INFORMED CONSENT FOR STUDENTS
113
Jill M. Simpson, Principal Investigator from the University of Alabama, is conducting a
study called “Student Perceptions of Quality and Satisfaction in Online Education. She
wishes to find out which factors in online course design are significant to higher course
quality and student satisfaction.
Taking part in this study involves completing a web survey of 30 questions that will take
about 10 minutes to complete. This survey contains questions about demographic and your
level of satisfaction in the online course in which you are enrolled.
We will protect your confidentiality by collecting survey results anonymously. This survey
will not collect Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, or any other identifiable information, of its
participants. Only the investigator will have access to the data. Only summarized data will
be presented at meetings or in publications.
There will be no direct benefits to you. The findings will be useful to online educators for
determining which factors in online course design are significant to student satisfaction of
the course.
The chief risk is that some of the questions may make you uncomfortable. You may skip
any questions you do not want to answer.
If you have questions about this study, please contact Jill Simpson at (256) 335-1270 or by
email at [email protected]. If you have questions about your rights as a research
participant, contact Ms. Tanta Myles (the University Compliance Officer) at (205) 348-
8461 or toll-free at 1-877-820-3066. If you have complaints or concerns about this study,
file them through the UA IRB outreach website at
http://osp.ua.edu/site/PRCO_Welcome.html. Also, if you participate, you are encouraged to
complete the short Survey for Research Participants online at this website. This helps UA
improve its protection of human research participants.
YOUR PARTICIPATION IS COMPLETELY VOLUNTARY. You are free not to

participate or stop participating any time before you submit your answers.
If you understand the statements above, are at least 19 years old, and freely consent to be in
this study, click on the CONTINUE button to begin.
114
APPENDIX H
INFORMED CONSENT FOR COURSE DESIGNERS
115
Jill M. Simpson, Principal Investigator from the University of Alabama, is conducting a
study called “Student Perceptions of Quality and Satisfaction in Online Education. She
wishes to find out which factors in online course design are significant to higher course
quality and student satisfaction.
Taking part in this study involves completing a web survey of 1-4 questions (depending on
your research category classification) that will take about 10 minutes to complete. This
survey contains questions about the level of peer-review resources implemented in the
design of your online course.
We will protect your confidentiality by collecting survey results anonymously. This survey
will not collect Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, or any other identifiable information, of its
participants. Only the investigator will have access to the data. Only summarized data will
be presented at meetings or in publications.
There will be no direct benefits to you. The findings will be useful to online educators for
determining which factors in online course design are significant to student satisfaction of
the course.
The chief risk is that some of the questions may make you uncomfortable. You may skip
any questions you do not want to answer.
If you have questions about this study, please contact Jill Simpson at (256) 335-1270 or by
email at [email protected]. If you have questions about your rights as a research
participant, contact Ms. Tanta Myles (the University Compliance Officer) at (205) 348-8461
or toll-free at 1-877-820-3066. If you have complaints or concerns about this study, file
them through the UA IRB outreach website at http://osp.ua.edu/site/PRCO_Welcome.html.
Also, if you participate, you are encouraged to complete the short Survey for Research
Participants online at this website. This helps UA improve its protection of human research
participants.
YOUR PARTICIPATION IS COMPLETELY VOLUNTARY. You are free not to

participate or stop participating any time before you submit your answers.
If you understand the statements above, are at least 19 years old, and freely consent to be in
this study, click on the CONTINUE button to begin.
116
APPENDIX I
HUMAN SUBJECTS TRAINING COMPLETION CERTIFICATES
117
118
CITI Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI)
Responsible Conduct of Research Curriculum Completion Report

Printed on 4/25/2012
Learner: Jill Simpson (username: jmsimpson)
Institution: University of Alabama
Contact Information Phone: 2567654860
Email: [email protected]
Humanities Responsible Conduct of Research Course 1:
Stage 1. Basic Course Passed on 04/25/12 (Ref # 7831501)

Date
Required Modules Completed Score
The CITI Course in the Responsible Conduct of 04/23/12 no quiz

Research
Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research 04/23/12 no quiz
Research Misconduct 4-1497 04/23/12 5/5 (100%)
Data Acquisition, Management, Sharing and Ownership 04/23/12 5/5 (100%)

4-1525
Publication Practices and Responsible Authorship 4-1533 04/25/12 5/5 (100%)
Peer Review 4-1534 04/25/12 5/5 (100%)
Mentor and Trainee Responsibilities 01234 1250 04/25/12 5/5 (100%)
Mentoring Case Study: O, What a Tangled Web We 04/25/12 4/4 (100%)

Weave
Mentoring Case Study: The Graduate Student Laborer 04/25/12 3/3 (100%)
Mentoring Case Study: Sherry's Secret 04/25/12 4/4 (100%)
Mentoring Case Study: Lisa Bach's Case 04/25/12 3/3 (100%)
Mentoring Case Study: The Business of Mentoring 04/25/12 4/4 (100%)
Mentoring Case Study: Too Much Help is Just Too 04/25/12 3/3 (100%)
Much!
Conflicts of Interest and Commitment 4-1624 04/25/12 5/5 (100%)
Collaborative Research 4-1058 04/25/12 5/5 (100%)
119

Thesis Sample

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thesis Sample

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thesis Sample

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF QUALITY AND SATISFACTION

JILL MASK SIMPSON

ANGELA BENSON, COMMITTEE CHAIR

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

I want to thank my mom, Amerilous Mask, for always believing in me--she is my

LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................x

Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................1

Statement of the Purpose .....................................................................................................2

Significance of the Problem .................................................................................................3

Research Questions ..............................................................................................................4

Assumptions of the Study ....................................................................................................5

Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................5

Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................6

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ....................................................................................................8

Regional Accreditation ........................................................................................................8

Quality in Online Education ................................................................................................9

Best Practices ...............................................................................................................11

Sloan-C Quality ...........................................................................................................12

Satisfaction in Online Education .......................................................................................14

Seven Principles ...........................................................................................................15

Determinants of Learning Effectiveness ......................................................................16

ADL Network ..............................................................................................................17

Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh Framework .............................................................17

Observational Case Study Design ................................................................................18

Quality Equals Satisfaction ................................................................................................18

Retention in Online Education ...........................................................................................19

Quality Matters ..................................................................................................................20

Course Overview and Introduction ..............................................................................22

Learning Objectives .....................................................................................................22

Assessment & Measurement ........................................................................................23

Instructional Materials .................................................................................................24

Learner Interaction and Engagement ...........................................................................24

Course Technology ......................................................................................................26

Learner Support ...........................................................................................................27

Additional QM Case Studies .............................................................................................29

Aman’s Research ...............................................................................................................30

Aman’s Findings ..........................................................................................................34

Setting of the Study............................................................................................................36

Quantitative Student Satisfaction Survey ....................................................................40

Qualitative Course Design Survey ...............................................................................42

Research Questions ............................................................................................................44

Data Collection ..................................................................................................................45

Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................47

Chapter Summary ..............................................................................................................49

Response Rates ..................................................................................................................50

Prior Online Courses Taken .........................................................................................54

Comfort with Distance Learning .................................................................................55

Background Data ...............................................................................................................56

Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................................56

Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of Peer Review in Predicting

Research Question 2 ..........................................................................................................61

t-Test Overall Satisfaction: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated ...................................61

t-Test Mean of QM Factor Means: Subscribed versus Non-Affiliated........................63

Simple Linear Regression Analysis: Significance of a Subscription to Peer

Research Question 3 ..........................................................................................................65

Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Peer Reviewed Courses

Research Question 4 ..........................................................................................................67

Correlation Analysis: Relationship of Factors in Subscribed Courses to

Qualitative Data .................................................................................................................68

Chapter Summary ..............................................................................................................69