Module GE 118 ETHICS

Republic of the Philippines
ZAMBOANGA CITY STATE POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Region IX, Zamboanga City
R.T. Lim Boulevard, Baliwasan, Zamboanga City
LEARNING MODULE
GE 118 Date Developed: Document No. ZCSPC-VITALI LM 2020

CODE Issued by: APPROVED
Date Revised:
ZCSPC
ETHICS
Developed by:
COU DERLITA D. AMIG
1|P age
VISION MISSION INSTITUTIONAL CORE VALUES
ZCSPC Provide effective and efficient Love of God;
as the leading provider of
OUTCOMES
services through advance Globally competitive graduates Social Responsibility;
globally – competitive human technological studies and Commitment/
who can perform advanced
resources. researches for the Dedication to the Service; and
technological competencies in their field
empowerment of the nation‘s of specialization. Accountability
human resources.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Zamboanga City State Polytechnic College, the premier higher
education institution in Zamboanga Peninsula, one of the Centers of Development in
Teacher Education Institutions in the country and an ISO accredited institution as
recognized by the Commission on Higher Education. It is our pride and honor, that
you choose ZCSPC as your school of choice.
With the current situation under a NEW NORMAL condition due to COVID19
Pandemic, our school is now trying to find ways and means to provide accessible
and quality tertiary education. It is for this reason that that administration has decided
to offer flexible learning education using two modalities: Blended and Distance
Learning education. In as much as we limit that actual and physical face-to-face
mode of delivery, each college has decide to come up with printed module to cater
those students who cannot avail online learning modalities.
This module has been prepared to guide you in your learning journey with the use of
the Guided and Self-directed learning activities prescribed to finish your course.
Each module includes reading materials that have been chosen to help you
understand the ideas and concepts introduced by the module.
For this semester, your class in GE 118 - ETHICS focuses on understanding and
applying the basic ethical concepts/good moral conduct in daily life for the
betterment of human living. Exercises and assessment of learning activities are
provided to test your comprehension and apply the concepts that you have learned
from this module. After accomplishing all modules, you are expected to do the
following:
1. Recognize the essential concepts of ethics.

2. Develop and apply the basic ethical concepts of moral conduct in their daily
lives for the improvement of human existence.
3. Create awareness on how an individual‘s actions affect the doer, others and
their surroundings.
4. Evaluate how the law of man and nature can be applied in everyday life.
5. Analyze argumentation through the use of logical process and moral
reasoning to specific situations.
6. Evaluate common beliefs about ethics—especially about the role of ethics in
business decisions and general practices in business.
2|P age
HOW TO USE THIS MODULE
This is a self-study module particularly designed to help you study with little or no
intervention from your teacher. Please follow very carefully the instructions on how to
use this module so you can fully benefit from it.
The lessons on this module are logically organized. Every lesson is connected to the
next and necessary for a better understanding of the next topic. Hence, please do
not skip a page. Read every page of this module and do every task that is asked of
you.
Read the Table of Contents so that you will have a good grasp of the entire course.
Having an overview of what you are about to study will help you see the
interrelationships of the concepts or knowledge that you are about to learn.
Every lesson or unit begins with the learning objectives. The objectives are the target
skills or knowledge that you must be able to gain or perform after studying the entire
lesson/unit.
Take the post test, activity or practice exercise given at the end of the lesson or unit.
Do this only when you have thoroughly read the entire lesson or unit. When
answering every activity, test or exercise, please answer them honestly without
looking at the answer key. They answer key is given to you for you to check your
own progress and monitor your own understanding of the lesson. The knowledge
you will gain depends on how much effort and honesty you put into your work.
Please pay attention to the Study Schedule on page 4. This will guide you and make
sure that you don‘t lag behind. Lagging behind will result to cramming and eventually
affects your understanding of the lesson.
Know what it takes to pass the course. Please refer to the Evaluation and Grading
System on page 4 and 5 respectively.
If you encounter difficult words which are not found in the Glossary page of this
module, take some time to locate the meaning of these words in a dictionary. You
will fully understand your lesson if you exert extra effort in understanding it. There is
no room for laziness and complacency. College students are expected to be
independent learners.
If there is anything in the lesson which you need clarifications on, do not hesitate to
contact your instructor or professor at the appropriate time.
You will be evaluated by your instructor or professor to check how much knowledge
and skills you have gained. The result of this evaluation will form a big chunk of your
grade. So please do well and do not waste time.
Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the module on your own. Your family
members and friends at home will support you but the activities must be done by
3|P age
you. As ZCSPians you must always be guided by our core values, Love of God;
Social Responsibility; Commitment/ Dedication to the Service; and Accountability.
SUGGESTED STUDY SCHEDULE

Week Topic Learning Outcomes Activities
Module 1 General Ethics
General 1.1 Recognize the essential concepts of ethics. Formative and
Ethics 1.2 Relate the importance of ethics to human existence Summative
based on real life situations.
1.3 Recognize and analyse the different types and levels of
Exam
communication.
(Schedule)
Module II Special Ethics

Special 2.1 Express and relate special ethics on their own Formative and
Ethics experiences Summative
2.2 Relate to different scenarios about practical issues
happened in the society.
Exam
(Schedule)
Module III Work and Professional Ethics

Work and 3.1 Evaluate common beliefs about ethics—especially Formative and
Professional common beliefs about the role of ethics in business Summative
3.2 Reflect on the nature of business, realize alternatives
Ethics models for conducting business
Exam
3.3 Apply moral reasoning to specific situations and defend
the conclusions of that reasoning
3.4 Evaluate the ethics of particular business decisions and
general practices in business
(Schedule)
EVALUATION
To pass the course, you must:
1. Read all course readings and answer the self-assessment activities and reflection
questions.
2. Answer the print-based discussion activities
3. Submit the self-assessment activities and reflection questions for midterm and
finals
4. Submit the final project (Portfolio)
5. Do the Mid Term and Finals
Evaluative Assessment Activities
4|P age
A. Quizzes and Examination
Instruction: The examinations which are embedded in your module must be
answered guided by the given evaluation tool. I will call you, if you need help or
assistance for purposes of further validation and verification.
B. Projects
Instruction: There will be assignments that will comprise the final project for this
course. The evaluation tools to these assignments are provided in this module.
 Assignment #1 ________________________________________
 Assignment #2 ________________________________________
 Assignment #3_________________________________________
GRADING SYSTEM
No. CRITERIA PERCENTAGE (%)

1 Submission of Portfolio 50
2 Learning Outcome Validation 20
3 Summative Assessment 30
Total 100%
5|P age
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 2
Study Guide 3
Study Schedule 4
Module I: 7-41
1. General Ethics
1.1 Foundation of Ethics
1.2 Scope and Meaning of Ethics
1.3 Fundamental Concepts
1.4 Defective Norms of Morality
1.5 Ethics and Law
1.6 Human rights and Natural Law
Module II 42-55
2. Special Ethics
2.1 Ethics and Love
2.2 Individual and the State
2.3 Moral Philosophy of Democracy
2.4 Liberty and Law
2.5 Ethics and Mysticism
Module III 56-66

3.1 Workplace Ethics
3.1.1 Theories and definition of workplace ethics
3.1.2 The Importance of a Good Work Ethic
3.1.3 Positive Work Ethics
3.1.4 Impact for Employers
3.1.5 Five Characteristics of Having Good Work Ethics
3.1.6 Ethics in Public Service
3.1.7 Expectations from the Public Servants in Governance
3.1.8 Develop a Strong Work Ethics
3.2 Ethical Self Awareness
References 67-68
6|P age
Module 1: ETHICS
TITLE: General Ethics
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this module, you are expected to:
a. Recognize the essential concepts of ethics.

b. Relate the importance of ethics to human existence based on real life situations.
c. Recognize and analyse the different types and levels of communication.
Introduction
Ethics is the philosophy of life. It delves into the deepest whys and wherefores
of human existence, men‘s actions and problems and destiny.
To live well and be happy, we must know what we are living for. This is taught
us by Ethics that investigates the meaning and purpose of human life, According to
Socrates, the unexamined life is not worth living for man.
Also, Plato claimed that Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in the
hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is concerned with the attainment of
life‘s greatest Good and Goal – HAPPINESS.
Lesson Outline

1.5 Ethics and Law
Before you proceed to the lesson presentation, please write your answers on a
paper for the following questions:
a. What is the supreme purpose of human living?

b. For you, what is the meaning and purpose of human life?
7|P age
Ethics, like philosophy, is in search of principles and universals. Ethics reflects

on a particular human experience, namely, the experience of the good or of being
good, and sets it in the context of the whole. One could also say that ethics reflects
on what the good is and how our lives are oriented towards it.
Ethics, like any other science, has its postulates, i.e., it takes for granted
certain basic principles whose truth are clearly and universally perceived as a matter
of universal conscious experience: that there is a difference between right and
wrong; and that, therefore, there are actions which man should or ought to do and
some actions which he should or ought not to perform; that man is responsible for
his actions; and that if he does wrong, he deserved to be punished.
Freedom, law, duty, responsibility, morality are imperceptible and intangible

but nonetheless real. They are facts intimately known and perceived directly by us by
consciousness. They are all implied in all our conscious and deliberate acts; they are
embodied as basic principles in the laws of all nations; for them thousands and
thousands of heroes and martyrs suffered and died. Deny the existence of these and
human nature, human life, becomes a meaningless riddle, the greatest farce and
mockery. It is on these realities that the science of ethics is built.
Theory of Skepticism
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, in Western philosophy, the attitude of

doubting knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skeptics have challenged the
adequacy or reliability of these claims by asking what principles they are based upon
or what they actually establish. They have questioned whether some such claims
really are, as alleged, indubitable or necessarily true, and they have challenged the
purported rational grounds of accepted assumptions. In everyday life, practically
everyone is skeptical about some knowledge claims; but philosophical skeptics have
doubted the possibility of any knowledge beyond that of the contents of directly felt
experience. The original Greek meaning of skeptikos was ―an inquirer,‖ someone
who was unsatisfied and still looking for truth.
Theory of Relativism
Relativism, roughly put, is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong,
standards of reasoning, and procedures of justification are products of differing
conventions and frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the
context giving rise to them. More precisely, ―relativism‖ covers views which maintain
that—at a high level of abstraction—at least some class of things have the properties
they have (e.g., beautiful, morally good, epistemically justified) not simpliciter, but
only relative to a given framework of assessment (e.g., local cultural norms,
individual standards), and correspondingly, that the truth of claims attributing these
properties holds only once the relevant framework of assessment is specified or
supplied
Untenability of Moral Skepticism and Relativism
8|P age
Moral skepticism: The view that there are no valid moral principles at all, or that we
cannot know whether there are any.
Moral subjectivism: Morality is not dependent on society but only on the individual.
 Anything is okay as long as one lives by own principles (hypocrisy,

inconsistency can be embraced).
 Makes concept of morality useless - one person's principle vs another's, no
argument possible.
 Reduces social coordination to power struggle.
 Incoherent. Ethics must be grounded in culture.
Ethical Relativism: The theory that there are no universally valid moral principles
binding on all people at all times, but rather all are valid relative to culture (or
individual choice = subjectivism).
 Rests on two premises:

1. Cultural relativism: Empirical observation of that diversity exists among
cultures in moral principle and practice. (A response to ethnocentrism:
Customs of all others seen through lenses of own culture's beliefs and
values.)
2. Dependency thesis: All moral principles derive their validity from
cultural acceptance.
3. It follows there are no universal principles valid for all cultures and
peoples.
 Consequences:
o There is no independent basis for criticizing the morality (n.b.: including
intolerance!) of any culture but one's own.
o Any actual morality is as valid as every other, and more valid that ideal
moralities (since they have no adherents).
o Reformers are wrong since they oppose cultural standards.
o Civil disobedience is morally wrong so long as the society agrees on
the relevant law.
o Laws have no basis - particular subcultures may not agree with certain
laws.
o Conflicting prescriptions - which of the ethics of the groups to which
one belongs should one follow? How do you choose? How many
people make up a 'culture'?
 Problems:
o The degree of cultural relativism evident in our species is enormous,
but nonetheless, some argue there are moral universals (concept of
murder, incest, restitution, reciprocity, mutual obligations between
parents and children). But if the dependency thesis is true none of
these could be thus shown to have any objective basis.
o The dependency thesis:
1. In a weak sense, it must at least be true that the application of
principles depends on the setting, the particular cultural
situation.
9|P age
2. In strong sense, all principles must be held to be cultural
inventions. But just because we find them in place doesn't mean
they must be accepted as true, the best, or morally correct.
3. Also, there can be no impartial standard from which to judge.
But while we cannot know one culture's beliefs are closer to the
truth than another's, we may be justified in believing they are.
We can reason and think of possible situations to make a case
for one system over the other. It's possible a culture might be
wrong, less moral, confused, or ignorant in its moral
perceptions.
Moral Objectivism
1. Holds that moral principles are valid rules of action that should generally be
adhered to, but may be overridden by other moral principles in cases of
conflict.
2. Not the same as moral absolutism, the idea that there exists just one moral
principle and it must never be violated.
3. Proposes that there exist at least one, or a set, of minimal moral principles
that are binding on all rational beings. It it can show this, it can refute ethical
relativism. Candidate principles include:
o It is morally wrong to torture people for fun.
o Do not kill innocent people.
o Do not cause unnecessary pain or suffering.
o Do not cheat or steal.
o Keep your promises and contracts.
o Do not deprive another person of his or her freedom.
o Do justice to others, treating like cases similarly, and different ones
differently.
o Tell the truth
o Help other people, at least when the cost to oneself is minimal.
o Do good wherever feasible, at least when the cost to oneself is
minimal.
4. In cases where these principles are violated it makes more sense to look for
an explanation (ignorance, perversion, irrationality) than to suppose that the
exception should make us question the principle.
5. These principles are not arbitrary as the relativist holds, because we can give
reasons why they are necessary to social cohesion and human flourishing, in
the face of diverse human goods.
6. These may (but need not be) based on a common human nature - a set of
needs and interests.
7. Those principles that meet essential needs and promote the most significant
interests of humans in optimal ways can be said to be objectively valid moral
principles.
10 | P a g e
Formative Examination
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Direction. Answer the following questions and submit this sheet with your
answer as part of the course requirement.
1. What is skepticism?
2. What is relativism?
3. What are the similarities and differences of skepticism and relativism?
4. What are the differences of moral subjectivism and moral objectivism?
5. What is your stand on these statements, ―that there is a difference between right
and wrong; and that, therefore, there are actions which man should or ought to do
and some actions which he should or ought not to perform; that man is responsible
for his actions; and that if he does wrong, he deserved to be punished” ?
11 | P a g e
Ethics (also called 'Moral Philosophy') is the branch of philosophy that contains
the following areas:
A. Core Areas of Ethics
1. Normative Ethics of Behavior -- the attempt to discover a criterion of morally right

behavior.
A criterion of morally right behavior (also called a theory of right and wrong) is
an explanatory statement of the necessary and sufficient conditions for an action's
being morally right.
Any such theory will look like this:
An act is morally right if and only if ___________________ .
2. Axiology (also called 'Value Theory') -- the attempt to discover what things are
good in themselves and what things are bad in themselves, as well as what things
are good or bad for someone.
3. Virtue/Vice Theory -- the attempt to discover criteria of excellence and deficiency
of character.
B. Other Areas of Ethics

1. Meta-Ethics -- the attempt to discover the meanings of the central concepts of the
core areas of ethics.
2. The Logic of Ethics -- the attempt to discover the logic of the central concepts of
normative ethics and axiology.
3. Moral Epistemology -- the attempt to discover if and how we can have knowledge
of moral facts.
4. Moral Psychology -- the attempt to answer certain morally relevant questions
about human psychology.
5. Applied Ethics -- the attempt to put forth and critically assess views and
arguments pertaining to particular moral issues, such as abortion, human cloning,
world poverty, euthanasia, animal rights, war, capital punishment, etc.
6. History of ethics -- the attempt to understand and evaluate the doctrines and
arguments contained in historically important texts of moral philosophy.
7. Moralizing -- the attempt to get people to behave in better ways, to become better
people, to adopt your moral views.
ETHICS – is a philosophical science that studies human acts or human conduct and
it is particularly concerned on the morality (the quality of right or wrong) of
human acts (acts done with knowledge and consent)
Definitions of Ethics (which are fundamentally the same)

1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.
12 | P a g e
2. Ethics is the science inquiry into the principles of morality.
3. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong.
4. Ethics is the study of human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
5. Ethics is the study of rectitude of human conduct.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living.
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live
rightly and well.
8. Ethics is the normative and practical science, based on reason, which
studies human conduct and provides norm for its natural integrity and honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.
Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences
1. Ethics and Logic. Logic is the science of right things and Ethics is the science of
right living. Doing follows thinking. To think right often means to do right, as
knowledge of right leads to doing of right.
2. Ethics and Psychology. Both deal with the study of man, human nature and
human behaviour. Psychology studies how man behaves while ethics studies how
man ought to behave. Ethics is concerned with moral obligation while psychology is
not interested in the morality of human behavior.
3. Ethics is related to Sociology. Ethics deal with the moral order including social
order. Society depends on ethics for its underlying principles. Sociology deals with
human relations in a society but human relations are based on proper order and
proper order comes only with the proper observance of moral laws and principles
which regulates the action of men in a community.
4. Ethics and Economics. Man also is an economic being because he has to

support himself by earning a living. Economics is one of the aspects of human
activity. Justice and charity are moral principles in all the relations in business.
Morality and Other Phases of Human Life
1. Ethics and Education

-Education develops the whole man; his moral, intellectual and physical capacities.
―Moral Character‖ as the first and primary aim of all education.
-Education is life, co-extensive with life.
-Ethics is life, co-extensive and co-intensive with life.
2. Morality and Law

- Moral and Law are intimately related. Right and wrong, good and bad in human
actions presuppose a law or rule of conduct, Furthermore; the laws of the state are
restatements, specifications or interpretations of an anterior natural moral law.
3. Ethics and Art.

- Ethics stands for moral goodness; art for beauty. But as transcendentals the
beautiful and the good are one. There can be no conflict between true art and true
morality because both aim to arouse and inspire the noble emotions of man.
13 | P a g e
4. Ethics and Politics
-Man owes allegiance to the state. Ethics and Politics are inseparable in man‘s
present existence.
5. Religion and Ethics

-Both of these are based on the same postulates:
a. The existence of a Creator
b. Freedom of the will in man
c. Immorality
-Both have the same end—the attainment of man‘s supreme purpose or man‘s
ultimate end.
-Both prescribe the same means for attaining the goal of man: that is right living.
Importance of Ethics
1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral
character that man finds his true worth and perfection. All the great teachers of the
ages maintain that the supreme purpose of human living lies in the development of
the moral qualities which lift man far above brute creations.
2. Education is the harmonious development of whole man, of all man‘s faculties: the
moral, the intellectual, and the physical powers in man. The primary aim of education
is the moral development of will.
3. According to Socrates, ―the unexamined life is not worth living for man‖. Plato
considers ethics as the supreme science that deals with the Summum Bonum, the
supreme purpose of human living.
14 | P a g e
Lesson 2 Formative Examination
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
I. Multiple Choice.
Directions: Read the question carefully and choose the best answer from the given
choices. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
_______1. Which of the following core areas of ethics attempt to discover

the good and bad things in themselves and for someone?
A. Normative Ethics of Behavior C. Virtue Theory
B. Axiology D. Meta-Ethics
_______2. Which of the following core areas of ethics attempt the criteria of
excellence and deficiency of character?
_______3. Which of the following attempt to discover meanings of the
central concepts of the core areas of ethics?
_______4. Which of the following core areas of ethics attempt to discover
the criterion of morally right behavior?
_______5. It refers to the acts done with knowledge and consent?
A. Human desire C. Human acts
B. Human mind D. Morality
_______6. Which of the following is not the definition of ethics?
A. The study focus on the morality of human acts.
B. The science of immorality of human actions.
C. The study of human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
D. The science inquiry into the principles of morality.
_______7. Which of the following relate to the thinking of right, leads to
doing right?
A. Ethics and Logic C. Ethics and Politics
B. Ethics and Psychology D. Religion and Ethics
_______8. Which of the following relate to the attainment of man‘s supreme
purpose that is right living for there is an existence of a creator?
_______9. Which of the following is related that it is inseparable in man‘s
present existence?
15 | P a g e
_______10. Which of the following other phases of human life related to
ethics because it aims to arouse and inspire the noble emotions of
man?
A. Ethics and Law C. Ethics and Education
B. Ethics and Art D. Religion and Ethics
Test II. Essay

Rubrics: Content = 3pts; Organization and Grammar – 2pts
1-5. Give two definitions of ethics and explain.
6-10. What is the importance of ethics?
11-15. Both psychology and ethics study human behavior, but what is the difference
between the two?
Show the similarity and the difference between:

16-20. Ethics and Sociology
21-25. Ethics and Economics
16 | P a g e
26-30. Explain the intimate relation between ethics and religion.
17 | P a g e
1.3.1 Morality
Morality refers to that quality of goodness or badness in a human act. There

are actions that are good and there are actions that are bad.
Norm of Morality means:

1. The standard of right and wrong in human acts.
2. The reason why certain acts are morally right and why certain actions are
wrong.
1.3.2 Human Acts in ethics means:

1. The voluntary (free) voluntary acts of man.
2. The Acts done with knowledge and consent.
3. Acts which are proper to man as man; because, of all animals, he alone has
knowledge and freedom of will.
4. Acts, which, we are conscious, are under our control and for which we are
responsible.
5. Human acts are those of which man is master, which he has the power if
doing or not doing as he pleases.
Acts must be done willingly and wilfully (with knowledge and consent) to be
truly called as human act.
Only human acts have moral significance. When one shoots or kills another
by a revolver, the act is morally wrong, but the moral evil is not the action of the
revolver but in the acts of the one who pulled the trigger that released the
bullet. The bullet, as far as it is a bullet, ―acts well‖ in accordance with naturals
laws, even if it kills.
Some acts are normally indifferent: i.e., they are neither good nor bad in
themselves: examples; sitting, walking, smiling. They become bad only when
they are forbidden by some law or because of certain circumstances.
1.3.3 Voluntariness and Responsibility
The fundamental concepts of Ethics; ethics, morality, human acts,

responsibility, reward or punishment, are intimately related.
1. Relation between voluntariness and Ethics. Ethics studies human acts and
human acts to be human, must be voluntary.
2. Between morality and voluntariness. Only voluntary acts have a moral

bearing.
3. Human acts and voluntariness. Human acts are the free acts of man.
4. Responsibility and voluntariness. There can be responsibility only if there

is knowledge and consent; and consent means volunteerism.
18 | P a g e
5. Punishment. If there is no voluntariness, there is no responsibility and
without responsibility, punishment is meaningless.
The notion of voluntariness is most basic and inseparable from Ethics.
Immoral vs. Amoral

- Immoral is the contradictory of moral, a violative of the rules of conduct.
- Amoral means morality indifferent, it is neither good or bad, in itself.
Moral vs. Normal

- Normal refers to a physical or psychological standard and has no reference to
moral rectitude. A perfectly normal person can be very immoral in his life,
whereas an abnormal person can be very moral in his acts and lives in
accordance with the moral law.
Peculiarity and Perversity

- Fundamentally the same.
- Peculiarity or perversion always involves moral turpitude and responsibility,
whereas peculiarity or anomaly does not.
Further study on Voluntariness

Ethics deals precisely with the study of human acts, i.e., the voluntary acts of
man.
It is the amount or degree of voluntariness present in an act which determines the
amount or degree of responsibility and this in turn will determine the amount of
punishment, if any to be meted out.
Perfect Voluntariness – with full knowledge and consent.

Imperfect Voluntariness – there is no perfect knowledge nor consent, either or
both of the knowledge and consent is partial.
Direct Voluntary Act - called voluntary in se. When the act is intends for its own
sake, either as a means or as an end. For example, one intends to go to a party
and drink with friends. Both the going to a party and drinking with friends are
directly voluntary acts.
Indirect Voluntary Act – called as voluntary in causa. An act which is not

intended for its own sake but which merely follows as a regrettable consequence
of an action directly willed. For example, going to a party to enjoy with friends but
making trouble when drunk. The act of making trouble may have been foreseen
and foreknown but it may not have been intended.
Causa causae est etiam causa Causati. Latin for: the cause of the cause is
also the cause of the thing caused. If a line of cars, say A, B, C were bumped by
another car D. Each car bumped the next car to it and as a further result, the last
car C hits the pedestrian killing him; then the cause of the death of the pedestrian
is the driver of the car D.
The Principle of Double Effect
19 | P a g e
This principle aims to provide specific guidelines for determining when it is
morally permissible to perform an action in pursuit of a good end in full knowledge
that the action will also bring about bad results. The principle has its historical roots
in the medieval natural law tradition, especially in the thought of Thomas Aquinas
(1225-1274), and has been refined both in its general formulation and in its
application by generations of Catholic moral theologians. Although there has been
significant disagreement about the precise formulation of this principle, it generally
states that, in cases where a contemplated action has both good effects and bad
effects, the action is permissible only if it is not wrong in itself and if it does not
require that one directly intend the evil result. It has many obvious applications to
morally complex cases in which one cannot achieve a particular desired good result
without also bringing about some clear evil. The principle of double effect, once
largely confined to discussions by Catholic moral theologians, in recent years has
figured prominently in the discussion of both ethical theory and applied ethics by a
broad range of contemporary philosophers.
Classical formulations of the principle of double effect require that four

conditions be met if the action in question is to be morally permissible:
1. The action contemplated be in itself either morally good or morally

indifferent;
2. The bad result not be directly intended;
3. The good result not be a direct causal result of the bad result;
4. The good result be "proportionate to" the bad result.
Supporters of the principle argue that, in situations of "double effect" where all these
conditions are met, the action under consideration is morally permissible despite the
bad result.
Each of these conditions has, however, been a matter of considerable

controversy. The first condition requires some criterion independent of an evaluation
of consequences for determining the moral character of the proposed action. Moral
philosophers who believe that the moral character of an action is exhaustively
determined by the nature of its consequences will, of course, object to this
requirement.
The second condition assumes that a sharp distinction can be drawn between
directly intending a result and merely foreseeing it. This requirement has been the
subject of much debate. Some philosophers argue that if an agent recognizes that a
certain consequence will inevitably follow from a contemplated action, then in
performing the action the agent must be intending the consequence. Others argue,
less strongly, that defenders of double effect have failed to delineate a practicable
criterion for marking off the intended from the merely foreseen. Defenders of the
principle typically respond by pointing to the implicit recognition of the moral
significance of this distinction in the moral practices of ordinary persons.
The third condition writes into the principle of double effect the so-called
Pauline principle, "One should never do evil so that good may come." Again,
20 | P a g e
philosophers who reject the view that actions can have a moral character
independent of their consequences will find this condition unacceptable.
The fourth condition, by bringing in the notion of proportionality, has seemed

to many philosophers to undercut the absolutism presupposed by the first condition.
Although the first three conditions have a decidedly anticon sequentialist character,
the fourth may appear to embrace consequentialist reasoning. Defenders of the
principle typically attempt to accommodate the consequentialist character of the
fourth condition while ensuring that it does not render the more complex features of
the principle irrelevant.
Applications. The principle of double effect has played a significant role in

the discussion of many difficult normative questions. Its most prominent applications
are in medical ethics, where it figures prominently in attempts to distinguish among
permissible and impermissible procedures in a range of obstetrical cases. The
Catholic magisterium has argued that the principle allows one to distinguish morally
among cases where a pregnancy may need to be ended in order to preserve the life
of the mother. The principle is alleged to allow the removal of a life-threatening
cancerous uterus, even though this procedure will bring the death of a fetus, on the
grounds that in this case the death of the fetus is not "directly" intended. The
principle disallows cases, however, in which a craniotomy (the crushing of the fetus's
skull) is required to preserve a pregnant woman's life, on the grounds that here a
genuine evil, the death of the fetus, is "directly" intended. There is significant
disagreement, even among those philosophers who accept the principle, about the
cogency of this application. Some philosophers and theologians, by emphasizing the
fourth, "proportionality," condition, argue that the greater value attaching to the
pregnant woman's life makes even craniotomy morally acceptable. Others fail to see
a morally significant difference between the merely "foreseen" death of the fetus in
the cancerous uterus case and the "directly" intended death in the craniotomy case.
1.3.4 Factors that Lessen Accountability
a. Ignorance – is the absence of intellectual knowledge. It could be vincible or

invincible ignorance. Vincible ignorance can be dispelled or overcome due
amount of diligence. Whie, Invincible ignorance cannot be overcome by any
amount of diligence or effort because under the circumstances it is impossible
for one to know.
Principles
1. Invincible ignorance excuses and relieves an agent of responsibility.
Example: A negrito who had been living all his life in the mountains and
who happened to come to Manila for the first time and violated traffic laws,
could not be held responsible for violating the law.
2. Vincible ignorance does not destroy or remove voluntariness nor
responsibility. Example: A Manila resident who violated traffic laws, not
knowing of such laws before, would still be responsible for his act because
his ignorance is vincible.
b. Concupiscence – Passions (technically called concupiscene)
21 | P a g e
- Strong sexual desire; lust. Simply, Passion
PASSION - are either tendencies away, from under undesirable or harmful

things.
 Positive emotions, the former include love, desire, delight, hope and
bravery
 Negative emotions, the latter include hatred, horror, sadness, despair,
fear and anger.
TYPES OF PASSION (Concupiscence)

 Antecedent Passion – are those that precede an act.
 Consequent Passion – are those that are intentionally aroused and
kept.
PRINCIPLES OF PASSION (Concupiscence)

 Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they
diminish accountability for the resultant act.
 Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may increase
accountability.
c. FEAR - Is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an

impending danger or harm to himself or loved ones. It is an instinct for self-
preservation.
TYPES OF FEAR
 Grave Fear – aroused by the presence of a danger.
 That is regarded by most people as serious.
 That is judged to be serious by the one concerned.
 Slight Fear – aroused by a danger.
 That is not serious.
PRINCIPLES OF FEAR
 Acts done with fear are voluntary.
 Acts done out of fear, however, great, is simply voluntary, although it is
also conditionally voluntary.
 Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary.
d. VIOLENCE - Refers to any physical force exerted on a person by

another free agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act
against his will.
- In cases where the victim gives complete resistance, the violence is
classified as perfect violence.
- However, if the victim offers insufficient resistance, the violence classified
as imperfect violence.
TYPES OF VIOLENCE
 Perfect Violence
 Physically Perfect Violence
22 | P a g e
 In which all possible forms of resisting is utilized
If a woman walking along a dark street at night is attacked, and she
attempts to fight of the attackers with all the physical powers at her
command, she has been the victim of physically perfect violence.
 Morally Perfect Violence

 Is that in which all powers of resistance should be used but not
employed for a good reason.
A man being robbed attempts to fight the robber but soon realizes that
further assistance will probably result in his death.
 Imperfect Violence – is that in which some resistance is shown but not
as much as should be.
A Stenographer who is working after hours in an almost empty building is
approached by the department head. The man, suddenly filled with
lustful intentions, makes certain rough and violent advances. The
young woman for a moment puts up some resistance and feels that
additional resistance might terminate the incident. However, she
quickly ceases resistance and gives in to the man. The stenographer is
the victim of imperfect violence.
PRINCIPLES OF VIOLENCE
 External actions, or commanded actions, performed by a person
subjected to violence, to which reasonable resistance has been
offered, are involuntary and are not accountable.
 Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence
and are therefore voluntary.
MORAL PRINCIPLES CONCERNING VIOLENCE
a. Regarding perfect violence, the moral principle is this: that which is

done from perfect violence is entirely involuntary, and so in such cases
there is no moral responsibility.
If an individual is a victim in the absolute sense of the word, no sensible
person condemn him. If the victim makes a judgment that resistance is
utterly useless, he need not resist. There is no obligation to do what is
useless.
b. Regarding imperfect violence: that is which done under the influence of

imperfect violence is less voluntary, and so the moral responsibility is
lessened but not taken away completely.
e. HABITS - ―Is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated

acts, for acting in a certain manner.‖
- Are inclination to perform some particular action acquired by repetition, and
characterized by a decrease power of resistance and an increase facility of
performance.
- Sometimes called second nature; something deeply embedded in an
individual, but ingrained by being acquired not being inborn.
- Repeated actions by performed by the agent.
 VIRTUE – Disposes to God
23 | P a g e
 VICE – Disposes one to Evil
PRINCIPLE OF HABITS
 Action done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable
effort is made to counteract the habitual inclination.
24 | P a g e
Lesson 3 Formative Examination
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
I. Multiple Choice.
_______1. Which of the following definitions is not referring to human acts?
A. acts done with knowledge and consent C. Unconscious Acts
B. acts which are proper to man D. The power of doing and not doing
_______2. Which of the following statements is not true about voluntariness
and responsibility?
A. Human acts are voluntary
B. Human acts are the free acts of man
C. Voluntary acts have immoral bearing
D. There is responsibility if there is knowledge and consent
_______3. Which of the following refers to voluntariness with full knowledge
and consent?
A. Perfect C. Direct
B. Imperfect D. Indirect
_______4. Which of the following refers to voluntariness with partial
knowledge and consent?
_______5. _____________refers to the voluntary in se?
_______6. _____________refers to the voluntary in causa?
_______7. Which of the following factors refer to the absence of intellectual
knowledge?
A. Ignorance C. Concupiscence
B. Habits D. Fear
_______8. Which of the following factors refers to the repeated
actions/manners?
B. Habits D. Fear
_______9. Which of the following factors refers to the disturbance of the
mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or harm to
himself or loved ones?
B. Habits D. Fear
_______10. Which of the following refers to passion?
B. Habits D. Fear
25 | P a g e
Test II. Essay
1-5. State the principle governing acts done by force of habits
Explain the factors that lessen accountability

6-10. Vincible ignorance and Invincible ignorance?
11-15. Antecedent passion and consequent passion?
16-20. Grave fear and Slight fear?
21-25. Perfect violence and Imperfect violence?
26-30. Habits
31-35. If a virgin is raped physically, entirely against her will, making all due
resistance to the rapist, did she lose morally her virginity? Cite the moral principle
applicable to this case.
26 | P a g e
The defective norms of morality are the following;

a. Hedonism
b. Utilitarianism
c. Moral Rationalism
d. Moral Positivism
e. Moral Evolutionism
f. Moral Sensism
g. Communism
A. Hedonism
 It is an ethical theory which holds that the supreme end of man consists in
the acquisition of pleasure.
a. Sensible pleasures are the highest good of life.
 Morality is grounded on the pleasure or satisfaction that an act brings or

entails.
a. The good action is the pleasant action.
b. The bad action is that which produces pain or unhappiness.
B. Utilitarianism
 Is a theory very much akin to Hedonism.
 This norm of morality holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend
to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness.
 It makes ―utility‖ the norm of morality.
 The goodness or badness of an action would depend on the effects or
consequences of the action.
 An act is good if and when it gives good results, if it works, it makes you
successful, if it makes you attain your purpose, bad if it does not.
Types of Utilitarianism
 Individual/egoistic utilitarianism – holds that the norm of morality
resides in the usefulness of an action for the production of the temporal
happiness of the individual.
 An act is good when it redounds to the temporal welfare and happiness of
the individual, and bad if it hinders or hampers this happiness.
 Social/altruistic utilitarianism – holds that an act is good when it is
conducive to the social good or well-being.
Commentary about Hedonism and Utilitarianism

a. Defects
 Both propose an earthly goal for man, that is, the temporal welfare here on
earth.
 The ultimate and supreme purpose of man cannot be found in this life.
 Both make or tend to make morality relative
 What is pleasant or useful to one may be painful and harmful to another.
Relative morality leads to moral chaos and destruction.
 Both theories make morality extrinsic because they make it depend on the
effect or on a concomitant factor of an act.
27 | P a g e
 Morality is intrinsic, that is, based on the very essence of things and on the
nature of the act itself.
b. Satisfaction/pleasure may indicate and accompany the doing of a good act;

but the act is good not because it brings satisfaction, but rather, it brings
satisfaction because it is good.
 The pleasure follows from the goodness and not the goodness from the
satisfaction
 The satisfaction/pleasure is merely an effect, and an indication but not the
cause or the reason of the goodness of an action.
C. Moral Rationalism by Immanuel Kant

 Is the theory which maintains that all knowledge and all truths are derived
from human reason;
i. Human reason, therefore, is the source of all truths, all laws, and
all principles.
ii. Human reason is the source of all moral laws and all moral
obligations.
iii. Reason commands, and the commands of reason are absolute
and unconditional, absolutely binding on all men of all times
(Categorical Imperative).
Therefore, good must be done simply because we want. Virtue
must be practiced for virtue‘s sake; goodness, for goodness sake.
 Why we must do good?
We must do good because we must, it is our duty to obey
unconditionally without questioning (Principle of Deontology).
 The command of reason is categorical and all are obliged to obey, it is our
moral duty to obey unconditionally.
◦ Duty – is the very root, test and the mainspring of all morally good
acts.
 All that is moral is motivated by pure sense of duty, by pure
reverence for the law.
 Thus, morality is grounded on duty or moral obligation.
 True morality, must be autonomous in character (Autonomy of Reason).
◦ According to which theory: it is reason that commands and at the same
time it is reason that obeys.
 Thus, reason will be the law-maker, the law-giver and law-
obeyer at the same time.
Commentary on Moral Rationalism

 Merits
- It emphasized the absolute and immutable nature of morality
- It saves morality from the destructiveness and insanity of moral
relativity and skepticism.
 Defects
a. On Autonomy of Reason
Reason is the absolute law-maker, law-giver, law-abider. (Autonomy of
Reason)
28 | P a g e
Morality comes not from reason itself but from a higher and other
source than human reason. (Heteronomy of Reason)
b. Based on Heteronomy of Reason

◦ Human reason only sees things, but it does not make things.
◦ Human reason tells us the law, but it does not make the law.
◦ Moral law is not from human reason, it is not our own making, but it is
impose on us from a higher source.
 If the law were made by human reason, then everything that we
would like to do could be approved by reason, but the fact is that
we have many things we like to do by which we know are
against the dictates of our conscience.
 Nothing can be superior and inferior at the same time.
c. Duty as a norm of morality

◦ Duty cannot be sole motive in the performance of an act.
◦ There are other motives that are more worthy and more noble, such as
love, pity, mercy, etc.
d. On Universalization of Reason
◦ There are many acts which cannot be universalized.
◦ Ex. Dying a hero‘s death by martyrdom
D. Moral Evolutionism
This is the theory of all those who holds that morality is never fixed or
absolute, but is continually changing and evolving gradually into a perfect
morality.
Friedrich Nietzsche - believed that morality – the distinction between right
and wrong – did not exist in the beginning or originally unknown.
- Good is that which anybody desired.
Friedrich Nietzsche
He was convinced that traditional values represented a ―slave morality,” a
morality created by weak and resentful individuals who encouraged such
behavior as gentleness and kindness because the behavior served their
interests.
 These are the laws/values derived and based on the teachings of
Christianity which stands for meekness, humility, suffering pity, mercy,
poverty, forgiveness and love.
 These values glorify and favor the weak and produces weaklings
But, according to Nietzsche, we must produce the strong
 The law of nature is the survival of the fittest.
 The strong is destined by nature to live and rule.
 The weak has no right from nature to live. The weak who form the
majority must be eliminated in order to give way to the aristocracy of the
strong.
Thus, Nietzsche, developed an idea of the ―Superman/Overman‖.

The “Superman/Overman‖ – was an individual who overcame the slave
morality of traditional values, and lived according to his own values/morality.
29 | P a g e
This superman is secure, independent, and highly individualistic. The
overman feels deeply, but his passions are rationally controlled. Concentrating
on the real world, rather than on the rewards of the next world promised by
religion, the overman affirms life, including the suffering and pain that
accompany human existence.
He advanced this idea by saying that ―God is dead,‖ or the traditional morality
was no longer relevant in peoples lives.
For him, the end of all morality and society – to produce the strong, the
superman.
Thus, might, strength and power form the basis of true morality.
a. Good, is that one which makes one strong, powerful, and most of all
super human, and bad is that which is productive of the weak.
Commentary about Moral Evolutionism

 The result – the chaotic, horrific, barbaric and devastating World War II
(German Invasion).
◦ Who thinks that they are the Aryan race (White supremacy) superior to
any other and destined to rule and conquer the world.
◦ They devoured weaker nations and justified all the massacres, tortures,
and bloodshed of concentration camps in their occupied countires on
the theory that thay are the strong and, therefore, can do no wrong.
E. Moral Positivism
This theory holds that the basis/source of all moral laws is the laws of the
State. Good is that which is in accordance with the laws of the State; bad is
that which is forbidden by the State.
The proponent of this theory is Thomas Hobbes
a. Nature was in a state of universal war. Mankind was in a state of war
before the formation of the State.
b. Man is a wolf unto his fellowmen (Homo homini lupus)
c. Thus, there was no law, no morality, no distinction between right and
wrong.
d. To end this state of war and anarchy, men came together to form the
State.
i. Thus, laws, rights and duties were then established.
ii. Morality then has it source, its origin from the laws of the State.
Commentary about Moral Positivism
 Defects
◦ It makes morality relative.
 There are State Laws which are legal but not moral (Abortion,
Death Penalty, Same Sex Marriage).
◦ It reverses the natural order of things.
 Before there was any State there was already human nature
with all its natural and inviolable rights and the law (natural law)
governing it.
Example:
 Murder is always bad, even before there was any State law
prohibiting it. Murder is forbidden by law and is wrong because
it is clearly a violation against human nature.
30 | P a g e
F. Moral Sensism
Is an ethical theory which holds that man is endowed with a special moral
sense (other than reason) by virtue of which man distinguishes between right
and wrong.
a. The basis/source of morality is man‘s senses; what a person‘s feel
about the human act.
b. Good if I feel it is good; bad if I feel it is bad.
c. This view expressed when we say he has ―no sense of morality,‖ ―no
moral taste‖.
Defects
◦ It makes morality relative.
 Morality is not based on feelings/senses.
 Morality is not based on the mood of the person.
i. A human act is good or bad based on the norms of morality
which is conscience and natural law.
G. Communism
Its moral philosophy is the logical consequence of metaphysics or view
of reality known as dialectic materialism.
a. According to this theory, matter is the only reality.
b. This sole entity or matter, is in constant flux or motion and this
accounts for all the events, motion and change in the universe; so that
all phenomena of nature, all history, are nothing else but the
manifestation of this dialectic process inherent in the nature of all
things (matter).
It is founded on the theory of change, evolution and revolution.
Everything is progressing towards the goal of perfection; man, society and
history naturally and necessarily tend towards the attainment of the ultimate
objective: the perfect state here on earth, the Classless Society.
All these are involved in the inexorable laws of dialectic materialism.
The goal of man is his earthly happiness in a classless society.
Morality is changing since all things changes.

o Good is that which brings about and hasten to bring about the
realization of a classless society; bad that which hinders or
delays its coming.
◦ The end of man, which is the classless society, is the norm of morality.
◦ The end determines the morality of an act, the means does not matter.
Thus, ―the end justifies the means‖.
o Revolution, conflict, bloodshed, wars, espionage, etc., are good
if they bring about the desired end: Classless Society
Primacy of Economics
 Economics is the sole basis of all civilization, all progress, all history, all
society.
 It conditions and determines one‘s religion and even one‘s
mode of thinking and living.
31 | P a g e
Morality is likewise determined by economics, in such a way
that different economic conditions give rise to different
moralities.
 Economics is the beginning and the ends of all ethics/morality.
Commentary about Communism

Merit
◦ Communism explains well the importance and necessity of economics
in life.
 Man is an economic being.
 He has an stomach to feed, he has to earn a living to
support himself and his family, etc.
Defects
◦ It is vitiated with the fallacy of exclusiveness and misproportion.
◦ While it is true that man can not live with bread, it is likewise true that
he does nor live by bread alone.
◦ While he is an economic being, he is not an economic being
exclusively, nor principally.
◦ While we cannot disregard economics in life, we cannot make it the
sole and the most important thing in life.
◦ It may be the basis or a sine qua non condition of earthly life, but it is
not the end of all human beings, though it is a necessary means to it.
Comparison between Morality of communism and Christian Morality:

1. Communism is based on the primacy of matter.
Christian morality is based on the primacy of the spirit.
2. Communism proposes an earthly goal for man (temporal life)
Christian morality is primarily for the other world (eternal life).
3. Communism denies the basic postulates of Christian morality (the existence
of God, freedom of the will, immortality of the soul. It substitute matter for
God; life in a classless society for immortality, and the laws of the dialectic for
freedom.
4. Communism adheres to the position that ―the end justifies the means.‖
Christian morality believe that ―the end does not justify the means.‖
5. Communism subscribes to the evolutionistic view of morality.
Christian morality maintains that morality is absolute, immutable and eternal.
6. Communism uses force, conflict, revolution for the attainment of its goal: the
classless society here on earth.
Christian morality teaches love, patience, right living and prayer for the
attainment of its ultimate end: eternal happiness in heaven, with God.
32 | P a g e
Lesson 4 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
I. Multiple Choice.
_______1. Which of the following ethical theory holds that the goodness or
badness of an action would depend on the effects or consequences of the
action?
A. Hedonism C. Rationalism
B. Utilitarianism D. Evolutionism
_______2. Which of the following ethical theory holds that morality is never
absolute but is continually changing?
A. Hedonism C. Rationalism
_______3. Which of the following ethical theory holds that all knowledge
and all truths are derived from human reason?
A. Positivism C. Rationalism
B. Sensism D. Evolutionism
_______4. Which of the following ethical theory holds that the source of all
the moral laws is the law of the state?
_______5. Which of the following ethical theory holds that the source of
morality is the man‘s senses?
B. Sensism D. Evolutionism
Test II. Essay

1-5. What is common to both hedonism and utilitarianism?
6-10. Give the points of differences between Christian and communist ethics.
33 | P a g e
11-15. Are the moral laws derived from laws of the state?
Explain the defects or weaknesses of the following ethical theory:

16-20. Moral Rationalism
21-25. Moral Evolutionism
26-30. Moral Positivism
31-35. Moral Sensism
36-40. Do you agree with the communist view that man is primarily and exlusively an
economic being? Why?
34 | P a g e
1.5 Ethics and Law
In simple terms, the law may be understood as the systematic set of universally
accepted rules and regulation created by an appropriate authority such as
government, which may be regional, national, international, etc. It is used to govern
the action and behavior of the members and can be enforced, by imposing penalties.
Many times the term law is juxtaposed with the term ethics, but there is a
difference, as ethics are the principles that guide a person or society, created to
decide what is good or bad, right or wrong, in a given situation. It regulates a
person‘s behavior or conduct and helps an individual in living a good life, by applying
the moral rules and guidelines.
Comparison Chart
35 | P a g e
Types of Ethics
Key Differences between Law and Ethics
 The law is defined as the systematic body of rules that governs the whole
society and the actions of its individual members. Ethics means the science
of a standard human conduct.
 The law consists of a set of rules and regulations, whereas Ethics comprises
of guidelines and principles that inform people about how to live or how to
behave in a particular situation.
 The law is created by the Government, which may be local, regional, national
or international. On the other hand, ethics are governed by an individual, legal
or professional norms, i.e. workplace ethics, environmental ethics and so on.
 The law is expressed in the constitution in a written form. As opposed to
ethics, it cannot be found in writing form.
 The breach of law may result in punishment or penalty, or both which is not in
the case of breach of ethics.
 The objective of the law is to maintain social order and peace within the
nation and protection to all the citizens. Unlike, ethics that are the code of
conduct that helps a person to decide what is right or wrong and how to act.
 The law creates a legal binding, but ethics has no such binding on the people.
Law and ethics are different in a manner that what a person must do and what a
person should do. The former is universally accepted while the latter is ideal human
conduct, agreed upon by most of the people. Although, both the law and ethics are
made in alignment so that they do not contradict each other. Both go side by side, as
they provide how to act in a particular manner. Every person is equal in the eyes of
law and ethics, i.e. nobody is superior or inferior. Further, these two allow a person
to think freely and choose.
36 | P a g e
Lesson 5 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
I. Multiple Choice.
____1. ______ involves the values that govern a society‘s attitude toward right and
wrong.
a. Morality b. Justice c. Ethics d. Integrity
____2. ______ are the means for determining what a society‘s values ought to be.
a. Morality b. Justice c. Ethics d. Integrity
____3. The heart of the Golden Rule is ______ , which means putting yourself in
another person‘s position.
a. compassion b. honesty c. empathy d. integrity
____4. ______ allows a person to be open and truthful with other people.
a. compassion b. honesty c. empathy d. integrity
____5. Which of the following is NOT one of the different methods that individuals
use to choose the right thing to do?
a. follow their friends b. do as parents taught them
c. professional codes of conduct d. religious teachings
____6. Some people see a problem with ethics being a matter of feelings and
_______ no one can ever do anything that is wrong
a. right b. values c. opinion d. morality
____7. If everyone always made _______ decisions, there be no need for ______.
a. right b. ethical c. police d. law
____8. ______ is needed because people do not always do what they should.
a.Ethics b. Law c. Education d. Police
____9. Law enforces legal rights and duties through:
a. courts b. legislature c. regulatory agencies
c. law enforcement agencies d. All of the above
____10. Law is _______ because it‘s made by people.
a. imperfect b. ethical c. right d. just
Test II. Essay

1-5. What is law in its widest sense?
37 | P a g e
6-10. What is the natural law in relation to the eternal law?
11-15. Why do we need the laws of the state?
16-20. What is the connection between justice and law?
21-30. In what way or ways may a law become unjust?
38 | P a g e
The natural law prescribe what is to be done and what not to be done and
recognizes rights, rights linked to the human person.
The importance of the principle of human rights is the equality or justice on which
lies the foundation of democracy and social ethics.
All democratic constitutions are based on the doctrine of rights. The universal
declaration of Human Rights is embodied in the U.N. charter approved by all nations
as the basic foundation of world peace.
Natural law theory: Natural law theory identifies natural values as including
what human beings innately desire and need as well as whatever conforms to the
cosmic order and its laws. It then adds that these natural values are (morally) good
and that we have a moral obligation to promote them. Of these goods, human
reason is particularly important and should guide and direct all that we do. Although
natural law doesn‘t have to relate to any religion, Aquinas added that the entire
cosmos is the creation of a good and rational God. This is intended to account for
the inherent goodness of natural values as well as for the fact that we can discover
the structure of the natural world.
What is interesting about natural law theory is that it includes both
consequentialist and deontological components and so presents an alternative to
both Kantianism and utilitarianism. Consequences, intentions, and moral principles
all have roles in natural law theory. To deal with certain special kinds of cases, it
adds the principle of forfeiture and the Doctrine of Double Effect (DDE). The principle
of forfeiture grants innocents a right to self-defense; DDE addresses cases where an
act both promotes and works against natural values. In applying DDE, we must first
identify the act (A), the good effect (G), and the bad effect (B). To be morally
acceptable, a situation must then fulfill all four of DDE conditions: (1) the act must
not violate any moral principles; (2) the good effect must not depend upon the bad
effect; (3) we should intend only the good effect; and (4) the good effect must be
equal to or greater than the bad effect.
Natural law theory runs into some important problems. Most fundamentally, we
can ask what reason there is to think that the natural is good. There is also a
problem with what ―natural‖ is supposed to mean. There are, finally, some difficulties
with the DDE. One of these problems has to do with moral confirmation because its
conclusions sometimes go against our moral intuitions. Another problem involves its
practicability because it seems that a mere change in an act‘s description can yield
an entirely different moral judgment.
39 | P a g e
Rights theory: According to Locke, everyone has moral responsibility even in
the state of nature (before the institution of any civil authority). To have such moral
responsibility, a person must have control over his personal domain of autonomy.
The natural rights of life, health, and liberty help ensure that each person has this
kind of control over his life. Another natural right is that of property, which includes
everything within one‘s domain as well as everything that one makes her own by
adding her labor. Other rights and obligations can be derived from these basic rights.
**In a rights-based theory, other principles and values are derived from
fundamental rights. Alternately, a principle-based theory makes moral principles
primary and derives rights from these fundamental principles. (Because Locke‘s
natural rights depend on the first principle of natural law, his theory actually appears
to be principle-based.) Rights, like other values, can thus be either derived or
fundamental. Rights can also be classified as alienable or inalienable and as positive
or negative. The popular notion of ―human rights‖ should not be confused with
natural rights for human rights also include civil rights and so-called manifesto rights.
Manifesto rights, however, do not appear to be genuine rights.**
While appeals to rights can ―trump‖ other moral arguments, many people object
that rights are overemphasized. Appeals to rights at least need to be balanced by
appeals to responsibilities. Further, because it doesn‘t seem that any theory of rights
can yield a complete moral theory, rights will always need to be supplemented by
other moral values and principles.
40 | P a g e
Lesson 6 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. Are human rights granted by the state to man?
6-10. When Rizal was unjustly condemned to die, was shot and lost his life, did he
also lose his right to live. Explain.
11-15. What is the difference between a right and its exercise?
41 | P a g e
Module 1I: ETHICS
UNIT 2
TITLE: Special Ethics

a. Express and relate special ethics on their own experiences

b. Relate to different scenarios about practical issues happened in the society.
Introduction
Special Ethics take into account the context of the dilemma as well as the
convenient exception to the general ethic.
Right is that which is just, be this a just law, a just deed, a just dept, or a just
claim. Thus, in the subjective sense, right is a moral power residing in a person of
doing, possessing, or requiring something.
Lesson Outline
Special Ethics
2.1 Ethics and Love
2.3 Moral Philosophy of Democracy
2.4 Liberty and Law
42 | P a g e
2.1 Ethics and Love
Human person is the center and object of love. It is love and the worthiness to
be loved which forms the most distinctive feature of the human personality.
Love does not merely aim at qualities; one does not love qualities. Love aims at
the deepest reality, the most substantial hidden existing reality in the beloved-a
metaphysical center, deeper than all the qualities and essences which one can
discover and enumerate in the beloved.
A community of men is a society of persons thus, they should love one another
because they partake the same nature, purpose and destiny, no one should do
harm to anyone.
Ethics means doing of good and the practice of virtue to us these should all be
motivated by love. The whole complexus of moral laws and concepts can all be
summed up in one simple formula – love.
2.1.1 Love of Self and Others

The first law of nature is self-preservation which means self-love.
Suicide is a violation of the first law of nature.
True love of self does not exclude love for others, for love is never
selfish. The moral law commands us to love our neigbors because all
men have the same human nature; all have a common origin and
destiny. All are creatures of God and therefore, all are equal before
God. This is the basis of the view of the ―brotherhood of men under the
fatherhood of God‖. Practically, all religions or creeds is premised on
love, on the brotherhood of men.
2.1.2 Ethics and Justice

Love and justice are the two foundation stones of morality.
Justice is a moral virtue which comes as a fruit of the constant and
proper observance of rights and duties. Justitia est constant er
perpetua voluntas suum cuique tribuendi which is properly defined as
principle of rectitude and fairness in men‘s relations with each other.
While injustice, is the imposition of wrong on another, which also
means violation of the rights of another or others.
* Universality – an element of justice which requires that justice be

applied to all, and not merely to a particular group or class; and that
everyone is bound to everyone what is his due.
* Equality – is a fundamental principle of justice which demands that

justice is for all regardless of station or quality in life. It signifies that the
law must be applied to all without discrimination. For instance, in the
relation between the state and the citizen, the government should not
play favorites to any class or discriminate against any group or
individual.
43 | P a g e
Following considerations
 The first commandments, love God above all, is a dictate of
plain justice. For God is our Lord, Creator and All, and to love
Him fully is to give Him His due.
 Respect and love of parents is likewise a precept of justice and
the golden rule. We obey and love our parents obviously
because by our natural relation and dependence on them they
deserve our respect and love. Likewise, we ourselves like our
children to do the same with us later on.
 Killing, lying, stealing, bearing false witness, adultery and all
their forms are violations of the rule of justice, never to do any
harm to anyone whether it be against his life, his things, his
reputation, his family, his bodily integrity (from the golden rule,
these are wrong because we do not like these things to be done
to us).
The Bill of Rights in our constitution embody our fundamental rights such as
the right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness.
General Applications
1. Duties of the state to the citizens (distributive justice).
Examples: The government should render aid for education, the promotion of
social justice, the protection of labor, for sanitation etc.
2. Duties of the individual to the state (legal justice)
Examples: The citizen in turn has his duties to the state; for instance render
military service to the state.
3. Duties of an individual to another (commutative justice)
Examples: Every individual should render to another that which belongs to
him. The basis of this is the so called mutuality of rights and duties.
Duties of Justice – it follows from the principle of love and justice that it is
wrong to do anything harmful to the body, reputation and property of others.
Rights of the Individual

a. Self-defense. To kill unjust aggressor may be morally permissible when a)
there is imminent danger of losing life or great bodily possessions, b) there is
no other way to escape, c) no greater force can be inflicted than what is
required to ward off aggression.
b. Honor and Good Name. Any deliberate act that intends to destroy the good
reputation of another constitutes a grievous violation of the moral law.
“Adstortion” is a newly-coined word to signify the nefarious practice of
extorting money which consists in suppressing the publication of an article
derogatory to one‘s character provided that the intended victim plays a certain
amount of money to publisher.
c. Truthfulness. Moral truth is the conformity between what one says and what
one has in mind. Lying is intrinsically wrong for it is against the natural
purpose of speech and tends to disturb the social order because if men lie,
there will be no more mutual trust.
d. Mental Reservation. The making of statement which would seem a lie
without qualification but would not be a lie with the proper qualification
reserved in one‘s life. It is similar to giving a double meaning statement.
44 | P a g e
Family and Social Ethics
Ethics deals with human relations in a community and the basis is found in
family, the very unit of society. Thus, social ethics must include and begin with family
ethics.
 The duty of parents is the proper upbringing of children. The evil of
teenagerism is mainly due to the lack or neglect of moral guidance and
training on the part of parents for their children at home.
 Divorce is wrong. Anything destructive or detrimental to family life and unity
is likewise destructive of the social and moral order.
 Birth control. Rhythm method to limit the size of family or spacing children
is not morally wrong because it keeps intact the basic meaning of sex union
and the openness to offspring remains present, though for reasons of a social
economic, medical, eugenic character, it cannot be for the moment realized.
While, Artificial birth control is unethical not only because it destroys the
physiological structure of the two sexes because it is wounding conjugal love
which is the end and purpose of human sexual relation.
The church has consistently maintained its opposition if not condemnation of

contraception and abortion.
45 | P a g e
Module 2: Lesson 1 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. What is the intimate relation of ethics and love?
6-10. Why is suicide morally wrong?
11-15. What is mental reservation
16-20. Cite the moral objections against divorce?
21-30. Why is contraception morally wrong?
31-40. Explain and justify this definition of love: Love is unselfishness.
46 | P a g e
2.2.1 Pantheistic Theory of the State
Pantheism is the view that the world is either identical to God, or an
expression of God‘s nature. It comes from ‗pan‘ meaning all, and ‗theism,‘
which means belief in God. So according to pantheism, ―God is everything and
everything is God.‖
This may sound like a familiar Judeo-Christian concept, namely God‘s
immanence, which is the idea that God pervades or is ever-present throughout
the universe. However, pantheism differs from traditional theistic religions in
two important ways.
First, pantheism rejects the idea that God is transcendent. According to
traditional Western conceptions of God, He is an entity that is above and
beyond the universe. So, although God may be fully present in the universe, He
is also outside of it. Simply put, He transcends the totality of objects in the
world. When pantheists say that ―God is everything and everything is God,‖ this
is meant to capture that idea that God does not transcend the world.
A second important difference between pantheism and traditional theistic
religions is that pantheists also reject the idea of God‘s personhood. The
pantheist God is not a personal God, the kind of entity that could have beliefs,
desires, intentions, or agency. Unlike the traditional God of theism, the
pantheistic God does not have a will and cannot act in or upon the universe.
These are the kind of things that only a person, or a person-like entity, could
do. For the pantheist, God is the non-personal divinity that pervades all
existence. It is the divine Unity of the world.
2.2.2 Divine Right Theory
This is closely related to the Pantheistic Theory of the State. The ruler
according to this theory impersonates the state, whilst he himself holds his
office directly by divine right. He is then responsible directly to God alone and
need give no account to his subjects for his government.
2.2.3 Theory of Social Contract
Social contract theory says that people live together in society in accordance
with an agreement that establishes moral and political rules of behavior. Some
people believe that if we live according to a social contract, we can live morally
by our own choice and not because a divine being requires it.
Over the centuries, philosophers as far back as Socrates have tried to
describe the ideal social contract, and to explain how existing social contracts
have evolved. Philosopher Stuart Rachels suggests that morality is the set of
rules governing behavior that rational people accept, on the condition that
others accept them too.
Social contracts can be explicit, such as laws, or implicit, such as raising
one‘s hand in class to speak. The U.S. Constitution is often cited as an explicit
example of part of America‘s social contract. It sets out what the government
can and cannot do. People who choose to live in America agree to be governed
by the moral and political obligations outlined in the Constitution‘s social
contract.
Indeed, regardless of whether social contracts are explicit or implicit, they
provide a valuable framework for harmony in society.
2.2.4 The Theory of Rousseau
The belief that man, by nature, is good was espoused by the French
philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). He believed that people in
47 | P a g e
the state of nature were innocent and at their best and that they were corrupted
by the unnaturalness of civilization. In the state of nature, people lived entirely
for themselves, possessed an absolute independence, and were content.
According to Rousseau, in the state of nature, people tended to be
isolated, war was absent, and their desires were minimal and circumscribed
(i.e., commensurate with their basic survival needs). People did not have the
drive to acquire more possessions. There was plenty to go around, an absence
of reliance on others, and no real need for extensive social interaction.
However, there did exist an unreflective sympathy and general compassion
toward others that was indiscriminate and not based on merits.
In the state of nature egoism was absent and compassion was present.
Rousseau saw compassion for the undeserving in particular and for mankind in
general to be the greatest of the virtues. He regarded contempt of another,
which could lead to hurt feelings, as a vice and as always bad. Rousseau
wanted no one's feelings to be hurt. He felt that a proper society had no place
for blame, criticism, judgment, comparison with others, and the distinction of
worth among men. He said it was wrong to recognize distinctions because this
makes people unequal. It was worse to be affronted than to be injured. What
mattered to Rousseau was a person's good intentions rather than his
achievements or outer appearances.
Rousseau proclaimed the natural goodness of man and believed that one
man by nature is just as good as any other. For Rousseau, a man could be just
without virtue and good without effort. According to Rousseau, man in the state
of nature was free, wise, and good and the laws of nature were benevolent. It
follows that it was civilization that enslaved and corrupted man and made him
unnatural. Because in the order of nature all men were equal, it also follows
that distinction and differentiation among men are the products of culture and
civilization. Because man is by nature a saint, it must be the corrupting
influence of society that is responsible for the misconduct of the individual.
2.2.5 The Christian Concept of the State

A true concept of the government must consider ad give justice to both
elements: of subjects and rulers, of governors and governed which cannot
never be separated from each other in the realm of true politics.
Psychological Principles
- Man is a social being
- Man is not only an individual but also a person.
48 | P a g e
Module 2
Lesson 2 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. Explain the pantheistic theory of the state and criticize it.
6-10. Explain the divine right theory.
11-15. What is mental reservation
16-20. Criticize the social contract theory of Rousseau.
49 | P a g e
2.3 The Moral Philosophy of Democracy
The moral principles underlying the democratic concepts:
a. Human Liberty – Liberty is the freedom to do what one ought. Moral freedom
is the freedom to do what is allowed by law, freedom to do what is right.
b. Equality of all Men- Each individual regardless of social or financial status
and other distinctions, is a person as such as equal to any other person. It is
enunciated in the constitution that equal opportunities, equality before the law,
equal rights and privileges.
c. Confraternity – Since all have a common origin, a common nature and a
common destiny, all are one-members of the same community.
d. Common good, pursuit of happiness - for being all members of one society,
men are united with common ties of understanding, friendship, love, and the unity
of purpose.
e. Authority and Law – Moral power of Law - this is a basic unit tenet of
democracy as of any good government. Authority solicits power. Without power,
authority is dead. Laws from proper authority are binding in conscience. Authority
means right, it is to be obeyed. Subjects have the moral obligation to obey lawful
authority.
f. Divine Providence – which rules and guides the destinies of nations.
Democracy is primarily based on the doctrines of rights, duties and the common
good all of which have no or little meaning unless there be a first cause which is
the ultimate source of all rights, all laws and obligations and all good.
Right of Revolution
The right of revolution is not a right that is defined and protected by the
Constitution but a natural right. It would be absurd for a constitution to authorize
revolutionary challenges to its authority. However, it would not have been absurd
for the preamble to the Constitution to have acknowledged the right of revolution.
Recognition of the right of revolution is, in this view, implicit in the
recognition of human equality. A people who recognize that they are equal
members of the same species—that no human being is the natural ruler of
another—accept that the inequalities necessarily involved in government are not
natural but must be "instituted" and operated by "consent"; and that the primary
end of government is not the promotion of the interests of one allegedly superior
class of human beings but the security of all citizens' equal rights to "life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness." It follows that it is the right and the duty of such a
people to change their government when it persistently fails to effect this end.
This right and duty, the Declaration says, belongs not to all peoples but only to
those enlightened peoples who recognize human equality and natural rights, and
who will therefore exercise their revolutionary right to establish right-securing
government by consent.
Right to Inflict Capital Punishment

State has the right to inflict capital punishment, it does not mean that the State
must always exercise its rights.
For example, death penalty, it is not the state that deprives him of the right to
live but by his own crime that has forfeited his right to justly assert this right.
50 | P a g e
Module 2
Lesson 3 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. Can all men be absolutely equal? Does the democratic principle of equality
mean that all men should be equal in all things?
6-10. Explain ―Man has a destiny that transcends the state‖.
11-15. From the moral standpoint can man be entirely considered as part of the
state?
51 | P a g e
2.4 Liberty and Law
2.4.1 Reality and Universality of the Problem
In the case of man, the only free and rational being on earth. God leads
man to his supreme goal (happiness) in accordance with his free nature not
by physical force as He does with the other creatures but by appeal to his
reason and free will – by LOVE. The ultimate end of man as taught in
Christian Ethics, is the attainment of his supreme purpose – everlasting life
and happiness with God for God created man with the inborn desire for
perfection and happiness and with prerogative to perfect and improve
himself, his life.
2.4.2 Our Own Approach to the Problem
The moral law in particular implies both liberty and obligation. It
implies liberty because by definition the moral law governs only the free
volitional acts of human beings. It implies obligation because it is only
human being, rational and free, that can be obliged or commanded.
2.4.3 From Logic, Semantics and Science

Man is free physically and free morally. The principle of contradiction
states:
It is impossible for one and the same thing to be and not to be at the
same time in the same sense, in the same manner.
In Logic, it is illogical and absurd to affirm and deny one and the same
statement in the same respect, with the same meaning of the terms
used.
Law Perfects Liberty

Man can attain perfect liberty by leading a good upright life, by constantly
conforming his actions with the moral law, he can attain his greatest perfection –
union with the All Perfect Being. Man shares in the infinite perfection of God. His
liberty becomes perfect by participation in the perfect liberty of God.
52 | P a g e
Module 2
Lesson 4 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. Explain the statement, ―Man liberty becomes perfect by participation in the
perfect liberty of God.
53 | P a g e
Mysticism – is often viewed as belonging to the class of indefinable – too subtle
for the human mind to categorize into clean- cut, man-made definitions.
According to Christian Ethics:
1. Man seeks his own perfection which he can find only in an all- perfect Being,
the Boundless Good.
2. The absolutely ultimate end of all human activities is found in bliss or beatitude,
the possession of and union with Summum Bonum.
3. The ultimate norm of the morality of human acts is the Divine Nature, the Divine
Pattern.
2.5.1 Morality & Mysticism
conformity with that of the Lawgiver.

vine
Exemplar.
activities is beatitude in God.

The intimate relation between ETHICS and MYSTICISM
 boundless GOOD
 Summum Bonum
 Supreme purpose of human living
 Universal as mankind
Different Ways Towards Divine Union the Christian Way

 By receiving God in holy communion.
 Meditation & Contemplation of the divine truths.
 Constant imitation of the Divine Model
 Foremost and above all - LOVE
Oriental Mysticism
- Man‘s highest good & happiness is to be found in attainment union with the all-
pervading ultimate reality (Brahma) by being unselfish, desireless.
Chinese Mysticism
- According to Lao Tzu , a great Chinese philosopher, mystic union is attained by
living naturally, by simply being what you really are in your original nature- by
nature one with the ONE.
54 | P a g e
Module 2
Lesson 4 Evaluation
Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________
Course/Major: _______________________
Test I. Essay
1-5. What is mysticism?
6-10. What is the connection of ethics and mysticism?
11-15. What does it mean to be unselfish?
16-20. Explain the paradox, ―To be unselfish is to be your true self‖
55 | P a g e
Module III: ETHICS
UNIT 3
TITLE: Work and Professional Ethics

a. Evaluate common beliefs about ethics—especially common beliefs about the role
of ethics in business.
b. Reflect on the nature of business, realize alternatives models for conducting
business.
c. Apply moral reasoning to specific situations and defend the conclusions of that
reasoning.
d. Evaluate the ethics of particular business decisions and general practices in
business.
Introduction
(From Wikipedia)
Work ethic is a belief that hard work and diligence have a moral benefit and an
inherent ability, virtue or value to strengthen character and individual abilities. It is a
set of values centered on importance of work and manifested by determination or
desire to work hard. Social ingrainment of this value is considered to enhance
character through hard work that is respective to an individual's field of work.
Lesson Outline

3.1.7 Expectations from the Public Servants in Governance
3.1.8 Develop a Strong Work Ethics
3.2 Ethical Self Awareness
56 | P a g e

(From Wikipedia)
Work ethic is a belief that hard work and diligence have a moral benefit and an
inherent ability, virtue or value to strengthen character and individual abilities. It is a
set of values centered on importance of work and manifested by determination or
desire to work hard. Social ingrainment of this value is considered to
enhance character through hard work that is respective to an individual's field of
work.
Factors of a good work ethic

A good work ethic is the process of questioning, discovering and defending
our values and purpose.[3] Proponents of a strong work ethic consider it to be vital for
achieving goals, that it gives strength to their orientation and the right mindset. A
work ethic is a set of moral principles a person uses in their job. People who possess
a strong work ethic embody certain principles that guide their work behaviour; to
develop and process a strong work ethic will inevitably result in the production of
high-quality work which is consistent. The output motivates them to stay on track. A
good work ethic fuels an individual's needs and goals, it is related to the initiative by
a person for the objectives. It is considered as a source of self-respect, satisfaction,
and fulfilment.
Factors are:
1. Goal-oriented actions: It is not about making plans or the next logical steps;
it's about getting things done so that the work invested wouldn't be counter-
productive.
2. Prioritized focus: Focusing on qualitative activities that a person is responsible
for and in areas where they can make a difference or a high impact based on
objectives.
3. Being available and reliable: Spending time on the work and building oneself
up for the task.
4. Conscientiousness: A desire to do a task well, being vigilant and organized.
5. Creating a rewarding routine/system: Engaging in tasks that provide strength
and energy which can be transferred to your ultimate goals, creating a habit
and a habitat for success.
6. Embracing positivism: Shape a problem with the statement "good, (action)
(problem)", e.g. "I'm tired and it is time for a workout" leads to "Good.
Workout tired".
A negative work ethic is a behavior of a single individual or a group that has led
to a systematic lack of productivity, reliability, accountability and a growing sphere of
unprofessional/unhealthy relationships (e.g., power politics, lack of social skills, etc.).
(From Work Ethics for Development Professionals Training Manual)
Work ethic is a value based on hard work and diligence. It is also a belief in
the moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character. An example would be
the Protestant work ethic. A work ethic may include being reliable, having initiative,
or pursuing new skills.
Workers exhibiting a good work ethic in theory should be selected for better
positions, more responsibility and ultimately promotion. Workers who fail to exhibit a
57 | P a g e
good work ethic may be regarded as failing to provide fair value for the wage the
employer is paying them and should not be promoted or placed in positions of
greater responsibility.
Work ethic is basically the belief that work is a good moral. Its also refers to a
sets of values that are defined and characterized by diligence and hard work. Work
ethic can as well be defined as the inherent ability of work to strengthen character.

Work Ethics For Successful Careers
Today‘s business environment is not only fast-paced, but also highly
competitive. In order to keep pace and stay ahead, possession of several key work
ethics is a plus for achieving a successful career. Holding key traits such as
attendance, character, teamwork, appearance, and attitude add value to both you as
a person and your company. Successful careers come in many flavors, but work
ethics are a main ingredient in most recipes for success.
Whether one is a student or an employee, attendance is mandatory to ensure
success in your personal life. Attendance in the classroom is critical for learning new
skills and techniques. Having this knowledge opens doors and presents
opportunities for career minded people. As one enters the workplace, attendance is
necessary to meet the timely obligations of this fast-paced environment. Whether
attending classes or taking on the role of CEO, knowing one‘s schedule is very
important. To ensure that a schedule is followed, adequate rest and reliable
transportation should be top priorities. Absences from school or work should be
reported as soon as possible. This gives authorities time to find another person to
help perform your duties while you are away. Plan to return to the workplace as
quickly as possible.
Character is how others perceive someone. Much like an actor who plays a
role, the character traits that one possesses portray an image in others‘ minds.
One‘s character develops as actions become habits. These habits reveal one‘s
character. Eventually, this role determines the outcome of one‘s life. Being aware of
your actions and habits plus improving on faults strengthens one‘s character.
Common sense and barbers have long known that two heads are better than
one. Teamwork is what gives strength to a working force. Prejudices and
stereotyping have no home in teamwork. Respect evicted them. Learning to
cooperate with your teammates as well as being assertive is important in keeping
track of things. Treat customers with genuine respect and manners. They are your
friends. Team members should constantly stay up to date with new learning
opportunities, but at the same time, keep confidential information private. Your trust
is assumed and expected.
Appearance is one work ethic that really shows. Take pride in how people
perceive you. Your clothes should be clean and pressed. Make a habit of bathing
daily along with such necessities as brushing your teeth and breathing. Behavior
affects appearance. Learn to be polite and attend to people‘s needs.
A professional attitude towards yourself and your chosen career is critical.
Learn to adapt to the many, multifaceted wonders of life. Be open and accept the
changes that will surely come. No one likes anyone who brags or whines constantly.
Let your language show positive ideas. Your customers also deserve the same
professionalism that is expected by all. Be happy. Let others know that you are there
to help.
58 | P a g e
Work ethics have been the backbone of success for centuries. By taking the
time to develop great work ethics whether one is in the classroom or the workplace,
success will be there for you. Combining work ethics with professional skills invites
success to a celebration, and that celebration is all about you.

A work ethic of any kind not only includes how you feel about your place of
employment or position but also how you perform the duties of your job. According to
All About Philosophy's website, a work ethic includes your attitude, communication
abilities, behavior toward coworkers, honesty and accountability. What sets a
positive work ethic apart from a negative work ethic is the focus on confidence and
encouraging interactions with coworkers. Your attitude toward your job and position
in a positive work ethic is just that -- positive. You arrive at work with a smile on your
face, focused on the task at hand and committed to performing your duties to the
best of your ability.
A work ethic, especially a positive work ethic, is important from a business
perspective for the confidence it breeds in clients and consumers. Your positive
attitude and dedication to a client's needs or creation of a product can boost your
business' reputation as a company that deals honestly and fairly. Ethics also work to
build a moral compass within a business and helps discourage attitudes and
business models that seek to cut corners in the name of making a profit.

Employers who emphasize a positive work ethic must be absolute in maintaining
the environment for it to thrive according to the Global Ethics University. This means
a business can allow no room for moral ambiguity, rationalization or ego in its
positive work ethics model. Otherwise the strategy may fail. Just one rogue
executive taking excessive privileges, such as private trips on a company plane, can
ruin all the good will built by a positive work ethic. Effects
Ethics spring from within and are difficult to teach in the traditional sense
according to All About Philosophy's website. That doesn't mean a positive work ethic
can't be contagious. An employee who accepts each job with equal tenacity and
dedication forces co-workers to follow suit or risk being left behind. A worker who
does all this with a smile on his face can help others to enjoy the job a little more,
thereby increasing productivity and worker morale.

When you have a good work ethic, you are dedicated to job that you deem
valuable. You hold yourself to high standards of responsibility. You also keep
yourself accountable for getting work done right and on time, and for making
good business decisions that help people and companies succeed. Having a
solid work ethic means you understand that productivity, organizational skills,
being reliable and possessing good character are all attributes that successful
people share.
1. Honest
Stealing personal property, sabotaging a coworker's client presentation, or taking
someone's idea and making it your own are all ways that dishonesty creeps into the
workplace. Employees with strong ethics refrain from lying or cheating to make
59 | P a g e
others look bad in the hopes of making themselves appear smarter. Instead, they
take responsibility for mistakes, own up to failures and keep the lines of
communication open with everyone involved.
2. Refrains From Gossip

Workplace gossip can be destructive. When employees gossip about their peers,
bosses or even clients, it's considered deviant behavior. An employee with good
workplace ethics refuses to engage in gossip or even listen it. This person will
encourage others to mind their own business, or else address the person or situation
head-on so that assumptions and badmouthing can stop. Doing so helps eliminate
resentment among coworkers and helps keep morale up.
3. Values Diversity
People with a good work ethic understand the importance of a diverse workplace.
When you value everybody's contributions -- regardless of ability, age, gender or
race -- it allows for more creativity and better problem solving. Diversity in the
workplace contributes to successful client interactions. Overall, employee morale is
higher.
4. Respects Others.
An employee with a strong work ethic is rarely late. You respect everyone's time,
from coworkers to clients to interviewees. You're also polite, conscientious of
people's feelings and considerate of workers in a shared workspace. In addition,
someone with a strong work ethic uses time wisely so that deadlines are met. You'll
keep personal phone conversations quiet and not disrupt others. Out of respect,
you'll also hear and consider everyone's opinions.
5. Cooperative
Having a good work ethic means you cooperate with others. While work may not
always be satisfying or enjoyable, you see the bigger picture and do what is
necessary for the team and company. Instead of debating every issue and finding
reasons why things can't get done, you use strong conflict resolution skills to solve
problems and manage the workload.

Need to imbue ethics in Public Servants
Government employees collect taxes, expend public funds, control and allot
natural resources and other revenue earning items and gather and process
information for the purpose of decision making, enacting laws and public policies.
They are also involved in delivery/implementation of - justice, public services such as
education, health etc., government flagship programmes, welfare measures and also
involved in redress of public grievances. They deal with elections, day-to-day
regulatory functions, law and order and many other unforeseen events too.
Unethical conduct as displayed by some of the Public Servants
 Indulging in Corruption in high places by colluding with politicians,
contractors, corporate groups etc.
 Committing Petty bribery
 Misuse of power for personal benefits
 Biased decisions to favour influential persons
 Pilferage of public funds from government schemes and projects
60 | P a g e
 Manipulation/withholding of information
 Deliberate delays in service delivery
 Non-application of mind, negligence and dereliction of duty
 Collusion with tax payers to cheat the public exchequer
 Intellectual dishonesty
 Not speaking truth/hiding truth to please bosses out of fear of reprisal
 Misuse of government facilities
 Nepotism
 Cover up of - Crime, Frauds and Financial irregularities
 Being a party to electoral malpractices etc.
 Abdication of responsibility and passing the buck
Expectations from the Public Servants in Governance
 Humanism and positive thinking in government servants

 To imbue purity in thought, speech and action
 Realizing the dignity of being a government servant
 Appreciating his/her placement in government as an opportunity to serve
the society rather than a lucrative position to amass wealth
 Understanding the sanctity of Public Funds so that they utilize them
without leakages thereby providing maximum benefit to the citizens
 Ability to satisfy himself/herself with the government salary and benefits
and to imbue the philosophy of ‗Simple living and high thinking‘
 Display of ‗Sense of justice and impartiality‘ during decision making,
 Ability to stand up to truth despite adversity, fears and threats
 Develop self-confidence & faith in oneself and in one‘s ideas even if
everyone condemns them as wrong
 Motivate them to be the change they want to see in the society Fresh
thinking, renewed energy and rejuvenation to do something extra-ordinary
and useful to the society
 Empathy for citizens, especially for vulnerable sections of society such as
women, children, elderly and differently abled persons.
 Inculcate ‗Rational thinking‘, ‗Self-accountability‘ and ‗Self-transparency‘
which are benchmarks of ethical conduct.
 Finally, to motivate the employees to adhere to higher ideals in life and to
walk on the path of truth and righteousness, come what may, and become
a role model for others in the society.
3.1.7 Developing a Strong Work Ethic.

If you put your all into your work, good things will come to you.
No matter how tough life gets, if you put your all into your work, good things will
come to you. Staying positive, refusing to procrastinate and maintaining your focus
are all necessary ingredients to building a strong and rewarding work ethic.
Other strategies to becoming a great worker are setting a goal of dependability,
always meeting deadlines and stepping up to fill unmet needs.
Let's look closer at each of these methods to construct a sturdy work ethic:
1. Stay positive. You've probably heard the expression, "Attitude is everything".

That's definitely true when you're working on creating a resilient work ethic. Your
work improves when you approach it with a positive attitude. No matter what, staying
61 | P a g e
positive about your tasks will help you become a rock star at work. You'll not only
stand out to your supervisor, but your colleagues will notice, too.
2. Refuse to procrastinate. Although you may be tempted to put off doing certain
tasks or projects, make "Do it right now" your mantra. You'll find that often jobs are
quickly and easily done in less time than you would have spent obsessing about the
task.
3. Keep your focus. When your plans are clear, you'll get more work done in less
time. Put a sticky note on your calendar and computer. Organize your desk the day
before you plan to start that huge project. Start focused and stay focused. You'll work
like a machine when you devote your attention on the subject at hand.
4. Set a goal of dependability. When you go the extra mile to complete your work,
people will learn to trust that when you're given a job, you'll do it. Endeavor to be
known as the one whom your boss and co-workers can always depend on to get the
job done.
5. Always meet deadlines. This point is crucial to developing a strong work ethic. Do
whatever you have to do to meet a deadline. Of course, the best way to ensure you
consistently meet deadlines is to negotiate in advance of taking on the task, so you
have a bit of a say in the schedule.
In the event your supervisor assigns you a project that must be done by a certain
date in the near future, clarify right away with your boss what he sees as your
priorities. This way, you've gained permission to alter the due dates on some of your
other tasks to take on the urgent project.
If you communicate right away any concerns you have about deadlines, you're in
a position to negotiate some of them. The bottom line is you'll ultimately be meeting
deadlines approved by your supervisor.
6. Step up to fill unmet needs. Volunteering to take on gaps in labor will make
every supervisor you work for the happiest person in the world. We've all been on a
committee where jobs were being assigned, the moderator got to a certain task and
everyone shrank up or whispered, "Oh, I'm not taking that job!" A person with a
strong work ethic views these situations as opportunities to stretch himself and show
what he can do.
You might even discover a special talent you possess when you volunteer to take
on a job. Consider it another line on your resume when you agree to write the
department manual or perform some other task. Learn to step forward to fill unmet
needs.
When you follow these suggestions, you'll develop great confidence in your work.
Plus, you'll discover that you built something durable for your future: a strong work
ethic that will bring you pride, joy and wealth for years to come.
Developing a Good Work Ethic Requires Real Work

Some people seem content to work just hard enough to complete the task at
hand. These people are displaying what can be called a poor work ethic. Other
people work hard to complete their appointed rounds, but they are not really
concerned with the quality of their work. These people are displaying a mediocre
work ethic. There are people, however, who work diligently throughout the entire
process of a job or task, and they always do a very good job no matter how much
time and effort they must expend. These people are showing everybody around
them that they possess a positive or solid work ethic. In this highly competitive world,
whether people are looking for jobs, completing degree programs at colleges or
62 | P a g e
universities, or simply acting as solid citizens, they should show the world that it is
both ethical and necessary to work very hard at each and every task that arises.
As early as elementary school or even kindergarten, young students should be
taught that sticking with a task until it is done well is quite important. Teachers in
elementary school should model actions and behaviors that illustrate a positive work
ethic. Youngsters should realize that any task worth beginning is well worth
completing by doing the best job possible. A good example can be seen in the most
rudimentary activity a young student performs in elementary school—coloring. When
students are instructed to color a certain page in a coloring book or on an activity
sheet, they should be instructed to take their time to do the best job they can. The
teacher should model for the students a process through which the youngsters can
color the picture little by little, taking their time to use correct colors staying inside the
lines as much as possible. Students who are in a hurry to complete the task in a
haphazard fashion should be urged to slow down in order to focus on doing a quality
job. Even this seemingly simplistic task can teach students the valuable lesson of
working hard at all times and producing the best final product possible. The sooner
people learn this lesson, the easier it will be for them to acquire a positive work ethic.
By the time students get to high school or college, their work ethic has already
been established, and it will be put to the test through the various final products they
will be asked to complete. Students with a positive work ethic will succeed much
more readily than students with a mediocre or poor work ethic. At this level the work
becomes more in depth and more difficult. Students are left to their own devices
much more often, and the ability to work independently is a necessity. Therefore,
exhibiting a positive work ethic is actually expected of these students from freshman
year to senior year, in high school, college, or at the university. The perfect example
of the necessity of a positive work ethic can be seen in the assignment of a research
paper in just about any class. Usually students are instructed how to begin the paper
and where to find valuable sources, but until the paper is due in the weeks or months
to come, they are left on their own. Students who do not possess the drive and
perseverance to complete the paper on their own will most assuredly do a poor job,
thus receiving a poor grade. This goes to show that a good work ethic consists of
more than just hard, consistent work. Time management, intuitive thinking, foresight,
and, of course, diligence all make up a solid work ethic. Successful students typically
receive high grades, and the grades are the direct result of a positive work ethic.
Successful employees in all walks of professional life also need to bring a
positive work ethic to the workplace. Competition for jobs in contemporary society is
intense; employers are thus able to scrutinize their prospective employees quite
carefully. Naturally, an employer is looking to hire somebody who is willing to tackle
any task and complete it to the best of his ability in the most expeditious way. In
other words the employer is looking for an employee who possesses a solid work
ethic and is proud to show everybody that he relishes the thought of working hard.
If two employees are vying for the same position within a company, their
supervisor will most likely give them both a similar project to complete. The
employee who does the best job on the project within the allotted time will receive
the promotion. If both employees complete the task within the allotted time, the
employee who has done the best work will receive the promotion. More often than
not, the best work is a direct result of the best work ethic. There is no substitute for
hard work on the jobsite; employers love to see the results of a positive work ethic.
On the job, in college or at a university, in high school, or in primary school,
people must work hard to succeed. Nobody sets out to fail, but succeeding is not as
63 | P a g e
simple as merely beginning a task. The late President Richard Nixon once said,
―People do not plan to fail; they fail to plan.‖ He was alluding to work ethic. People
generally try hard to succeed, but if they do not bring their plans for success to
fruition, they will most assuredly fail. Planning every step of a process on the way to
success is an important part of a positive work ethic. Some people might think that
working hard comes naturally, and perhaps for some this is true. However, as
redundant as it sounds, a positive work ethic begins with one main ingredient—real
work!
3.2 What is self-awareness?
Anyone who is dedicated to self-improvement, personal development or the

higher goal of spiritual growth needs to actively seek to understand oneself. This is
because only when one understands where one lacks, can he or she focus their
efforts on what to improve.
Definition of self-awareness:
1. Self-awareness is the capacity that a person has to introspect.
2. It includes gaining an understanding of and insight into one‘s strengths, qualities,
weaknesses, defects, ideas, thoughts, beliefs, ideals, responses, reactions,
attitude, emotions and motivations.
3. Thus introspection also includes assessing how one is perceived by others and
4. How others are impacted based on one‘s behaviour, responses and conduct.
Psychologists often break self-awareness down into two different types, either public
or private.
a. Public Self-Awareness: This type emerges when people are aware of how they
appear to others. Public self-awareness often emerges in situations when people are
at the centre of attention, such as when giving a presentation or talking to a group of
friends. This type of self-awareness often compels people to adhere to social norms.
When we are aware that we are being watched and evaluated, we often try to
behave in ways that are socially acceptable and desirable. In short we display our
best behaviour, which may not be reflective of our true personality. Public self-
awareness can also lead to ‗evaluation anxiety‘ in which people become distressed,
anxious, or worried about how they are perceived by others.
b. Private Self-Awareness: This type happens when people become aware of some
aspects of themselves, but only in a private way. For example, seeing your face in
the mirror is a type of private self-awareness. Feeling your stomach lurch when you
realize you forgot to study for an important test or feeling your heart flutter when you
see someone you are attracted to are also good examples of private self-awareness.
Close family members and friends are privy to some aspects of our private self as
we let our guard down in front of them. Hence, they become invaluable aides in
helping us assess ourselves.
As we practice becoming more aware of ourselves and how we are perceived by

others, we learn many more shades of our characteristics to a minute level. Hence
we are in a better position to overcome our personality defects and understand
64 | P a g e
where our strengths lie. In the following paragraphs, we will examine some of the
ways one can increase one‘s self-awareness.
How to increase self-awareness
A. By observing oneself
To understand our personality, we need to understand the nature of our mind.
The mind is made up of two parts – the conscious and sub-conscious mind. The sub-
conscious mind is vast and the impressions that are buried deep inside are not easy
to uncover and analyse. However, ever so often during the day one‘s mind erupts
and reacts to some events and situations negatively. As a result, one feels a certain
amount of restlessness and emotions such as insecurity, fear or anger. Most of us
plod on through our daily lives not taking a moment to pause and introspect as to
why we experienced that emotion in the first place. In fact, through such situations in
one‘s day-to-day life, one‘s mind, by reacting negatively to situations and events
opens up a window and gives one a vignette into its nature. If one is alert and
objective in one‘s outlook, one can follow the pathway through the window that the
mind opens up. As a result, through this process one begins to gain greater self-
awareness as to how one‘s mind works and how it responds to various stimuli. This
is known as metacognition, which means having awareness and understanding of
one‘s own thought processes. This particular type of self-development pertains to
becoming conscious of one‘s own body and mental state of being including thoughts,
actions, ideas, feelings and interactions with others. It is therefore the first step in
overcoming negative emotions and reactions.
A person generally responds negatively to situations and events due to
impressions of personality defects in the sub-conscious mind.
B. Someone providing us with feedback or telling our mistake
―Turn that music down Raul‖, Raul‘s father shouted. ―There is not a moment‘s
peace in this house with you continuously playing such loud music.‖ Raul cursed
under his breath and sullenly turned the volume of the music down.
It is never easy to take negative feedback from others about our actions or our life. In
such times, thoughts such as, ‗why can‘t they understand me‘, ‗I am not like that‘ and
‗I do not want to hear about it‘ will often cross our mind.
Suppose Raul stopped for a moment and looked at the situation objectively; he
would probably learn a thing or two about how others perceived him. When other
people give us some feedback however stern it may be, it provides us with a clue as
to how we are perceived by others. If someone has experienced pain due to our
actions, it is mostly due to some personality defect in us that is causing our action to
impact others adversely.
C. Observing someone else’s mistake and then introspecting
Jeremy and Ruth were arguing about household chores. Ruth insisted that
Jeremy was not doing enough at home while Jeremy continued to provide lame
excuses about why he was unable to do the household chores on time. When their
65 | P a g e
friend Mark overheard their argument, he realised that he was the same as Jeremy.
Now as a third person and not being emotionally involved, Mark could objectively
see that Jeremy‘s lame excuses were childish and illogical, and were exasperating
his wife Ruth. Seeing the impact of this, Mark made a mental resolve to overcome
his own laziness and help his own wife at home without making any excuses.
This is an example of how when one observes a situation that involves other
people, one gains a greater understanding of oneself. As one may not be
emotionally involved in the situation, one is more objective and hence the ability to
learn is more.
Sometimes stronger impressions in our subconscious mind surface in our dreams
to the extent that we are able to remember the dream and even learn about our
mind. One seeker had a dream where she was experiencing fear before going on
stage to deliver a lecture. She woke up in a sweat and could not go back to sleep for
over an hour. Such kinds of dreams are worth introspecting upon as they may shed
some light on deeper issues in our sub-conscious mind.
In summary
 Becoming self-aware is the first step in overcoming personality defects.
 Self-awareness can be achieved through observing one‘s own mistakes, asking
others for feedback, observing others mistakes objectively and through some
dreams.
 Whenever one becomes emotionally unstable, restless or upset one should
become alert as on deeper introspection, it usually provides insight into some
personality defect that has been triggered.
 We should be open to learning about ourselves and have the courage to take
feedback from others. By this we can objectively analyse our mistakes and find
practical solutions to change for the better.
66 | P a g e
References
Montemayor, Felix (2012). Ethics The Philosophy of Life.
Popkin, Richard H. History of Skepticism. Retrieved from at

https://www.britannica.com/topic/skepticism
Solomon, David Wm. Becker, Lawrence C. "Double Effect," The Encyclopedia of

Ethics
Retrieved at
http://sites.saintmarys.edu/~incandel/doubleeffect.html#:~:text=The%20Principl
e%20of%20Double%20Effect&text=This%20principle%20aims%20to%20provi
de,also%20bring%20about%20bad%20results.
Limayo, Christian. Modifiers of Human Acts. Retrieved at

https://www.academia.edu/14923721/MODIFIERS_OF_HUMAN_ACTS#:~:text
=PRINCIPLES%20OF%20PASSION%20(Concupiscence)%20%EF%82%B7,2
.
Surbhi S (2015). Difference Between Law and Ethics. Retrieved at

https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-law-and-ethics.html
Maguire, Laura (2012). Pantheism. Retrieved at

https://www.philosophytalk.org/blog/pantheism#:~:text=Pantheism%20is%20th
e%20view%20that,everything%20and%20everything%20is%20God.%E2%80
%9D
Social Contract Theory (2020). Retrieved at

https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/social-contract-theory
Younkins, Edward W. (2005). Rousseu‘s General Will. Retrieved at

http://www.quebecoislibre.org/05/050715-
16.htm#:~:text=The%20belief%20that%20man%2C%20by,by%20the%20unnat
uralness%20of%20civilization.&text=Rousseau%20wanted%20no%20one's%2
0feelings%20to%20be%20hurt.
Right Of Revolution (2020). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved at
https://www.encyclopedia.com/politics/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/right-revolution
Wikipedia.com
https://www.domuni.eu/en/learning/foundations-of-ethics/#_Toc401244593
http://faculty.wwu.edu/gmyers/ehe.relat.html
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2015). Retrieved at

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/
Ethical Choices: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy with Cases. Oxford University

Press. USA. Retrieved at
67 | P a g e
https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780195332957/student/chapter
10/summary/
Training Program on ―Work Ethics for Development Professionals‖ Retrieved at

https://www.manage.gov.in/studymaterial/workethics.pdf
Ethics Self-Assessment. Retrieved at https://www.ache.org/about-ache/our-

story/our-commitments/ethics/ethics-self-assessment
68 | P a g e

Module GE 118 ETHICS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module GE 118 ETHICS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module GE 118 ETHICS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

ZAMBOANGA CITY STATE POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

GE 118 Date Developed: Document No. ZCSPC-VITALI LM 2020

1. Recognize the essential concepts of ethics.

SUGGESTED STUDY SCHEDULE

Module II Special Ethics

Module III Work and Professional Ethics

Evaluative Assessment Activities

No. CRITERIA PERCENTAGE (%)

Module III 56-66

TITLE: General Ethics

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

a. Recognize the essential concepts of ethics.

1.1 Foundation of Ethics

a. What is the supreme purpose of human living?

Ethics, like philosophy, is in search of principles and universals. Ethics reflects

Freedom, law, duty, responsibility, morality are imperceptible and intangible

Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, in Western philosophy, the attitude of

Untenability of Moral Skepticism and Relativism

 Anything is okay as long as one lives by own principles (hypocrisy,

 Rests on two premises:

3. What are the similarities and differences of skepticism and relativism?

4. What are the differences of moral subjectivism and moral objectivism?

A. Core Areas of Ethics

1. Normative Ethics of Behavior -- the attempt to discover a criterion of morally right

B. Other Areas of Ethics

Definitions of Ethics (which are fundamentally the same)

Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences

4. Ethics and Economics. Man also is an economic being because he has to

Morality and Other Phases of Human Life

1. Ethics and Education

2. Morality and Law

3. Ethics and Art.

5. Religion and Ethics

_______1. Which of the following core areas of ethics attempt to discover

Test II. Essay

1-5. Give two definitions of ethics and explain.

6-10. What is the importance of ethics?

Show the similarity and the difference between:

21-25. Ethics and Economics

Morality refers to that quality of goodness or badness in a human act. There

Norm of Morality means:

1.3.2 Human Acts in ethics means:

1.3.3 Voluntariness and Responsibility

The fundamental concepts of Ethics; ethics, morality, human acts,

2. Between morality and voluntariness. Only voluntary acts have a moral

4. Responsibility and voluntariness. There can be responsibility only if there

The notion of voluntariness is most basic and inseparable from Ethics.

Immoral vs. Amoral

Moral vs. Normal

Peculiarity and Perversity

Further study on Voluntariness

Perfect Voluntariness – with full knowledge and consent.

Indirect Voluntary Act – called as voluntary in causa. An act which is not

The Principle of Double Effect

Classical formulations of the principle of double effect require that four

1. The action contemplated be in itself either morally good or morally

Each of these conditions has, however, been a matter of considerable

The fourth condition, by bringing in the notion of proportionality, has seemed