Simplified Analysis

( Voltage Drop and Power Loss Calculations)

20-Feb-21 1
 Objectives
Introducing the main definitions and terms regarding system voltages.
Presenting the different standards for voltage ratings and different
voltage levels.
Explaining the general methods for calculating the voltage drops and k-
factors.
Explaining how the voltage drop and power loss are determined for
uniformly distributed loads
Discussing the concept of geometric patterns and service areas and how
the loads are lumped in these geometric configurations

20-Feb-21 2
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas

20-Feb-21 3
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped Load
Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
20-Feb-21 4
 Introduction
 One of the essential responsibility of the distribution company is to
deliver electric energy to the consumer within suitable voltage
ranges.
 Some questions arise:
– What does “voltage seen by the customer” mean to the distribution
company?
– What does “acceptable range” mean?

20-Feb-21 5
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped
Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
20-Feb-21 6
 Definitions of Terms
 From American National Standards Institute ANSI C84.1-1995 Standard:

 System Voltage: “The root mean square (rms) phasor voltage of a portion of
an alternating current electric system. Each system voltage pertains to a
portion of the system that is bounded by transformers or utilization
equipments”.

 Nominal System Voltage: “The voltage by which a portion of the system is

designated, and to which certain operating characteristics of the system are
related. Each nominal system voltage pertains to a portion of the system
bounded by transformers or utilization equipments”.

 Maximum System Voltage: “The highest system voltage that occurs under
normal operating conditions, and the highest system voltage for which
equipment and other components are designed for satisfactory continuous
operation without derating of any kind”.
20-Feb-21 7
 Definitions of Terms, cont’d
 Service Voltage: “The point where the electrical systems of the supplier and the
user are interconnected. This is normally at the meter”. Maintaining acceptable
service voltage is the distribution company’s responsibility.

 Utilization Voltage: “The voltage at the line terminals of utilization equipment.

This voltage is the facility’s responsibility. Equipment manufacturers should design
equipment which operates satisfactorily within the given limits”.

 Nominal Utilization Voltage: “The voltage rating of certain utilization equipment

used on the system”.

 Rated Voltage: “The voltage at which the performance and operating

characteristics of apparatus are referred”.

20-Feb-21 8
 Definitions of Terms, cont’d
Voltage Drop: “The difference between the sending-end and the
receiving-end voltage of the line”.

Base Voltage: “The reference voltage, usually 120 V”.

Maximum Voltage: “The largest 5 min average voltage”.

Minimum Voltage: “The smallest 5 min voltage”.

Voltage Spread: “The difference between the maximum and minimum

voltages, without voltage dips due to motor starting”

20-Feb-21 9
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas

20-Feb-21 10
 Voltage Levels Standards
 ANSI C84.1-1995 Standard defines two voltage ranges:

 Range A: Electric systems should be designed to operate within the limits specified
by this range. Operation at voltage levels outside these limits should be uncommon.

 Range B: This range includes voltage levels above and below those specified by
range A. Operation within voltage limits in this range should be corrected and
improved within minimum time to meet those specified by range A.

 Range A defines normal steady-state voltages; Range B defines emergency voltages.

20-Feb-21 11
 Voltage Levels Standards, cont’d
 The following table gives a summary of ANSI C84.1-1995 Range A and Range B voltage limits
for low voltage systems. The standard also provides similar data for medium voltage systems
(2.4kV-34.5 kV).

20-Feb-21 12
 Voltage Levels Standards, cont’d
 The requirement to remember for a standard 115 nominal voltage
circuit is that the voltage at the meter must lie between 114-126V for
Range A & 110-127V for Range B

 In addition, ANSI C84.1-1995 standard recommends that the “electric

supply systems should be designed and operated to limit the maximum
voltage unbalance to 3% when measured at the electric utility revenuer
meter under a no-load condition.”

| Maximum deviation from average |

Vunbalance =  100%
Vaverage

20-Feb-21 13
 Voltage Levels Standards, cont’d
This table summarizes some problems caused by out of range voltages.

Effect of low Effect of high

Device voltage voltage
Incandescent Low efficiency Shorter life
lighting (less light)
Fluorescent Poor starting Shorter life
lighting
Resistive Not enough heat Shorter life
heating
Induction May not start. Excessive
motors Draws more starting torque
current when that may
running, damage load.
overheating.
20-Feb-21 14
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped
Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
20-Feb-21 15
 Exact Voltage Drop
Vs = Vr + IZ
Vs (cos  + j sin  ) = Vr + I (cos  − j sin )( R + jX )

Vr = Vs (cos δ + j sin δ ) − I (cos θ − j sin θ )( R + jX )

Vs Vr
The voltage drop down the line is defined as the Z = R + jX
I
difference between the magnitudes of the source and
P
the load voltages (sending end & receiving end) Q
l Load
Pr + jQr
Vdrop = | V s | − | Vr | The primary feeder main

Vs

δ IZ
θ VR jIX

I IR 16
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped
Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
17
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor
Vs = Vr + IZ
Vs (cos  + j sin  ) = Vr + I (cos  − j sin )( R + jX )
In a typical distribution circuits Vs Vr
Z = R + jX
I
0   4
o o
assume  0 P
Vs = Vs (cos  )
Q
l Load
Pr + jQr
Vdrop = Vs − Vr = I ( R + jX ) The primary feeder main

Only real part is considered Vs = Vr + IR cos θ + IX sin θ

Vdrop = Vs − Vr = IR cos θ + IX sin θ Vs

δ IZ Im(ZI)

Vdrop = VS − VR  ReZI  θ VR
Real(ZI)
jIX
IR
I
 Voltage Drop Calculation Using
(K-Factor)
Kdrop = % Voltage Drop per KVA per mile at specific power factor

Percent voltage drop

K drop =
kVA . mile

The Kdrop is determined by computing the percent voltage drop down

a line that is one mile long and serving a balanced three phase load of
1 kVA.

20-Feb-21 19
 Example 1
The impedance for one mile of distribution line is
Z=0.306+j0.6272 . Compute the %voltage drop using
the approximate method and the Kdrop factor method
assuming a load power factor of 0.9 lagging, 7500 kVA
load and a nominal line to line voltage = 12.47 kV, if
the total length of the line is 1.5 mile.

20-Feb-21 20
 Example 1, Solution
Approximate Method

7500 kVA
I=  − cos −1 (0.9) = 347.25 − 25.84 A
3kVLL
Vdrop = Re{ZI }
= Re347.25 − 25.84  (0.306 + j 0.6272 )1.5
= 286 V
286 100
%Vdrop = = 3.97%
12470 / 3

20-Feb-21 21
 Example 1, Solution
Kdrop factor Method

1 kVA
I=  − cos −1 (0.9) = 0.0463 − 25.84 A
3kVLL

Vdrop= Re0.0463 − 25.84  (0.306 + j 0.6272) = 0.025408V

0.025408 100
K drop = = 0.00035291 % drop/kVA.mile
12470 / 3

%Vdrop = K drop  kVA  mile = 0.0.00035291 75001.5 = 3.97%

20-Feb-21 22
 Voltage Drop Calculation Using
(K-Factor)
The Kdrop computed in the last example is for certain
conductor and certain phase spacing.
Unique Kdrop factors can be determined for all standard
conductors, spacing and voltages.
Usually utility companies will have a set of standard
conductors, spacing and one or two standard distribution
voltage.

20-Feb-21 23
 Example 2

The Kdrop factor for the line segment is 0.00035291, determine

the voltage drop from N1 to N4.

1.5 mile 0.75 mile 0.5 mile

300 kVA 750 kVA 500 kVA

20-Feb-21 24
 Example 2, Solution
The total kVA flowing in segment N1 to N2 is:
kVA1− 2 = 300 + 750 + 500 = 1550 kVA
The percent voltage drop from N1 to N2 is:
Vdrop1−2 = 0.00035291 1550 1.5 = 0.821%

The total kVA flowing in segment N2 to N3 is:

kVA2−3 = 750 + 500 = 1250 kVA

The percent voltage drop from N2 to N3 is:

Vdrop 2−3 = 0.00035291 1250  0.75 = 0.3308%

20-Feb-21 25
 Example 2, Solution
The total kVA flowing in segment N3 to N4 is:
kVA3− 4 = 500 kVA
The percent voltage drop from N3 to N4 is:

Vdrop3−4 = 0.00035291 500  0.5 = 0.0882%

Vdroptotal = 0.8205 + 0.3308 + 0.0882 = 1.2396%

20-Feb-21 26
 Example 3
Consider the single-phase Lateral serving two transformers and 12 customers
1 2 67kW 3

28.2kW T1 T2 49.6kW
N FD N FD
1 1 11 2.67
12.4 kW 17kW 2 1.6 12 2.7
3 1.8 13 2.74
Demand for customer on T1 = 12.4 kW 4 2.1 14 2.78
Diversity factor for 5 customers DF5=2.2 5 2.2 15 2.8
=> T1 demand= 5*12.4/2.2 = 28.2 kW 6 2.3 16 2.82
7 2.4 17 2.84
Demand for customer on T2 = 17 kW 8 2.55 18 2.86

Diversity factor for 7 customers DF7=2.4 9 2.6 19 2.88

1 2.65 20 2.9
=> T2 demand= 7*17/2.4 = 49.6 kW

Ignoring transformer/feeder loss, Lateral 2-3 sees 12 customers

DF12 = 2.7 => lateral 2-3 demand = (5*12.4+7*17)/2.7= 67 kW
 Example 3, cont’d
Transformer sizing
1 2 67kW 3

37.5 KVA T1 T2 75 KVA

T1 demand 28.2 kW at 0.9 pf => 28.2/0.9 = 31 KVA

Select 37.5 KVA transformer

Utilization factor = 31/37.5 = 83%

T2 demand 49.6 kW at 0.9 pf => 55 KVA

Select 75 KVA transformer

 Example 3, cont’d
1 2 67kW 3

37.5 KVA T1 T2 75 KVA

Lateral demand = 67 kW

Total transformer KVA = 112.5 KVA

T1 demand = 67*37.5/112.5 = 22 kW ( DF method gives 28 kW)

T2 demand = 67* 75/112.5 = 45 kW ( DF method gives 50 kW)
 Example 3, cont’d
Next, estimate the service (secondary) voltage given that V3=1pu

300’ 750’
z1=0.3+j0.6Ω/1000’ z1=0.3+j0.6Ω/1000’
2 3
1
2400/240V 2400/240V
Z=2%, X/R=1 Z=2%, X/R=1
 Example 3, cont’d
so, to calculate the voltage drop we need the impedance diagram

300’ 750’
z1=0.3+j0.6Ω/1000’ z1=0.3+j0.6Ω/1000’
2 3
1
2400/240V 2400/240V
Z=2%, X/R=1 Z=2%, X/R=1
 Example 3, cont’d

1 2 67kW 3

28.2kW T1 T2
49.6kW

12.4kW

231.6 V ( 2.2% drop) 235.5 V ( 1.9% drop)

 K constant curves for copper conductors with 0.9
lagging power factor

20-Feb-21 33
 Example 4

 A three-phase 4.16 kV feeder, determine the constant Kdrop of the

feeder:
I P, Q
kVL-L = 4.16
Load
Z = R + jX Pr, Qr = 500 kVA, 0.9 pf lag
Vs Vr
s = l = 1 mi
#4 copper, Dm = 37"

The percentage voltage drop per kVA.mi can also be determined from the
k-constant Figure

20-Feb-21 34
 Example 4, Solution
 By using the K constant curves.

%Vdrop = length (mi )  K  kVA

%Vdrop = 1.0mi  0.1%  500 = 5.0%

20-Feb-21 35
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped
Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
20-Feb-21 36
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
 Many times it can be assumed that the loads are uniformly distributed.
 When this is the case, there is no need to model each load, otherwise it will be a
lengthy procedure.
 The following figure shows a generalized line with n uniformly distributed loads
(equaly spaced and rated).

IT
dx dx dx dx dx
1 2 3 4 n

di di di di di di

20-Feb-21 37
 Uniformly Distributed Loads

 What feeder ( voltage, conductor) do I need to limit last customer’s

voltage drop to 3%?
 What is the power loss?
 Is there a ‘lumped’ model I can use for power flow ?

20-Feb-21 38
 Voltage Drop Calculations
IT
di =
n
Vdrop1 = Rez.dx.(n.di )
Vdrop 2 = Rez.dx.(n − 1).di 
Vdrop total = Vdrop1 + Vdrop 2 + ... + Vdrop n
= Rez.dx.di.n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + ... + 1
IT
dx dx dx dx dx
1 2 3 4 n

di di di di di di

20-Feb-21 39
 Voltage Drop Calculations, cont’d
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2
  n.(n + 1)  
Vdrop total = Re  z.dx.di.  
  2 
 l I  n.(n + 1)  
Vdrop total = Re  z. . T .  
 n n  2 
1  1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z .1 +  
2  n 

If n goes to infinity, then

1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z 
2 

20-Feb-21 40
 Voltage Drop Calculations, cont’d
1 
The voltage drop equation Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z 
2 
Can be interpreted in two ways
L
Model no. 1
L/2
n
IT

Model no. 2
L
n

IT/2 IT/2
20-Feb-21 41
 Power Loss Calculations
L
L/2
n
IT
R 3 2
= 3.I T . = .I T .R
2
Ploss
2 2

L
n

IT/2 IT/2

2
 IT  3 2
Ploss = 3.  .R = .I T .R
2 4
20-Feb-21 42
 Power Loss Calculations, cont’d
 It is evident from the previous slide that each model gave different
power loss and hence non of them is correct.
 So a new model needs to be derived.
 The model will be derived from the previous figure.

IT
dx dx dx dx dx
1 2 3 4 n

di di di di di di

20-Feb-21 43
 Power Loss Calculations, cont’d
Ploss1 = 3.(r.dx).(n.di) 2
Ploss 2 = 3.(r.dx).(n − 1).di 
2


Plosstotal = 3.(r.dx).di 2 n 2 + (n − 1) 2 + (n − 2) 2 + ... + 12 
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
but
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2 2 2

dx dx dx dx dx
IT 1 2 3 4 n

di di di di di di
20-Feb-21 44
 Power Loss Calculations, cont’d
 l  I T   n.(n + 1).(2n + 1) 
2
So Plosstotal = 3. r.    
 n   
n 6 
 2n 2 + 3n + 1
= 3.R.I T 
2
Plosstotal 2 
 6 .n 

1 1 1 
= 3.R.I T  + + 2
2
Plosstotal
 3 2n 6n 

dx dx dx dx dx
IT 1 2 3 4 n

di di di di di di
20-Feb-21 45
 Power Loss Calculations, cont’d
So if we have truly uniformly distributed load, the number n will go to
infinity and hence:

1 2
Plosstotal = 3 .R.I T 
3 

IT
n

L/3
IT

20-Feb-21 46
 The Lumped Load Model
From the previous discussion, it is clear that the same model can’t
be used for both voltage drop and power loss.

Vdroptotal = k.Z .IT + (1 − k ).Z .c.IT  (1)

Also, it was shown that:

1 
Vdroptotal =  .Z .I T  (2)
2 

IT
n

kL (1-k)L
IX cIT
20-Feb-21 47
 The Exact Lumped Load Model
Equating equations (1) and (2)

1 
2 .Z . I T  = k .Z .I T + (1 − k ).Z .c.I T 
 
0.5 − c
k= (3)
1− c

IT
n

kL (1-k)L
IX cIT
20-Feb-21 48
 The Exact Lumped Load Model
The same procedure can be followed for power loss calculations.


Plosstotal = 3. k .R. I T + (1 − k ).R.(c.I T )
2 2
 (4)

1 2
Also Plosstotal = 3. R. I T  (5)
3 
L

IT
n

kL (1-k)L
IX cIT
20-Feb-21 49
 The Exact Lumped Load Model
Equating equations 4 and 5

1
3

. R. I
2
T 

= k.R. I T
2
+ (1 − k ).R.(c. I T )2

1  0.5 − c 2
= .(1 − c ) + c 
2
(6)
3  1− c 
L

IT
n

kL (1-k)L
IX cIT
20-Feb-21 50
 The Exact Lumped Load Model
Solving equations 3 and 6

1 1
c= And k=
3 4

IT
n

(1/4)L (3/4)L
(2/3)IT (1/3)IT

20-Feb-21 51
 Outlines
 Introduction
 Definitions of Terms.
 Voltage Levels Standards.
 Voltage Drop Calculation
 Approximate Voltage Drop and K-Factor Data
– Approximate Voltage Drop
– K-Factor
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
– Voltage Drop Calculations
– Power Loss Calculations.
– Voltage Drop and Power Loss Using the Exact Lumped
Load Model
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
20-Feb-21 52
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas
Many feeders can be represented by geometric configurations
such as rectangles, triangles and trapezoids.
For each configuration, a constant load density (kVA/mile2)
will be assumed.
This will lead to approximate calculations of the voltage drop
and power losses.
Using the approximate calculations, the maximum load that
can be served in specified area at a given voltage level and
conductor size can be determined.

20-Feb-21 53
 Geometric Patterns and Service Areas, cont’d
 For all the geographical areas to be evaluated,
the following definitions will apply:
D=load density in kVA/mile2
PF= assumed laging power factor
z=line impedance in Ω/mile
l=length of the area
w=width of the area
kVLL=nominal line to line voltage in kV

20-Feb-21 54
 The Rectangle Area
The feeder runs from point n to m.
The area has a constant load density = D
It is required to find the total voltage drop from point n to m and the
power losses.

dx
0.5 di
IT
n i m
X W
0.5 di

L
20-Feb-21 55
 The Rectangle Area
D.l.w IT
IT =  − cos −1 ( PF ) di =
3kVLL l
IT  x
i = I T − x.di = I T − x. = I T .1 − 
l  l
  x 
dV = Re( z.i.dx) = Re  z.I T .1 − .dx 
  l 
dx
0.5 di
IT
n i m
X W
0.5 di

L
20-Feb-21 56
 The Rectangle Area
l
l   x  
Vdrop =  dV = Re    z.IT .1 − .dx  
0 0   l  
 1  1 
Vdrop = Re  z.I T . .l  = Re  .Z .I T 
 2  2 

dx
0.5 di
IT
n i m
X W
0.5 di

L
20-Feb-21 57
 The Rectangle Area
2  2  x
2
 2  x
2

dp = 3. i .r.dx = 3. I T .1 −  .r.dx  = 3.r. I T .1 −  .dx

  l   l
2  x x2  1 2
l l
Ploss =  dp = 3.r. I T . 1 − 2. + 2 .dx = 3. .R. I T 
0 0
l l  3 

dx
0.5 di
IT
n i m
X W
0.5 di

L
20-Feb-21 58
 Example 5
Feeder formed by using 336,400 26/7 ACSR conductors constructed on 45-ft. poles
with 8-ft. cross-arms. The spacing of the conductors on the cross-arms are 2.5 ft., 4.5
ft., and 7.0 ft. The feeder is supplying 10 loads, 500kVA each at 0.9 lagging power
factor.
Assume that the line segment is transposed and balanced.
1. Determine the percent voltage drop to the last load point and the total three-phase
power loss for the feeder shown in the Figure above.
2. Lump the total feeder load at the midpoint of the feeder and compute the percent
voltage drop to the end of the feeder.
3. Use the exact lumped load model and compute the percent voltage drop to the end of
the line, and the total three phase power loss down the line

59
20-Feb-21
60
 Solution of Example 5

A three-phase line segment has the configuration as shown in

Figure 2. The spacing between conductors are:
Dab = 2.5 ft., Dbc = 4.5 ft., Dca = 7.0 ft.
Since the line segments are assumed to be transposed than
only the positive sequence impedance of the line segment
needs to be determined.
The equation for the phase impedance for the configuration
shown in the Figure is given by

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61
 Solution of Example 5

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62
20-Feb-21
63
 Solution of Example 5

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64
 Solution of Example 5

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65
 Solution of Example 5

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66
 Solution of Example 5

1  1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z .1 +  
2  n 
1 1 1 
= 3.R.I T  + + 2
2
Plosstotal
 3 2n 6n 

67
 Solution of Example 5
For n= 10
1  1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .l.Z .1 +   = 198.33 V l =0.95 mile
2  n 

Power loss
2 1 1 1 
Plosstotal = 3.R.I T  + + 2  = 161.165 kW
 3 2n 6n  68
 Solution of Example 5

The uniform feeder can be represented by the following spot loads for voltage and
power loss calculation.
1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z 
2 

1 2
Plosstotal = 3 .R.I T 
3 

20-Feb-21 69
 Solution of Example 5

1 1
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Re . 𝐼𝑇 . 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑙 (𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝑋 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃))
2 2

Z is the total impedance of the feeder

θ is the power factor angle

70
Solution of Example 5

71
 Solution of Example 5
Part 2:

If the load is lumped at the center of the feeder than the equivalent
spot load representation of the feeder load is given by:,

1 
Vdrop total = Re  .I T .Z 
2 
72
Solution of Example 5

73
 Solution of Example 5

Part 3:

1 1
c= And k=
3 4

74
 Solution of Example 5

75
76
 Example 6
It is proposed to serve a rectangular area of length 10,000 ft and width
of 6000 ft. The load density of the area is 2500 kVA/mile2 with a power
factor of 0.9 lagging. The primary main feeder uses 336,400 26/2 ACSR
(Z=0.306+j0.6272 /mile) on a pole as per the following figure. What
is the minimum standard voltage level (4.16, 12.47, 28 kV) can be used
to serve this area without exceeding a voltage drop of 3%. The choices
of nominal voltages are 4.16 and 12.47 kV. Compute also the power
loss.

2.5 ft 4.5 ft
20-Feb-21 77
 Example 6, solution
The impedance of the line is:

Z = 0.306 + j0.627
mile
The length (L) and width (W) of the area in miles are:

10,000 6,000
L= = 1.8939 miles W= = 1.1364 miles
5280 5280

The total area (A) of the rectangular area is:

A = L  W = 2.1522 miles 2

20-Feb-21 78
 Example 6, solution
The total load of the area is:

kVA = D  A = 2500 2.1522 = 5380.6kVA

The total impedance of the line is:

Z = z  L = (0.306 + j 0.627 )1.894 = 0.579 + j1.188 

For a nominal voltage of 4.16 kV, the total current is:

5380.6 − cos −1 (0.9)

IT = = 746.7 − 25.84 A
3  4.16

20-Feb-21 79
 Example 6, solution
The total voltage drop is:
1
Vdrop =  Z  I T = 493.638.2 V
2
The percentage voltage drop is:
Vdrop 493.6 100
%Vdrop = = = 20.55%
VLN 4160 / 3

It is clear that the nominal voltage of 4.16 kV will not

meet the criteria of a voltage drop less than 3%.
We will move now to the next voltage level, i.e. 12.47 kV.

20-Feb-21 80
 Example 6, solution
For a nominal voltage of 12.47 kV, the total current is:

5380.6 − cos −1 (0.9)

IT = = 249.1 − 25.84 A
3 12.47
The total voltage drop is:
1
Vdrop =  Z  I T = 164.6638.2 V
2
The percentage voltage drop is:

Vdrop 164.66 100

%Vdrop = = = 2.29%  3%
VLN 12470 / 3

The required design criteria has been met.

20-Feb-21 81
 The Triangle Area
1 D. Area
Area = .l.w IT =  − cos −1 ( PF )
2 3kVLL
IT IT 2.I T
Let di = = = A / mile2

Area 1 .l.w l.w

2
w
i = I T − A1.di w1 = x.
l
dx
0.5 di
IT
n w1 i m
W
0.5 di
X
L
20-Feb-21 82
 The Triangle Area
1 1  w 1 w 2
A1 = x.w1 = .x. x.  = . .x
2 2  l  2 l

1 w 2 2   x2 
i = I T −  . .x . .I T  = I T .1 − 2 
2 l   l.w   l 

dx
0.5 di
IT
n w1 i m
W
0.5 di
X
L
20-Feb-21 83
 The Triangle Area
The voltage drop in the incremental line segment is:
  x2  
dv = i.z.dx  =  z.I T .1 − 2 .dx 
  l  
The total voltage drop will be:
l
 l
 x2    2 
Vdrop =  dv =  z.I T . 1 − 2 dx  =  .Z .IT 
 
0  o
l   3 

dx
0.5 di
IT
n w1 i m
W
0.5 di
X
L
20-Feb-21 84
 The Triangle Area
 2 
2 2
x  
dp = 3. i .r.dx = 3. I T .1 − 2  .r.dx 
2

  l  
2  x 
2 4
x
dp = 3.r. I T .1 − 2. 2 + 4 .dx
 l l 
2  x2 x4  8 2
l l
Ploss =  dp = 3.r. I T . 1 − 2. 2 + 4 .dx = 3. .R. I T 
0 0
l l  15 

dx
0.5 di
IT
n w1 i m
W
0.5 di
X
L
20-Feb-21 85
 Voltage drop calculations
The voltage drop can also be calculated for the two different
geometries using the K factor as follows:
a) Rectangle area

1
Vdrop = .K drop .kVA.miles
2

b) Triangle area

2
Vdrop = .K drop .kVA.miles
3

20-Feb-21 86
 Example 7
The triangle area shown in the figure is served by a feeder of
nominal voltage 12.47 kV. The load density is of the area is 3500
kVA/mile2 at a power factor of 0.9 lagging. The feeder configuration
is as per the feeder of Example 3. Use the Kdrop factor method to
calculate the drop at point m.

n m 6000 ft

15,000 ft

20-Feb-21 87
 Example 7, solution
The K factor can be calculated as mentioned in example 2:
1 kVA
I=  − cos −1 (0.9) = 0.463 − 25.84 A
3kVLL
Vdrop = 0.0463 − 25.84  (0.306 + j 0.6272) = 0.032338.15V

0.0323 100
K drop = = 0.000448% drop/kVA.mile
12470 / 3

20-Feb-21 88
 Example 7, solution
The length and width of the triangle in miles is:

15,000 6,000
L= = 2.8409 miles W= = 1.1364 miles
5280 5280

The total area (A) of the triangle area is:

1
A= L  W = 1.6142 miles 2
2

The total load of the triangle area is:

A = 35001.6142 = 5649.5 kVA

20-Feb-21 89
 Example 7, solution

Using the K drop factor and lumping the load at the two thirds point,
the percent voltage drop at node m is

2
Vdrop =  K drop  kVA  miles = 4.79%
3

20-Feb-21 90
 The Trapezoid Area
Trapezoid area of constant load density is shown below

1 D. Area
Area = ( w1 + w2 )  l IT =  − cos −1 ( PF )
2 3kVLL
The current that is delivered to the trapezoid abef is
D. Areax
Ix =  − cos −1 ( PF )
3kVLL
where Areax is the area of the trapezoid abef given by
1
Areax = ( w1 + wx )  x
2 91
 The Trapezoid Area

 w1 + 2w 2 
Vdrop = Re  Z .I T . 
 3( w1 + w 2 ) 
 2 8 w 2 + 9 w1w 2 + 3 w1
2

2

Ploss = 3. R. IT . 
15(w1 + w2 )
2
 

20-Feb-21 92