Distribution System

Voltage Regulation
 Objectives
 Introducing the main definitions and terms regarding voltages
regulation.

 Introducing the voltage standards and the required service quality.

 Explaining the general methods for voltage regulation (control).

 Reviewing the different type of distribution transformers.

 Introducing the basic theory and the operation properties of

autotransformers.

 Reviewing the main types of step voltage regulators.

 Introducing the concept of operation of line drop compensators.

 Presenting some numerical examples.

 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.
 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).
 Distribution Transformers.
 Autotransformers.
 Step-Voltage Regulators.
 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).
 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.
 Three-phase Voltage Regulators
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.
 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).
 Distribution Transformers.
 Autotransformers.
 Step-Voltage Regulators.
 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).
 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.
 Three-phase Voltage Regulators
 Introduction
 In first lecture in this course, we introduced the
problem of voltage regulation with the diagram
below.
Regulator
Feeder

Load 1 Load 2 Load 3

substation
Dotted line is high load period.
1.04 Solid line is light load period.
Voltage (pu)

1.02
1.00
0.98
0.96
0.94
Distance from substation

 One of the essential responsibility of the distribution

company is to deliver electric energy to the consumer
within suitable voltage ranges.
 Introduction
 It is clear from the previous figure that the voltage
along a radial feeder decreases with distance from
the substation, because of the feeder voltage drop
caused by the load current.
 Because the load current varies throughout the
course of the day as power consumption varies, the
voltage drop will vary.
 So we need a way to regulate the voltage as the
load current changes in order to maintain the
voltage seen by the customer meter within an
acceptable range.
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.
 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).
 Distribution Transformers.
 Autotransformers.
 Step-Voltage Regulators.
 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).
 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.
 Three-phase Voltage Regulators
 Definitions of Terms
 Voltage Regulation: “The percent voltage drops across a line (feeder)
with respect to the receiving-end voltage”. Voltage Regulation can be
calculated using the following equation:
VS  Vr
%Voltage Regulation % VR    100
Vr

 Voltage Regulators: “They are autotransformers with automatically

adjusting taps”.

 Autotransformer: “A special connection of the transformer from which a

variable ac voltage can be obtained at the secondary”.

 Voltage Level: “The voltage by which a portion of the system is

designated, and to which certain operating characteristics of the system are
related. Each nominal system voltage pertains to a portion of the system
bounded by transformers or utilization equipment”.
 Definitions of Terms (Cont.)
 Voltage Sags or Voltage Dips: “The rms reduction in the ac voltage, at
the power frequency, for duration from half cycle to a few seconds”.

 Lamp Flicker: “The sudden change in the intensity of illumination due to

an associate abrupt change in voltage across the lamp”.

 Bandwidth: “The allowed variance of the load center voltage from the set
level voltage. The voltage held at the load center will be one half of the
bandwidth. For example, if the voltage level is 120 V and the bandwidth is 2
V, then the regulator will operate until the voltage at the load center lies
between 119 V and 121 V ”.

 Time Delay: “The length of time that raise or lower operation is called for
before the actual execution of the command. This prevents taps changing
during a transient or short time change in current”.
 Definitions of Terms (Cont.)
 Set Voltage: “Also known as the set point or bandcenter, it is the desired
output of the regulator”.

 Line Drop Compensator: “Set (controller) to compensate for voltage

drop (line drop) between the regulator and the load center”.

 Voltage Spread: “The difference between the maximum and minimum

voltages, without voltage dips due to motor starting”.

 Supply Terminal: “The point of connection of the customer’s installation

to the public system”.
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.
 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).
 Distribution Transformers.
 Autotransformers.
 Step-Voltage Regulators.
 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).
 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.
 Three-phase Voltage Regulators
 Quality of Service and Voltage
Standards
 Quality of service for distribution system is measured in terms of:
– Freedom from interruptions.
– Maintenance of satisfactory voltage levels at the customers premises
that is within limits appropriate for this type of service.

 Too high steady-state voltage levels cause:

– Reduction in light bulb life.
– Reduction in the life of electronic devices
– Premature failure of some types of apparatus.

 Too low steady-state voltage levels cause:

– Lowered illumination levels.
– Shrinking of TV pictures.
– Slow of heating devices.
– Difficulties in motor starting.
– Overheating and / or burning out of motors.
 Ideal Voltage and Voltage Variations
Waveforms [5]
 The figure below shows the ideal, nominal voltage waveform and
the voltage waveform subjected to different power quality
problems.
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

 Three-phase Voltage Regulators.

Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control)
 There are several methods to improve the distribution system
voltage regulation. Among these methods [3]:

– Use of generator voltage regulator.

– Application of voltage regulating equipment in the distribution
substations.
– Application of capacitors in the distribution substations.
– Balancing of the loads on the primary feeders.
– Increasing of the feeder conductor sizes.
– Changing of feeders sections from single phase to multiphase.
– Transferring of loads to new feeders.
– Installing new substations and primary feeders.
– Increasing of primary voltage level.
– Application of voltage regulators out on the primary feeders.
– Application of shunt capacitors on the primary feeders.
– Application of series capacitor on the primary feeders.
Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control) (Cont.)

 The selection of proper technique depends upon the

particular system equipment. However, automatic
voltage regulation is always provided by:

– Bus regulation at the substation.

– Individual feeder regulation in the substation.
– Supplementary regulation along the main feeder by regulator
mounted on poles.

 Distribution substations are equipped with load-tap

changing (LTC) transformers that operate automatically
with the load. Some of these substations use a separate
voltage regulators that provide bus regulation. LTC is
used to keep the primary distribution voltage bus
constant as both the sub-transmission voltage and the
drop in the substation transformers vary with load.
 Voltage Spread and Voltage Zones [3]

 The following figure shows

the Voltage spread and voltage
zones over a radial primary
feeder

–Figure a: one-line diagram of

the feeder circuit.
–Figure b: voltage profile at
peak load conditions.
–Figure c: voltage profile at
light load conditions.
Typical Secondary Voltage Standards [3]
Voltage Limits

Nominal Voltage Class At point of delivery At point of utilization

Minimum Maximum Minimum

120/240 V 1- and 240/120 V 3- 

Favorable zone, range A 114 / 228 126 / 252 110 / 220
Favorable zone, range B 110 / 220 127 / 254 106 / 212
Extreme zone, emergency 108 / 216 130 / 260 104 / 208

208 Y / 120 V 3-

Favorable zone, range A 197 Y / 114 218 Y / 126 191 Y / 110

Favorable zone, range B 191 Y / 110 220 Y / 127 184 Y / 106

Extreme zone, emergency 187 Y / 108 225 Y / 130 180 Y / 104

408 Y / 227 V 3-

Favorable zone, range A 456 Y / 263 504 Y / 291 440 Y / 254
Favorable zone, range B 440 Y / 254 508 Y / 293 424 Y / 245
Extreme zone, emergency 432 Y / 249 520 Y / 300 416 Y / 240
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

 Three-phase Voltage Regulators.

Distribution Transformers [3]
Standard Transformer kVAs and Voltages
KVAs High Voltages Low Voltages
1- 3- 1- 3- 1- 3-
2 30 2400 / 4160 Y 2400 120 / 240 208 Y / 120
10 45 4800 / 8320 Y 4160 Y / 2400 240 / 480 240
15 75 4800 Y / 8320 YX 4160 Y 2400 480
25 112 7200 / 12470 Y 4800 2520 480 Y / 277
37.5 150 12470 GndY / 7200 8320 Y / 4800 4800 240 x 480
50 225 7620 / 13200 Y 8320 Y 5040 2400
75 300 13200 GndY / 7620 7200 6900 4160 Y / 2400
100 500 12000 12000 7200 4800
167 13200 / 22860 GndY 12470 Y / 7200 7560 12470 Y / 7200
250 13200 12470 Y 7980 13200 Y / 7620
333 13800 GndY / 7970 13200 Y / 7620
500 13800 / 23900 GndY 13200 Y
13800 13200
14400 / 24940 GndY 13800
16340 22900
19920 / 34500 GndY 34400
22900 43800
34400 67000
43800
67000
Distribution Transformer Insulation Levels
Low Basic Lightning Chopped-Wave Impulse Levels
Frequency Impulse Minimum Minimum Time to
Test Level Insulation Level Voltage Flashover
kV rms kV Crest kV Crest s
10 30 36 1
15 45 54 1.5
19 60 69 1.5
26 75 88 1.6
34 95 110 1.8
40 125 145 2.25
50 150 175 3
70 200 230 3
95 250 290 3
140 350 400 3
 Dry and Liquid Types Transformer
Dry Type
Transformers Liquid Type Transformers
Air Cooled and Oil Filled Inerteen Filled
Air Insulated Transformers Transformers

•They are the •This type can be used in •Inerteen is a non-

most
commonly used in
distribution substations flammable liquid.
industrial, commercial and and in users outdoor
institutional applications. substations. •This type can be used in
locations where extreme
•Voltage ratings as high as fire hazards exist.
15 kV are available for
ratings from 3 to 300 kVA.

•They have limited ratings

 Overhead and Underground Types
Transformer
Overhead Distribution Transformers Underground Distribution Transformers
Conventional Transformers Subway Transformers
•They have no integral lightning, fault or •They are used in underground vaults.
overhead protective devices as a part of the •They can be conventional type or current
transformer. protected type.
Completely Self-Protecting (CSP) Low Cost Residential
Transformers Transformers
•They have self-protecting from lightning or •They are similar to those conventional
line surges overhead and short circuit. transformers employed in overhead
•They contain lightning arrestors, circuit distribution.
breaker and internal protective links for
internal faults.
Completely Self-Protecting Secondary Network Transformers
Banking (CSPB)Transformers •They are employed in secondary networks.
•They are designed for banked secondary •They have primary disconnecting and
service. grounding switch and the network protector
•They are built similar to CSP transformers mounted integrally on the transformer.
but are provided with two sets of circuit •They can be either liquid-filled, ventilated
breakers. The second set is used to dry-type, or sealed dry type.
sectionalize the secondary when it is
needed.
Equivalent Circuit of a Single-Phase 2-Winding
Transformer
Exact Equivalent Circuit for a Loaded Transformer
Exact Equivalent Circuit for a Loaded Transformer
Referred to the Primary Side
Equivalent Simplified Circuit for a Loaded
Transformer Referred to the Primary Side
 Operational Equations
n1
n R L'  n 2  R L
n2

1
I  I2
'
2 X L'  n 2  X L
n

V  n V2
2
'
req  r1  r2'  r1  n 2  r2

r  n  r2
2
' 2
xleq  xl1  xl' 2  xl1  n 2  xl 2

xl' 2  n 2  xl 2
 Operational Equations
Where: I2 the secondary current,
V2 the secondary voltage,
I1 the primary current,
V1 the primary voltage,
n1 the primary windings number of turns,
n2 the secondary windings number of turns,
n the turn ratio,
Ie the excitation current,
Im the magnetizing current,
Ic the core loss current.
 Transformer Regulation (Cont.)

Since  is too small

 % Voltage Regulation 
I '
2 req cos   I 2' xleq sin    100
'
V2
 Transformer Efficiency
 The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated from the
following equation:
Output Power
% Efficiency  x 100
Output Power  Total Losses
 Total losses = electric circuit, magnetic circuit, and dielectric
circuit losses.

 The load at which the efficiency is maximum is

 Iron Losses 
% Load    x 100
 Copper Losses 
 
 It is worth mentioning that the transformer efficiency is maximum
(for a given power factor of the load) for a load with the iron loss
and the copper loss are equal. Moreover, this maximum efficiency
is dependent on the power factor of the load, while the iron or the
core losses are practically independent of the load. The iron loss is
function of the transformer voltage.
 Distribution Transformer Connections
Single-phase distribution transformers connections [3]

Parallel
connection

Series
connection
Single-phase booster transformers connections [3]
Distribution Transformer Connections
Three-phase booster transformers connections [3]
Three-phase delta - delta connections [3]
Three-phase open delta - open delta connections [3]
Three-phase star - star connections [3]
Three-phase star - delta connections [3]
Three-phase delta - star connections [3]
Three-phase open star - open delta connections [3]
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

 Three-phase Voltage Regulators.

 Autotransformers
 Load tap changers and step-voltage regulators are simply
autotransformers.
 Autotransformers are also used in connecting two different
high voltage levels, e.g., 230 to 345 kV, or 230 to 345 kV,
when the voltage ratio is not very great
 An autotransformer may be built from a 2-winding
transformer by connecting one terminal of the low voltage
side to one terminal of the high voltage side, as shown
below.
I2 X1 IL

H1 I1 I2 X1 E2
IS X2
VS E1 E2 VL
H1 I1
IS
H2 X2 VS E1

H2
 Autotransformers
 Note that the currents I1 and I2 are the currents through the respective
windings, and the voltage E1 and E2, are the voltages across the
respective windings. The transformer iron core and windings are exactly
as in the two winding case, and so all standard relations between
winding currents and voltages still apply. I 2X I1 L

E1 N 1 I 2
  E2

E2 N 2 I1 X2
VL
H1 I1
VL  E1  E2 IS

I S  I1  I 2
VS E1

H2
N N2
E1  2 E1 I2  I2
VL E1  E 2 N1 I S I1  I 2 N 1
   
VS E1 E1 IL I2 I2
N N2
1 2 1
N1 N N  N1 N1 N N  N1
  1 2  2  1 2  2
1 N1 N1 1 N1 N1
 This implies that the input power, VSIS , is equal to the output power, VLIL.
 Autotransformers
 The autotransformer configuration of the previous
figure:
– is a step-up transformer, since 1+N2/N1>1 (we could
make it a step-down transformer by connecting X1,
instead of X2, to H1).
– has a voltage transformation less than 2, since N2/N1<1
and N2 is on the low, or X-side of the transformer (if we
connected H2 to X1, we could obtain 1+N1/N2).
I2 X1 IL

E2

X2
VL
H1 I1
IS
VS E1

H2
 Boost vs. Buck
 The autotransformer configuration of the previous figure is known as a
Boost Regulator, i.e., it raises voltages.
 A regulator can also decrease voltages, in this case, the regulator is said
to be in the Buck Regulator. The figure below illustrates the buck
configuration.

 Note that the position of the dot on the I2 X2 IL

low (X) side winding is reversed relative E2

to the boost configuration, and X1
VL
correspondingly, the X1 terminal is the H1 I1
one connected to the H1 terminal. The IS
VS E1
output is then taken as the voltage
measured from H2 to X2. H2
 The voltage-current relationships in this
case are:
VL  N 2  N 1 N IL N1
 1 2 , and 
VS N1 N1 I S  N 2  N1
 Per-unit Impedance
 We can show that the per-unit impedance of a two-winding transformer
when connected as an autotransformer is significantly less than the per-
unit impedance of the same device when connected as a regular
transformer. The relation between them is:

Zauto, pu  nt (1  nt )Zt , pu
where:
 Zauto,pu is the per-unit impedance of the autotransformer, on the
autotransformer base.
 Zt,pu is the per-unit impedance of the two-winding transformer, on the
two-winding transformer base.
 nt=N2/N1
 the “±” sign is “+” for a boost configuration and “−“ for a buck
configuration.
 Per-unit Impedance-Example
 Consider an autotransformer connected to boost voltage by 10%. This
means that
VL N N
 1  2  1.10  2  nt  0.1
VS N1 N1
Therefore,
Zauto, pu  nt (1  nt )Zt , pu
Zauto, pu  0.1(1  0.1)Zt , pu  0.1(1.1)Zt , pu
Zauto, pu  0.11Zt , pu

 The per-unit impedance of an autotransformer is fairly small and it can,

in most cases, be ignored with little loss of accuracy. A similar
conclusion applies to autotransformer shunt admittance.
 Autotransformer Rating
 The capacity of an autotransformer, the kVA rating, can be
compared to the capacity of an equivalent two winding transformer
(assuming the same core and oils are used) as:
Capacity of Autotransf ormer N1
 1
Capacity as two Winding transforme r N2

 From the above eqn., we see that the power rating of the
autotransformer is (1+N1/N2) times the power rating of the same
device when operated as a regular two-winding transformer.
 If, for example, N1/N2=1, this means that the capacity as
autotransformer is twice that as a two winding transformer, i.e. one
can use a 500 kVA autotransformer instead of using a 1000 kVA
two winding transformer.
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

 Three-phase Voltage Regulators.

 Step-Voltage Regulators
 A step-type voltage regulator is fundamentally an
autotransformer with many taps (or steps) in the series
winding. The voltage change is obtained by changing the
taps of the series winding of the autotransformer. The
position of the tap is determined by a control circuit (line
drop compensator).
 Most regulators are designed to correct the line voltage
from 10% boost to 10% buck ( 10%) in steps with a
(5/8)% voltage change per step.
 Step-type voltage regulator can be either:
– Station type (single-phase or three-phase): It can be used in
substation for bus voltage regulation or individual feeder voltage
regulation.
– Distribution type (Single-phase only): It can be used on
overhead primary feeders.
Feeder’s One-Line Diagram
 Step-Voltage Regulator Classes

 There are two broad classes of single phase step-

voltage regulators, referred to as Type A and
Type B.
– Type A: The source voltage is to be applied across one
winding (and load voltage taken across both windings)
– Type B: The source voltage is to be applied across both
windings (and load voltage taken across one winding)
 Type A Step-Voltage Regulator
+ Preventive
autoxfmr
N
2
L
Type A step-up voltage E2
IL
L
L +
R I2
regulator ( boost configuration)
+ IL
-

IS
S N1 S
+
IS + + VL

VL

E V
VS 1 S

I
- -
- 1 -
-
SL

SL

+ Preventive
autoxfmr
Type A step-down voltage L
I2
N
2
IL
E L +
regulator ( buck configuration) R
2
+
L
IL
-

IS
S N S
+ 1 V
IS + + L

I
VL
1
E V
VS 1 S

Note the position of the switch -

- -
-
inside the dotted circle -
SL

SL
 Type A Step-Voltage Regulator
 The notation S is “source,” L is “load,” and SL is “source-
load” which indicates to what the respective terminal is
connected.
 The switch inside the dotted circle is called a reversing
switch. This switch toggles the regulator between the
boost and buck configurations.
 The upper winding in each figure has the taps. The taps
enable changing the number of turns for the indicated
winding and in doing so provide adjustment to the turns
ratio and therefore the load voltage.
 The preventive autotransformer, shown in each figure
between a terminal and the taps, has the function of
preventing the regulator from being disconnected from the
circuit each time the tap is changed.
 Type B Step-Voltage Regulator
IS
Preventive
autoxfmr N2
I2 +

Type B step-up voltage S

E2
R S
+
regulator ( boost configuration) +
I
S
L

IS
-

IL IL
N1 L L
VS + V
S
+ +

E VL
1 VL
I
1
- -
-
SL
- -
SL

Preventive IS
autoxfmr N2
+

Type B step-down voltage S R S

E2
+
regulator ( buck configuration) +
I
S
I2 L
IS
-

IL IL
N1 L L
VS + V
S
+ I +
1
E VL
1 VL

Note the position of the switch - -

-
SL
inside the dotted circle - -
SL
Voltage and current equations

aR=regulator ratio
 Voltage and current equations

aR=regulator ratio
 Regulator Rating & Size
 Step voltage regulators differ from standard
autotransformers in that they are rated on the 2-winding
transformer basis rather than the autotransformer basis.
They are rated on the kVA transformed rather than the
kVA passed through.

 Step voltage regulators sizes ranges from 25 to 833 kVA

for single-phase regulators and from 500 to 2000 kVA for
three-phase regulators.

 Their available voltage rating various from 2,400 to

19,920 V and are used on distribution system with voltage
ratings ranging from 2,400 to 34,500 V.
 Example 1
 In the following boost regulator (Type B), assume we need
1000 kVA of flow-through capacity. What should be the
capacity of the regulator if the turns ratio is
nt=N2/N1=1/11?

IS
Preventive
autoxfmr N2
I2 +

S R S
E2
L +
+
I
S IS
-

IL IL
N1 L L
VS + V
S
+ +

E VL
1 VL
I
1
- -
-
SL
- -
SL
 Example 1-Solution
The input voltage is
1 1
VS  E1  E2  E2  E2  E2 (  1)
nt nt
The autotransformer will need to carry
1 1
Sauto  VS I S  E 2 I S (  1)  S xfmr (  1)
nt nt
With Sauto=1000 kVA, then we need:
Sauto 1000
S xfmr    100kVA
1 11  1
(  1)
nt
The voltage transformation in this case?
VL E1 1 1 1 11
      1.1
V S E1  E 2 N 1 10 / 11 10
1 2 1
N1 11
 Regulator Ratio (aR)

This is a ratio of 1/11, which was

the ratio used in example 1
 Voltage Regulation Per Step
 Most regulators today will have 32 steps for ±10%
regulation, with 16 steps in either direction.
 Since 16 steps provides 10% boost (or buck), then a single
step will result in a voltage change of 1/16 of 10%, which
is:
1 25 5 5
10%  %  % , or % per step
16 28 8 8
 Since “% voltage” is “pu voltage” x100, the pu voltage
change per step is
5 1
  0.00625
8 100
So, we obtain 0.00625 pu voltage change per step.
 Voltage Regulation Control
 The tap changing is controlled by a Line Drop Compensator
(LDC) circuit
 LDC actuating a voltage relay with time delay which drives
motor operating circuit controlling a motor to push up and
down the taps as needed
Preventive
Autotransformer

R Reversing
S Switch
+ Series L
Winding

L
VSource +
Control
CT
Motor operating Shunt Control
circuit Winding PT VLoad LDC

- -

SL

Time-
delay Voltage
relay relay
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

 Three-phase Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC)
 Voltage regulator located in the substations or on a feeder are used
to keep the voltage constant at a fictitious regulation, or regulating
point regard to the magnitude or power factor of the load.

 The regulation point is usually selected to be somewhere between

the regulator and the end of the feeder.

 This automatic voltage maintenance is achieved by dial setting of

the adjustable resistance and reactance elements of a unit called the
line-drop compensator (LDC) located on the control panel of the
voltage regulator.

 Determination of the appropriate dial setting depends upon

whether or not any load is tapped off the feeder between the
regulator and the regulation point.
 Line Drop Compensation Circuit
 Without line drop compensation (LDC), a voltage
regulator will control the voltage at its own location.
However, it is typical that we desire to control the voltage
at a location downstream from the voltage regulator, i.e.,
at the far-end of the feeder.
kVA rating Vsend Vload
kVhi - kVlow
I line CTp:CTs Rline + jXline

I comp Load
R X
LDC side
1:1
+ V drop - Relay side
+ +
kVlow:120v V reg Vrelay Voltage
-
Relay
-

Line drop compensator circuit

 LDC Operation
With reference to LDC circuit, the LDC operation can be summurized as:
 Choose the potential transformer (PT) to give a 120 V nominal voltage
on the relay side. So when substation low side voltage is kVlow (rated
voltage), Vreg=120. Thus, if we choose the line-to-neutral voltage
kVlow as base voltage on feeder side, then 120 V is base voltage on
relay side. In per-unit, Vsend=Vreg.
 Because the isolation transformer between relay side and LDC side is
1:1, the voltage base on the LDC side is also 120 V.
 The voltage relay draws no current, it only monitors voltage.
Therefore, the current through the isolation transformer is zero.
 Choose the current transformer (CT) to have current rating of
CTp:CTs, where CTp is usually chosen as rated feeder current.
 The drop across the 1:1 isolation transformer, Vdrop, equals the drop
across the LDC impedance R+jX.
 If R and X are chosen so that they are, in per-unit, equal to
Rline+jXline in per-unit, then (Vsend-Vload)=Vdrop.
 LDC Operation
Solve the last relation for Vload, we have, in per-unit,
Vload=Vsend-Vdrop
Note from the relay circuit that
Vrelay=Vreg-Vdrop
However, in per-unit,
Vsend=Vreg.
we conclude that, in per-unit,
Vrelay=Vload
 Because we want to maintain load voltage between 114 and 126, we
could set the voltage relay to actuate when it sees voltage drop below 120
V ( since the relay voltage Vrelay=120V).
 LDC Circuit Design
 By “design the LDC circuit,” we mean we need to choose appropriate
values of LDC resistance R and reactance X.
 Key is to choose a consistent set of bases for the per-unitization. Table 3
summarizes this consistent set of bases.

 In what follows, we will assume that we know the feeder impedance, and it
is denoted in ohms as RlineΩ+jXlineΩ.
 LDC Circuit Design, cont
The per unit value of the (feeder and LDC) impedance is given by
Rline  jX line
Rpu  jX pu 
Z base , L
With Zbase,L as given in Table 3:
Rline  jX line CTp
Rpu  jX pu 
VLN , rated

Now we want the ohmic value of the compensator impedance. This is obtained
by multiplying the per-unit value by the LDC-side impedance base given in
Table 3
R  jX  Rpu  jX pu Z base , LDC
Rline  jX line CTp 120

VLN , rated CTs
 LDC Circuit Design, cont
To obtain the voltage settings corresponding to the ohmic values of R and X,
we need to multiply by CTs. We denote the corresponding LDC settings using
primed notation, i.e.,

R  jX   R  jX CTs
 R pu  jX pu Z base, LDC CTs
Rline  jX line CT p 120
 CTs
VLN ,rated CTs
120Rline  jX line CT p

VLN ,rated
where,
R  jX   Voltage Settings
 Example 2
A substation transformer is rated 5000 kVA, 115kV:4.16kV, and the
equivalent line impedance from the regulator to the load center is
0.3+j0.9 ohms.
1. Determine the voltage transformer and current transformer ratings
for the compensator circuit.
2. Determine the R and X settings of the compensator in ohms and
volts.
Assume that the phases are balanced, and you are designing the regulator
for a single one of the phases.
 Example 2-Solution
1. PT and CT settings:
PT setting:
The rated line-to-neutral voltage of the substation transformer is
4160
VLN   2401.8 volts
3
CT setting:
The rated current in the feeder is obtained based on
S 5000 103
I rated    693.9
3 (VLL ) 3 (4160)
The primary rating of the CT on the feeder side is selected to be 700 A.
To work with reasonably small current levels in the LDC circuit, we will
choose a CT ratio to give us a rated LDC-side current of CTs=5 A.
Therefore the CT ratio is
CTp/CTs=700/5=140
 Example 2-Solution
2. R and X settings:
The ohmic value of the compensator impedance can be obtained as:

Rline  jX line CT p 120

R  jX 
VLN ,rated CTs


0.3  j 0.9700 120  2.1  j 6.3 
2401.8 5

The voltage settings is obtained by multiplying (R+jX ) by CTs:

R  jX   2.1  j 6.35  10.5  j 31.5 Volt

 Equivalent Line Impedance
 In the previous example, the line impedance was given. If the feeder
radially feeds a single load at the end of the feeder, this impedance
is the actual impedance of the single phase line between the point of
regulation and the load.
 However, if there are multiple taps along the line, then the current at
the sending end does not flow all the way to the load.
 In this case, we use an equivalent impedance computed as if the
sending end current did flow all the way to the load.
 Define the source voltage Vsend, the feeder-end voltage Vload, and
the line current at the source Iline. Then the so-called equivalent line
impedance is given by

Vsend  Vload
Rline  jX line 
I line
 This impedance is NOT the same as the actual line impedance. The
only way to obtain it is to run a power flow without the regulator
and extract the three quantities of the above equation from the
power flow solution.
 Regulator Settings
In addition to the load drop compensator impedance
values, there are three other important regulator settings
 Set voltage: The desired output of the regulator. It is the
voltage level that the regulator tries to hold, and is a
setting of the voltage relay. (The voltage relay is the
receiver of the intelligence from the circuit in which the
regulator is located, and it initiates operation of the tap-
changer).
 Bandwidth: In order to prevent continuous tap-changing,
(and therefore increase the regulator life), the voltage
relay does not actuate until the difference between the
set and measured voltage exceeds half the bandwidth.
Settings of 1.5, 2, and 2.5 volts are common for ±10%,
32 step regulators. If set voltage is 120 volts and
bandwidth is 2 volts, the regulator will change taps until
load voltage lies between 119-121 volts.
 Regulator Settings, cont.
 Time delay: In order to prevent tap changing during a transient or
short-time change in current, and therefore reduce the frequency of
tap changing, a time delay relay is inserted between the voltage
relay and the motor operating circuit. Typical time delays are 30 to
60 seconds.
 The following figure illustrates the above 3 settings:
 Example 3
The substation transformer of Example 2 is supplying 2500 kVA at 4.16
kV (L-L) and 0.9 pf lag. The line-drop compensator impedance was set
as computed in Example 2, i.e., R+jX=2.1+j6.3 ohms. The set voltage is
120 volts and the bandwidth is 2 volts.
• Determine the regulator tap position that will hold the load center
voltage at the desired voltage level and within the bandwidth.

So, the tap on the regulator needs to be set so that the voltage at the load
center lies between 119 and 121 volts .
 Example 3-Solution
Again we assume the phases are balanced and we are designing a
regulator for one of the phases.
Our approach is to compute the voltage seen by the voltage relay
assuming no voltage regulator action, and then to compute the
minimum number of tap changes necessary to move the voltage to either
119 (if it is below) or 121 (if it is above).
The first step is to compute the actual line current. Assuming the VLN is
taken as a reference, the line current is given by
S3 2500 103
I line     cos 0.9  346.97  25.84
3VLL 3 (4160)
Now this can be used to obtain the compensator current via use of the CT
ratio, which is CTp/CTs=700/5=140. Therefore:
5
I comp  346.97  25.84  2.4783  25.84
700
 Example 4-Solution
The L-N voltage at the transformer low side is given by :
4160
VLN  0  2401.80 volts
3
Then the regulator voltage is transformer by the PT ratio, which is
2401.8:120, therefore the compensator voltage is 120 volts.
The drop across the compensator impedance is:
Vdrop  I comp R  jX 
 2.4783  25.842.1  j 6.3  16.45845.72
The relay voltage is:
Vrelay  Vreg  Vdrop
120  16.45845.72  109.24  6.19
Now we need at least 119 volts !!!!
 Example 4-Solution
Using the 5/8% per step
(5/8)%*120= 0.00625*120=0.75 volts/step.
Therefore we will need to move an amount of steps given by
119  109.24
Tap   13.02  13 Steps
0.75
We can get the regulator ratio:
aR  1  0.00625(Tap )  1  .00625(13)  0.9188
 Three-phase Voltage Regulators
 Three-phase regulators may be obtained by interconnecting 3
single-phase regulators.
 There are four different ways in use for connecting single phase
regulators for three-phase circuit regulation. They are:
– Three regulators connected in grounded-Y
– Three regulators connected in closed delta.
– Two regulators connected in “open-wye” (sometimes also called “V”
phase)
– Two regulators connected in open delta
 In all of these cases, each regulator has its own compensator circuit
controlling the voltage corresponding to its corresponding voltage
only. Therefore, the taps on each regulator are changed separately.
 We will only be discussing the most common of these, the
grounded-Y configuration
Three-phase Grounded-Y Regulator
B IB

Ia
a
A IA

+
V + Ib
An Van b
-
-

Ic
c

C IC
 Three-phase Grounded-Y Regulator
 The following equations may be developed for the three-phase grounded-
Y regulator:
 1 
 0 0 
VAn  aRa 0 0  Van   I A   a Ra I a 
V    0 aRb 0  Vbn  I    0 1
0   I b 
 Bn    B  a Rb 
VCn   0 aRc  Vcn   I C    
1   I c 
0
 0 0
 aRc 
Or in condensed form:

VLN ABC   [a][VLN abc ]  [b][ I abc ]

I ABC   [c][VLN abc ]  [d ][ I abc ]
 Three-phase Grounded-Y Regulator
where,

aRa 0 0  0 0 0 
[a]   0 aRb 0  [c]  0 0 0
 0 0 aRc  0 0 0

 1 
 0 0 
0 0 0   aRa 
[b]  0 0 0 [d ]   0 0 
1
 aRb 
0 0 0  1 
 0 0
 aRc 
 Three-phase Grounded-Y Regulator
 The above model provides that the regulator ratio for each
phase may be different.
 It is also possible to have all three regulators using the same
phase voltages and current for input control signals in which
case the 3 regulators will always be changed by the same
number of taps.
 Finally, there is also available and in use the so-called three-
phase regulator (in contrast to three interconnected single
phase regulators). The three phase regulator is gang-operated
so that the taps on all windings change the same and, as a
result, only one compensator circuit is required.
 In either of the previous two cases, it is up to the engineer to
decide which phase current and voltage will be sampled by
the compensator circuit.
 Definitions of Terms.

 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards.

 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Control).

 Distribution Transformers.

 Autotransformers.

 Step-Voltage Regulators.

 Line Drop Compensators (LDC).

 Voltage Regulators Data and Ratings Calculations.

LTC and Feeder Voltage Regulators Data
 The voltage regulation relay VRR is adjustable from 110 to 125 V.
It measures the primary distribution bus voltage by means of the
line drop compensator LDC.

 The LDC has R and X setting which are both adjustable within the
range from 0 to 24 .

 The bandwidth (BW) of the VRR is adjustable within the

approximate range from  5/8 to  1.5 V based on 120 V.

 The time delay (TD) is adjustable between about 10 and 120 s.

 The location of the regulating point (RP) is controlled by the R and

X setting of the LDC. Example: If R and X are zeros, the regulator
regulates the voltage at its local terminal to the setting of the VRR
 BW.
 Voltage Regulators Ratings
Calculations
 The ratings of voltage regulators can be determined using the
following rules: [10]

– Rated regulating range = Desired percentage regulation (10%) x

system rated voltage (kV).

– Single-phase feeder-voltage regulator rating (in kVA) = Rated

regulating range x Load rating amperes (A).

– Three-phase feeder-voltage regulator rating (in kVA) = 3 x Rated

regulating range x Load rating amperes (A).
 Some Typical Single-phase Regulator Sizes [3]
Single-Phase Voltage Current
CTP* PTN*
kVA V A
25 2500 100 100 20
: : : : :
: : : : :
125 2500 500 500 20
38.1 7620 50 50 63.5
57.2 7620 75 75 63.5

76.2 7620 100 100 63.5

114.3 7620 150 150 63.5

167 7620 219 250 63.5

250 7620 328 400 63.5

CTP* Ratio of the current transformers contained within the regulator (The ratio is the high voltage side ampere rating
because the low voltage side rating is 1 A).
PTN* Ratio of the potential transformers contained within the regulator (All potential transformers secondaries are 120 V).
 References
[[1] W.H. Kersting, Distribution System Modeling and Analysis, CRC Press, 2002.

[2] T.A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, CRC Press, 2004.

[3] T. Gőnen, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986.

[4] Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book- Distribution
Systems, vol. 3, East Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965.

[5] E. Lakervi and E.J. Holmes, “Electricity Distribution Network Design”, IEE Press, London, England,
1998.

[6] American National Standards for Single-Phase Distribution Transformers, ANSI C57.12.20-1964.

[7] IEEE C57.12.00-2000, IEEE Standard General Requirement for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power,
and Regulating Transformers.

[8] IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Step-Voltage and Induction-Voltage
Regulators, ANSI/IEEE C57.15-1986, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York,
1988.

[9] American National Standards for Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and Equipment, ANSI
C84.1-1977.

[10] J.J. Burke “ Power Distribution Engineering: Fundamental and Applications”, Marcel Dekker Co.,
New York, 1994.