Fundamentals of Ethics

Fundamentals of
Ethics
A Course Synthesis
By Prof. Erlito V. Ebia,
B.S. CHE., A.B. Philo, M.A. Theo.
Fundamentals of Ethics
Definition, Goal, Nature and Sources of Ethics.

Importance of Ethics in Life and Society.
Various Ethical Principles and their Proponents.
Decision Making
Challenges to Ethics Today
What is Ethics?
Ethics talks about the various principles that describe the appropriate behavior of a human person in
society. Its goal is to have a good life and be happy by doing what is right.
It comes from the Greek word “ETHOS”… Meaning CHARACTER…
It is a rule one received from an external sources like Religious Values, Code of practice in a workplace or
professions.
It comes from a social system.

Social system is the organized relationship of persons, groups of persons and various institutions,
forming a unified whole.
Such as, honesty, responsibility, loyalty, integrity or respect.
Focuses on the standard of good behavior. It does not command, but only suggest.
What about Morality?

Sometimes ethics and morality are used interchangeably, because they are both concerned with right
and wrong human behavior. However they are different.
It comes from the Latin word “MOS”… Meaning CUSTOM OR PRACTICE…
It refers to personal beliefs or rules concerning right and wrong, and choose what is right and decide
based on this choice, thus it is internal or very personal.
It comes from the person. It is a personal understanding of what is right and good.
Like, do not cheat people, don’t tell lies or be honest.
Focuses in choosing, deciding and doing the good and right.
It commands and must be followed.
Ethics vs Science
Ethics
It is a normative science.
Normative comes from the Latin word “NORMA” meaning a “rule” or “Law.”
It’s normative, because Ethics searches for the best rules or standards on how, we, human persons
should behave in society.
It deals more on the principles which are concepts.
It is based on value judgement.
Its laboratory is the world and its objects is the human person and human behavior.
Its tools are the mind and keen observation.
Science
Science comes from the Latin word “Scire” which means to know.
It is a positive or natural science.
Positive Science, because it analyzes a particular or current issue or problem that exists and examine the
cause of the existence of that problem.
It deals with sensible or factual objects.
It makes sure that a material product will come out from the experiment.
It is done in a laboratory or specific location.
Its employs laboratory tools plus keen observation
Sources of Ethics:
It tells us what is good and bad.
Religion through God
Good People as an exemplar or good model to others.
Legal System like moral laws & good justice system
Society through socialization
Culture like good practices or tradition

Good Political Leaders as honest public servants
Beauty of the Environment such as rivers, animals, mountains, etc.
The concept of Freedom

General understanding of FREEDOM is “to do what I like to do,” thus FREEDOM becomes absolute or no
limitation at all.
But, why there are rules and regulations?
Why we are made of matter that dissipate at a certain point in time?
Why our present situation limit our desire to do what we like?
All these tell us that FREEDOM has limitation.
That is why Frederick Skinner says that FREEDOM is an illusion…
But FREEDOM exists…
Thomas Aquinas says we can choose…

Jacques Rousseau says we can do want we do not wish to do and we can act differently…
Thomas Hobbes says that human person can act based on self interest…
Freedom is to do what is best for us as humans and for our society… that is absolute… in all aspects.
Being responsible in all our actions proves that human beings are free.
Freedom is a great power… great power comes great responsibility…
Ethics… is the correct way to use FREEDOM.
Importance of Ethics
Try to observe the people around you, and you will see why ethics is important.
If you notice corrupt political and religious leaders, you will say, ethics is necessary.
If you notice criminals who spread anti-social activities, you will say ethics is vital.
If you hear greedy people, you will say ethics is essential.
If you see doctors who don’t heed to people with COVID-19, you will say ethics is crucial.
It is like saying, if you sow kindness, kindness will flourish. If you sow hatred, hatred will flourish.
Ethics is our Moral Compass or Guide that will allow us to see our real destination – to be a good human
person and attain ultimate Happiness.
Main Branches (Divisions) of Ethics

Meta- Ethics: tries to answer the basic philosophical questions on the principle of ethical theory itself.
Example
The query, is lying wrong? Is helping the poor right?
According to…
Cognitivism says – moral judgement is capable of being right or wrong.
Non-Cognitivism says – moral judgement is not capable of being right or wrong.
The query, are there permanent laws or rules to follow?

Subjectivism says – there are no permanent or universal rules. Rules depend on how a specific group
conceives it.
Objectivism says – there are permanent or universal rules, they exist even you don’t think of them.
It also ask the query “What is Good?”
For Religious people, GOOD is equal to God; for Plato “Good” is a concept; for Aristotle “Good” is total
happiness.
Generally…to follow the “Golden Rule” or to do Good for the majority.

Normative Ethic: Studies a principle that will tell our action as good or bad, right or wrong, and virtuous
or vicious.
Example
Axiology-studies on what is good and bad.
Schools of thought that deals what good or bad is all about…
Hedonism – pleasure and the absence of pain are the only good things in this world.
Egoism – the action is good if it gives the best result for the person acting.
Utilitarianism – the action is good if the result favors the majority.

Kantian Ethics – the action of the person is good if he could constantly wish that his act becomes a
universal law.
Deontology (Non-Consequentialism)– the action of the person is good if he do his duties.
Teleology (Situation Ethics of Joseph Fletcher and Consequentialism) – the action of the person is good if
he attain his goal.
Emotivism – an action is good, depends on individual preference than social.

Applied Ethics: Tries answering difficult ethical questions or ethical dilemmas that happen in people’s
life.
Example
Is abortion always wrong?
Is death penalty moral or immoral?
Is killing always wrong?
Is war always wrong?
Is pre-marital, extra-marital or teenage sex always unethical?
Is gaining so much profit good?
Is selling drugs to your people wrong?
Is genetical modified organism wrong?
Is playing Lotto always unethical?
Is paying tax always good?
Normative ethics study the characteristics of good and bad action. Applied ethics uses these features in
actual problem.
Kinds of Human Act

Actus Humanus or Human Act – is an action that is deliberate and conscious. This makes the person
moral (Good) or immoral (Bad).
This makes a human person a moral agent. And human person is the only moral agent, because he or
she can make a deliberate and conscious act.
This is where morality comes in.
Example
Deliberately and consciously killing or raping or cheating a person.
If a person is forced to do an act against his or her WILL it is called FORCED Act.
The one forcing the other person to act is more responsible for the action.
Actus Hominis or Act of Man– is an action that is not deliberate and conscious. The actions that a
human person does without the need of thinking. In simple terms, these are the things that human
person usually does—his everyday routine—and is based on human instinct. This kind of action is
neutral or amoral.
Example
Mastication of food inside the person’s stomach.
Walking
Sleeping
Eating
taking a bath
going to work
Reason & Emotion in Ethics

Reason and emotion are two topics colliding each other for thousand of years in Ethics.
Can they work together constructively with regards to ethics or in ethical decision? Yes and No, is the
answer.
For some philosophers, like Plato, Descartes and Kant, emotions are irrational that needs to be
controlled by reason. Here, emotion is simply equivalent to mere feelings. Like, anger, fear, surprise. or
trust.
Reason is the power of the mind to think, understand and make judgement logically. Thus, reason is the
best tool in moral judgment based on one’s moral rules and regulations. It is more of an objective type.
However, some Modern Philosophers, like William James, Joshua Green, Charles Darwin and Richard
Lazarus treat emotion as a great help in making personal ethical decision in a unique situation.
They say, emotions assist people to make good, specific and personal choices in life. It is more
subjective.
Emotions for them is more than feelings, but a specific personalized responses to various stimuli that a
person encounters or experiences in life, past or present.
However, emotions should not be left alone by reason and vice versa. They need together to make
sound ethical judgement.
Making Decision
Step 1: Ask enlightenment from God.
Step 2: Identify your goal and Gather information.
Step 3. Consider various options
Step 4: Evaluate the consequences of your options
Step 5: Choose your best option

Step 6: Evaluate your best option again and decide.
Step 7: Take an action
Step 8. Pray, thank God and accept the result of your action, whatever it may be.
Challenge to Ethics Today

The Challenge of Cultural Relativism.
Culture is the practices, beliefs, things, and characteristics that are common to a group of people.
Generally, everything is culture.
From ideas, such as language, to simple table etiquette, is CULTURE.
Religion, politics and even the use of the internet, are parts of Culture.
Franz Boas, a 20th century American Anthropologist, thinks of the concept CULTURAL RELATIVISM to
contest the idea of ETHNOCENTRISM.
Cultural Relativism is a belief that no culture is better than the other culture.
Ethnocentrism is a belief on the supremacy of one culture to other culture. It brings about racial
discrimination or negative judgement to beliefs and practices of other culture.
The equivalent of cultural relativism in ethics is ETHICAL RELATIVISM.

Ethical Relativism: Is an ethical principle that judges right actions based on the moral rules of a particular
society. And no moral rules in one society are better than the rules of other society is called Ethical
Relativism.
Cultural Relativism describes that what is right and wrong depends on one culture.
Ethical Relativism claims that what is right and wrong depends on one culture.
There is a “hairline” difference between ethical relativism and cultural relativism.
Other forms of ethical relativism are egoism, utilitarianism and emotivism.
To say that Filipinos as Asians are more free than to the Americans is ethnocentrism.
To say that Filipinos and Americans exercise their freedom wisely, is cultural relativism
But, let us say that, a group of Filipinos believe that freedom is absolute. So, if you limit their freedom,
they will get angry and say it is not good. It is an example of ethical relativism.
Like Subjectivism, Ethical Relativism does not accept the existence of a fix or universal law. Universal
Law or objective truth is just a concept.
However, if Ethical Relativism will say that absolute truth does not exist, and for them it is 100% true
statement, then logically speaking Absolute Truth exists.

Globalization is another challenge for ethics.
Globalization is the way people throughout the world interact to and integrate with one another in
terms of:
Culture (practices or behaviors)
Economics
Politics
Technology
Healthcare and
Environmental protection
Its primary goal is to unite everybody as one people with different belief-systems, status in life and
concern.
It is GOOD!
However, is it doable?
Yes, if people in the world cares for everybody and everything, including the environment. But, if
globalization is just about the transfer and exchange of wealth and commodities, if globalization is all
about militarization, if globalization is all about taxes making rich people richer and poor people poorer
then, the true spirit of globalization which is UNITY leading to lasting PEACE and World ORDER will never
be attained. That is the challenge to Ethics.
Etikang Pinoy
Sino ba angTao?
Give your honest opinion. You can see this question on Moodle’s Assignment Section. Read the
instruction.
As a Filipino student of the late 20th century, what are the possible, simple, doable and lasting
contributions you can share to your community now, to your school, to your countrymen, to the world
and to yourself, at this difficult time (Age of Pandemic)? Explain clearly and honestly your self in 5-10
simple sentences.
Good luck!

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Fundamentals of

Definition, Goal, Nature and Sources of Ethics.

It comes from a social system.

What about Morality?

Culture like good practices or tradition

The concept of Freedom

Thomas Aquinas says we can choose…

Main Branches (Divisions) of Ethics

The query, are there permanent laws or rules to follow?

Main Branches (Divisions) of Ethics

Utilitarianism – the action is good if the result favors the majority.

Main Branches (Divisions) of Ethics

Kinds of Human Act

Reason & Emotion in Ethics

Step 5: Choose your best option

Challenge to Ethics Today

Challenge to Ethics Today

Challenge to Ethics Today

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