The Human Knowledge Mindmap The Guide To Studying, Learning, Thinking & Working in The Knowledge Society

THE HUMAN KNOWLEDGE MINDMAP
The guide to studying, learning,

thinking & working in the
knowledge society.
Contents
Introduction
How to Use the MindMap ………………….pg 2
MindMap Methodology …………………….pg 3
MindMap Rationale …………………………pg 5
MindMap Diagram …………………………..pg 7
Please read the introductory guidelines for an explanation of

the MindMap. This version of the MindMap is provided for
Internet viewing only. The copying, printing, and editing
functions have NOT been enabled. To buy a CD of the MindMap
that can be viewed and printed contact [email protected]
How to use THE HUMAN KNOWLEDGE MINDMAP
What is it?
The core concepts of human knowledge are depicted in a series of lists organized as a
MindMap. As Tony Buzan (THE MINDMAP BOOK, BBC Books, London, 1993), the inventor of the
MindMap concept explains, this display technique gives a graphical integration of knowledge that words
alone cannot provide.
How to use it?
Each concept in the MindMap has a hyperlink that takes you to a short write-up. For navigation purposes
you can click on each concept to go to the write-up, and find a "return" hyperlink at the bottom of the
page to get you back to the MindMap.
Who should use it?
Anyone who wants to make sense of the flood of in-coming information will find the MindMap valuable, in
the use-value sense. It enables a person to sort experience into conceptual categories, the basis of thinking.
Every real-life issue or situation can be ‘deconstructed’ into the concepts on which it is based or which it
incorporates. You can explore these concepts by way of the MindMap; or you can refer to the specific
concepts that are embodied in an issue or situation.
What are the implications?
The core premises for the design the MindMap are Conceptual Pragmatism and Cognitive Economy,
i.e., our ideas should have maximum use-value and minimum complexity. The concepts in the MindMap
allow the user to triangulate the issues that are involved in whichever situation is encountered. If your
question is "How do I know?" then it will involve some combination of elements of empiricism,
rationalism, and constructivism. Such cognitive amalgamations are what makes "knowing" possible;
other aspects of experience can be deconstructed and reconstructed just as readily using the MindMap.
Once concepts are identified and categorized, what then? In the process, one often finds that issues appear
incommensurable because the ideas on which they are based seem incompatible. In such cases, there are
three ways of negotiating commensurability: (a) reduction (to a common standard, i.e., money, energy,
votes, etc.); (b) separation (into distinct dimensions/judgments, i.e., beliefs, values, preferences, etc.); and
1 2 3
(c) innovation (synthesize an encompassing alternative, i.e., bisociation , lateral thinking , thunks , etc.).
Innovation has the highest commensurability potential.
References
1. Arthur Koestler 2. Edward de Bono 3. Jerry Rhodes

ACT OF CREATION LATERAL THINKING CONCEPTUAL TOOLMAKING
Arkana, London, 1989 [1964] Penguin, London, 1971 Blackwell, Oxford, 1991
William Sheridan©2006 more page 2

What is the larger purpose?
What can a user of the Human Knowledge MindMap expect to be able to accomplish that would not
otherwise be possible? That will be the capability to THINK EFFECTIVELY. Most peoples’
thinking, most of the time, is not clear enough, focused enough, or systematic enough to perform
“knowledge work” competently. The purpose of the Human Knowledge MindMap is to give users
the wherewithal to do exactly that. Whether during education, or on a job, effective thinking
has a set of components as depicted below.
EFFECTIVE THINKING: parallel tracks and alternate tacks

Topical Processes Integral Processes
1. asking questions i. checking assumptions
(which questions?) (whose assumptions?)
2. inferring explanations ii. applying premises
(inferring how?) (why premises?)
3. following implications iii. coordinating conclusions
(following where?) (what conclusions?)
The Topical Processes are applicable to the subject matter under consideration. The Integral Processes
are intrinsic to the thinking activity itself. What effective thinking requires is tacking back and forth
between these parallel tracks so that both sets of considerations are covered in the larger endeavour.
The elements to do this are available in this document.
The Human Knowledge MindMap e-book has been written to cover appropriate sets of assumptions,
questions, premises, and inferences, together with the implication and coordination techniques that are
needed in thinking. The chart showing the pathway of effective thinking is organized in a particular
sequence, although the reader may read the concept-pages in any order. For the practice of effective
thinking the requirement is to go through the topical and integral processes comprehensively.
Here too, there is no necessity order in which to do this. One may encounter, contrive, or be assigned
a concept, problem, or situation to which any one of these processes may be applied to begin with, but
regardless of the starting point, all of the other processes have a contribution to make to the eventual
outcome. The arrows in the table above suggest one sequence through the thinking processes, but the
order can be varied to fit alternate styles of thinking, different individuals, and changing circumstances.
The contrast to the sequential approach might aptly be called "The Pinball Methodology" - bounce the
concepts and constructs around until you create an effective ensemble - history confirms that it works!
References
(Conceptual Pragmatism) (Cognitive Economy) (Pinball Methodology)
Clarence Irving Lewis Nicholas Rescher James Burke

MIND & THE WORLD ORDER COGNITIVE ECONOMY THE PINBALL EFFECT
Dover Books, Mineola, 1991 Pittsburgh UP, Pittsburgh, 1989 Littel, Brown & Co., Boston, 1996
William Sheridan©2006 page 3

Original Construction
Deconstruction
R z R z
q P
q
P W
x W y
X y
R z
Reformulation X2 q X2 P
Reconstruction
W y
The Prototype of Concept R&D
As encountered in messages from a variety of sources (conversation, text, etc.), a construct may
consist of several concepts, related to each other in a variety of ways, depending on the context.
Various views may be vague, or inconsistent, or both. Deconstruction consists in separating and
clarifying each of the component concepts as to their individual etymology and their pragmatic
use. One (or more) of these concepts may then be reformulated to enhance its inclusiveness,
exclusiveness, range, or whatever. Whereupon this newly reformulated concept may then be
used as a basis to reassemble the entire construct, but in a way that brings new order, generality,
explication or whatever to the entire ensemble of ideas.
This idealized version presents the process as a somewhat formal, public sequence - however it
can just as easily occur informally and intuitively in the mind of a practitioner. In either case
the process is an art rather than a science. The definitions in the deconstruction phase may be as
wide or narrow as the practitioner prefers, the choice as to which one(s) are to be reformulated
is also up to the practitioner, as is the configuration of the reassembled construction. Two
different individuals or groups, using the same original construction, may then settle on
alternate definitions, reformulations, and reconstructions, yet be entirely correct within the
logic each has employed. Good craftsmanship requires only consistency and transparency.
Application of Concept R&D
Read the entire Human Knowledge MindMap through once.
Pick a situation, problem, challenge, decision or choice of interest or concern to you (on whatever
basis you regard as appropriate). Then proceed with the following steps:
1. Identify which aspects are of most interest or concern to you.
2. Prioritize (rank) your interests or concerns.
3. Using the Human Knowledge MindMap as a visual guide, apply the relevant concepts to the
most important (prioritized) aspects of your interest or concern (limit it to the top three
aspects on your list to begin with).
4. If you don’t recall whether or nor a particular concept is relevant, refresh your memory by
re-reading the one-page outline.
5. From this point apply the methodology as outlined above (this may, in addition to other
things, require reading more materials to acquire the necessary depth of
understanding in the issues you are trying to deal with).
Initially this may be a slow and somewhat cumbersome process. Learning to think by applying
the right tools to the right circumstances often is an initially slow process! With practice
however the process will become intuitive, and you can begin to use the CD MindMap for periodic
refreshment, and to plan for some more in-depth study of concepts, if this interests you. A good
way to proceed with this more expanded goal, is to read the reference books mentioned in each of
the concept pages, and then begin using your new insights to find additional materials, and/or to
apply your accumulating schemata to what you read or otherwise find. Do not regard any of the
references suggested as being "the gospel" on a topic - each is simply recommended as "food for
thought".
Concept R&D is a dynamic process, but the key to its successful use is to recognize that the
responsibility for the dynamic aspect of the process lies with the user. The MindMap can inform a
user about the conceptual basis of knowledge, and about the way in which it can be most
appropriately utilized. BUT, you gotta really wanna! If your interests in, or concerns with
issues are not sufficient to motivate the cognitive effort to master and apply the Concept R&D
methodology, then this MindMap is not for you – you will be wasting your time with it. If you
decide this effort is worth your time and attention, this MindMap should be helpful. If you think
that you can do any on this better than what you read herein, prove it - do it!
Universal Disclaimer: Firstly, the author of this material is not responsible for motivating
users to want to think – that is their responsibility. Secondly, the author is not responsible for
any action whatsoever that users may take based on what they regard as the implications of
this material. Users must always take responsibility themselves, not only for deciding whether
or not to think, but also for choosing what action to take (or not to take). The one claim which
the author does make irrespective of any situation or user, is that being a knowledgeable
decision-maker or choice-taker is ALWAYS better than being an ignorant one!
References
Edward de Bono Andre Kukla

THE HAPPINESS PURPOSE MENTAL TRAPS
Penguin Books, London, 1990 Doubleday Canada, Toronto, 2006
Samuel C. Wheeler Gary Klein

DECONSTRUCTION AS ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY WORKING MINDS
Stanford UP, Stanford, 2000 MIT Press, Cambridge, 2006

THE MINDMAP RATIONALE
When receiving information (watching, reading; listening, touching, or any other kind of observation),
DO NOT JUST ABSORB PASSIVELY. Some New Age Analysts have been known to advise to
“clear the mind” while attending to incoming sense-data so as not to impose one’s own categories or
standards. This is a profoundly foolish and counter-productive piece of advice. The way to effectively
absorb information, to make it your own is through active listening - by fitting it into what is already
known. What the active listener needs to remember is to keep the attributed characteristics and
categories TENTATIVE rather than PERMANENT. Every incoming piece or stream of information
has a context and implications. Whether stated or not, such information reflects or entails certain
beliefs (what is this, and how do we know?) and certain values (what should we do, and why?). Buried
in the incoming information are clues to help answer these questions, but those answers will only be
revealed if the information recipient deconstructs the message and categorizes its components. The
function of every message is persuasion, whether implicit (a statement) or explicit (an argument),
whether intended (social source) or unintended (natural source).
There are nine types of beliefs at the core of our sense of reality, three types of ways of categorizing
our experience, nine types of values we hold, and three types of styles to our preferences. Statements
or situations are usually blends rather than being composed exclusively of a single type, but within
such a blend one type tends to dominate. Little or none of this may be explicit however – it is the task
of the reflective practitioner to begin to deconstruct the conversation in real time and identify the
premises as they are articulated. In other words, being an active listener takes some real, and
continuous effort, and considerable practice – you have to pay attention, AND try and make sense of
the incoming messages. How is this done? Start by paying attention to those components of the
message that occur most frequently or are emphasized most emphatically.
Why bother? Because the incoming information, no matter what the source or content, has the effect of
controlling your behaviour, even if you ignore it. But no matter what you do as the result of that
incoming sense-data, you can make better decisions and choices if you are capable of informed action.
Like informed consent, informed action involves a state of mind that has aligned the content and
context of incoming messages so that you can understand and control some of the aspects of your
experience [even adjusting your attitude to the prospect of the inevitable is a form of empowerment –
and often there is considerably more that you can do].
Use of the MindMap will foster an attitude of Contrarian Thinking: there is no necessity to take
conventional wisdom at face value. This is a way of positioning yourself and what you know so that
incoming messages are not naively accepted as the truth, or the facts, or just a description, or with
nothing more implied or intended. Something more is ALWAYS implied and intended. There is no
“unequivocal truth” or “straight facts” or “simple description”. Every person and idea has a history,
implications, and consequences. To the extent that you don’t think about any of this, you don’t
understand what is going on, and you don’t know what you are doing. The Human Knowledge
MindMap helps you counter-act gullibility and complacency.
Mortimer J. Adler
HOW TO SPEAK, HOW TO LISTEN
Touchstone Books, New York, 1997

Phenomenology (how you experience the world):
(1) presence vs. absence (2) parts vs. wholes (3) unity vs. diversity attention
cognitivity
The Gestalt
Who?
Framework
empiricism What?
The Gestalt rationalism Epistemology When?
Framework constructivism Whence?
Where?
materialism Quintessential Questions
Whither?
idealism Ontology Perspectivity
Whether?
behaviorism
Which?
determinism
Methodology: Why? Semiology:
existentialism Kineology
(how you How? (how you
functionalism Apply
examine Appraise
appreciate
experience) Arrange
experience)
homology
analogy Categorization Authenticate correspondence
Choose
dichotomy
(1) theory Confirm (1) style vs.
vs. practice hedonism
realism - tolerance - pragmatism Designate statement
egoism Personal Elucidate
entrepreneurialism Foretell
(2) correlate vs. altruism Inferential Operators

Generalize
(2) expression
differentiate collectivism Social Transvaluation
Invent
vs. impression
Judge
elitism
Particularize
deism Relate
(3) exact humanism Transcendental Replicate (3) attraction
vs. fuzzy environmentalism Revise vs. aversion
Suggest
coherence romanticism
Summarize
Preferentiality Taxonomize
populism
Typologize
intention formalism
Copyright©2006 William Sheridan
THE HUMAN KNOWLEDGE MINDMAP
To return to the Introduction click here. To explore the concepts click on them.
Axiology (how you evaluate experience)
(1) commands vs. conscience (2) inclusion vs. exclusion (3) injunctions vs. prohibitions affectivity
The Gestalt Framework
ALTRUISM
What is altruism?
Webster's New World Dictionary defines altruism as unselfish concern for the welfare of others.
Although this concept seems relatively straightforward, it does contain some internal uncertainty,
leading to some contradictory conclusions. Firstly, altruism is a tenet of social ethics (concern
for others) rather than personal ethics (concern for one's self) - or so it would seem. That is why
it is defined as unselfish. But what about the possibility that concern for others might be selfish?
One perspective in population genetics postulates that a concern for relatives is "really" just an
attempt to protect one's own gene pool - so the closer the relationship, the more likely one will be
altruistic. Could this behaviour be extended from relatives to friends, and still count as selfish
altruism? By the same token, radical egoists argue that no action by any person is "really" ever
altruistic - that in some sense the motivation to help others still advances the goals of the person,
albeit indirectly (helping a fellow ideologue still promotes the ideas a person is committed to).
Both primitive cultures and traditional religions have glorified altruism as caring and preferable,
and egoism as selfish and undesirable. Modern, liberal culture is premised on the ideal of
societies that can accommodate BOTH responsibilities to one's self AND to others. This does not
mean that choices will not be necessary, BUT that is should be possible to make such choices and
satisfy both requirements - neither one's self NOR others will get everything they want, but
everyone involved will find enough satisfaction to make life tolerable (given reasonable
expectations). So, egoism forms the context for altruism, and altruism forms the context for
egoism. The objection that radical egoists have against the "ideal type" of altruism is that such
behavior is often rationalized by the term "sacrifice". Egoists object to altruism because it is
defined as unselfish, and they claim to believe in the virtue of selfishness. If concern for others
were premised as voluntary rather than mandatory, egoists can make such choices as they see fit.
How is altruism manifest?
One wag summed up these dilemmas rather well with the comment "I know what we are here
for; it's to help others. What I am not sure of is what the others are here for!" Both the advocacy
of, and the objection to altruism are "really" referring to a kind of concept that sociologist Max
Weber called an Ideal Type - an archetypal idea that is a standard against which to measure
performance rather than a realistic assessment of actual behavior. Some concern for the welfare
of others is a requirement of living in human groups - only hermits need not be altruistic in this
sense. Desiring that people obey minimal institutional rules (traffic rules, etc.) expresses
concerns for both one's self and others (I don't want others to drive carelessly because in the
process they might injure both themselves and me). In these circumstances (which are the ones
normally encountered) what is needed is a balance, or trade-offs, so that protecting one's self and
helping others are complementary, NOT exclusionary.
Reference
Stephen Toulmin
THE ROLE OF REASON IN ETHICS
Cambridge University Press, London, 1951
2005©William Sheridan [To return to the MindMap click here]
ANALOGY
What is analogy?
"Analogy" is a technical term, defined by Webster's New World Dictionary as meaning similarity
in some ways, [with] the inference that certain resemblances imply further similarity. The
concise way to say this, is that things are "somewhat similar" - but that immediately raises
complications. On what basis must things be similar, and to what extent must they be similar in
order to qualify as analogous? Given that analogies are widely used, but just as widely criticized,
it therefore becomes important to be clear about what they are. What "analogous" identifies, is
the sharing of certain functional similarities, which means that the members of this category
resemble each other regarding certain features or patterns, but do not necessarily have the same
structure or mechanism.
One of the rules of traditional logic was that of "the excluded middle" - either something was
"right" or it was "wrong", it was "sacred" or it was "secular", etc. Regrettably, this was not a very
accurate description of much of reality, but the practice persisted for centuries. The criticism that
arose about this practice likened it to the "Procrustean Bed" in the ancient Greek story about
travelers who were offered "one size fits all" sleeping accommodations, and those not of a precise
stature were either "cut down to size" or "stretched on the rack" to lengthen them up. This two-
valued approach to logic, the "either-or" approach, was fine and well for theorists, but practical
people had to live with much more uncertainty - most things were neither black nor white, but
rather shades of gray. Philosophy finally caught up with these practical concerns when
"pragmatism" was developed in the United States (Dewey, 1929) and "practical reason" in
Europe (De Bono, 1973). It is not necessary to assume or demand that everything sort neatly into
homologous or dichotomous categories - in reality boundaries often shade off into one another so
that something may qualify "more or less" for inclusion or exclusion depending on how the lines
are drawn. In real life, most people think this way intuitively all the time anyway. This does
NOT imply that "anything goes" but rather allows diversity to be accommodated in analysis.
How is analogy used?
By analogy, computer information storage is metaphorically called "memory", but computer

"memories" are not based on the same components as biological memories, nor do they operate
in the same way. There is, however, enough resemblance that the analogy is retained. Criticisms
about analogies arise from "purists" who want to insist that descriptions should preserve a degree
of technical exactness which would preclude using "free and loose" terminology (i.e., analogies)
to make questionable comparisons. The appropriate reply is that for some purposes such
analogies are quite suitable and very convenient, so long as the user doesn't forget that such
categories are based on appearance rather than equivalence.
References
John Dewey Edward De Bono

THE QUEST FOR CERTAINTY LATERAL THINKING
Putnam, New York, 1960 [1929] Perennial, New York, 1973
APPLY
What to Apply?
To apply is to put into action or to put into service. Define what it is you want to apply –
is it a definition to a word, a heuristic to a search, an algorithm to a solution, or what?
Before proceeding, be prepared: "People should never embark on a project until their
capability is assured as a result of developing or having access to all the skills required by
the challenge" (Kline & Saunders, 1993).
Why to Apply?
Clarify why this application is appropriate – the achievement you are aiming for. There
are four levels: (1) intention – is doing something better than doing nothing? (2) purpose
– specify the desired result(s); (3) goal(s) – the outcome that will instantiate the desired
result(s)? (4) objective(s) – the activities or tasks that will produce the goal. Throughout,
align the four levels of why to be complementary rather than contradictory.
When to Apply?
Indicate when the application will be in effect – the start date and/or time, the duration of
the application (periodic or continuous), and the pause or termination of the application
(limited, indeterminate, unlimited). Medicine that is not taken for the length of time
prescribed, may not be effective; programs that run beyond their useful life of application
take up unnecessary storage space, and may interfere with other upgraded functions.
Where to Apply?
Recognize where the application will operate – which means the context, situation, and
circumstances. The context can be historical (previous events, trends, etc.), sociological
(will there be “winners” and “losers”?), psychological (distress or gratification), etc. The
situation to be affected may be widely encompassing or narrowly focused, simply
structured or complexly organized. Circumstances as people will experience them may be
close at hand, within intermediate range, or quite distal.
How to Apply?
Specify how to implement the application – which primarily means knowing what to do
and what NOT to do. Changes can have profound implications for other policies;
unexpected and undesirable consequences; and the extent of their efficacy will always be
limited by the resources committed, the duration of the application, the interaction of
other factors, and the resistance of those effected. How must deal with all these issues.
Reference
Kline, Peter & Bernard Saunders Edward De Bono
TEN STEPS TO A LEARNING ORGANIZATION The CoRT Thinking Program CD
Great Ocean Publishers, Arlington, 1993 Cavendish Information Products
William Sheridan©2006 [To return to the MindMap click here]
APPRAISE
What to Appraise?
To appraise is to estimate qualitative and/or quantitative characteristics. What (or who) is

to be appraised? Is it a specific program or particular feature(s)? Is it some person(s) or
their performance? What should definitely be avoided is appraising the wrong thing,
however gratifying that might be to the appraiser – effective appraisals must be focused
on relevant variables to deliver the assessment required.
Why to Appraise?
The general purpose (why) for appraisal is evaluation, determining the exchange-value or
use-value of something. Clarify whether the objective of the appraisal is discovery of
performance effectiveness or direction of subsequent behaviour. If discovery, stick to the
facts; if direction, then include suggested improvements. Be careful NOT to appraise for
the wrong reasons (i.e., scapegoating, rivalry, red-herrings, etc.).
When to Appraise?
If a process is being appraised, it should be either completed or sufficiently advanced to

permit an adequate assessment – a premature evaluation would be ill-informed, since the
data from a full process-cycle would not be available. The same principle applies to
appraising a person – what initially appeared as inappropriate behaviour could either
change through learning, or eventually be proven correct as performance continued.
Where to Appraise?
The best advice for this consideration is where NOT to appraise: not in “the thick of
things”. Do not conduct a process appraisal in the midst of functional operations, and do
not conduct a personnel appraisal during task performance, or in the presence of others.
Those who are involved or implied in an appraisal may, understandably, be sensitive to
what an assessment reveals or requires – so create a comfort-zone and be constructive.
How to Appraise?
It may appear “obvious” that the way to render an appraisal is to find something or
someone either praiseworthy or blameworthy – but few of those so ready to deliver such
assessments have ever actually experienced the combination of circumstances and
expectations under which the appraised program or person was operating. More helpful
would be the policy of encouraging the desirable and discouraging the undesirable.
References
John Dewey Charles Morris
THEORY OF VALUATION SIGNIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE
U. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1939 MIT Press, Cambridge, 1964
ARRANGE
What to Arrange?
To arrange is to configure or to organize. Decide what it is you want to arrange – what

do you want to set into a pattern: facts, concepts, theories, plants, people, or whatever
variety of population you are looking at? Different kinds of phenomena lend themselves
to different types of arrangements – the scale, granularity, and context will vary both
qualitatively and quantitatively between animals and atoms, of course – remember this to
keep your arranging ambitions realistic.
Why to Arrange?
Is the purpose for your arranging attempt, the why, part of the “naturalistic fallacy”? The
prominent paradigm in current arranging is the “systems approach”, which many take to
be merely a reflection of reality. Alas, it is not so – the concept of a system is a human
contrivance, NOT a natural occurrence, and although such a schema can be useful in
helping to organize one’s thinking, other systems, or no system at all, can be just as valid.
When to Arrange?
Premature closure of an arranging exercise is the penchant to rush to completion before

enough data are available to set a pattern which reflects all of the important variability.
On the other hand, delayed closure during an arranging exercise is the equally unhelpful
habit of putting off a decision beyond the point where significant data have all likely been
gathered. But there is no rule for choosing the point of patterning – it takes experience.
Where to Arrange?
In terms of the content of the patterning, it is important to know where boundaries should
be drawn. Casting the net wider may bring in crucial data that will clarify otherwise
obscure findings – or such new data may simply muddy what could have been a good
formation. The same dilemma applies to narrowing the field – excluding some of the
data may remove minor variations, or it may reduce the measure of significance.
How to Arrange?
Spreadsheet software can take any data set and have a variety of patterns imposed upon it
by instructing the software logic to find a different best fit for each type of curve that the
spreadsheet can analyze for - the facts do not “speak” a pattern for themselves. So, try a
variety of best fits, using both more and less data, and different analytical curves, until
the most coherent and useful arrangement for the task at hand can be identified.
References
Henri Focillon Eliel Saarinen
THE LIFE OF FORMS IN ART The Search for Form in Art and Architecture
Zone Books, New York, 1989 [1934] Dover Books, New York, 1985 [1948]
AUTHENTICATE
What to Authenticate?
Authenticity is the quality or condition of being genuine or trustworthy. Decide what it is

you want to authenticate – is it a heuristic, an algorithm, a procedure, a principle, a
methodology, an explanation, or what? For good results it is advisable to clarify what
you do and do NOT want to authenticate. Before proceeding, develop or acquire the
wherewithal to determine the authenticity of whatever you are focusing on – and
remember that history, context, prospects, and implications may all be involved.
Why to Authenticate?
The questions of whether or not something is “authentic” and why that matters, should be
settled before devoting time to a task the outcome of which could be trivial anyway
(unless trivial pursuit is the task at hand!). There are always many choices as to how to
spend one’s time, and what to do next, so look to the choices that are worthwhile, and if
authentication of something in particular is NOT worthwhile, choose something better.
When to Authenticate?
Since authentication requires enough evidence to make a reasonable inference, the time
to commence an authentication depends upon the availability of that evidence, AND then
sufficient time to process that data. This is another judgment call – the phenomena in
question will not carry a sign indicating when sufficient duration has occurred to enable
and support an authentication – you have to remember, guess, or get guidance.
Where to Authenticate?
Since authentication is a separate consideration from functionality, and the process of

authenticating could interfere with functional procedures, authentication should also be
done “outside of the thick of things” (or by a neutral [but fully informed] observer). This
may not be easy to do, since some authentications are performed “in mid-stream” so as to
authorize continuance or discontinuance – plan ahead better than this for next time.
How to Authenticate?
Look for indicators rather than measures, because measures are both more comprehensive
and more data-intensive, but indicators summarize highlights, and that is sufficient for
authentication. Statistical sampling techniques get better press than intuitive “eyeballing”
but often a “quick and dirty” impression can be just as “correct” and more elaborate
procedures: one of the Laws of Forecasting tell us that Methodology is Over-rated.
References
Harry G. Frankfurt William N. Stephens
ON BULLSHIT HYPOTHESES & EVIDENCE
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2005 Thomas Y. Crowell, New York, 1968
AXIOLOGY
What is Axiology?
Axiology concerns the rules to guide HOW you evaluate experience:
on the basis of external controls or internal deliberations; as part of an in-group or part of
an out-group; as the result of positive re-enforcement or aversive re-enforcement. In this
Age of Inclusion, we often ignore our practice of grouping people by the acceptability
of their behavior. Many institutions use a command structure and some things you just
don’t do! Each pair characterizing axiology is at the opposite ends of a parameter.
Commands vs. Conscience
The armed forces, the church, the corporation, and the bureaucracy
all operate on the basis of a “command and control” structure. Orders can be given, and
sanctions applied to those who disobey instructions or rules. Many would prefer to be
persuaded, or self-motivated, but that always leaves the option of uncontrolled non-
compliance. In the NewAge we fudge, by talking the talk of conscience, but walking the
walk of commands. The parameter that includes commands and conscience is restriction.
Inclusion vs. Exclusion
Most science fiction is based on extrapolations of the hard sciences,
but one cherished modern myth is a fiction based on the sciences of sociology and
anthropology, namely the family of humanity. We actually exclude far more than we
include. Criminals, different ethnic groups, non-believers (from sacred or civic religions),
different age sets, and different class occupants are excluded whenever we have the
discretion to do so. The parameter that underlies inclusion and exclusion is association.
Injunctions vs. Prohibitions
According to the prevalent folk wisdom people don’t like being
told what to do (injunctions). But they apparently also don’t like being told what NOT to
do (prohibitions)! There is an underlying anarchistic strain beneath much of this, but
people usually apply it to themselves rather than others. I jaywalk, but curse others who
do so. Stealing is definitely wrong, but I have pilfered the occasional paper clip myself.
The most effective social control is so subtle it is not even conscious – behaving yourself
has become intuitive. The parameter that involves injunctions and prohibitions is
direction.
References
Edward Alsworth Ross Donald Black

SOCIAL CONTROL THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF
Beacon Press, Boston, 1959 [1901] RIGHT AND WRONG, 2nd ed.
Academic Press, New York, 1998
William Graham Sumner
FOLKWAYS Cristina Bicchieri
Dover, New York, 2002 [1906] THE GRAMMAR OF SOCIETY
Cambridge UP, New York, 2006

BEHAVIOURISM
What (is behaviourism)?
Behaviourism is an ontology (theory of reality) founded on the premise that what appears to
exist depends on how people are conditioned to behave and not behave. What about non-human
reality? The answer to that (according to the behaviourist perspective) is that any "reality" that
people experience depends on what and how they observe (a type of behaviour) and how and what
they understand (also a type of behaviour). So, according to this perspective, ALL reality, of
whatever type, depends on the content and pattern of human conditioning.
The response of some to this perspective is one of incredulity and scorn - these critics claim that
behaviourism implies that humans are little more than automatons. But the terminology of
behaviourism can be changed to alleviate most of these concerns. If we replace "conditioning"
with "learning" then this seems to "round-off" and "humanize" the perspective, BUT with largely
the same implications as with the original vocabulary.
How (does behaviourism work)?
In a basic sense, there are two types of conditioning: (1) Classical Conditioning was discovered
by Ivan Pavlov in the early part of the 20th century; and (2)Operant Conditioning was discovered
by B.F. Skinner in the middle of the 20th century.
In classical conditioning of dogs, food was presented to a hungry animal and a bell was wrung
simultaneously, after which the dog salivated. Eventually through "habituation" the ringing of
the bell would produce salivation in the dog even without the presentation of food. Dogs could
be conditioned with a limited number of these routines - people could acquire greater numbers of
more elaborate behavioural routines than other animals, and this is what accounted for the
amazing human learning capacity. The results of culture in general, and teaching in particular,
were to condition people with all of the various habits and traditions humanity displays.
With operant conditioning, the organism's behaviour was observed and preferable instances of
performance were encouraged by positive reinforcement, while neutral performance was ignored,
and undesirable performance discouraged by aversive reinforcement. Through such conditioning
schedules of behaviour could be shaped into quite elaborate routines, and then through random
reinforcement the behaviour could be sustained indefinitely. In the case of operant conditioning,
humans were also capable of acquiring and retaining considerable more routines, of a more
elaborate nature than other animals. Between classical and operant conditioning, most, if not all
of human behaviour could be accounted for. Despite continuing criticism, this perspective is still
credible to those who accepts its premises.
References
Stephen Ray Flora

THE POWER OF REINFORCEMENT
SUNY Press, Albany, 2004
CHOOSE
What to Choose?
To choose is to pick from a number of possible alternatives. Decide what it is you want
to choose – does that sound like a contradiction in terms? Even if it does, it is not – it is
rather a recognition of different purposes. Decisions are distinct from choices, in that a
decision involves resolution of uncertainty, whereas a choice requires selection between
options – one decision could be “not to choose” and one choice could be “not to decide”.
Before choosing, clarify the relevant set.
Why to Choose?
One penchant of rationalists and action-heroes is to “make choices count”. If the action
lies in the future however, changing circumstances may modify or nullify the choice
anyway – hence the advice to “only cross that bridge when you come to it”. On the other
hand, some actions require planning and resources, which are best settled in advance –
hence the advice “to be fore-warned is to be fore-armed”. Decide for yourself.
When to Choose?
There is no magic moment that can assure that you are making the right selection or that
the results wanted will occur. Sometimes, when to choose is predetermined by the way a
process or situation is structured – there may be a sequence of steps or conditions that
preclude a choice point. It is possible to “decide ahead of time” what your will pick, but
the actual choice may be made or changed on the spur of the moment.
Whether to Choose?
Many people have a “naturalistic” notion about circumstances – it is a form of fatalism

that precludes choices through habituation and tradition. In other cases it is recognized
that a choice is possible, but many are reluctant to make it – by not choosing they hope to
“keep their options open” or “not be manipulative” when it is felt this is appropriate. So
you can decide “not to choose” – unfortunately there are no guarantees either way.
How to Choose?
A variety of methodologies have been recommended, some formal, others “rule of

thumb”. My best advice in this regard is to follow Herbert Simon’s satisficing principle:
try to make a choice that is “good enough” for the task/situation at hand, always keeping
in mind that there is neither the time nor the cognitive resources to gather and process the
comprehensive information needed to enumerate all the alternatives or pick the right one.
References
Herbert Simon Barry Schwartz
SCIENCES OF THE ARTIFICIAL, 3rd ed. THE PARADOX OF CHOICE
MIT Press, Cambridge, 1996 Harper Perennial, New York, 2005
COLLECTIVISM
What is collectivism?
Collectivism is a reference-group doctrine of behaviour. It involves the coordination of conduct

that a society achieves through social control. Much of this will be informally arranged, although
at the limits it is often enforced by laws or regulations. Some libertarians are under the illusion
that both collectivism and social control are illegitimate, and to be resisted whenever possible.
But without the collectivism that social control provides, we would not enjoy potable water
supplies, nutritious food, sewerage or garbage collection, reliable consumer products, or safe
traffic conditions (even though all of these could be improved, their existing margins of safety
would drop precipitously if social controls were eliminated).
The situation where collectivism "gets a bad name" usually involve perceptions of public
prejudices and preferences being forced upon dissenting individuals. If "the community" feels
that some individual or group has discreditable opinions or unseemly habits, this minority may be
required to "tow the line" rather than express their views or lifestyles. But on those occasions
when some of this same minority agrees with prevailing discreditable opinions, they are then
strangely silent about "rights being trampled on".
If familial conditioning, public education, and social propaganda are working effectively, opinion
is so subtlety formed and reasonably reinforced that dissenters are seen as exceptional deviants
that deserve minimal tolerance and little respect. This is, of course, only a caricature, both in
terms of how it would work and the results it would produce - but it usually is the "official
version" that the social establishment will seek to propagate and defend.
How is collectivism manifest?
Most of the effort at social control that supports collectivism occurs "from the bottom up".
People influence each other's behaviour by encouraging what they find acceptable, and
discouraging of what they find unacceptable. The techniques for this run all the way from
smiling and frowning, to rewarding and punishing. The prospect for a libertarian utopia in which
only minimum expectations would prevail, is virtually nonexistent - people want to prescribe
how others behave, and will use a variety of ways to do so, even regarding inconsequential habits
and traditions. Constitutional limits on the exercise of arbitrary intimidation are necessary, but
the majority will often be very impatient with such provisions or the rationale for them.
References
Donald Black
THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF RIGHT AND WRONG, revised ed.
Martin Innes
UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL CONTROL
Open University Press, Buckingham, 2003
2005©William Sheridan [to get back to the previous menu close this page]
CONFIRM
What to Confirm?
To confirm is to verify the accuracy of information. Decide what it is you want to

confirm – if you settle on indicators (indirect evidence), instead of looking at measures of
the phenomena (direct evidence), you will confirm some epiphenomena rather than “the
real thing”. For instance, to confirm an increase in entropy the indicator of chaos is
often used, but the real measure of entropy is a decrease in the energy’s work-potential.
Entropy is NOT chaos; assuming it is leads to confusion, not confirmation.
Why to Confirm?
The purpose of confirmation is to double-check on results as reported or understood.

Why a person would bother doing this is that being sure of something is important or
interesting. If neither, don’t bother. There is a certain compulsion prevalent amongst a
few people called “the epistemological imperative”, the impulse to get and keep
verisimilitude even at extraordinary costs. This is a mild form of psychopathology.
When to Confirm?
When the issue is important or interesting, and the verisimilitude is either unknown or
unstable, that is the appropriate time to confirm – this is the qualitative aspect. The
length of time it will take to authorize, conduct, interpret, and report on the situation,
represents the quantitative aspect. A good tactic is to scan the indicators of important or
interesting situations, then switch to measures when the need for confirmation occurs.
Whether to Confirm?
Since confirmation requires time, resources, and effort, it is important to know when
NOT to try to confirm: (1) when there is not enough time; (2) when there are not enough
resources; (3) when it will take more effort that there is a willingness to expend. All of
this refers to “formal” confirmation. There is always a “quick and dirty” version, but the
result may only be an estimate – yet sometimes, even a guess may be better than nothing.
How to Confirm?
Like so: clarify focus; identify measures; acquire resources, get commitment of requisite
personnel; develop a confirmation plan that includes division of labour, timelines for
confirmation tasks, and a deadline for delivery; report on progress to client; stick to plan
until required results are achieved or findings necessitate immediate or drastic action. In
other words, conduct confirmation as research unless the need arises for re-assessment.
Reference
Howard S. Becker
TRICKS OF THE TRADE: How To Think About Your Research While You’re Doing It
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998
CONSTRUCTIVISM
What (is constructivism)?
Constructivism is the epistemology (theory of knowledge) that what we know is based on the
ideas that we invent. From this perspective, knowing is more than an awareness of facts
(empiricism) or thinking about facts (rationalism) - it is ideas we create to interpret our sense-data
and thoughts. But since concepts and language are part of everyone's mentality, some constructivists
make the claim that every aspect of all knowledge is invented rather than discovered. The implications
is that if "we make it all up" then we could re-make it into something quite different if that suited
the "knowledge-creation gatekeepers". Is the epistemological enterprise really so arbitrary? The
extent to which knowledge-creation can be arbitrarily controlled depends on the context.
Because social behaviour is largely governed by convention, multiple, discrepant interpretations
are possible and plausible - physical and biological processes are more "factual".
When technological procedures are invented and scientific principles are discovered, the
processes of summarizing, systemizing, and synthesizing also have constructivist components,
but in these cases facts and thinking have important involvement as well. Those who argue or
insist that science is largely or predominantly constructivist, are confusing function with origins.
The institution of science was itself "invented", but the role of science is to discover, explain, and
forecast phenomena, and the role of technology is to explain, forecast, and control those same
phenomena for human purposes. Constructivism cannot account for all of epistemology.
How (does constructivism work)?
Although empiricists were often fond of the claim that "the facts speak for themselves", this was
never actually true, and has recently become demonstrably false. If reliable data are available, it
can be processed with spreadsheet software to identify "best fit" to a curve representing a
particular pattern or principle. However, one can choose to have the software "interpret" the data
in a variety of ways, so that the same data will display "best fit" to a number of different types of
curves - the configuration of these best fits can vary considerably, demonstrating positive
correlation, negative correlation, linearity, non-linearity, etc . So, one can "invent" one's
preferred explanation, and get the software to interpret the data accordingly. By examining
previous research we can now see that before the availability of such software, scientists settled
on their own preferred explanations in their own minds, and proceeded accordingly. Since some
basis for interpretation is always necessary, the construction of knowledge will always be partly
arbitrary - and this is where deconstruction (see Methodology in Main Menu) can help.
References
Arthur Koestler Jerry Rhodes

THE ACT OF CREATION CONCEPTUAL TOOLMAKING
Arkana, London, 1989 [1964] Blackwell, Oxford, 1991
2005© William Sheridan [To return to the MindMap click here]

COORDINATING CONCLUSIONS
Coherence
In the MindMap, coherence concerns the coordination between your perceptions and your
conceptual framework - your conditioning has got to coordinate with your cognition. Strictly
speaking, the fit is never perfect, so the goal is to achieve as much alignment as feasible. There
appears to be a widespread problem emerging with this - we can see a growing discrepancy
between many peoples' ideas and their habits. Smoking, poor quality diet, over-eating, lack of
exercise, doing drugs - all of these are widely known forms of self-destruction - yet more and
more people are afflicted - they are not working at aligning their understanding and their actions.
A popular self-help book sums up this advice in its title: You Can't Afford The Luxury of a
Negative Thought. Neither can you afford the luxury of a negative habit. But so many people are
living on luxuries they can't afford. The aforementioned self-help book recommends a personal
inventory in which you list, assess, and align all of your objectives with coherent goals. This is
the kind of voluntary simplicity I practice myself, and would recommend for others.
Correspondence
Correspondence in the MindMap concerns the coordination between your perceptions and the in-
coming sense-data from the environment. Some Constructivists have a problem with the concept
of "realism" because they assume that we create all of our knowledge. This confuses levels of
analysis - there are still things and events out there, regardless of how we conceptualize, organize,
and use them, so when in heavy traffic keep a close watch-out for on-coming cars and tailgaters,
regardless of how you label them. This same metaphor applies to all experience.
Realism doesn't necessarily mean you perceive what's "really out there" - it means that whatever
your coping skills, you had better recognize the possibility of impacts with things and events, and
guide yourself accordingly, or you will find yourself in life-threatening trouble. To the extent
that you do coordinate perception and reality, you recognize the correspondence between cause
and effect, reasons and objectives, a better survival strategy than assuming no correspondence.
Consequences
To act effectively, beliefs (judgments of fact) and values (judgments of worth) must cohere and
coordinate across your experience. Otherwise you are operating at cross-purposes with yourself.
References
Paul Thagard Sergio Senay & Pablo Blasberg

COHERENCE IN THOUGHT AND ACTION GESTALT FOR BEGINNERS
MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000 Writers & Readers, New York, 1998
Richard Fumerton John Dewey

REALISM & THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH HOW WE THINK
Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, 2002 Prometheus, Buffalo, 1991
William Sheridan©2006 more [To return to the MindMap click here]

CONSIDERATIONS IN COORDINATING CONCLUSIONS
From Attention to Intention
Coordinating anything requires keeping a number of variables and influences in mind rather than
just focusing on one issue or one point in time. In the modern era there has been a debate about the
extent to which this is possible. The classical model of rationality assumed a “fully informed”
decision maker, but this is impossible, and therefore not a realistic expectation. Herbert Simon’s
concept of “satisficing” involves that we do our best with what we have. The lists in the MindMap
can be referred to by keeping a printout near the computer screen, so that cognitive capability is not
strained and yet ready reference is still possible. With this proviso in mind, an important form of
coordination is that between “attention” and “intention”. In its simplest terms, what this means is
using what we know to inform and direct what we decide to do. For instance, I get a number of
electronic newsletters on health every week, I read them, and I use what is relevant to help manage
my own health – similarly I use everything that comes my way that I assess can add to my quality
of life. This is a primary form of coordination that everyone should engage in – why wouldn’t you?
Between Correspondence and Coherence
Empiricism is the epistemological premise that “the facts” or evidence should determine your ideas
or theories. However, we know more than “just the facts.” Even in science, gravity, entropy, and
evolution are ideas rather than facts. So, the smart scientist uses those ideas to organize the search
for more facts – meaning that the coordination is going from ideas and theories to facts
(rationalism) rather than from the evidence to concepts. What in fact this coordination process
becomes is a balancing act, involving trade-offs at every turn. New ideas prompt a search for new
facts, and new facts prompt the synthesis of new ideas. In this process too, the maxim of satisficing
is important. Knowledge is like a “rolling front” in a weather system – it keeps moving, so there is
no stationary point from which to evaluate progress in any absolute sense.
Conclusions and Actions
One of the great pro-occupations of moral philosophers throughout history has been “how should
we act.” We are reminded again and again that “life must go on” and “decisions must be taken”
and “tasks must be done.” When this comes to house-keeping, for individuals, or groups, or
institutions, it is certainly true – food, shelter, transportation, etc. are valid and legitimate pre-
occupations. But with the bigger issues and bigger projects, whether individual or collective,
“getting things done” is all too often an excuse for, and justification of frenetic activity – as if
“motion” itself was the measure of accomplishment.
If we look at case studies of both innovationary and revolutionary “rush” we see an important
Project Management lesson occurring again and again – the lesson being that “where there is never
time at the beginning to do things properly, there is always time later to correct the many mistakes
that were made.” What WE can learn from the refusal to adopt this Project Management lesson, is
that the so-called “improvement imperative” that is being claimed is very questionable, in the form
and at the speed being recommended. There are always winners and losers, and trade-offs
between costs and benefits. We need to think things through very thoroughly before acting!
William Sheridan©2006 [to get back to the previous menu close this page]
DEISM
What is deism?
Deism is a sacred rationale for behaviour. It involves the belief in a god, a deity, a
supernatural force in the universe. Almost without exception, traditional deities have had
either a moral or a magic influence on their societies, sometimes both. The moral influence
is propagated through a moral code, like the Ten Commandments of Judaism or The Way of
Buddhism. The implication of such a code is that God wants you to behave in the ways he
approves of, and to avoid behaving in the ways he disapproves of. This, in turn, has led many
to suspect that the actual source of such moral codes is the theological elite (priests, monks,
etc.) rather than any supernatural sources. Whatever the source though, the primary effect of
such a moral code was to serve as an instrument of social control, to rationalize “proper
conduct” with a supernatural gloss or motivation. Whether or not this was the original
intention, it served this purpose. From the sociological point of view this would be a form of
determinism (obeying the “moral law”). From the political point of view it could equally
be interpreted as a form of functionalism (seeking to fulfill God’s purpose). The magical role
of deism was believed to be the god’s ability to fulfill wishes. Mark Twain has a humorous
story about this use of belief: in the story a “model” Christian is praying out loud in church
for a “socially acceptable” blessing; with his silent inner voice however, this “model”
Christian is praying for exactly the opposite, something that will benefit exclusively himself,
and to the detriment of others. The “problem” is that God is caught on the horns of a dilemma,
not knowing whether to grant the supplicant’s spoken wish or his secret wish. Apparently even
God can face difficult choices.
How is deism manifest?
Over the years religions (organized systems of worship and morality) have developed
from particularistic to universalistic, but despite this more inclusive premise, deism is not
actually any guarantee of ethical conduct. Many believers of various faiths have sought
their priest’s blessing to go to war. In the case of crusades, religious leaders have often
been the fiercest proponents of “war in the name of God”. What seems anomalous is not
however; the protection of the morality was actually only applied to one’s own brethren
or fellow citizens – non-believers or outsiders were fair game, including for plunder and
killing. Perhaps the time has come for a God that does encompass all of humanity,
generous rather than selfish, and forgiving rather than punitive – a God for tomorrow.
References
Mark Juergensmeyer, ed. Neale Donald Walsch

GLOGAL RELIGIONS TOMORROW’S GOD
Oxford University Press, New York, 2003 Atria Books, New York, 2004
Sam Harris
THE END OF FAITH
W.W. Norton, New York, 2004
DESIGNATE
What to Designate?
To designate is to specify or characterize for a role or a function. Decide what or who

you want to select or assign – and if the two considerations converge, then it will be
deciding what is to be selected for whom, or who is to be assigned to what. Designation
is a kind of active allocation, of grouping formerly disparate people, processes, events, or
things into common categories for particular purposes. The designation may specify
comprehensive status or limited aspects thereof.
Why to Designate?
“When something is owned by everyone, it is owned by no one.” The implication is that

without specific allocation, there are no property rights at all. “When everyone is
responsible for something, no one is really responsible”. The implication is that without
specific assignment, there can be no accountability at all. Designation similarly serves to
clarify other rights and obligations, the basis of social action.
When to Designate?
Pre-empt or retro-fit? Some people like to establish the relationships and the rules before
their application actually occurs – this desire to plan ahead is often rationalized as good
sense, but it may really just be temperamental. Others prefer to wait until the need arises
and then take the plunge – is this pragmatism or just procrastination? As in so many
inferential situations, both successes and failures are seen with either choice.
Whether to Designate?
There is at least one rationale for not formally designating at all – it is the claim that on-
the-spot, spontaneous sorting is somehow more “natural”, that it simply emerges from
group dynamics. In some circumstances it still works remarkably well, but these tend to
be situations for which the “human element” plays a predominant role. Where training,
expertise, knowledge and considerable discipline are needed, deliberate designation rules.
How to Designate?
The appropriate criteria is functional, in the sense of designating according to what the
selection or assignment is meant to achieve – this takes us back to the what issue. If you
are looking to create a winning baseball team, select members on the basis of abilities to
either hit or catch. If the team is being created to “have some fun” select for those with
bonhomie. Problems occur when criteria conflict – prioritize and explain in that case.
References
John van Maurik
THE EFFECTIVE STRATEGIST
Gower Publishing, Hampshire, 1999
DETERMINISM
What (is determinism)?
All that is needed in order to maintain determinism in a general sense is to hold the hypothesis
that events happen in one or more definite (determinate) ways, that such ways of becoming are
not arbitrary but lawful, and that the processes whereby every object acquires its characteristics
develop out of pre-existing conditions (Bunge, 1963). The earliest version, "cause and effect" was
introduced with the celestial mechanics of Isaac Newton - a good effort, but only the beginning.
As more complicated systems were eventually studied and described, the causal model of
determinism (simple causes producing simple effects) required more sophistication as probability
was included in explanations. The outcomes of many events were unpredictable, either because
existing methods were not capable of discerning complex causes, or because the balance of
different causes lead to a range of outcomes rather than a single type. Was the probabilistic
calculus covered by causality or not? Physical scientists couldn't decide. Regarding social
phenomena however, other concerns rendered causality a moot point: What could account for
the kind of situation where the same cause produced different effects? And, what could account
for the other kind of situation, where different causes produced the same effects? These
anomalies were dealt with in the Systems Approach by replacing "causes" with "contributions",
and "effects" with "results". The size, kind, and timing of contributions can produce either
similar or dissimilar results in complex systems, so either determinism is obsolete because it is
based on cause and effect, OR an expanded definition of determinism is required, based on
contributions and results. If you opt for the second alternative, keep your expectations modest.
How (does determinism work)?
The best results come with a flexible approach - think of determinism as a systemic property
rather than an exact description of particular occurences. Look for both "causes and effects" AND
"contributions and results". Focus on careful observation and accurate description, rather than single
causes or single effects. If past experience is any indicator, then even the facts from a good study
can be interpreted in a variety of ways, sometimes contradictory or inconclusive. Above all,
remember the three laws of forecasting: (1) forecasting is difficult; (2) methodology is over-rated;
and (3) foresight requires insight (Ascher and Overhold, 1983).
Reference
Mario Bunge
CAUSALITY
Meridian Books, New York, 1963
William Ascher & William Overhold

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND FORECASTING
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983

DICHOTOMY
What (is dichotomy)?
"Dichotomy" is a technical term, defined by Webster's New World Dictionary as meaning

division into two [or more] parts. The concise way to say this, is that such things are "distinctly
different" - but that immediately raises complications. No two or more things can ever be
"completely contrary " because each fits into the general category of "entities". What
"dichotomous" identifies, therefore, is the absence of certain features in some cases, and their
presence in others. Conceivably a number of things could share a dozen features, but one half of
them would possess an additional feature which the other half lacked - and on the basis of the
presence or absence of that additional feature two categories might be proposed for some
particular purpose.
Since things (or sets, or patterns, or structures, or situations) may display a multitude of features,
the categorizing process is more credible IF the criteria for the dichotomizing is identified, and
the rationale for the grouping is plausible (i.e., does it make sense, and does it [really] serve the
purpose?). Referring to the presence or absence of a feature only makes sense if that feature
itself has relevance to the purpose of the task at hand - categorizing on the basis of shapes or
sizes, whether vastly or barely different, should not be used if these features have no bearing on
the what the practitioners are seeking to accomplish. However, exclusion in the absence of
some variable also implies the possibility of inclusion in another category.
How (does dichotomy work)?
Dichotomy is most often used to "disqualify" something (in the sense that the term is used in
marketing). To "disqualify" as a good prospect, a customer will lack certain characteristics:
sufficient disposable income to afford the product, an intrinsic or induced need for the product,
etc. During categorization, the entities that are dichotomous, as opposed to being equivalent with
those being grouped according to certain features, may either be left out of consideration entirely
or be placed in a category distinguished for being "without" the feature, or one possessing other
features. Pose the questions: Why is this categorization necessary? and What will the grouping
achieve? Problems often occur because the basis of categories is not clearly defined, nor their
implications sufficiently thought through. There was a time when science (the positivistic
version) was rationalized (in part) as a framework to demonstrate common features shared by
many entities. All life-forms were "energy-consuming devices" and all modern habitations were
"machines for living". Since the Second World War and the onset of post-modernism however,
the rationale has switched to "la difference". Since every form used and every choice made
excludes the other alternatives that are not engaged, differentiation can occur ad infinitum, until
the distinctions made make no difference at all. One effective way to avoid this pit-fall is to
recognize that homology and dichotomy are just two ends of the continuum of identity.
References
Spencer Brown
LAWS OF FORM
Crown Publishing, London, 1972
2005©WilliamSheridan [To return to the MindMap click here]

EGOISM
What is egoism?
Egoism is a willful rationale for behaviour. Just as hedonists are notorious for their perpetual quest
"to have a good time", so egoists are equally notorious for their perpetual quest "to get their own way".
And in this case too, there is nothing wrong per se with getting your own way, provided that your
goal is worthwhile. "Ah, but there's the rub." All too often egoists are far more concerned with what
they want than with the implications or impacts on anything and everything outside themselves. One
Russian émigré who became a novelist and amateur philosopher in 20th century America claimed that
this value was the only one a rational person would have - but since she died from complications
brought on by chain-smoking, I find both her rationalism and her egoism more than a little self-
defeating. If egoism doesn't lead a person to define their own self-interest in such a way as to preserve
and enhance their life as a primary objective, then they and their goals are both ludicrous. And
despite all the talk of so many egoists (and their existentialist fellow-travelers), in practice they fail
to fulfill that primary objective in case after case.
Does the foregoing paragraph seem somewhat "slanted" to the reader? Consider the following:
improving nutrition, public health, and modern medicine have created a "longevity revolution"
over the past two centuries. There are more alternatives to pursue, and more opportunities to
pursue them than at any time in previous human history. The fundamental premise of egoism is
that people's primary moral responsibility is to themselves. In developed societies at least, the
vast majority of people can get access to the knowledge and wherewithal to lead long, healthy,
productive, fulfilling, happy lives, in association with family and/or friends. The key
characteristics to enable this are attitude, willingness to learn, persistence, and planning, all of
which are well within the ambit of that same vast majority - so egoists especially need the
courage of their convictions! When you’ve thought through something critically and come to
the conclusion that seems most reasonable to you, it should follow (a) that you believe it, and
(b) that you start acting in accordance with that belief (Nosich, 2005).
How is egoism manifest?
Effective egoists will recognize when and where collaboration with others is actually in their own
self-interests (which is almost every time, everywhere!). The suppliers of knowledgeable advice,
nutritious food and supplements, public health facilities, and modern medicine, and well as all of
the other facilities that make a modern life-style so promising, all deserve our respect and
support, whether we be egoists or altruists. The metaphor most appropriate to an egoist's strategy
in this life is the runner on an obstacle course. Too many people, offering little or nothing of
value want to get in your way for no other reason than the attention they get. Learn to avoid them.
References
David Mahoney & Richard Restak Gerald M. Nosich

THE LONGEVITY STRATEGY LEARNING TO THINK THINGS THROUGH
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998 Pearson Prentice Hall, Toronto, 2005

ELITISM
What is elitism?
Elitism is an exclusionary doctrine of beheviour. It refers to a social situation when a small

minority provides "leadership" to a (much) larger majority. This arrangement may emerge
"naturally" where a person organizes a group for some particular activity and then reverts to
ordinary status when the task is over. Alternatively the leadership position may be formal,
with recruitment, induction, operational, and termination procedures. This concept has just as
"bad a name" amongst egalitarians as does altruism or collectivism amongst the egoists. People
who "want" leadership opportunities are often assumed to either have hidden agendas (the desire
for inordinate gain) or some form of psychopathology (the desire for unseemly domination).
For those in followership positions, a skeptical attitude about leadership candidates is a good
way to nip gullibility in the bud. On the other hand, some arrangement for group coordination
and cooperation, someone to set the goals and the pace, is usually needed, and often imposed.
One of the perennial topics of first-year University courses in Sociology concerns whether or not
social stratification is necessary. By the end of their third year, Sociology students usually agree
that whether or not it is necessary, it certainly seems to be inevitable. French Sociologist Robert
Michels call this phenomena "The Iron Law of Oligarchy" and it has proven correct ever since he
articulated it.
How is elitism manifest?
When concessions are made to the “necessity” of leadership, egalitarians consistently opt for the
“democratic” version – this is the person who uses consensual methods, talking things through
and never pulling rank. In practice the truly productive leaders are not necessarily likeable or
considerate – they are focused, self-centered, and driven by the need to achieve. However much
such individuals may depart from the democratic version though, they do accomplish things,
usually in less time, by means of less effort, and with measurably higher returns to the intellectual
and financial capital invested (Koch, 2003). One business analyst described them as “tough but
fair” – they want results, not excuses, but for those who deliver they will share the wealth and the
glory (Ohmae, 1982). This flies in the face of the “leader as exploiter” stereotype, but that
modern-day myth is no more reliable than the tales of Gods, Demons, Heroes and Villains from
ancient folklore.
References
Kenichi Ohmae
THE MIND OF THE STRATEGIST
Penguin, New York, 1982
Richard Koch
THE 80/20 INDIVIDUAL
Doubleday, New York, 2003
2005©William Sheridan [to get back to the previous menu close this page]
ELUCIDATE
What to Elucidate?
To elucidate is to make clear or plain for the purposes of comprehension. Since

elucidation refers to the process of clarification, be clear about what you are trying to
elucidate. As mentioned in the notes to other operators, don’t elucidate an indicator if
your goal is to clarify a measure (or visa versa). There are two notorious processes of
this kind – conflation, in which separate issues are treated as just one; and, misdirection,
in which one points to the wrong thing due to ignorance, or in order to mislead.
Why to Elucidate?
Both the ancient philosophical tradition and modern pragmatism have assumed that
making some issue, or topic, or question clear, because such elucidation would assist in
productive reasoning and/or effective decisions/choices. This is often true, but contrary
to both ancient philosophy and modern pragmatism, it is NOT always true. Sometimes
confusion, or “muddying the waters” can be just was the person intends. Deviousness!
When to Elucidate?
Clarify an issue (or whatever) when the results achieved will be worth the effort
expended. This is “benefit-cost analysis” applied to reasoning – it is the essence of
Herbert Simon’s concept of satisficing. All such cognitive activity takes a certain amount
of time and effort – if the result is worth that time and effort, then it is a good investment
of your attention, but otherwise you are wasting your cognitive resources.
Whether to Elucidate?
There are (at least) two senses in which elucidation might be “worth it”. One would be
judged on the basis of the outcome – see the previous section. The other would be if the
activity gave some intrinsic satisfaction to the person, regardless of it wider implications.
So if the results were worth it in the sense of an extrinsic goal achieved, or if the intrinsic
satisfaction made the activity gratifying anyway, then clarify. If not, don’t bother.
How to Elucidate?
If the exercise is over an important issue, use my MindMap Methodology (on the Main
Menu). If there isn’t the time, or other constraints apply, do a “rough and ready” version
in your head. Either way, you will be deconstructing (decomposing the concepts into
their component parts) and reconstructing (reassembling the components in some more
insightful way). Discuss it; use a dictionary, thesaurus, encyclopaedia, or other reference.
Reference
Stephen Toulmin Jim Powell & Joe Lee
THE USES OF ARGUMENT DECONSTRUCTION FOR BEGINNERS
Cambridge UP, Cambridge, 1958 Readers and Writers Publishing, Danbury, 2005
EMPIRICISM
What (is empiricism)?
Empiricism is an epistemology (theory of knowledge) based on the contention that knowing is

an evidence-based activity, the evidence being that of the senses. Those convinced of the strong
version of this epistemology claim to rely solely on the observations of experience and
experiment for their knowledge of reality. Philosophers David Hume and John Locke were
famous 16th century exponents of this claim, viewing it as a modern alternative to both mysticism
(intuitively ineffable) and rationalism (synthetic a priori).
In other words, there is no knowledge intrinsic to the human mind, only what we learn from the
environment. This view was developed to counteract claims to knowledge based on faith, divine
revelation, or spiritual insight. Empiricists maintain that whatever faith, divine revelation, or
spiritual insight might provide to the human mind, it was NOT true knowledge. The implication
of their position is that the content of knowledge is the practical wherewithal for control. What
their claim amounts to, is that the cognitive content that informs the exercise of control requires
an exclusively factual basis. Initially this seemed a plausible claim, but as it turns out, even such
practical aims as control in the "here and now" requires more than just the facts of the case --
additionally what is needed is some sense of the context AND an awareness of the purpose for
which the control is being exercised.
How (does empiricism work)?
Initially modern empiricism was very liberating, summed up in that famous Americanism "I'm
from Missouri, I've got to be showed". It is most effectively applied to the areas covered by the
physical sciences, or to be more exact, material objects. But even forces (i.e., gravity, etc.) or
processes (i.e., entropy, etc.) cannot be directly observed - only their consequences. We can see
things fall so we hypothesize gravity, and we can measure the decline in free energy so we
hypothesize entropy. Biological entities are still physical, but their complexity complicates the
observational process to such an extent that hypothetical processes and functions are a necessary
part of every description. Semiotic phenomena (involving symbols) add further layers to this
complexity. Most human behaviours have hypothetical aspects as basic parts of their very
existence and definition (i.e., money, marriage, meaning, etc.).
In every case, there are still facts, but although what we know is grounded in the facts, how the
facts are gathered, processed, and interpreted is as important as the semantic content of those
facts. So, in a comprehensive sense, what we know is partially empirical, but not entirely.
Knowledge about the mass or density of a rock may be predominantly empirical, but knowledge
about the size or density of a problem may be only marginally empirical.
References
Alfred Ayer William N. Stephens

FOUNDATIONS OF EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE HYPOTHESES & EVIDENCE
Macmillan, London, 1951 Thomas Crowell, New York, 1968
ENTREPRENEURIALISM
What is entrepreneurialism?
Entrepreneurialism is a purposeful rationale for behaviour. Although both hedonism and egoism
have a place in one's personal life, the major shortcoming of each is actually the same, namely
the lack of anything worthwhile. If a person's motivation consists solely of "having a good time"
and/or "getting their own way", it does NOT have what Webster's New World Dictionary defines
as that which will make it worthwhile, namely something of true value. The way a person
acquires that true value is through commitment to a project that holds the promise of significant
accomplishment, that is through entrepreneurialism. The entrepreneur strives to move resources
out of less productive activities and into more productive activities. "Productive" in this personal
sense includes the rationality of both means AND ends.
There are, of course, criminals and shysters that claim the mantle of entrepreneurialism for their
activities too, but they should be avoided and their advice ignored. Anyone who, for any reason,
lets means trump ends as their primary modus operandi, is not to be trusted or emulated. Those,
for instance, who insist that profitability justifies everything, might consider that by far their most
profitable course would be to spend nothing whatsoever on themselves because that deminishes
their bottom line - better a profitable death than a penurious life. Those without that level of
commitment to profitability themselves shouldn't expect equally absurd commitments from
others either.
How is entrepreneurialism manifest?
The key to effective entrepreneurialism is sustainability. Thorstein Veblen said that the
main characteristic of businessmen was their desire "to get something for nothing". Modern
commerce and modern governance have taught the public to adopt this same attitude in the years
since Veblen. More and more people don't want to think about the implications of their current
and aspirant life-styles, namely that they are NOT based on sustainability. They are looking for
personal fulfillment through social squandering of their ecological heritage - not very worthwhile!
The one truly good idea in the midst of all this carnage, is that the most productive resource with
which to tackle this, or any other challenge is our accumulating knowledge (cognitive and effective).
The accumulating character of knowledge make it a resource different from all the others that have
served as a platform for entrepreneurialism in previous human eras. What this unique development
implies is that the future of entrepreneurialism, and of knowledge, and of society, are now all part
of that new synthesis of sustainability that humanity has yet to fashion. Now that's something truly
worthwhile to engage in.
References
Braden R. Allenby Daniel H. Pink
INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY A WHOLE NEW MIND
Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1999 Riverland Books, New York, 2005

ENVIRONMENTALISM
What is environmentalism?
Environmentalism is an ecological rationale for behaviour. Einstein was reputed to have defined
the environment as "everything that isn't me". This approach scandalizes radical environmentalists
because it implies the possibility of separating humanity from the remainder of its ecosystem, an
idea they find both unrealistic and abhorrent. But what we should contemplate is the premise this
definition implies, namely that "the environment" is an idea, not anything in particular. What
Einstein has done (perhaps unintentionally, but brilliantly nevertheless) is to allow us to see that
"the environment" is a category, not a fact or a "natural" entity. Given the widespread use of the
word, the most accurate way to describe "the environment", is as a reification of an ecological
concept. Environmentalists and any one else who uses the concept as if it was real are indulging
in what Alfred North Whitehead called "the fallacy of concretization" - they are assuming that
since we can name something, that must prove it is a substantive reality. For the people who do
subscribe to this fallacy, environmentalism is a modern form of animism, nature worship, in
which the planetary ecosphere is personalized as "Mother Earth".
How is environmentalism manifest?
Contrary to the romanticized notion, nature is not benign - storms, hurricanes, tornados, floods,
tsunamis, droughts, earthquakes, volcanoes, plagues, and famines, etc. often devastate their
environments, usually locally, sometimes over vast areas. Despite this reality, many of those
with an environmentalist outlook say they prefer to "let nature take its course". On this planet,
the era of "the natural course of events" ended with the agricultural revolution over six thousand
years ago. The predominant regime that has been expanding ever since is Human Ecology, in
which "environments" are "managed", occasionally passably well, usually very poorly. If we are
to do better however, we must form our categories and use our technologies in realistic ways.
Even areas of the planet which remain "relatively" untouched or uninhabited do so only out of
human deference. When it suits humanity even the South Pole is colonized. What we need
(desperately) is a science of geo-mechanics to operate large of the earth's surface, both beneath
and above. Without the managed means to sustain our lives and our culture, humanity could
perish just as surely as have other species before us - we have no divine protection against human
stupidity if we choose to persist in that stupidity long enough. Anyone interested in re-thinking
this dilemma would do well to begin with Amos Hawley and Norman Myers.
References
Amos Hawley
HUMAN ECOLOGY: A Theoretical Essay
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986
Norman Myers
GAIA: AN ATLAS OF PLANETARY MANAGEMENT
Anchor Press, New York, 1984
EPISTEMOLOGY
What is epistemology?
Epistemology is the part of perspectivity that deals with how we know about reality. A
philosophical dictionary defines it as The branch of philosophy concerned with questions of
knowledge, belief, opinion, certainty, doubt, etc. Epistemology is sometimes called theory of
knowledge but theory of cognition would be better (TALKING PHILOSOPHY by
A.W. Sparkes). Conceptually speaking, there are three basic ways whereby we can know about
reality: (1) empiricism - knowing based on observing facts; (2) rationalism - knowing based on
thinking or calculation; and (3) constructivism - knowing based on inventing ideas. These
approaches are "ideal types" in the sense that Max Weber meant the term - they are archetypes of
knowing that can be used to assess the different knowledge claims that various people make. By
applying alternate epistemologies, the rationale for different explanations becomes apparent.
How is epistemology used?
Some people have adopted a "public persona" regarding their epistemology that emphasizes one
or another of the basic concepts. Empiricism gets its name from an ancient school of physicians
who claimed that all their rules of practice were derived from experience alone. To say that a
philosopher is an empiricist is to say that he places particular emphasis on experience,
observation, and perception in his account of knowledge and belief (TALKING PHILOSOPHY,
A.W. Sparkes). In the modern age, such a person would both gather information from existing
sources, and engage in experiments to discover information where it was not recorded
previously. In speaking knowledgably, such a person would always refer back to "the facts" as
the reference point from which to make any claims believed to be correct.
Rationalism emphasizes the intellectual component of knowing - thinking and calculation. This is
why Descartes is often considered the modern archetypal rationalist - his maxim "I think,
therefore I am" seems to epitomize the rationalist perspective. The rationalist doesn't deny the
use of information, but reserves the term "knowing" for those cognitive processes that deal with
the information after it is received (i.e., thinking and calculation).
Constructivism is an epistemology based on the recognition that all of the signs, symbols,
concepts, and frameworks whereby human knowledge is stored, retrieved, and manipulated, are
socially created and conventionally used. In other words, the medium for knowledge is invented
rather than discovered - so knowledge products are artifacts rather than naturally occurring
entities. The implication of this approach is that when different people define the same term
differently, they may be using the same words but meaning quite different things. And, when
people attach different labels to the same things, they may be assuming or implying different
characteristics or consequences regarding preferences or policies.
References
A.W. Sparkes Nicholas Rescher

TALKING PHILOSOPHY REALISM AND PRAGMATIC EPISTEMOLOGY
Routledge, London, 1991 Pittsburgh University Press, Pittsburgh, 2005

PRACTICE IN USING EPISTEMOLOGIES
The remainder of the section on Epistemology covers the three archetypes of knowing, namely
Empiricism, Rationalism, and Constructivism. Read through them first (each is a page or two)
and then try some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the
desired points): Take any one of the postulates and apply it to an issue of interest to you. The
issue might occur in a media story, in a book or magazine you read, in a conversation you have,
or in a presentation you attend.
In the case of Empiricism, ask yourself “What evidence is presented to support the facts or
theories or conclusions or propositions presented?” How was the evidence acquired? Who can
vouch for it? Is the evidence accurately reported [how do you know]? Is the evidence plausible?
Is the evidence credible? Again, in both cases, how do you know? How does the source know
about the viability of any of this evidence? It is conceivable that a particular instance of evidence
can meet all of the standards of good collecting and reporting that one could hope for – but in the
vast majority of cases, not likely! So instead, there is some interpretation and some hype
involved in the presentation. Whatever evidence is used may be for limited numbers of cases,
over a short period of time, in situations where other intervening variables are operating. So, be a
little skeptical, and don’t “bet the farm” until you have multiple, independent, cross-confirming
sources for the evidence presented. Let this be a rule for any claims of evidence that you
personally have not examined and verified. There are a hundred-and-one ways that evidence can
be messaged, with virtually no traces left of who had their hands in it!
In the case of Rationalism, ask yourself “What concepts are included in the construct (theory,
principle, proposition) being presented?” Are the concepts being used complementary to one
another, or contradictory? Are the definitions of terms conventional or esoteric? Are the steps in
the thinking process arranged in a credible sequence, or was something left out, or something else
arbitrarily included? Often there is hype in these presentations too, consisting of the claim that
some argument proves some conclusion which infers some other point and implies some action
on your part! These claims are often convoluted and a little baffling. So your best response is to
say “I’ll think about it.” Arguments are usually staged to either get your agreement or your
action, which on further thought you may not want. So ask yourself (or your interlocutor) “What
does it matter whether “the argument” is correct or incorrect?” If it doesn’t matter, then it
doesn’t matter! If it does matter, clarify what is at stake in “the bottom line.”
In the case of Constructivism, ask yourself “Is some other juxtaposition of concepts, or
principles, or theories, etc. just as credible?” Usually the answer is yes – that is, some other idea
has also been invented which could just as easily express or explain as the one being proposed.
In many cases you can still use the concepts or terminology being suggested, but keep it clear in
the back of your mind that alternatives exist, and these alternatives may also be useful at some
point. Most constructs only cover part of the data, or emphasize part of a problem or situation.
Other constructs may cover other parts of the date, or prioritize other aspects of interest.
Next, take an issue and try all three epistemologies on it. See how the “look and feel” changes as
each of the different epistemologies is applied to it. It all depends on your perspective.
William Sheridan©2006 To return to the MindMap click here.

EXISTENTIALISM
What (is existentialism)?
Existentialism is the view that there are no general rules to guide human beings concerning how
they should act, and especially that no ethical rules can be derived from consideration of some
supposedly determinate human nature, because human individuals are completely free to
determine their own nature by the choices they make (Glossop, 1974). To generalize,
existentialism is a kineology (theory of change) premised on the notion that alterations are
initiated through the operation of intrinsic rather than extrinsic drivers. Some consider the 20th
century French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre to be the quintessential existentialist, but 19th
century Dane Sǿren Kierkegaard is a better example because he both stated the original rationale,
and experienced a life plagued with the dilemmas it can lead to.
As the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus pointed out, everything in existence is in constant flux
to one extent or the other. We can either ride with that change, like a wood chip on a flowing
river, or we can choose to take action to chart our own course. If we "go with the flow" we are
letting determinism set our course - to the extent that we choose what to do, how to do it, and
why, we are existentialists. However, just as a human life without any exercise of choice
whatsoever is hardly imaginable, so is a life in which every aspect is consciously chosen. Sartre's
contention that "everything" is up for choice, does NOT represent the experience of real people
(including Sartre himself), but neither does the contention that we are entirely as the mercy of
outside, overwhelming forces. We can and do make choices - what we should strive for is
"informed choices". Reality is, to a considerable extent, the outcome of the implications and
consequences of those choices.
How (does existentialism manifest itself)?
To be in a position to make choices, it is necessary to be aware that alternatives exist for which
decisions can be made. If a person is not conscious of such alternatives at any particular juncture,
the whole consideration of choices is irrelevant. To the extent that one is aware of alternatives,
but is not fully informed about either the implications or the consequences of any particular
choice, one can hardly be held "fully responsible". But being unaware or uninformed is the state
of mind of most people - so expecting radical existentialism from them is "unrealistic"!
Individuals can, however, decide for themselves to inquire about their alternatives, and reflect
upon what they will do, and why, and where this will lead, and when. In doing so, the biggest
challenges they are likely to encounter, are conflicts of values, within and with others.
References
Donald D. Palmer Ronald J. Glossop

KIERKEGAARD FOR BEGINNERS PHILOSOPHY: An Introduction
Writers and Readers, New York, 1996 Dell Publishing, New York, 1974

FORETELL
What to Foretell?
To foretell is to possess foreknowledge and to share it. This operator focuses on one of
my central premises in constructing the MindMap – which I call “an index of the whole of
human knowledge”. Both predicting and forecasting have evolved to the state where they
give averages and alternatives rather than projective certainty – so does that mean that we
can’t really be definitive about the future? That’s not very re-assuring, but can we do
anything about it? Can we foretell anything? You bet your life we can!
Why to Foretell?
Humans live their lives by not only living “in the moment” but by anticipating AND
remembering. What we learn is only useful if we can remember it. Life only has a point
if we can look forward to goals and objectives. That is the purpose of foretelling. So,
every time you wonder, think about, or plan “what you’ll do next”, you will be basing
that on foretelling, to one extend or another. The more you want to accomplish…..
When to Foretell?
Whenever there is a decision, choice, or alternative facing you – in other words, most of
the time. It’s when you ignore the implications or consequences of what you are about to
do (or not do), that you leave yourself open to the vulnerability of not being prepared.
Think about it! This is the dilemma: the more details you want about the future, the less
successful your foretelling will be. Since less is more, settle for what you can get.
Whether to Foretell?
Do you really want to know? Knowledge is both empowering and burdening – anyone
who doesn’t recognize this situation as just “two sides of the same coin” doesn’t know
much. Sadly, that’s most people. Can you live with what you might find out? Do you
want to find out? On the other hand, what happens when you find out something you
never anticipated but have to deal with? Whatever doesn’t kill you makes you stronger.
How to Foretell?
The Laws of Forecasting set a context for the methods of foretelling. Forecasting is
short-sighted, the reason being that the facts of many situations change from day to day.
Methodology is over-rated, because reality is too complex to be captured by rules.
Foresight requires insight, but most approaches aren’t very insightful. Only at the
conceptual level can one discern enough systemic stability to substantiate prescience.
References
William Ascher & William Overhold
STRATEGIC PLANNING AND FORECASTING
FORMALISM
What is formalism?
Formalism is an aesthetic preference that prioritizes the particular modality in which expression is
developed and portrayed. For formalists, the "thing" is the perfection of the form of expression
itself - painters improve their colour mixing, their brush strokes, etc.; actors improve their voice
projection, their gesturing, etc.; writers improve their choice of words and phrases, their
alliteration, etc. What guides such efforts is the attempt to better express the feelings that the
"art" is supposed to convey to the audience. In each case there is a "method" behind the
development of "the feeling and the form" being expressed - dancing, for instance, may be
classical or contemporary, with different movements and tempo appropriate to each.
Audiences, or at least segments of them, are often just as committed to particular forms as are
those doing the presentation. Amongst film goers, some like "action flicks", some like "love
stories", some like "science fiction", and some like them all. In many artistic venues (theatres,
auditoriums, etc.) there are often series of presentations that feature particular modalities that are
favourites of particular audiences - classical music for some, rock music for others; contemporary
paintings for some, the old masters for others; opera for some, operetta for others, etc. This is the
context in which discussions have taken place about the merits of "high art" vs. "low art", or folk
culture vs. international culture. In all likelihood, the findings of anthropology apply to
aesthetics as well, namely that, just as each culture can express whatever its members need to
communicate, so each aesthetic form can express whatever its artists and audiences intend. In
other words, there is no intrinsically superior or inferior art form - a Grandma Moses "primitive"
style painting may be just as well expressed as a Georges Seurat "pointillism" style picture, but
with each having a different form of putting paint on canvas and creating a scene.
How is formalism manifest?
Formalists strive for excellence in performance, and both their colleagues and their audiences
recognize their successful efforts (and sometimes even their failures). Movies have festivals in
various cities around the world, some open to all entries, others focusing exclusively on particular
categories of films (national, regional, topical, etc.). Almost invariably either audiences or
critics, or both, get an opportunity to vote on "best in class", or "best in festival". Many
countries also have film academies, with annual awards voted on by the professionals in the
country's film industry. Film critics also have their awards ceremonies, and their prizes based on
their appraisal criteria. Most recently national audience awards have been created in which the
entire public can vote on what they feel is best. Award winners gain an aura which translates into
a desire amongst their colleagues to work with them on future projects. All awards of all such
winners become part of subsequent career and product promotion - winning an Academy Award
can significantly increase a winner's salary and a movie's box-office.
Reference
Suzanne Langer
FEELING AND FORM
Scribner Book Company, New York, 1977

FUNCTIONALISM
What (is functionalism)?

Functionalism is a kineology (theory of change) the obverse of determinism.
Just as the elements of determinism are sequential ["cause effect"], so there is a sequence to
functionalism, but in the opposite direction, namely ["effect cause"]. Positivistic science
viewed this sequence as either imaginary or inexplicable, and therefore "not scientific".
However, if systems are designed to display goal-seeking behaviour and feedback correction,
they can be both real and explicable.
The root of functionalism is, of course, the concept of function. Although function is one of the
main concepts in modern mathematics, science, and engineering, it was actually "invented" by
Aristotle in ancient Athens. There is considerable irony in this point of origin, because many in
positivistic science considered "function" to be a quintessentially modern concept, owing nothing
to pre-modern cultures or thinkers. The connection between function and functionalism is that in
systems exhibiting functionalism, their behaviour is a function of goal-seeking processes.
How (does functionalism work)?
In human behaviour, either individual or organizational, the notion of goals guiding behaviour is
at least understandable, even if some instances of patterns may be unintentionally and
inadvertently generated. The major controversies arose in situations where goals were implied
even when no conscious purpose was demonstrated. Was the "hidden hand" of the market a
metaphor or an actual description? Was the homeostasis of organisms or the dynamic
equilibrium of ecosystems just convenient heuristics or were they credible explanations? The
simplest, most straight-forward answer is also the one many find most distressing: Such action
can be interpreted either way.
In cases like this, the role of explanation is NOT to provide "the one correct answer" but rather to
develop an understanding of the situation. To the extent that a functionalist account of a process
helps to achieve such an explanation, it can be useful. Since there are also those who would
prefer to use a deterministic explanation even where goals clearly are in operation, and this too
might achieve certain insights, ruling a functionalist approach completely out of bounds does
seem rather churlish.
Reference
Russell L. Ackoff & Fred E. Emery Talcott Parsons

ON PURPOSEFUL SYSTEMS THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETIES
Aldine-Atherton, New York, 1972 Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1977
Stephen C. Pepper
A DIGEST OF PURPOSIVE VALUES
University of California Press, Berkeley, 1947

GENERALIZE
What to Generalize?
To generalize is to synthesize principles from particulars. Generalizing is a form of

averaging, which means it applies to a “population” and consists of subsuming the details
of variability under a broad and “typical” overview. It therefore resembles sociologist
Max Weber’s “ideal type” – or can as easily refer to an archetype, a prototype, or a
stereotype. According to philosopher Immanuel Kant, "Understanding is the knowledge
of the general", which he regarded as the most important cognitive capability.
Why to Generalize?
If time or patience is limited, a generalization may satisfice. If the diverse kinds of

variance even each other out, the general conclusion may be arrived at anyway, so why
bother to-ing and fro-ing when it makes no ultimate difference? On other occasions the
forest (overview) can get lost in the trees (details), so that a trend or pattern is disregarded
even though it might have considerable more importance than the particulars.
When to Generalize?
When the point arrives at which larger granularity is more relevant than finer gradations.
As in other operators, finalizing too quickly risks generalizing (induction) before enough
facts are in to actually support the conclusion. Just as unproductive however, is the (bad)
habit of procrastination, of delaying a conclusion (long) after the precedent is clear.
Perhaps the answer is a tentative generalization, convenient but corrigible.
Whether to Generalize?
We are constantly warned against “superficial” generalizations. But, by its very nature
and definition, a generalization is superficial! Generalizing can be useful, but it is wise to
keep in mind what is lost in the process – differences, details, depth. Superficial becomes
a justifiable criticism when it always pre-empts a closer look, when the generality
involved is taken to be the only characteristic of interest. Use an adjustable lens.
How to Generalize?
Look for the common characteristic or feature. Does the “mode” or “median” serve as
well as the essence? The former two are both features of general tendency, the first being
the most prevalent type, and the second the arithmetic average. The only answer is “it all
depends” – but since such choices can make a difference, telling which generalization
you have in mind will preclude confusion – unless that is your goal.
References
W. Allen Wallis & Harry V. Roberts Immanuel Kant
THE NATURE OF STATISTICS ON EDUCATION
The Free Press, New York, 1956 Dover Books, Mineola, 2003 [1803]
THE GESTALT FRAME
What is the Gestalt Frame?
According to the American Heritage Dictionary, “gestalt” is a word of German origination meaning a
physical, biological, psychological, or symbolic configuration or pattern of elements so unified as a
whole that its properties cannot be derived from a simple summation of its parts.
The word was defined and used within the context of the investigations in phenomenology that began in
th
the late 19 century, concerning the formation of a World-View (social psychology) that typical
members of a society or culture acquired and applied to themselves, their responses to others, and their
interactions with the environment. The insight which the term gestalt implied was that this social
psychology was not experienced as an assemblage of parts, but as a unified whole. The Gestalt Frame of
the Human Knowledge MindMap analytically deconstructs the unified whole of the World-View into
four aspects (phenomenology, methodology, axiology, semiology) so that its facets can be more clearly
identified and described. The Frame is the filter through which all sense-data pass on their way “into
the mind” or outward as directed actions.
How does the Gestalt Frame form?

th
Ever since the research of Edmund Husserl in the late 19 century, this is the question that has guided
work in phenomenology. Edward de Bono did his graduate research at Oxford University on this topic,
from which emerged his book MECHANISM OF MIND. In the archetypal sense, there are two
approaches to the forming of the Gestalt Frame. Hussurl and his followers took a “learning” or
“conditioning” approach – which basically contends that people acquire their World-View from their
social environment as young children. Under this model, it is taught tacitly rather than explicitly, and
its structure and operation are usually sub-conscious except in very peculiar circumstances (if an
experience is counter-intuitive, that may prompt recognition of “the limits of one’s thinking”). The
other approach, represented by de Bono’s work, and much in favor these days, sees the World-View
emerging as a result of the brain’s own “natural way” of processing incoming sense-data. The term that
advocates of this approach prefer is that the human nervous system is a “self-organizing system” that
functions to enable the person to align their behaviour to the environment so as to be able to cope. It
may not surprise readers to learn that I think the evidence supports a complementarity of both
processes.
References
Edward de Bono Sergio Sinay

MECHANISM OF MIND GESTALT FOR BEGINNERS
Simon & Schuster, New York, 1969 Writers & Readers, New York, 1998
Amitai Etzioni Peter McHugh

SOCIAL PROBLEMS DEFINING THE SITUATION
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1976 Bobbs-Merrill, New York, 1968
William Sheridan ©2006 more [To return to the MindMap click here]
PRACTICE IN USING THE GESTALT FRAME
The remainder of the section on The Gestalt Frame covers the four archetypes of experiencing, namely
Phenomenology, Axiology, Methodology, and Semiology. Read through them first (each is a page or
two) and then try some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the
desired points): Take any one of the concepts within the Frame and apply it to an issue of interest to
you. The issue might occur in a media story, in a book or magazine you read, in a conversation you
have, in a presentation you attend, or it might be something that just springs to mind.
In the case of Phenomenology, ask yourself “Is the past or future as real as the present?” “What is there
about the past or present that is real, and what is not?” Imagine how someone with a different sense of
the past or future might think or feel about events. Next, try considering something like this: Does the
saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” make sense to you; and whether or not it does,
what does it mean? Are there occasions when the importance of “wholes” or “parts” changes in
importance, or when the relation between them may vary? How could that happen, and why? For a
third challenge, think about how unity might be occur even in the presence of diversity in some
situations, and they might not co-exist in other situations, and try to determine what makes the
difference. In all of these cases, how you perceive your reality is not just a question of observation, but
also of the sub-conscious labels you apply to your perceptions. What some people perceive as
aggression, others perceive as defensive. What some people perceive as generosity, other perceive as
patronizing. There are no definitive answers to the above questions – it all depends upon what you
believe, and about your willingness to suspend your beliefs and consider other possibilities.
In Axiology, ask yourself “What result would valuing different things than you do, have on your sense
of right and wrong, good and evil?” Perhaps everyone’s sense of right and wrong simply reflects their
own values. Furthermore, consider the possibility that you only know what others value from either
their words, or their actions, either or both of which may be contrived to mislead, or not sufficiently
complete the give a conclusive result. If you reflect on this, you will realize that this is actually a
description of the situation we all find ourselves in – don’t panic, or despair. Instead ask yourself how
social coordination actually occurs, and consider the possibility of a more tolerant outlook.
For Methodology, examine how you tackle a problem or question when one occurs. Do you look for
the facts, or fit what you already know into an explanation and then seek to confirm it? Does the
overall situation concern you most, or the specifics? Are you looking for precise conclusions, or just an
approximation? Now try role-playing, and switch your answers to the above questions. How do your
methods change under these new approaches? In knowledge work, you may have to switch methods
depending on each assignment and the role in it that you perform.
Semiology gives you the most room to maneuver. Try pretending you like the things you loath, and
dislike the things you prefer. How different would the outlook of a person who really had those
preferences be from your own? Try the same tactic for anything that you improvise on the one hand, or
just passively consume on the other – what difference would that make to your lifestyle, or quality of
life? Think about what would happen if you became more, or less, fashion conscious. Very different.
Now contemplate some combination of Gestalt elements and think about the implications. WOW!
William Sheridan ©2006 [To return to the MindMap click here]

HEDONISM
What is hedonism?
Hedonism is a sensate rationale for behaviour. The hedonist's primary principle is summed up in the
slogan "Just enjoy!" There is nothing wrong with enjoyment per se, provided the experience which
provides it is worthwhile. The problem is with the first word in the slogan, namely "just". Hedonists
are notorious for sacrificing all other considerations to the search for pleasure. Since most pleasures
are quite transient, they find themselves on a constant treadmill on which they go through recurring
phases of searching, satisfaction, satiation, dissatisfaction, and renewed searching. Hedonists are
"pleasure junkies", addicted to the "high" of gratification which is, alas, only temporary. There is
now a merchandising service and catalogue devoted to "hedonics", so there is obviously a lucrative
market in catering to such people (provided they are rich enough to afford the pearl-handled,
gem-studded hand guns and other trinkets associated with this group). What those who are not
exclusively committed to this personal principle might find "shallow and superficial" in the hedonist
lifestyle, hedonists themselves insist is sufficiently fulfilling from their point of view, and "what
they really want" from their lives.
How is hedonism manifest?
The consumption rationale for hedonists is often "quality" but from outside their ranks it bears a
striking resemblance to the "conspicuous consumption" of the Gilded Age of the late19th century
United States. Therefore, it was probably someone like Ambrose Bierce who said of them
"Nothing exceeds like excess!"
What is rarely considered these days is that the actual consumption patterns that would qualify
one for a hedonist in the Gilded Age, are now the aspirations of most people in developed
economies, perhaps even of most of humanity. The single two major purchases that millions of
people yearn for, are a single-family dwelling, and a single-family automobile. Yet ecologist
have indisputably demonstrated that the enormous "ecological footprint" of modern individuals
that is so destructive of the environment is primarily caused by the spreading use of the single-
family dwelling and the single-family automobile. In terms of grossly wasteful lifestyle, we are
(almost) all becoming hedonists now! Imbibing hedonism, like drinking water, is only safe in
small amounts - a person can literally drown with just a little more than a glass of water. Those
in the home construction and real estate markets have come to imply that the towering monolith
in the movie A Space Odyssey is actually a mortgage document! We are squandering our
ecological heritage for a house, a lawn, a driveway, and a car - that's hedonism gone mad.
Reference
Richard North Mathis Wackernagel & William Rees

THE REAL COST OUR ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
Chatto & Windus, London, 1986 New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, 1996
Victor J. Papanek
DESIGN FOR HUMAN SCALE
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1983
2005©William Sheridan [to return to the MindMap click here]
HOMOLOGY
What (is homology)?
"Homologous" is a technical term, defined by Webster's New World Dictionary as meaning

agreeing, matching in structure, position, etc. The concise way to say this, is that things are
"equivalent instances" - but that immediately raises complications. No two (or more) things can
ever be "exactly the same" because each is composed of its own individual elements. What
"homologous" identifies, therefore, is the sharing of certain features, which means that the
members of the category display certain characteristics or patterns. Conceivably a number of
things with a dozen features might only share one of them in common, but that one shared feature
could be the basis for categorizing them as homologous ("equivalent instances") for some
particular purpose.
Since things (or sets, or patterns, or structures, or situations) may display a multitude of features,
the categorization process is more credible IF the criteria for the grouping is identified, and the
rationale for the grouping is plausible (i.e., does it make sense, and does it [really] serve the
purpose?). The possibility of a feature being shared only makes sense if the feature itself has a
range of acceptable variation - blue things, even those of the "same" hue, are rarely all of
precisely the same wavelength in Angstrom units - so this range of acceptable variation also
needs to be specified. Inclusion on the basis of some variable also implies exclusion in the
absence of the same variable.
How (is homology used)?
Homology is most often used to "qualify" something (in the sense that the term is used in
marketing). To "qualify" as a good prospect, a customer must possess certain characteristics:
sufficient disposable income to afford the product, an intrinsic or induced need for the product,
etc. During categorization, those entities that qualify as homologous are equivalent enough to
serve as the plausible basis for grouping together. Pose the questions: Why is this categorization
necessary? and What will the grouping achieve? Problems often occur because the basis of
categories is not clearly defined, nor their implications sufficiently thought through.
One of the maxims of mensuration (the act, process, or art of measuring) also serves for
categorization: Let the degree of exactness reflect the purpose of the task. Measuring for the
tolerance of components in a piece of precision machinery may require calipers or even
electronic measuring devices. Estimating the length of one's stride while out walking does not
require specification at the level of centimeters. Categorization should be practiced in the same
pragmatic way. If the attribute for grouping is an important one, define it as exactly as needed
for the grouping that is contemplated. If "close" is close enough, it may be best to keep the
boundaries variable.
References
D.C. Baird
Robert W. Howard EXPERIMENTATION: An Intoduction to
CONCEPTS AND SCHEMATA Measurement Theory and Experimental Design
Cassell Educational, London, 1987 Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1962

HOW?
Definition
The word how is an adverb. When used as a question, it has more potential for
diversity than any of the other quintessential questions. In what way? enquires about
modality. By what means? asks about methodology. In what condition? questions the
state of being. To what degree? concerns the extent of the situation. Then there are
indirect or dependent questions: how many? (what magnitude); however? (nevertheless).
Hence, the parameter how runs from means to cause.
Purpose
The intention of this question? Despite the fact that intellectuals often disparage this
question, it may cover more of the concerns of average people than all of the other
questions. People are concerned about the way the world works, and the manner in
which they or others behave. To some extent, the shift of priority from the other
questions to this one is a hallmark of the modern age – it grounds science & technology.
Explication
There is a very good reason for the shift from why to how in the modern world. It is
epitomized by a cautionary tale from industrial engineering: when someone comes up
with a better designed car engine, the only way a manufacturer will agree to evaluate it is
if a working model is submitted – any such claims must be substantiated with proof of
HOW the thing works. That has eliminated any need to test perpetual-motion machines.
Implication
How something works (animate or inanimate) can be covered with either a description or
an explanation. These two aspects do not necessarily coincide. It is possible to describe
the workings of something (the flight of a bumble bee) without being able to explain it. It
is also possible to explain something (the conditions that will lead to political unrest)
without being able to describe how that eventuality will actually occur. How is deep too!
References
John Bruin Dorothy Strachan

HOMO INTEREOGANS QUESTIONS THAT WORK
Ottawa UP, Ottawa, 2001 ST Press, Ottawa, 2001
Donald Norman Pete Moore

THE DESIGN OF EVERYDAY THINGS THE FORENSICS HANDBOOK
Basic Books, New York, 2002 Prospero Books, London, 2004

HUMANISM
What is humanism?
Humanism is cultural rationale for beheviour. Although there are several ways that humanism has
been defined, perhaps the one way that includes them all is the statement from a commentator in
Ancient Greece: Man is the measure of all things. In the current idiom that could be re-stated as:
a system of thought that centers on humans and their values, capacities and worth (American
Heritage Dictionary, 2000). The context of the statement from Ancient Greece is that at that time
philosophy was enamored with the idea that mathematics was the basis of all rational thought - so
the commentator's premise was that human interests were what made measurement worthwhile.
The modern version of humanism changes this premise into the substance of the concept.
What it is a good idea to keep in mind though, is that this concept of "humanity" is an idealized
one, not a reference to real folk with their "warts and all". The ethic of humanism transcends
ordinary people in their everyday lives. It more particularly romanticizes the cultural heritage of
the species, and those individuals and activities that contribute to that heritage. The "greater
good" is attributed to cultural creators (innovators) rather than culture consumers (the public).
How is humanism manifest?
The issue that both ancient and modern humanism deal with, is: what should be the most
appropriate focus of human enquiry and endeavor? The opposite view from humanism in the
ancient world was the one which originated in Astrology and was later adopted by Philosophy,
namely: As above, so below. And although Science has replaced both Astrology and Philosophy
in the modern world, it implicitly still holds to that older rationale. Astrology, Philosophy, and
Science are based on the notion that there is a larger context in which human life is situated, and
into which human understanding and behavior have to fit. The humanist reply is that the value
and role of everything outside of humanity is to serve human purposes. Neither the humanist
view nor its alternatives can be declared ultimately "correct" OR "incorrect", because all of these
claims are based on what different people value, NOT on any facts per se.
When humanists prioritize human activities and interests over other considerations, this is what
they do: they glorify human culture and human accomplishments. So, for instance, putting a
man on the moon is not seen as a "big technological success" but rather another "triumph of the
human spirit" - for humanists it's not the space craft or the space agency that gets attention, but
rather the vision, struggle, bravery, and accomplishments of all the humans on the project.
Perhaps the starkest way to express it is this: the ONLY thing which provides any significance to
anything is the human purpose behind it and the human endeavor within it. To anyone who
considers this an excessive view, humanists simply point to the techno-euphoria of the modern
age as the opposite extreme against which they are reacting.
References
Alan Bullock
THE HUMANIST TRADITION IN THE WEST
W.W. Norton, New York, 1988
IDEALISM
What (is idealism)?
Idealism is an ontology (theory of reality) that claims what actually exists consists of the concepts
we use to understand our experiences. According to the idealist perspective, reality is more than our
behavioural patterns or the materials conditions of our existence - our sense of reality is something
we achieve through active use of our minds, not something we simply infer from the facts or acquire
through cultural conditioning. The place where idealism is most applicable is in the sphere of
human relations. Money is not a natural phenomena, nor is the idea of money a reflection of natural
phenomena - the idea for this institution was developed by people to serve certain purposes. In a
similar way, all other institutions were contrived: the idea of contracts was invented, as was that of
writing, government, trade, science, marriage, justice, etc. These things are "made-up" by defining
them (what they are, how they will work) and declaring them (committing to such practices,
promoting compliance). All human folkways and mores are built in this way.
The major problem with the idealist ontology is the attitude of "reification" which often arises to
accompany the ideals in use. Reification is what philosopher Alfred North Whitehead called "the
fallacy of concretization", the assumption that the ideals in current use are "real" in a material or
supernatural sense. However, social institutions are NOT things or forms (like tools or
templates), and scientific principles are NOT facts or myths (like data or parables). Rather, social
institutions are guidelines, and compliance is negotiable, so gradual changes are occurring all the
time, and compulsive commitment is not a necessary implication of idealism, but rather an
indication of a "fundamentalist" temperament.
How (does idealism work)?
One of the most enlightening lessons in idealism is to "deconstruct" the social institutions in
everyday use, and see the large role that convention and constraint play in human behaviour.
Most of our ends (goals) and means (methods) are based on traditions and habits, NOT natural or
necessary processes. For instance, we do have to eat, but - what we eat, what we don't eat, how
we eat, etc. are part of our folkways and mores, not physical laws. Other societies, in other times
and places have had somewhat different traditions and habits, sometimes radically so. Hence, we
could change our traditions and habits for the better without that necessarily subverting our
societies. If that were to become desirable, we might look for guidelines to other examples of
social change, and to the experience with different traditions and habits - life lessons on which
social ideals are worthwhile, and how to implement them, are wherever you find them.
References
Pitirim A. Sorokin John Searle

SOCIOCULTURAL CAUSALITY, SPACE, TIME THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF
Russell & Russell, New York, 1964 [1943] OF REALITY
The Free Press, New York, 1997
Jean Baudrillard
FOR A CRITIQUE OF THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE SIGN
Telos Press, New York, 1981

INFERENTIAL OPERATORS
What (are inferential operators)?
Technically, an inference is a explanation based on something known, and a operation is a

procedure to accomplish an objective. Hence, Inferential Operators are the various cognitive
processes whereby one develops an understanding of any issue(s) being considered. The twenty
listed in the Tool Kit should not be considered the complete list of such possibilities, although
they do cover a very wide range of procedures.
The terms chosen to indicate each operator are not necessarily the only "correct" or "best" ones
available - other synonyms could be used. It could be equally possible to create alternative lists
which reflect different versions of the experiential gestalt (various mixtures of axiology,
phenomenology, methodology and semiology). For instance, some of the Operators in the
MindMap list might be combined into more encompassing constructs, or others might be
disaggregated to explore further distinctions.
How (to use inferential operators)
Inferential Operators are used in a teleonomic process, the purpose of which is to make an
argument. What arguments consist of is reasoning from premises to a conclusion by the use of
inference. So, the intention is persuasion, the objects used are reasons and evidence, the result
being the altering of beliefs or influencing of behaviour pertinant to the argument (Toulmin, 1958).
Therefore, which inferential operator(s) you use depends on the conclusions you want to draw.
What all of this indicates is that such choices are governed by a pragmatic outlook. To avoid the
commitment of too much time, too much preparation , and too much effort, inferences are
recommended which lead to the "best" explanation rather than spelling out all or most of the
conceivable possibilities. It is precisely here that Herbert Simon's concept of satisficing comes into
play - doing the best you cognitively can, given the information, time, and interest you have, is
all that anyone can reasonably expect - work towards a plausible, tentative estimate. Inferences
also enable effective memorization, thus preserving cognitive economy.
References
Nicholas Rescher Stephen Edelston Toulmin

COGNITIVE ECONOMY THE USES OF ARGUMENT
Pittsburgh UP, Pittsburgh, 1989 Cambridge UP, Cambridge, 1958
Guus Schreiber at al
KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000
Peter Lipton
INFERENCE TO THE BEST EXPLANATION
Routledge, London, 1993
2005©William_Sheridan [To_return_to_the_MindMap_click_here]
INVENT
What to Invent?
To invent is to contrive something new – but since nothing is entirely new, some aspect
of its configuration must differ from existing arrangements enough to be considered an
original formation. By contrast, innovation is the introduction of something into common
use. However, inventions are novel but not necessarily beneficial – many are obviously
detrimental. What should be invented are those contrivances that are clearly worthwhile.
Why to Invent?
As the previous paragraph suggests, the purpose for invention should be a contribution
that gives value-added to those who use it or are impacted by it. By this criterion most of
the commercial inventions that have been turned into innovations should be re-called, and
re-designed or retro-fitted. What about the gains that inventors seek? No one should
profits at the expense of others – mutual benefits all ‘round should be assured.
When to Invent?
Responding to a lack, rectifying a mistake, anticipating a problem – all are appropriate

occasions for invention. Many cases have occurred where an invention came “before its
time” and either never caught on, or had to wait for apposite circumstances to eventually
arise. Other cases faced the opposite problem, an invention whose time had already
passed when the novelty was ready to be launched. Patience, persistence, planning.
Whether to Invent?
Is there an authentic need for what is being proposed or offered? How could we tell?
(1) Will it provide real benefits? (2) Do prospective users want it? (3) Will its external
impacts be acceptable or ameliorable? If any or all of the answers to these questions are
“NO” then either costs or detriments will outweigh benefits so the invention should be
foregone. If all of the answers are yes then that is the kind of invention we need more of.
How to Invent?
All contrivances re-cycle previous cultural elements and combine them in a new way.
Don’t strive for the “entirely” new – even a slight variation can be a great invention
(Wiener, 1993). Think analogously – creative thinking is a process of “bisociation”, the
bringing together of elements previously not associated but suddenly juxtaposed during a
flash of insight, or laboriously assembled through much cognitive effort (Koestler, 1964).
References
Norbert Wiener Arthur Koestler
INVENTION THE ACT OF CREATION
MIT Press, Cambridge, 1993 [1954] Arcana, London, 1989 [1964]
William Sheridan©2006 [to return to the MindMap click here]

JUDGE
What to Judge?
To judge is to evaluate some situation or behaviour by some criteria or standard. In the

words of Immanuel Kant, "Judgment is the application of the general to the particular."
As David Hume famously pointed out, there are essentially two types of judgment, the
one of fact (what is the case), and the other of value (what should or should not be the
case). Confusion occurs if people try to "objectify" their value judgments. They're not.
Why to Judge?
Judgements of fact or value are essential for the well-being of individuals and institutions.
But they become pernicious when they are “moralized” to convert every assessment into
a choice between good or evil. This can lead to an infinite regress, because every claim to
virtue has the potential be trumped by anyone else asserting that their judgment is in some
sense superior. The real merit of a judgment consists of its implications and consequences.
When to Judge?
“Circumstances alter cases” – that line from J.M. Berry’s play The Admirable Creighton
is actually a wise one for timing judgement. Since no one can see all of the consequences
of one’s actions, procrastination probably occurs as readily as premature judgment. All
that any of us can do is our best. Make judgments as the need arises, which is itself a
judgment call. So, what is required is reflexivity, self-awareness of the gravity involved.
Whether to Judge?
“Judge not so ye shall not be judged” – that or something close to it is a quote from the
King James’ Version of the Bible. Many people are knee-jerk moralizers, posing as
authoritative sources of evaluation when they are neither authorized nor qualified for
such a role. Such self-righteous behaviour is prompted by a pernicious combination
of “the rights revolution” and a widespread psychopathology of resentment.
How to Judge?
State the criteria or standards clearly. Authenticate your bona fides. Evaluate the
behaviour, NOT the person; assess the aspect of a situation under review, NOT extraneous
circumstances. Temper justice with mercy. Find a remedy that rectifies the problem
AND prevents or discourages its recurrence. Revenge is not recommended – neither is a
super-hero complex; no one is authorized or entitled to right the wrongs of the world.
References
Donald Black Immanuel Kant
THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF ON EDUCATION
RIGHT AND WRONG, 2nd ed. Dover, Mineola, 2003 [1803]

KINEOLOGY
What is kineology?
Kineology (from the root word kinetics, the study of motion) refers to the processes by way of
which reality changes. According to the philosopher who makes the rationale for this label,
kineology is that part of metaphysics which attempts to describe the most general characteristics
of change in the universe (PHILOSOPHY, Ronald J. Glossop). The ancients conceived the topic
in terms of "alpha and omega", the beginning and the end of all things, and as such it included
Cosmology (the big bang) and Eschatology (heat-death of the universe). Modern versions are far
less poetical, and consist of three basic processes: (i) determinism - the rule of cause and effect;
(ii) existentialism - the occurrence of choice and chance; and (iii) functionalism - teleonomy
( implementing plans) and teleology (fulfilling destiny). Here too reality consists of a blend, with
determinism applying to mechanical aspects, existentialism applying to optional alternatives, and
functionalism applying to consequential trajectories. It isn't necessary to assume that one type of
change process fits or explains all instances of transformation - reality is more diverse than that.
How is kineology manifest?
Change processes that are confined to mechanical aspects of the universe operate on the basis of
cause and effect. Celestial systems (planets, asteroids, stars, galaxies, etc.) have their masses and
orbits which usually display a high degree of regularity and continuity. So do many geophysical,
ecological, and technological processes. Since a variety of causes and effects are operating
simultaneously, some of the effects may offset other in certain respects - the rates and results
must be studied and measured very carefully to get an accurate sense of their full dynamics. Part
of the human condition is governed by cause and effect, in so far as mechanics and energetics
govern life processes. Choices and contingencies operate within these parameters, NOT outside
them.
Existential aspects of change are indeterminate in their outcomes - things could go a number of
different ways. Even in physical processes, there are occasions on which alternate outcomes are
probabilistically equivalent, so single occurrences could go either way, and multiples could be
distributed approximately evenly. Human choice, which some philosophers find puzzling, occurs
because cognitive processing can (1) deal with alternatives, (2) anticipate outcomes, and (3)
formulate plans, all of which could lead to different directions of change.
Functionalism consists of processes wherein future results govern current actions - either
something or someone is operating according to intention, or a larger purpose is at work that is
guiding events. The kind of "larger purposes" usually implied are either supernatural (God) or
systemic (Nature). Intentions are either individual (goals) or institutional (policies). Every
change objective is premised on anticipation, so functionalism is the way we control the future.
References
William Sheridan©2006
Ronald J. Glossop [Close this page to return to the previous menu]
PHILOSOPHY: An Introduction to Its Problems and Vocabulary
Delta Books, New York, 1974

PRACTICE IN USING KINEOLOGIES
The remainder of the section on Kineology covers the three archetypes of changing, namely
Determinism, Existentialism, and Functionalism. Read through them first (each is a page or two)
and then try some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the
desired points): Take any one of the postulates and apply it to a situation of change that interests
you. The situation might occur inter-personally (between family, friends, classmates, etc.),
socially (in your community, city, or region), politically (in your local or national government),
or globally (in international relations, in the transnational economy, or the global environment),
or any circumstance similar to those listed. Or it might just be something that springs to mind.
In the case of Determinism, ask yourself “What aspects of the situation under consideration can
be considered of a mechanical nature?” That is to say, to what extent does gravity, the laws of
mechanics, thermodynamics, etc. apply, and account for the outcome of interest to you? There is
never any point in criticizing or questioning an outcome where the predominant source of change
was natural forces that made the course of events inevitable. Nor is there any point in asking for,
or expecting something which natural forces make an impossible outcome. So, distinguish the
extent to which cause and effect determine the course of events, and what real possibilities exist
for alternatives, and which do not. What is possible through technological intervention, and what
is not? What is possible by setting different causal chains in motion, and what is not? If some
causes inevitably produce certain effects, can these causes be avoided, and should they be
avoided?
In the case of Existentialism, the question to ask is the exact opposite to that for Determinism,
namely “What choices are available in this type of situation?” Choices are available because the
resources to implement them can be mobilized, they do not contravene natural forces, and their
various outcomes are equivalent in terms of possibilities. How many of the available choices are
actually within the field of awareness of those involved? Gravity is not a choice – it exists
everywhere, varying in intensity with local conditions. Are habits or traditions equally binding
on choices? Not necessarily an easy question to answer – it seems to depend on who is involved,
when, where, and why. A history of previous behaviour will likely give some indication of an
answer in cases like this. To what extent do we project our choices onto others? If I commit to
an ideal for myself, does that choice imply that I believe it is equally applicable to others? [No.]
With Functionalism, the question concerns “Is there a conscious (to the participants) purpose
behind this change (teleonomy), or larger forces guiding the sequence (teleology)?” Some people
see a “hidden hand” behind market processes, biological evolution, and human development.
The challenge with these types of hypotheses is to show the mechanisms that are mobilized to
actually implement the “larger plan”. Ask for, or look for the way the “purpose” is supposed to
work – how do facts, events, processes, and forces interact and interlock to give the string of
outcomes that produces the plan over time? Are there alternative “bigger plans” that could
explain similar outcomes? Would “God” or “Mother Nature” or “Human Nature” serve as
equally plausible explanations? Would “no purpose, just chance happenings” also explain?
Then apply each postulate to a single change, and see if they concur or contradict.

MATERIALISM
What (is materialism)?
The conventional definition of materialism is an ontology (theory of reality) based exclusively

on physical things. An alternative, and perhaps better statement of the sense of this concept is
that reality consists only of facts (i.e., phenomena that have been observed and recorded as data
points by appropriate methods). This is the view that once premised a particular version of science,
namely positivism. Those practicing positivistic science claimed that science must have a factual
basis, so they either rejected idealist and behaviourist concepts and labels, or tried to reinterpret
these other views in materialist terms. Positivists regarded speculative thought as long on theory
but short on results, something they were dedicated to reversing. Those who have a materialist focus
to their lives are primarily concerned with the acquisition, possession, and consumption of things
(goods and the services these provide), and that kind of lifestyle becomes their major source of
gratification. The problem with a materialist approach is that there is a limit to how much one can
consume, beyond which the acquistion of more becomes compulsive (a form of psychopathology).
One of the implications of materialism that positivists drew, was that many (perhaps most) of the
concepts in philosophy and psychology were hypothetical and "unreal" - they rejected these as
nonsense, but to others this meant science was "cold and mechanical". In hindsight it is apparent
that the problem was that positivists were trying to apply the paradigm of classical physics to all
phenomena, whereas other concepts and other methods were needed for other subject-matter.
How (does materialism work)?
Science can no longer be composed exclusively of "material" facts because so many concepts
in all scientific disciplines are now "hypothetical" rather than directly observable. Hence the
definition of science has expanded to include both facts and principles. And human beings cannot
really live on things alone, because emotional needs must be satisfied symbolicly and socially,
not just with more things.Where does that leave materialism? Material things can still be distinguished
from other phenomena (ideas and behaviours). Consumption of a certain amount of material things
(food, clothing, shelter, etc.) is necessary to satisfy basic physiological and social needs. Beyond
certain levels however, compulsive searching for more "material facts" (science) or material objects
(lifestyle) reaches a point where the additional utility gained is no longer worth the effort expended.
So, materialism is one aspect of reality, but not the whole of it.
References
Michael Brian Schiffer

THE MATERIAL LIFE OF HUMAN BEINGS
Routledge, New York, 1999

METHODOLOGY
What is Methodology?
Methodology concerns the rules that direct HOW you examine reality:
microscopic or macroscopic; case-by-case or aggregated; precisely or approximately. If you are
looking for the big picture, the details, no matter how remarkable, may be irrelevant. If you are
comparing for a common characteristic, the idiosyncratic differences are “under the radar.” If a
rough answer will do, looking for strict criteria is a waste of time. And visa versa. Each of the
pairs characterizing methodology are at the opposite ends of a parameter.
Theory vs. Practice
Are you looking at the pattern or the particulars? “A practice is a tangible
and visible behavior.” So, seeing is believing. A theory is an intangible and implicit schema. So it
focuses you on the forest rather than the trees. There is a joke that certain intellectuals will
comment about a procedure that “Yes, I know it works in practice, but does it work in theory?”
Both are correct, and either is acceptable. Try them together! The parameter that involves theory
and practice can be called transaction.
Differentiate vs. Correlate
Do you prefer to deal with case studies, particular instances – or,
do you want the average of a series, whether the mode or median? One way of describing
these choices is either comparison or contrast. The basis for correlation is always some
feature, characteristic, or aspect that instances share – the basis for differentiation is
something that instances do NOT share. Entities always have both uniqueness and
something in common. The parameter that underlies differentiate and correlate is
formation of the variables.
Exact vs. Fuzzy
Linguist Benjamin Lee Worf identified two different kinds of
entities to which quantification could be applied (see MacNeal). On the one hand there
are entities with definite outlines (i.e., sticks, stones, men, mice, etc.), and on the other
hand there are entities with indefinite outlines (i.e., water, air, entropy, gravity, etc.).
Those things with definite outlines can be counted, exactly. Those things with indefinite
outlines can only be measured, approximately. Approximate groupings have fuzzy
boundaries. So, depending on the domain, either exact or fuzzy methods are required.
The parameter that includes exact and fuzzy refers to precision.
References
Herbert E. Meyer Nicholas Rescher

REAL-WORLD INTELLIGENCE A USEFUL INHERITANCE
Grove Weidenfeld, New York, 1987 Rowman & Littlefield, Savage, 1990
Edward MacNeal F.G. Bailey

MATHSEMANTICS THE SAVING LIE: truth & method in social science
Penguin Books, New York, 1994 Universtiy of Philadelphia Press, Philadelphia, 2003

ONTOLOGY
What is ontology?
Ontology is concerned with the question "What does reality consist of?" The word 'ontology'
is derived from the Greek word for 'exist' , 'is', etc. Ontology is concerned with questions about
existence and being. What kinds of things can be said to exist? What does it mean to say that
something exists? Are there different senses of the verb 'to exist", different types of existence?
(A.W. Sparkes, TALKING PHILOSOPHY).
It turns out that the answers that are provided to ontological questions fall into three types of
approaches: (1) materialism - the belief that only things that have physical substance are real;
(2) idealism - the belief that reality consists of the concepts that underlie the facts of experience;
(3) behaviorism - the belief that reality consists of how things (including people) behave. To
avoid getting stuck in "ontological fundamentalism" use all three views on beliefs about reality.
How does ontology operate?
Although some people may claim to be predominantly or exclusively convinced of one or another
of these ontologies, in practice they will blend these archetypes, much as in epistemology.
Materialists will try to find the physical basis for any and all of the phenomena of interest to
them. So instead of accepting the terminology of conventional psychology for human behavior,
they will look for genetic or physiological explanations. And if they look hard enough, or are
patient enough, they will find (or discover) such explanations, because for "materialist true
believers" this approach is the only credible one.
Idealists discern a "deeper reality" beneath the facts and foibles of experience, because
appearances are so changeable, but their concept of reality is "changeless". Plato saw ideal
"forms" as the basis of mundane experience, while Noam Chomsky sees cognitive structures
behind human language capabilities, and Claude Levi-Strauss finds kinship templates governing
all human cultures.
Behaviorists see human reality (the baseline for them) as consisting of the accumulated habits
and traditions whereby societies condition people. The mechanism of "classical conditioning"
consists of associations that are built up between reinforcing stimuli and subsequently acquired
routines. The other mechanism is "operant conditioning", wherein behavior is shaped through a
combination of (a) positive reinforcement of emergent behaviors that are acceptable, (b) negative
reinforcement (benign neglect) of neutral behaviors, and (c) aversive reinforcement of
unacceptable behaviors (discouragement). The rationale behind this approach is that reality is a
human construct, so reality consists of how humans behave.
References
A.W. Sparkes
TALKING PHILOSOPHY
Routledge, London, 1991

PRACTICE IN EXAMINING ONTOLOGIES
The remainder of the section on Ontology covers the three archetypes of being, namely
Materialism, Idealism, and Behaviourism. Read through them first (each is a page or two) and
then try some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the
desired points): Take any one of the postulates and apply it to an issue of interest to you. The
issue might occur in a media story, in a book or magazine you read, in a conversation you have,
in a presentation you attend, or it might be something that just springs to mind.
In the case of Materialism, ask yourself “What are the units of analysis in the argument (or story,
or case history, or whatever).” Is the claim that everything is composed of atoms, or atoms and
energies, or what (else)? Or is the argument that reality consists of “facts”. If so, what kinds of
facts (physico-chemical, biological, sociological, psychological, or what)? Whatever the
materialist unit of analysis in use, how are communication, observation, and concepts explained
in this analysis? And how does a materialist analysis explain the non-material assumptions in
materialist theories and explanations? Think of the many aspects of human and biological life
that a materialist account cannot explain (there are so many, and they are so obvious), and ask
yourself why anyone would want to rely on an ontology that leaves so much out. Then think
about the appropriate uses of materialism, and the inappropriate ones, and remember that.
In the case of Idealism, ask yourself “Can I eat ideas, or sit on them? Will they provide shelter
from the cold, or heat, or nosy eyes?” You get the idea. Ideas help you organize your activities,
but in most cases they cannot satisfy the needs of the body, either personal or social. So what is
their proper role? And why do we so often see their role in life blown out of proportion? Think
about how they relate to, and complement material considerations. For every idealist
explanation, think of some materialist aspect of the case as well. And for every materialist
explanation, think of some idealist aspect of the case as well. Never mind the “grand arguments”
but just ask yourself how long anyone would survive without both materialism and idealism
working together all the time.
In the case of Behaviourism, ask yourself “What about those aspects of reality that are not
susceptible to conditioning – such as gravity, or electricity, or entropy.” Behaviourism applies to
any organism, because they can all, to one extent or another, learn from interaction with their
environments – even plants bend towards the sunlight. But non-animate entities don’t learn, so
the concept of conditioning is moot in those cases. Since the total mass of the earth includes a far
larger non-animate proportion than animate proportion, Behaviourism has important but very
limited spheres of use. Examine peoples’ behaviour, and ask yourself these questions: To what
extent is their behaviour learned, and to what extent innate. Does everyone learn as easily [no],
or retain lessons to the same extent [no]. So, what schedules of conditioning produced the results
we see? How do ideas affect habits? How do material facts affect behaviour?
Next, take an issue and try all three ontologies on it. See how the “look and feel” changes as
each of the different ontologies is applied to it. What proportion of each of the ontologies is
involved in accounting for different instances of reality? It all depends on your perspective.

FOLLOWING IMPLICATIONS
Cognitivity
"I think, and therefore I am" was Descartes' famous dictum. This reflects a much older claim
made by Aristotle in Ancient Athens, namely that "Man [humanity] is the rational animal." Now
that we are into the Information Age and the Knowledge Economy, the cognitive aspect of
knowing is getting the lion's share of the attention.
The point is however, that cognitivity is one aspect of knowing, not a separate type of knowing.
The cognitive aspect of knowledge has been the quality most readily transferred into explicit
form, particularly as text in the age of print, and then as software in the digital age. We are often
told that "teaching machines how to feel is much more difficult than teaching them how to think."
But computers only simulate thinking anyway, which is all they would ever do with feelings as
well. Now the implications of feelings are being programmed into algorithms so that they can
factor in affective responses even if machines do not actually feel a thing. This development was
inevitable, and will continue (Kennedy, 1990).
Don't get caught up in pointless arguments about whether machines can "think" or "feel" - just
remember that your own knowing combines both, so keep that in mind as you learn.
Affectivity
Suzanne Langer made a very credible case for the claim that all of human knowledge could be
interpreted as an elaboration of affectivity, feelings, rather than cognitivity, ideas. Novak has
developed a paradigm of knowledge creation, learning, and use that traces effective knowing to a
combination of cognitivity, affectivity, and methodology - concepts, feelings, and skills must
work together to produce meaningful understanding (Novak, 1998).
How is affectivity involved in learning and knowing? It provides the motivation for what is
important and what is interesting. Affectivity ranges all the way from the widest possible context
to the narrowest of issues - it is our answer to Bertrand Russell's "So what?" comment. He
advised that we always ask ourselves whether either a question or an answer made any real
difference to us anyway. To the extent that we pursue anything rather than just drop it, we have
found an affective reason to bother.
References
Suzanne Langer Noah Kennedy

MIND: An Essay on Human Feeling THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF INTELLIGENCE
Johns Hopkins UP, Baltimore, 1988 Routledge, London, 1990
Joseph D. Novak Bertrand Russell

LEARNING, CREATING AND USING KNOWLEDGE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, 1998 Oxford UP, London, 1960

THE PRACTICE OF FOLLOWING IMPLICATIONS
What the Use of the MindMap Implies
Perhaps the most important set of implications of using the MindMap involves the human context in
which the use occurs, namely the complementary roles of cognitivity and affectivity in the Gestalt
Frame. It should always be kept in mind that it is never the case with MindMap use that cognitivity
opposes affectivity – it isn’t “either/or” but rather “one AND the other”. So, in the language of implying,
there are both cognitive and affective implications to every concept in the MindMap (or to any other
concept as well). People or rules may, and often do, tend to prioritize one or the other aspect because of
the purposes or behaviours they are focusing on, but if this becomes a habit the presence of the other
aspect may be ignored altogether. When that becomes a social tradition people will speak of a certain
concept as “inherently” either cognitive or affective – when in human experience it always embodies
both. This is something to look for – what aspects of a concept are being acknowledged, which ignored?
The Courage of Your Convictions
The way this phrase is usually interpreted is to imply that it one’s “duty” to “speak out and tell the truth.”
As I have suggested in another section however (see MANAGING YOUR SELF), protecting yourself
from harm can take priority over speaking out. Does that imply that there need be no courage to your
convictions at all? On the contrary – the most important aspect of that courage is always taking note of
the difference between “what you know” yourself and “the propaganda line.” Why would you want to
bother with this? Because, for a knowledge worker, there is nothing more pathetic than confusing
rhetoric with reality, or mindlessly accepting “the official version” of anything. Depending on the
circumstances, knowing which is which can just remain your own secret, but expending the cognitive
effort to make the distinction is part of the criteria of the role itself (i.e., knowledge worker). At the very
least (and sometimes that is the most you can do), your mind must be “the record of last resort.”
The Confidence to Create
Developing the capabilities to do Concept R&D and use the MindMap will empower you to perform
some amazing accomplishments. Most people, regardless of their positions or roles, are not very mindful
of the conceptual complexity underlying their behaviours, or their plans, or the situations with which
they deal. They are not “idea conscious” – their idea of being pragmatic (if they have such an idea at all)
is to ignore anything and everything that doesn’t contribute directly to what they want to do or have been
assigned to do. Intervening in such situations (which are typical) to point out other possibilities, is
therefore an opportunity to “shine” – but to be effective it must be done with care (so as not to “ruffle
any feathers”). The best attitude to take, is to see such situations as opportunities to create something
which contributes to the greater good – so start by reiterating the goal, and then show how further
considerations are needed for successful achievement. Think through how you will make the case for
this BEFORE you present it, and take confidence from the larger perspective you possess.
Doing Things With Words
It is not necessary to use the exact terminology in the MindMap when talking or explaining to others.
What you will often find yourself doing is “translating” into terms others can more readily understand.
So “empiricism” becomes “evidence” and “determinism” becomes “cause”. Ideas can transcend terms.

PARTICULARIZE
What to Particularize?
To particularize is to describe in terms of specific attributes. Particularizing is a form of

itemizing, which means it applies to single instances instead of populations, and consists
of specifying the details within a narrow range. It therefore resembles methodological
individualism, the looking at single cases to get a deep, if narrow view. It is based on the
presumption that, at least for some considerations, focusing on the attributes that make
entities different will reveal something unique.
Why to Particularize?
The finer-grained you want the description or analysis, the longer it will take to produce
the results. If you have the time, and the wherewithal to sustain the study, then looking at
the details is possible, perhaps even insightful. When looking at the details however, the
context should be kept in mind - this is the reason for looking deeper. Kant says "Reason
is the power of understanding the connection between the general and the particular."
When to Particularize?
When you are sure that something is being lost in the big picture, it is time to begin
focusing in on the particulars. At one extreme the danger is that there will be no patience
to look at the details even if good practice demands it – this is just epistemological
vanity. At the other extreme is the tendency to become a perpetual fact-gatherer, an
information junkie – this is just a contemporary version of the pack-rat complex – don’t!
Whether to Particularize?
Decisions or choices should be based on the context within which the alternatives are
situated. When is there enough details to set the pattern (or upset it)? Rules (algorithms)
don’t apply, but rules-of-thumb (heuristics) do – its judgement again, not of a moral kind
but simply an assessment of what “type” of situation you are in. Performance will
improve with the number of attempts (if it is ever going to improve), so keep trying.
How to Particularize?
Look for “la difference” – what distinguishes otherwise similar instances. Even in this
regard, the extent of variability will not be endless but fractal – certain thematic patterns
will emerge that combine generalization and particularization. When that happens you
can focus on either diverging or converging forms. If you particularize the possibility
exists to get lost in the growing details that greater depth reveals- set cut-off criteria.
References
Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon, Will Rood & Ralph Edney Immanual Kant
INTRODUCING FRACTAL GEOMETRY ON EDUCATION
Icon Books, Cambridge, 2001 Dover, Mineola, 2003 [1803]
PERSONAL
What are personal principles?
Personal principles concern one's own personal aspirations and goals. What makes them personal
is their self-referentiality. Sometimes confusion arises because of the claim that ALL principles
are personal since it is persons who hold them - according to this proposition, because persons hold
principles, therefore all principles are personal. That is fallacious. What makes a principle "personal"
(or "social") is the content of the commitment, NOT where it resides.
The general content of personal principles involves what one wants for one's self. The corollary of
this is that the subject of personal ethics concerns the responsibilities one owes to one's self.
There is a certain view of ethics which is premised on the notion that ethical concerns consist
exclusively of one's responsibility to others or the society in general. In that view in other words,
self-interest is NOT covered by ethics - on the contrary, it is supposed that self-interest operates
against ethical concerns. That view of ethics could be characterized as "crude social control". It
assumes that there is an inherent conflict of interest between one's self and others, and that the
interests of others is on "the high ground" whereas one's own interests are intrinsically unethical.
This is a very pessimistic view of personal motivation, although unfortunately the behaviour of
certain libertarians and other hyper-individualists has given credence to this caricature. How that
caricature becomes a stereotype of "simple-minded selfishness" involves the balance (or lack of
balance) between the kinds of personal principles people hold. Hedonism is the quest to "have a
good time", what Sigmund Freud called the pleasure principle. Egoism is the quest to "get one's
own way", what Max Weber called the exercise of power. Entrepreneurialism is the quest to
"accomplish something worthwhile", beyond either pleasure or power.
How are personal principles manifest?
Too much hedonism can lead to a continual search for convenience, and a tendency towards
laziness. And in Carrie Fisher's words, for them "immediate gratification just isn't immediate
enough". Too much egoism can lead to flagrant intolerance, a "check-list of personal demands"
approach to life in general and others in particular, and a refusal to acknowledge the impacts of
one's actions. Too much entrepreneurialism can lead to invidious comparisons with others, self-
righteousness that demeans others, and the growing conviction that ends justify means. Each of
these kinds of personal principles has a place in one's life, but compulsive commitment to one
at the expense of the others will lead away from, instead of towards self-actualization - wise up!
References
Anthony Giddens Michael Argyle

MODERNITY AND SELF-IDENTITY The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour
Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1991 Penguin Books, London, 1994
Martin Seligman
AUTHENTIC HAPPINESS
PERSPECTIVITY
What (is perspectivity)?
The meaning of perspective used herein is, a specific point of view in understanding things or
events (one of a number of definitions in Webster's New World Dictionary). Hence,
perspectivity is the mind-set for framing one's point of view.
In philosophy this mind-set is called metaphysics. In traditional approaches to philosophy such

perspectives were regarded as essentials, the foundation of thinking. Modern approaches
regard such perspectives as postulates (tentative premises), without reifying (concretizing) any of
them. The approach used herein will be the modern one. There are three categories used in
perspectivity: (1.) epistemology - how we know about reality; (2.) ontology - what reality consists
of; and (3.) kineology - how reality changes. Each category contains three concepts.
How (is perspectivity used)?
Within each category, there is usually a blend of the three concepts involved in knowing
something. In any particular instance, one of the concepts is likely to account for a larger
proportion of a person's perspective than the other two, although the blend may shift between
different people, circumstances, and occasions. Furthermore, the individual blends are, more
often than not, implicit rather than explicit.
A person can begin by examining one's recent judgments in retrospect, and with practice it is
eventually possible to be more deliberate in "managing" one's perspective. Why? Because, as
Einstein said, what we believe determines what we see, and NOT visa versa. People who are
unaware that what they believe determines what they see, often assume that they are simply
observing "reality" for what it is. This is both naive and inaccurate. Most human perceptions are
labeled, and this labeling is governed by "the perspective" we bring to each situation. As the
Torah stated some 2,500 years ago, "We see things not as they are, but as we are."
Some phenomena have a "substantial" physical component (for instance, rocks, machines,
animals, plants, etc.) and the terms and concepts which we use to label them are just convenient
signs for reference. Other phenomena are either symbolic social entities (contracts, conventions,
institutions, etc.), or symbolic scientific creations (the concepts of gravitation, entropy, systems,
energy, etc.). In all cases though, conceptual thinking uses the labels, and labels are based on
perspectives. We always know more than we can say, but even knowing is largely conceptual.
References
John Searle
THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIAL REALITY
James W. Davis
TERMS OF INQUIRY
Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2005
PHENOMENOLOGY
What is Phenomenology?
Phenomenology concerns the beliefs that prefigure HOW you
experience the world: systems or components; here-and-now or elsewhere; unified or
diversified. If you live in the present, both the past and the future may simply be regarded
as surreal. If you operate with “your nose to the grind stone” you may never see or ask
where such stones come from. If you perceive so much variety that no pattern is clear you
may be oblivious to larger processes. The pairs characterizing phenomenology are at the
opposite ends of parameters.
Presence vs. Absence
Do you focus on what is within the range of your senses, or are you
oriented to distant but important factors? Even through you cannot always see the moon,
it still causes tides. Even though you are only in one particular locale at one time,
competitive goods and services from afar can still affect your prospects. Human culture is
a collection of previous practices (science, art, technology) from various peoples and
places elsewhere. The parameter connecting presence and absence indicates position,
whether spatial or temporal.
Parts vs. Wholes
One of the most significant concepts of the modern age is that of system.
Many books have been written on the science of systems, but the concept (or schema)
of a system is not actually scientific, but rather philosophical. Systems, sub-systems, and
super-systems are all phenomenological perceptions, not objective characteristics. Parts
or wholes can be very useful ways of viewing the world, but either means is a choice, not
a necessity. Parts and wholes are simply different aspects along the parameter of
extension.
Unity vs. Diversity
The aspects of the experience of reality can be interpreted as
either interdependent (unity) or as functionally autonomous (diversity). Conceiving of
experience as unitary assists in rationalizing and implementing collective cooperation
and coordination. Conceiving of experience as diverse assists in rationalizing and
implementing individual independence and accomplishment. People experience both
conditions, all of which are part of the phenomenological continuum of composition.
References
Amos Hawley
Robert Sokolowski HUMAN ECOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO PHENOMENOLOGY Chicago UP, Chicago, 1986
Cambridge UP, New York, 2000
Eugene J. Meehan
Don Ihde EXPLANATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE:
EXPERIMENTAL PHENOMENOLOGY A System Paradigm
SUNY, Albany, 1986 Dorsey Press, Homewood, 1968

POPULISM
What is populism?
Populism is an aesthetic preference that prioritizes what the market or the audience wants as the
basis for artistic production. What will consumers pay? (for the price of admission, or the actual
article). This sounds very democratic, and so it is - but is that a virtue in art? One of the
problems which this approach is that it supports stereotypes much more than innovations, and
even the new things become stereotyped very quickly. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), it
doesn't work this easily. There is, it turns out, a market for novelty, so some new things do sell;
and by the same token, some of the "same-old, same-old" doesn't sell, despite the care taken to
replicate the original.
In a recent, very well-crafted film about a screen-play with a homosexual theme, the screen writer
and the producer in the story agree that the American film audience will not accept a movie with
an openly homosexual theme! This kind of irony prevails throughout aesthetics production,
proving thereby that "audiences are conventionally unconventional, or unconventionally
conventional". Investors are the ones chasing public opinion, but investors are a big part of the
aesthetics industry - only they can afford to finance a lone performer or team in the production of
an offering that could reap multiples of its initial cost, OR be a flop.
On the audience side, the stereotypes of successful products are often criticized unsparingly by
those whose sensibilities have been piqued. Feminists rarely find heroines who are sufficiently
autonomous and assertive. Ethnic spokespersons note either that their group was under-
represented or mis-represented, which they say, speaks volumes about the ignorance of the artist.
Non-smokers chide every instance of someone smoking in a work of art, claiming it glorifies the
practice and leads the young into vice through bad example. Animal lovers insist that no living
creature be injured during the production of the artistic offering, and even depiction of such
events is condemned. Those in crime control (the police, state prosecutors, etc.) see every
depiction of lawlessness as an encouragement to act out what is portrayed unless the perpetrators
in the story get swift and fulsome punishment. Consensus in aesthetics is as rare as in politics.
How populism is manifest
Styles which are created for broad appeal must of necessity be superficial. Slogans which get
wide circulation may be easy to remember, but they are likely simple-minded metaphors. Most
aesthetic offering of superior quality will have limited appeal. Interesting movies from small
countries, even those about compelling events, usually only go abroad to small festivals, never
theatre chains. Rising diversity is eroding national chauvinism, but some worry that the global
culture now emerging may eventually simply produce its own stereotypes to replace local ones.
The experience of tourist hotels is increasingly standardized in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Reference
Virginia Postrel
THE SUBSTANCE OF STYLE: Remaking of Commerce, Culture, and Consciousness
Harper Perennial, New York, 2004

QUINTESSENTIAL QUESTIONS
What (is a question)?
"A specific linguistic form, called a question, often serves as point of departure on the road
towards new knowledge" (Elias, 1991). Questions are enquiries, the aim of which is to reduce
the multiplicity of possibilities to a manageable set (Bruin, 2001). Much knowledge can be
acquired by employing the ten quintessential questions in the MindMap. Some of these questions
are familiar as Rudyard Kipling's "newspaperman's guide to researching and writing a story."
Others of these terms are no longer in such widespread use as they once were, but the queries they
enable add up to a relatively complete overview of the various aspects of a topic that one might want
to know. If there are additional questions that are needed to delve into a topic, or satisfy the
curiosity of a questioner, they can be added to any particular enquiry. As in the case of the
Inferential Operators, it is rarely necessary to use all of the items on the list during any one inquiry -
the person(s) involved decide the extent of their "need to know".
Of the many lists of this kind previously compiled, the one item almost never on any of them is
the last one of the Quintessential Questions, namely "How?" In the past, many with a
philosophical bend regarded the "how" of things as entirely mundane rather than theoretical, and
as such, not really worthy of consideration. In the modern (or post-modern) world though, this
attitude is seen to display the foolish kind of elitism or snobbery particularly characteristic of
Classical Cultures. There is no obligation to use the "How?" but no inhibition against using it
either. Without the "How?" modern science and technology would not exist.
How (to use quintessential questions)
The idea of acquiring knowledge through questioning, whether the questions are directed at
circumstances, interlocutors, or oneself, goes at least as far back as Socrates in philosophy and
Raymond Lull in theology. The presumption is that a succession of questions will enable the
enquirer to deepen or broaden, particularize or generalize knowing to such an extent that one's
understanding thereby increases appreciably - a kind of formalized version of "20 Questions".
There are many questions that do not (explicitly) ask one of the ten quintessential queries. But, for
most of these other questions it is usually possible to re-state them so that they do fit the quintessential
mode. “Is that [So-and-So]?” can be transformed into “Who is that?” “Could that be a [gizmo]?”
might be re-worded as “What is that?” “Are you arriving this evening?” would also find expression
as “When will you be arriving?” “Can you tell me where you started from?” would be phrased in the
Biblical idiom as “Whence cometh thou”? “Give me your location?” could be asked as “Where are
you?” Etc. Grammatically, "who", "what" and "which" are pronouns, "when", "where", "whence",
"whither", "how" and "why" are adverbs, and "whether" is a conjuction.
References
Bruin, John Norbert Elias

HOMO INTERROGANS THE SYMBOL THEORY
University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa, 2001 Sage Publications, London, 1991

RATIONALISM
What (is rationalism)?
Rationalism has been used in two ways: (1) in a formal sense, it refers to systematic thinking
(abduction, induction, deduction); and (2) in an informal sense, it refers to the practice of developing,
having, and using good reasons for actions. Each of these refers to the "rationality of means", but the
Ancient Greeks also had the concept of the "rationality of ends", the idea that reason could guide the
choice of goals as well as the choice of the wherewithal or instrumentality to achieve such goals. Both
versions are epistemologies, theories of knowledge. Most modern notions of rationality tend to focus
exclusively on the means, either ignoring ends altogether, or arguing that commitment to goals is not a
"rational" decision but rather an "emotive" one. Toulmin and Searle argue otherwise.
How (does rationalism work)?
Formal rationalism does not deny the role of sense-data in informing knowledge, but insists that
"knowing" itself is the product of thinking rather than perceiving. So, the distinction with
empiricism is that empiricism refers back to the grounds for knowing (sense-data) whereas
rationalism refers to the cognitive processes of knowing (thinking). Since both are essential for a
complete view of knowledge, the historical dispute between empiricists and rationalists regarding
which is pre-eminent, is just an example of philosophical chauvinism. The distinguishing feature
of systematic thinking is that elaborate rules and an esoteric jargon are used, often over-used.
Informal rationalism, reasonableness, involves having good reasons for both means and ends,
thinking things through to the extent feasible, anticipating implications and consequences, and
inferring an explanation or action to the best of one's ability - in other words, being mindful
of one's circumstances, and seeking and applying life-lessons learned.
The older concept of "reason" covers both formal and informal versions. In ancient philosophy
one used reason by drawing on whatever relevant knowledge was available to make decisions
and choices. In the case of technical subjects, algorithms for processing variables were
developed, and are the basis for theory today. In the case of ordinary experience, heuristics that
serve as guidelines to clarification are often sufficient. Knowing what kind of a situation you are
in, and when either formal or informal approaches are appropriate, is the goal that all
practitioners strive for.
References
Stephen Toulmin
RETURN TO REASON
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2001
John Searle
RATIONALITY IN ACTION
MIT Press, Cambridge, 2003
REALISM – TOLERANCE – PRAGMATISM
Conventional wisdom in philosophy and most other scholastic subjects, raises a number of
objections to any attempt to create a new architectonic for post-modern thought. I disagree.
1. There is no methodology (or even guidelines) for such an endeavor. Throughout this
project’s conceptualization, research, writing, and final formatting, I “made up” the methodology
as I went along (performing as an epistemological constructivist). Only after I had completed
everything except the final editing did I read the book PHENOMONOGY AND THE THEORY
OF SCIENCE by George Gurwitsch. At one point Gurwitsch considers the possibility of
undertaking a project like mine, and recommends the following: Abiding by the plurality of
life-worlds entails endorsing a sociohistorical relativism. For that relativism to be overcome,
the question may, and must, be raised of whether there is a world common to all human beings
and all sociohistorical groups, a world invariantly the same over and against the diversities of
the multiple life-worlds and in that sense “beyond” the latter. To attain that world, an abstractive
[i.e., conceptualizing] procedure is required. Starting from any concrete life-world, one disregards
specific interpretation and comprehension it receives in the corresponding sociohistorical group
and retains only the remainder which is left after the abstraction has been performed (Gurwitswch,
1974, pgs. 144-145). That was exactly how I developed the MindMap.
2. Other cultures, especially those from the “EAST” have a very different philosophy of
life, and their categories of experience are so distinct from “WESTERN” ones, that the two
traditions are simply “incommensurable” and not amenable to being mapped one to the
other. As it turns out however, these discrepancies are usually overstated. In their book
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY FOR BEGINNERS, Jim Powell and Joe Lee give an overview from
which it can be ascertained that both eastern and western philosophy confront the same
phenomena but each sorts experience into somewhat different categories. Dealing with all such
differences and negotiating commensurability between them are covered by Edward De Bono in
his book THE USES OF LATERAL THINKING. My approach concurs with these latter views.
3. There is no comprehensive, coherent, or consistent basis for thinking since the rise of
Complexity and Chaos Theories. Such claims confuse granularity with generalizability. The
details of experience have ALWAYS tended to be overwhelming and unintelligible when taken
in their particularity. It is the role of concepts to provide a basis to prioritize certain features,
aspects or characteristics and then group the instances into categories enabling consistence,
coherence and comprehension. John Wilson explains THINKING WITH CONCEPTS and in
A WHOLE NEW MIND Daniel Pink forecasts that creative conceptualizing will displace
knowledge management as our dominant cognitive paradigm. Hence, Concepts in the MindMap.
Realism is an attitude, the attitude of assessing a situation accurately rather than on the basis of
delusions or denial. Pragmatism is an attitude, the attitude of appraising one’s prospects on the
basis of feasibility rather than wishful thinking. Tolerance is an attitude of forbearance towards
ideas and practices one disapproves of, within the limits of reason - the reasonable limit being no
consequential harm. On the charge of deliberately harboring these three attitudes, I plead guilty!

RELATE
What to Relate?
To relate is to associate by convention or position. Things or events relate by comparison

or contrast to one another. What, exactly, do you want to compare or contrast? Formal
logic relates on the basis of the properties or characteristics of entities. Traditional
cultures often relate based on emotional responses to things or events. Various versions
of either one will suffice, provided the grounds for positing the relationship are kept clear
– switching while in process gives inconsistency.
Why to Relate?
Things or events are compared or contrasted to make sense of a situation, and/or as part
of the evidence for a decision or choice. Some kinds of relations are often thought of as
“natural” – families, or species, or functions. But within such populations there are some
characteristics would diversity as easily as unify. All relating, by comparison or contrast,
is imposed rather than intrinsic – it is an explicit or implicit act of persuasion.
When to Relate?
When you need to make sense of things or events because their incoherence would be, in
some way, troublesome, it is time to look for relationships. Or when a decision or choice
is looming or pending, and the alternatives should be sorted and prioritized, it is time to
look for relationships. The need may range all the way from deciding your favourite
colour to choosing a mate – usually it is to reduce the cognitive dissonance of confusion!
Whether to Relate?
In many cases there are social or cultural taboos against either comparing certain things,
or contrasting certain other things. Contrasting between sects within a religion (Sunnis
vs. Shias) is often frowned upon outside the faith, but usually supported from within.
Calling both saints and scoundrels “deviants” still makes practitioners wince. People do
react to imputed associations, so be prepared for the consequences of attributing relations.
How to Relate?
State the basis of the comparison or contrast right from the beginning. Try to avoid a
major comparison or contrast (between notable things, or events, or persons) on the basis
of a minor characteristic – this is often done to disguise the fact that the real rationale for
positing the relationship is either antipathy or allegiance rather than any substantive
attribute, but since this may seem petty or self-serving a proxy feature is substituted.
References
C.K. Ogden
OPPOSITION
Indiana UP, Bloomington, 1967 [1932]
REPLICATE
What to Replicate?
To replicate is to repeat or to make a copy. In the material sense this is impossible

because when you make or get a duplicate key (or whatever) the pattern may be the same
but the actual atomic and molecular structure are not identical. But in most cases it is the
pattern that you want to copy anyway. So ask yourself if you want to replicate is the
exact entity or the feelings it induced in you – people often confuse the two. Don’t!
Why to Replicate?
Something that you value, be it a thing or an event, goes out of your “life space”.
Perhaps a thing is lost, a person dies of moves on, an event or relationship ends. If it’s a
song on a CD you can re-play it, and replicate the experience all over again. Material
goods can be replaced, but not always the affection invested in them. Many entities are
one-time-only. The wise attitude is “detached involvement” – holding on is a hang-up.
When to Replicate?
When the result of some change in the entity is that it no longer serves your needs, the
most obvious immediate option is to get a replicate. If the entity still is serving its
function, it is a waste to replace it – I wear my clothes and my watches out before getting
new ones, and so should any sensible person. Here the definition of replication comes
into play. Serving the same function can be replication even if the means is different.
Whether to Replicate?
This depends upon the previous answers: If it is the feeling rather than the entity you
want to replicate, is that really possible or not? Are you trying to “turn back the clock”
when circumstances all around you have changed irrevocably? Do you really need what
you want, or could some alternate arrangement adequately serve the same function? If
it’s just a worn out key, get a new one – but there is no going back to the original.
How to Replicate?
Clarify what you can replicate, and what you cannot. Assess the costs and consequences
of duplicating what is feasible, be that physical, financial, or emotional. Here is another
situation where “satisficing” is wise – “you can’t always get what you want, but
sometimes you can get what you need”! Don’t squander your time, efforts or money
trying to recreate the impossible – replace what you can, and forget the rest.
References
Jagdish Parikh
MANAGING YOUR SELF
Blackwell Business, London, 1991
REVISE
What to Revise?
To revise is the alter features while preserving functions. Writers and editors are always
revising, changing everything from spelling, to word choice, to grammar, to concept or
plot. Early in my own case, I came to a very useful conclusion (back in my high school
literature class) – what may initially appear to be the need for major changes (of whatever
kind) can actually be feasibly achieved with minor (but strategic) alterations. Replace a
few words or phrases and the whole sense can shift.
Why to Revise?
The desire to correct or the desire to improve, seem to be the two major motives. Wrong
spelling or grammar should be changed – but the rationale of “improvement” is more
problematical. When composition is delegated, be it for writing, music, blueprints, etc.,
requests for successive changes, all in the name of improvement, usually have declining
marginal utility (and the decline curve is very steep) – the reason is usually scope creep.
When to Revise?
Appraise as soon as possible, but then delay in implementing changes long enough to
take a “sober second look”. It is better to make a copy and mark it up rather than do so
on the working copy. If in due course, all, or most of your desired changes still seem
essential, then make a new copy and mark up only what is important for change. Always
be specific about what is to replace what – vaguely worded dissatisfaction is gratuitous.
Whether to Revise?
In terms of the written word, so much of the desire for revision hangs on the desire for
nuance, for fine shades of distinction. So, my recommendation follows the Plain
Language movement – if revisions are aimed at simplifying the wording so as to clarify
the message, good. If revisions are aimed at complicating the wording so as to elaborate
the message, bad – follow the KISS Principle (Keep It Straight and Simple).
How to Revise?
In most cases the perceived need for revisions to delegated work arises because of poor
initial specification – what was wanted was not clearly stated, perhaps not even clearly
known. The preferred arrangement would be to either think it through before assigning
it, or accept the submission as interpreted. This is probably utopian, so reviewers or
editors should at least have the good grace to also recommend strategic alterations.
References
Michael Alley Nelson Phillips & Cynthia Hardy
THE CRAFT OF EDITING DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Springer, New York, 2000 Sage, Thousand Oaks, 2002
ROMANTICISM
What is romanticism?
Romanticism is an aesthetic preference that prioritizes cultural creators' rights to develop their own
individual modalities of presentation, and the culture consumers' rights to cultivate individual
taste in whatever direction they prefer. The "artist's" vision or purpose should be the guide, and
this should not be compromised to fit into an external mould or to conform to a widespread
predilection. It sounds very "noble" - and it can be. It can also just be an excuse for an artist to
abuse the good nature of an audience. Nor is it impossible that the second might eventually turn
into the first!
Patrons have always had trouble with their commissions - both Michelangelo and Goya were
infamous for arguing with the Roman Catholic Church about which colours really fulfilled the
religious symbolism of the paintings they were paid for (in each case, they insisted on their own
choices rather than accepting the dictates of clerics). More recently, Woody Guthrie Sr. wouldn't
even paint a store sign unless he could choose the colours rather than providing what he was
asked for.
Aristotle however, contended that the value of a play was determined by the audience, not the
author, nor the players, nor the producer. But romanticism doesn't really dispute this - what it
argues is that artists should freely express themselves, and THEN audiences can decide if they
value the product or not. Even so, romanticism does NOT treat the reception of artistic works in
the way that marketing would recommend. Modern marketing advocates surveying the market
and responding to the needs and wants discovered. When it comes to consumer products for
instance, the former practice of designing and producing a commodity and then creating a
demand through advertising (much as a romantic artist might do!), is now frowned upon and
discouraged. Instead, producers (of whatever) should ask the public first, and then give them
what they want. Either way, the only real problem is when stylistics is raised to a moral issue.
How is romanticism manifest?
The motion picture business (the biggest aesthetic industry AND employer of artists in the
world), tries to reflect its audiences' demands, but the public preferences are fickle enough that
many of the guesses are wrong (i.e., the pictures barely cover production costs, often not even
that). Book production and automobile production are often not much better at anticipating what
will sell and providing it. And enough of the time when artists with a vision are given an
opportunity to express themselves, they do find a market and recoup the investment. The success
rate for aesthetic innovators is probably about the same as for consumer product innovators, not
more than one in ten -but the prospect of the big breakthrough keeps them at it. As long as the
cultural consumers have the same right to choose as the producers, freedom of choice will work.
References
Ayn Rand
THE ROMANTIC MANIFESTO
Signet Books, New York, 1971

SEMIOLOGY
What is Semiology?
Semiology symbolizes HOW you appreciate experience: do you dress
in style or to make a social statement; do you want to express yourself or be impressed by
others; do you focus on finding the likeable or avoiding the unlikeable? Whichever of the
pairs of alternatives you prefer, that sends out a message, and the form those messages
take is symbolic. All of the props we use have conventional rather than natural meanings.
Each of the pairs characterizing semiology are at the opposite ends of a parameter.
Style vs. Statement
Technically, Semiology is the study of sign systems. Signs are things
used to represent or refer to other things. Pictures represent what is depicted. Words refer
to things or processes. The overall message of the signals one sends out may be the desire
for a stylish demeanor, or the wish to state an ideology by example. The Internet is
shifting global culture into cyberspace, and style is displacing the centrality of content
worldwide. The parameter that includes style and statement can be called specification.
Expression vs. Impression
In today’s world, the global population is being segmented into the
consumers of culture and creators of culture. The creators of culture organize their lives
around the desire to “express themselves” – the consumers of culture find their lives
organized around their willingness to be “impressed by others”. However, even those
who are creative are only so in limited areas – elsewhere they are also consumers. We are
all cultural junkies now! The parameter that underlies expression and impression is
indication.
Attraction vs. Aversion
What we like (find attractive) and dislike (find aversive)
determines a very large proportion of our attitudes and behaviors towards the things,
events, people, and ideas we encounter in everyday life. Critics of all kinds rationalize
their likes and dislikes behind elaborate analysis, but this fools no one; they are just
playing their favorites the same as everyone else does. Don’t exalt your preferences out
of proportion. The parameter that involves attraction and aversion refers to affiliation.
Atoms and molecules have the same propensity, and we call it valence.
References
Nicholas Rescher George Lakoff & Mark Johnson

COGNITIVE HARMONY METAPHORS WE LIVE BY
Pittsburgh UP, Pittsburgh, 2005 Chicago UP, Chicago, 1980
Norbert Elias Paul Cobley & Litza Jansz

THE SYMBOL SOCIETY SEMIOTICS FOR BEGINNERS
Sage Publications, London, 1991 Icon Books, Cambridge, 1997

SOCIAL
What are social principles?
Social principles concern one's relationship with other individuals and society in general. What
makes them social is their social referentiality. Sometimes confusion arises because of the claim
that ALL principles are personal since it is persons who hold them - according to this proposition,
because persons hold principles therefore all principles are personal. That is fallacious. What
makes a principle "social" is the content of the commitment, NOT where it resides. The general
content of social principles involves what one desires in terms of the quality of social life. The
corollary of this is that the subject of social ethics concerns the responsibilities and obligations one
owes to others. Libertarians (such as Ayn Rand and Margaret Thatcher) hold the view that "there is
no society, only individuals [families, friends, acquaintances, colleagues, etc.]" and that one should
decide for one's self about any responsibilities to them. Ironically, the very things such people value
the most (property and contracts) are social inventions, defined and protected by social morality.
The notion of "libertarian ethics" really is a non-starter. It is a hermit's view of life, the attitude
of those social psychologists call "social isolates".
This is NOT however, an invitation to go overboard in the social principles direction and presume
that all ethics are of a social nature. People have moral responsibilities to themselves AND to
others, AND the larger (transcendental) context, which must be balanced. The caricature of ethics
as exclusively other-regarding can become the stereotype of "our primary role in life is to help
others", with no acknowledgement or role for personal aspirations of an ethical nature at all.
That view of ethics could be characterized as "crude social control". It assumes that there is an
inherent conflict of interest between one's self and others, and that the interests of others is on
"the high ground" whereas one's own interests are intrinsically unethical. Using social principles to
rationalize the pursuit of personal objectives is the kind of hypocrisy that this approach often
leads to - analysis reveals that selfishness is operating, but masked by a "caring" rhetoric.
How are social values manifest?
Altruism is the unselfish concern for the welfare of others. But when such "unselfish" concern
leads to self-sacrifice, there is something wrong with the quality of one's own self-regard.
Collectivism is social control instilled by conditioning through traditions and habits. The
mechanism is what sociologists call institutions, the "rules of the game". The challenge here is to
recognize the trade-off between reflectivity and reflexivity, and to determine when each is
appropriate. Elitism involves social leadership, either voluntarily arranged or formally imposed.
Since cooperation and coordination always require some organization and accountability, a
leadership role invariably arises, however ephemeral it may prove to be. Many such roles are
semi-permanent, and those in these roles often find themselves (implicitly) adopting the Iron Law
of Oligarchy (perpetuate your policies by choosing your successor).
References 2005©William Sheridan

Jeremy Bentham
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGISLATION
Methuen & Company, London, 1982 [1789]
SUGGEST
What to Suggest?
To suggest is to propose for consideration or action. So, decide if your suggestion is (or
will be) more of an “alternative for your consider” or an “unequivocal recommendation”.
The first amounts to “advice freely given”, and as such can be freely accepted or rejected.
The second implies an imperative that should not be overlooked. In either case
suggestions should carry the prospect of improvement, and should be feasible given the
constraints already in place.
Why to Suggest?
Not always, but all too often, what suggestions amount to is “if I had been in charge this
is the way I would have done it”. What are proposed as improvements are just ways of
disguising venom. Suggestions are often premised on the assumption that their purveyors
were more qualified for the assignment. Regardless, the wisest response is to thank any
and all contributors for their views, and use those least disruptive, and most productive.
When to Suggest?
Only offer them when an entire section is ready for review, and only accept them on the
same occasion. Projects of whatever kind should be componentialized in their design so
that chapters or segments or whatever, can be reviewed on a “stand-alone” basis. So,
when such a component is produced it can and should be presented for review. But make
the mandate clear: what kind of suggestions are you looking for – form or substance?
Whether to Suggest?
Reviewers need to ask themselves whether they understood what they were reviewing or
not. Then they need to stick to their instructions: assess according to form, or substance,
or whatever. Once suggestions covered by the mandate are delivered, a reviewer can
always ask “Do you want my opinion on [so and so]. Don’t give your own preferences as
suggestions, and don’t expect too much from them – it’s not about you!
How to Suggest?
Base suggestions on criteria, direct them at issues and not people, construct them so as to
be feasible, and phrase them so as to increase the likelihood of their acceptability. Use
the term could rather than should, be gracious in rejection, and grateful even if only a
few, or only “watered-down” versions are adopted. Keep a copy of all your suggestions
and review notes, for defence if sued, and for more work if asked.
References
Mortimer J. Adler & Charles Van Doren Mortimer J. Adler
HOW TO READ A BOOK, 2nd ed. HOW TO SPEAK, HOW TO LISTEN
Touchstone Books, New York, 1972 Touchstone Books, New York, 1983
SUMMARIZE
What to Summarize?
To summarize is to condense the content but retain the concepts. Summarizing is one
form of the process Herbert Simon called information chunking – with the direction being
from the particular to the general. A summary is a truncated version of the whole
message. The longer version would be: Endeavour to reduce the number and size of
words so as to convey the essence of the message in the briefest and most cogent possible
way. The summary would be: Keep it short and sweet!
Why to Summarize?
Many people find the use of too many words to be a great source of boredom. On other
occasions there simply isn’t the time to meander. It is also possible, as the Bible attests,
to break people in pieces with words. Words can often be a tactic of delay, OR a tactic of
subterfuge persuasion. Whitehead claimed the public always likes simple explanations,
and that effective political entrepreneurs craft their messages this way.
When to Summarize?
Place an abstract at the beginning (of a book, paper, speech, or whatever). Those who
only ever read the executive summary will then at least know the major concepts. Those
who want to know more can then go deeper, often using the summary as a guide. Also,
summarize at the end (of a book, paper, speech, or whatever). This serves as a reminder
of what was said. The old adage, summarized is “preview, present, and review”.
Whether to Summarize?
It all depends on what you are trying to achieve. Sometimes the purpose of taking a trip
is the journey as much as the destination. If your focus is (metaphorically) the end point,
provide a summary – if you want to enjoy the journey (as well or instead), do the full,
extended voyage (read or study the details). BUT, provide a summary for those only
interested in the destination anyway, and hope they will let you enjoy the expedition.
How to Summarize?
To summarize is to condense the message down to its essence, much like boiling off the
water from maple sap to get maple sugar. As Information Manager Dan Sullivan shows,
the basic message in a book only occupies between 10% and 20% of the total contents –
the rest is just elaboration, examples, and repetition. The function of a summary is to
present that essential message, like explaining your theory during an elevator ride.
References
Dan Sullivan
DOCUMENT WAREHOUSING AND TEXT MINING
TAXONOMIZE
What to Taxonomize?
To taxonimize is a classify cases within a domain. There will be more general instances
and more particular instances – there will be various branches of knowledge, each with
its “trunks” and “leaves”. So, to taxonomize one must conceptualize all of the instances
of interest as being within a single domain – this may require some creative re-
conceptualizing. Remember, there are no natural classifications – they are all contrived.
Why to Taxonomize?
Taxonomizing is one of the forms of systemization, of ordering individual instances into

structured schemata. This, in turn, enables a person to identify similarities and
dissimilarities, with an emphasis on the similarities. It is the facility to classify
information and then use it for action that represents part of the pragmatics of knowing –
and knowledge can facilitate control, which Adler saw as the primary human motivation.
When to Taxonomize?
As soon as possible, but (always) in a tentative form. Scientific principles as just guesses
with a more substantial evidentiary basis that your own hunches – but, new evidence at
some future time will undoubtedly require revising the originally proposed taxonomy.
So, the best time to taxonomize is every time an insight occurs, but always with the
awareness that a subsequent insight might imply doing the arrangement all over again.
Whether to Taxonomize?
Order and burrow only to the extent that there is value in a particular level of granularity.
Just as there is no intrinsic value in information as such, there is no intrinsic value in
structuring it without a purpose. Let the goal determine the time, effort, and elaboration
that is appropriate. It has recently (actually since WWII) become fashionable to make
distinctions into detailed minutia. This is silly, boring, and often depressing. Don’t!
How to Taxonomize?
The objective view is that classifications reflect “reality” – one of the tenants of
positivism, but actually an illusion. So the question to ask is “What do I (or we) want the
taxonomy to accomplish?” Use the XML metaphor – it can always be extended if the
need arises, so for the moment, keep it to the necessary minimum. Start from the top and
work down – clinical trials* have shown this to be the most effective knowledge strategy.
References
Joseph D. Novak
LEARNING, CREATING, AND USING KNOWLEDGE*
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 1998
MANAGING YOUR SELF
Attention
The screen saver on both my home computer and my workplace computer reads as follows:
"You learn something every day if you pay attention", a quote from Ray LeBlond. For many
aspects of their existence however, it appears that for most people this is too high a price to pay!
This disposition is as prevalent among the young as it is amongst the elderly. We have found in
our work with both secondary school students and university students that the majority would
prefer to get by with memorizing information rather than working to build conceptual
understanding (Novak, 1998).
This combination of rote learning and mental ruts is how historian James Welles defines
stupidity, the learned corruption of learning (Welles, 1986). In practice, stupidity consists of
learning one particular response to each type of situation encountered and then operating on
"automatic pilot" henceforth. The antidote is a change in attitude: you have to want to pay
attention, to learn from experience, to apply what you know to improve your life. It's amazing!
Intention
Many practitioners in Cognitive Science (both physiological and psychological branches) eschew
the notion of intentionality as a mythological hold-over from folk wisdom. This is probably the
most benighted perspective in the current study of human cognition, equivalent to behaviourism
in the early part of the 20th century. Those who justify this stand by explaining that they can't see
intentionality should be reminded that they can't see gravity or entropy either, just their results.
Hypothetical constructs, like intentionality or gravity, are indispensable parts of any and every
science. As physicist Albert Einstein said, "What we see depends upon what we believe." The
Torah contains the same idea from 2,500 years ago: We see things not as they are, but as we are.
Intentionality is a combination of the concept and the commitment to do something. The claim of
some Cognitive Scientists is that we "really" are not capable of deciding or choosing anything -
that it's all programmed into the synapses and reflexes that underlie our behaviour. This claim
conflates levels of analysis - of course the synapses and reflexes are the platform for our actions.
But even if intentionality were just an "illusion" it is the psychological space in which we operate.
Whatever the physiology of the process, we make decisions, make choices, make plans, and take
actions. In so far as this describes what we do, regardless of the underlying support system, we
are exercising intentionality. It's what the functioning psychological process is about.
References
James F. Welles Joseph D. Novak

UNDERSTANDING STUPIDITY LEARNING, CREATING AND USING KNOWLEDGE
Mount Pleasant Press, Orient, 1986Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 1998

LIFE LESSONS ON MANAGING YOUR SELF
Persistence
It usually takes considerable time to master the techniques of Concept R&D and the use of the lists of
concepts in the MindMap. The best tactic is to practice every day – especially with things you read, or
cover in your classes. Another good source of material is the coverage of the mass media, in all its
forms, with all of the material presented – news stories, sports, advertisements, weather, etc. Look for
what is missing in all the information you encounter. What will be missing? Some of the premises, or
questions, or inferences that are relevant to a good understanding of what is going on. For instance,
when it comes to knowledge aspects, if the facts are emphasized, some of the relevant ideas will be
ignored, or visa versa. By spotting these gaps, you get a more balanced view, AND you realize that other
discussions, or individuals, or groups are not using sufficient knowledge to achieve credibility.
Hostility
Individuals, groups, or institutions can often give quite a hostile (perhaps even threatening) response to
anyone questioning their actions, policies, or understanding. This is part of the social or political context
within which we all live – it is NOT a good idea to jeopardize your existence or wellbeing just to prove
yourself “knowledgeable” or even “to do the right thing” (i.e., to tell the truth or describe the facts). The
policy of conceptual pragmatism recognizes that those with malevolent agendas may prefer propaganda
to information, and so should the practitioners of this policy. It is not necessary to “tell all” or to “set the
record straight” regardless of the personal satisfaction that might bring – the wise strategist has the
tactical good sense to choose which battles to fight and which to forego. It is not an individual’s sole
responsibility to rectify the wrongs of this world – look for situations you can improve, nothing more.
Disagreeableness
Does the above advice on hostility preclude using the MindMap whenever anyone might disagree with
its content or implications? Not at all – it is possible to disagree, but it must be done strategically (with
care) and diplomatically (with tact). It is possible to disagree without being disagreeable, and in many
situations this is a good approach to take. How is this done? First and foremost, with good humour – do
not present in a self-righteous or blaming manner. Make it clear you are not criticizing a person, group,
or institution, that what you are offering is a further improvement on an already good or promising idea.
What if you really think that what you are responding to is not good? Say it is anyway, and then make
your suggestion for improvement, even if it is 180° opposite of what is there or what others have
proposed. AND develop a rationalization for why, even if it appears different, it really does improve the
idea in some way that is consistent enough to qualify for consideration.
Authenticity
Does the above advice begin to sound more manipulative than “honest”? If that happens (and it very
well might), that is the point to “step back” and remind yourself that knowledge work of any kind
requires the practice of Constructivism (inventing ideas if needed), and the rejection of Fundamentalism
(taking a narrow, uncompromising position on issues). You have to be flexible. What might be
interpreted as “the truth” from one perspective, can be just another view from a different perspective.
What you need to consider in cases where such behaviour is required, is “what are the implications and
consequences?” Don’t catastrophize! What will likely happen, and what can you realistically do?
TRANSCENDENTAL
What are transcendental principles?
Transcendental principles are those that go beyond "mere mortals". This may sound plausible in
the cases of Deism (God as the source of human principles) and Environmentalism (Mother Earth
as the source of human principles), but does it apply to Humanism (cultural heritage as the source
of human principles)? Yes, even Humanism is transcendental - it idealizes the accumulated
contributions of the creative members of the species, not necessarily the personal attributes of any
particular innovator (unless that personality can be "iconized"); but not usually common folk.
Most of both religions and philosophies have been premised on the proposition that people want
(and need) something greater than just themselves, that they want some over-arching system to fit
into. Given the historical record and comparative studies, the contention appears to be soundly
based. A few dissidents however, continue to claim that the vast majority of such over-arching
systems are mythological rather than existential, and that those who have promoted such postulates
and principles have merely been trading on the gullibility and vulnerability of the majority. Although
the consequences of practicing or not practicing certain values can be observed, the intrinsic
rationales for them cannot be proven or disproven. You either form your principles in one context,
or you do it in another. Furthermore, the kind of problems that plagued those with unbalanced
approaches to either personal or social principles, also arise with transcendental principles.
How are transcendental values manifest?
All too often, those who are over-committed to (their own version of) Deism, are usually not
happy just to praise God and obey his laws - they support proselytizing and crusading to convert
unbelievers, either voluntarily or by force. Many radical Environmentalists claim that they want
to reverse the Industrial Revolution and take humanity back to Voluntary Simplicity, a way of
life supported by human labour and hand tools. Most of the projects for social improvement,
social reform, or social reconstruction, are Humanist endeavours, rationalized by the
Enlightenment, and the human costs of some of these projects have been as draconian as those of
any sponsored in the name of Deism. Perhaps the single most important standard for principles of
any type, is their consequences rather than their rationales. So what counts, in the final analysis,
is behaviour rather than motivation. As religious dissenters constantly point out, "the road to hell
is paved with good intentions". Hurting other people is not acceptable, regardless of the great
cultural ideal that it might serve; destroying or degrading the environment is not acceptable,
regardless of the great profits such exploitation might bring; and forcing changes of religious
belief or worship is not acceptable, regardless of the sanction of theologians or charismatics. The
only "bottom line" of relevance to any system of transcendental principles, is it capability to get
people to "behave themselves" - the role of "higher principles" is social control. Motivation is an
instrument to keep people on the "straight and narrow", not an excuse to wander from it.
Reference
Jack Gibbs
CONTROL: SOCIOLOGY'S CENTRAL NOTION
University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1989
TRANSVALUATION
What (is transvaluation)?
The actual term, and probably a good deal of the modern concept itself, appears to originate with
Friedrich Nietzsche. Transvaluation itself means looking across the valuation process, both
historically and comparatively, so as to be able to critique and evaluate various moral systems
regarding their sources, structures, implications, and consequences. Regarding Occidental
culture, Nietzsche's main focus, he concluded that Christianity had a pervasive and pernicious
effect, leading to a morality of denial, deference, and degeneracy. What he favoured instead was
a morality of vision and strength, a warrior ethics that was not afraid to set agendas and dominate.
One can be both intrigued and repulsed by Nietzsche's commitment. Christian morality does
indeed have a lot to answer for in terms of its distortion and destruction of a wide range of the
human potential. A morality which appreciates and accommodates a wider range of human
variability, rather than trying to make "one size fit all", certainly seems more appropriate to the
modern and post-modern ages. But glorifying war, combat, competition and dominance are not
the only alternatives. Looking even further back than the roots of Christianity, to warrior kings
and military societies, will not necessarily inspire today's generation to seek a new morality.
How (to use transvaluation)?
There are 3 archetypal principles of personal conduct: (1) hedonism - seeking pleasure in whatever
form; (2) egoism - getting your own way by whatever connivance; and (3) entrepreneurialism, which
is seeking or creating projects that provide fulfillment and worthwhile objectives. A certain amount
of enjoyment and ascendancy are to be expected, even encouraged, but without something
worthwhile and fulfilling in one's life, the overall affect will be shallow and unsatisfying. Social
principles can be grouped under: (i) altruism - caring for others and acting accordingly;
(ii) collectivism - respecting the folkways and mores, obeying the laws; and (iii) elitism -
providing leadership when and where it is requested or required. There may be a conflict
between personal and social principles, but this is not an inevitable state of affairs. Transcendental
principles refer to the "bigger picture" and are covered by: (a) deism - reference to the supernatural
or the spiritual; (b) humanism - ascribing "higher motivations" to the effects of human culture,
and making humanity "the measure of all things"; and (c) environmentalism - respecting (or even
worshiping) Mother Earth as the source and sustenance of all life, and a guide for human action.
References
Friedrich Nietzsche Jagdish Parikh

ON THE GENEALOGY OF MORALS MANAGING YOUR SELF
Vintage Books, New York, 1967 [1887] Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1991
Norbert Elias Jack Knight

INVOLVEMENT AND DETACHMENT INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL CONFLICT
Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1987 Cambridge UP, New York, 1992

PRACTICE IN USING VALUATIONS
The remainder of the section on Transvaluation covers the three archetypes of valuing, namely
Personal, Social, and Transcendental. Read through them first (each is a single page) and then try
some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the desired
points): Take any one of the principles and apply it to an issue of interest to you. The issue
might occur in a media story, in a book or magazine you read, in a conversation you have, or in a
presentation you attend.
In the case of Personal principles, ask yourself “What do I really want from a situation, or a
person, or a group, or my job, or whatever?” The first challenge is to identify how and where
your principles came from. If what you want is relatively immediate (in the here and now) you
may be able to locate the source of that desire quite readily. Longer-range goals or objectives may
(usually will) have been acquired over more time and circumstances. Whatever your list of
personal priorities, try to discern how you acquired these desires. Your needs may be basic in
nature, but what you want to satisfy them has been learned – the questions are how, when, where,
and why? During this process, do NOT treat your wishes and desires as sacrosanct – just as you
learned to want certain things, you can unlearn, and that may be in your own best interests in
some cases. This task is about the implications and consequences of what you want, and whether
your desires meet the criteria of good sense and worthwhile accomplishment. Your responsibility
to yourself is to look after your own best interests – and YOU are the expert here!
The Social principles you adhere to are just as “real” as your personal ones – but the locus is
different, namely your relationships with others. What are your rules, or criteria by which you
interact with other people? There are always patterns, but many people are not conscious of the
principles they follow. With different people, or in varying situations, these criteria will also
change, or be given different priority – people usually behave differently with friends and family
than with strangers or acquaintances. Once again, try to uncover how you behave, with whom, in
which circumstances, and why? The point, again, is whether these rules of interaction are
consistent, and in the best interests of yourself and others. Usually there are inconsistencies, and
trade-offs between your own interests and that of others – once identified, are these outcomes the
ones you expected or want? There may not be a need for precipitous action, but you may be able
to figure out ways to achieve better arrangements.
Transcendental principles have the curious status of being the focus of existence for some people,
and of practically no concern whatsoever for others. In these circumstances, people’s views of
one another regarding transcendental principles provide a good indicator of the extent of their
tolerance. Which of the core transcendental principles are you consciously committed to (if
any), and how did you come to acquire this “faith”? These principles may rationalize
commitments for those who accept them, but for non-believers they may not provide either
credibility or legitimacy. Since knowledge workers insist on their ethical autonomy, knowledge
societies are increasingly learning to accommodate a diversity of transcendental principles.
After some practice with each, strive to be a reflective practitioner by applying the three ethical
categories either simultaneously or concurrently as ways of assessing human actions.

CATEGORIZATION
What is categorization?
John Dewey's writings include the idea that one way to conceive of modern logic is to think of it as an act of
categorization, whether into sets, or types, or varieties, or kinds, or groups, or whatever. Regardless of the
particular basis for any specific categorization, the process whereby it is done consists in distinguishing the
elements in terms of some aspect or characteristic regarding which they are homologous (equivalent instances),
dichotomous (distinctly different), or analogous (somewhat similar).
How does categorization work?
Since categorizing entities is contrived rather than natural, generalizing them as homologous is premised on
shared features at a certain level of granularity (size or scale). By the same token, on the basis of other
features, entities may be considered as dichotomous, distinctly different, depending on where the boundaries
are drawn. There are no ultimate criteria for either generalizing amongst or discriminating between various
entities - it all depends upon the purpose for the categorization, and the features chosen as the basis of the
sorting. Analogous instances are based on what Wittgenstein called "family resemblance", degrees of
similitude, ranging between homology and dichotomy. Try them all.
PREFERENTIALITY
What is preferentiality?
"Different strokes for different folks!" nicely sums up the concept of preferentiality, also called style, taste, or
fashion. The combinations and permutations in this area seem almost infinite, but the basis for them are three
concepts, or some blend thereof: (a) romanticism - the focus upon one's own favorite modality, whether it be
the flavor of ice cream or the genre of writing; (b) populism - "playing to the crowd" by appealing to cultural
archetypes or momentary fads; and (c) formalism - aesthetic choice based on some method, whether in
representation, performance, or symbolism.
How does preferentiality work?
For consumers of culture, the most widespread idiom appears to be "I may not know art, but I know what I
like!" Romantics like things that express their own sentiments. Populists like whatever is trendy, because they
are basically aesthetic conformists. Formalists look for particular art forms that demonstrate a level of artistic
craftsmanship. For creators of culture, the inclinations are also quite varied. Romantic artists go to considerable
lengths to place their personal stamp on whatever they produce - singing, dancing, acting, often claiming to be
inspired by a "muse". Populists either possess or develop a stereotype that appeals to their audiences, as
something to be liked or disliked. Formalists such as classical musicians and method actors practice constantly
to achieve excellence. What underlies all of these directions in preferentiality, is human feelings. Suzanne
Langer makes the case that all of human culture can be understood as the product of the refinement of feelings
just as readily as the elaboration of ideas. It will therefore often be an interesting exercise to imagine the feeling
that have impelled different modes of preferentiality, so that by empathizing with others one can get a sense of
their mind-set.
Reference (Categorization) Reference (Preferentiality)
Geoffrey C. Bowker & Susan Leigh Star Suzanne K. Langer

SORTING THINGS OUT MIND: AN ESSAY ON HUMAN FEELING
MIT Press, Cambridge, 1999 Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1988

USES OF CATEGORIZATION AND PREFERENTIALITY
The remainder of the sections on Categorization and Preferentiality each cover their three respective
archetypes: Homology, Analogy and Dichotomy in Categorization, and Romanticism, Populism, and
Formalism in Preferentiality. Read through the two sets (each concept is covered in a page or two)
and then try some of the following suggestions (or do similar things that will also illustrate the desired
points): Take any of the premises and apply them to a situation of interest to you. The situation might
involve anything from some small thing in the here and now, to larger considerations in wider venues.
In the case of Categorization, look for things to compare and contrast. When looking for Homology
ask yourself what aspects are “the same”, and to what extent (how much variation is acceptable within
“sameness”)? Do the same kind of exercise for Dichotomy – in what respects are things different, and
to what extent? Try a comparison in which some aspects are the same, others different. Try a contrast
in which some aspects are different, others the same. Consider how often sameness and differences
might just be considered parts of an Analogous continuum. How much similarity and difference can
be accepted in an analogy? Do an exercise in which the same set can be aggregated into one group,
disaggregated into a number of groups, or stretched along a variable dimension, depending on which
characteristics are used. Hold that lesson for future reference. After some practice with each, strive to
be a reflective practitioner by applying the three core logical parameters either simultaneously or
concurrently to whatever you are trying to categorize. In the case of Preferentiality, consider any
object or event from an aesthetic point of view, and apply the three archetypal premises to discern how
each might alter the interpretation of the appreciation. For instance, if a book was written primarily
for the author’s self-expression, what does this say about the content and style? If on the other hand, it
was written primarily for the readers, would that change the judgment of the merit (or whatever) of the
content or style? Lastly, if the book was written to impress other authors, what difference would that
make to an appraisal of the content and style? Try this kind of exercise with any and all forms of art or
situations with an aesthetic aspect to them (which is pretty well everything). Should architecture be
functional or symbolic? Should paintings be representational or impressionistic? Are there appropriate
ways of doing an aesthetic activity that depend on which of the premises the producer holds? Perhaps
style or fashion governs not only clothing and jewelry, but also buildings, automobiles, ideas, and
habits. Look for examples of where this might be the case, or not! Ask yourself how much of anything
is style, and how much substance. Others might see it differently – that’s all right too. After some
practice with each of the aesthetic modalities, strive to be a reflective practitioner by applying the three
core preferences either simultaneously or concurrently to situations you are trying to understand.
You might also categorize some of the preferences differently. Would writing for others, either
audiences or other authors, “really amount to the same thing”? Or, would writing for authors, either
yourself or confreres, be quite distinct from writing for readers (the audience)? Then consider the
aesthetics of categories. Is sameness more “harmonious” than differences? Does analogy allow for
more range of expression than either homology or dichotomy? Questions like this, if carefully
formulated and directed, might reveal patterns of behaviour or output never before noticed.
William Sheridan©2006 To return to the MindMap click here.

TYPOLOGIZE
What to Typologize?
To typologize is to sort domains of knowledge into coherent and consistent categories.

So just as similarity unites a taxonomy, so dissimilarity arrays a typology. What to
typologize is a population that contains significant differences between identifiable types.
These types could be concepts, things, events, people, or some combinations of any of
them. The difference could be superficial (features), operational (functions), or intrinsic
(structures).
Why to Typologize?
Typologizing, like taxonomizing, is also a form of systemization, but in this case of

ordering classes of instances into structured schemata. This, in turn, enables a person to
identify similarities and dissimilarities, with an emphasis on the dissimilarities. It is the
facility to categorize information and then use it for action that represents part of the
pragmatics of knowing – that facilitates control, which is a primary human motivation.
When to Typologize?
As soon as possible, but (always) in a tentative form. Scientific principles as just guesses
with a more substantial evidentiary basis that your own hunches – but, new evidence at
some future time will undoubtedly require revising the originally proposed taxonomy.
So, the best time to typologize is every time an insight occurs, but always with the
awareness that a subsequent insight might imply doing the arrangement all over again.
Whether to Typologize?
Distinguish between differences and aggregate similar types only to the extent that there
is value in a particular clustering. Just as there is no intrinsic value in information as
such, there is no intrinsic value in structuring it without a purpose. Let the goal
determine the time, effort, and combination that is appropriate. It is always possible to
aim for such a comprehensive overview that significant differences are lumped together.
How to Typologize?
The objective view is that categorizations reflect “reality” – one of the tenants of
positivism, but actually an illusion. So the question to ask is “What do I (or we) want the
typology to accomplish?” Use the chunking metaphor – information can always be
further aggregated if the need arises, so begin with intuitive boundaries. Start with
categories that “make sense” and only change them for a good reason.
References
Kenneth D. Bailey
TYPOLOGIES AND TAXONOMIES
Sage Publications, Thousand Oakes, 1994
WHAT?
Definition
Grammatically, the word what is a pronoun. When used as a question, it asks
for a qualitative distinction. What is it? is asking about identity – indicate where the
entity fits into prevailing taxonomies or typologies. What is going on? asks a similar
question about events. The context of the question usually gives a reasonable clue about
the extent of details being sought. What do you mean? asks for clarification of previous
messages. Hence, the parameter what runs from describe to designate..
Purpose
The intention of this question? It could be to alleviate ignorance – someone wants to be

informed. It could be to reduce ambiguity, if it isn’t clear which of two or more plausible
alternatives is actually the case. It could be rhetorical – a desire for affirmation or
confirmation of something already known, but perhaps needing emphasis. The question
may be authentic – or someone may be pulling your chain. Be succinct, don’t pontificate.
Explication
The answer the interlocutor is looking for is only part (often a small part) of the totality
of relevant information that speaks to the issue. People usually want a short and simple
reply, to bridge their information gap – they will be impatient with “wider” explanations,
but the result will be “rote learning” rather than meaningful understanding. Regrettably
this superficiality is quite widespread – answer or not, and listen for genuine queries.
Implication
Ignorance is far broader and deeper than knowledge. It is truly surprising what most of
us don’t know – even the commonplace or essentials often escape us. It may be still
more amazing what most of us forget – the elaborate routines needed for advanced
technology usually can’t be recalled after just a few weeks of non-use. Forgive what
others don’t know, just as (you hope) they will forgive what you don’t know. Try.
References

Judi Kesselman-Turkel & Franklynn Peterson Charles Tilly

RESEARCH SHORTCUTS WHY?
Contemporary Books, Chicago, 1983 Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006

WHEN?
Definition
The word when is an adverb. When used as a question, it asks for a temporal
distinction. When was it? is asking about the past – indicate the previous minute, hour,
day, year, etc. that something existed or occurred. When is it going to happen? asks a
similar question about the future. The context of the question usually gives a reasonable
clue about the extent of details being sought. A fitting reply might be “When do you
want an answer?” Hence, the parameter when runs from occasion to duration.
Purpose
The intention of this question? Knowing what to do now can often depend on when
something happened previously. The occurrence and sequence of events may entail
causality or imply obligation. Knowing what to do now can also often depend on what
you want to happen next. Scheduling events too soon or late may waste effort or loose
opportunity. Time ages us, and stages us, and often outrages us. Learn patience.
Explication
Asking and answering when is one way of trying to control the sequence of events and
outcomes, of enabling will to trump fate. For better or worse however, such efforts at
control are only partially successful. The life lesson to learn from this condition is that
the only practical use of when regarding the past is to harvest lessons learned. On the
other hand, the future can be altered by deciding when to do what, and why.
Implication
When should a person start thinking about important things? It’s never too soon to start
thinking, AND it’s never too late to start thinking. Given the contingent view of the
future however, beginning sooner rather than later has considerable survival value. When
should a person ask about other people’s sequential intentions? Since part of what we are
contingent upon for our future survival is the action of others, sooner is better here too.
References

Eviatar Zerubavel Charles Tilly

HIDDEN RYTHMS: Schedules WHY?
and Calendars in Social Life Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006
California UP, Berkeley, 1981
WHENCE?
Definition
The word whence is an adverb. When used as a question, it asks from what
place or source something comes. Whence cometh thou? is asking about your origins,
either locational or social. The expression itself is “old English” and not much used
anymore, but the query is still common. People want to know not only who you are, but
the route by which you arrived amongst them – have a little story ready. Hence, the
parameter whence runs from origin to passageway.
Purpose
The intention of this question? The expectation often is that whatever you are is
explained and made acceptable by recounting the point of your origin and the history of
your subsequent journey. This premise may be an illusion, but it is a strong and
persistent one. Depending on the role you have assumed or want to project, your story
should tell of incidents and occasions with which your audience can identify.
Explication
Some people put great store by the particulars of your past. Where you were born, your
immediate family and distant relatives, the schools you went to, the sports you played,
the early jobs wherein you learned life skills and street smarts – all this, and more, is grist
for the mill of social identity. Was you family kind, were your schools interesting, did
you find your jobs challenging or fulfilling? Who cares, you might think – they do!
Implication
The same people who want to know about your past and subsequent history are those
who then want to use the information you provide to influence, perhaps control your life.
If they know your life-path, they can share the road with you, slow you down or hurry
you up to their speed, take you on their favourite detours, etc. Is this really the road you
want to go down? Remember, the journey is only a metaphor – the choice is yours.
References

Reginald G. Golledge Charles Tilly

WAYFINDING BEHAVIOUR WHY?
Johns Hopkins UP, Baltimore, 1999 Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006

WHERE?
Definition
Grammatically, the word where is an adverb. When used as a question, it asks
for a particular location, geographical or existential. Where is it? is asking about place –
indicate where the entity can be found. Where is this? asks a similar question about the
context (surroundings) of a particular locale. Wherever? is a way of telling us that the
question of location may not be relevant in some cases. Hence, the parameter where runs
from location to situation.
Purpose
The intention of this question? It could simply mean that someone has lost something.
Or it could mean that someone is hiding; or that a named place cannot be situated in its
geographical context. Alternatively, it could mean that someone is lost, or that a place
can be identified conceptually (the mountains) without a specific mountain range being
mentioned – so the questioner wants more information with which to situate something.
Explication
Where is often used metaphorically, as in “Where are you coming from?” meaning
“What is the background or intention of your comments?” “Where are you going with
this?” is a forward looking metaphor meaning “What are you implying by your
comments?” Both uses are usually harmless, unless the premise is that of being driven to
one’s actions instead of choosing them. Metaphors can confuse as easily as clarify.
Implication
Places of the heart or places of the mind are the deeper metaphors often evoked when
asking Where? Love or tranquility are usually conceived as special places, whereas rage
or turmoil are places we don’t want to go. Topofilia is the technical name for “sense of
place”, the recognition that our location determines our perspective in more ways than
one. Particular places generally have an ambience that gives them a kind of signature.
References

Charles Tilly Robert David Sack

WHY? HUMAN TERRITORALITY
Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006 Cambridge UP, New York, 1986

WHETHER?
Definition
The word whether is a conjunction. When used as a question, it asks which of
some alternatives you prefer or choose. The most common form is whether or not you will
be taking some decision, choice, or action. Whether it will be this one or that one can
simply be seen as a version of whether or not, in the sense that settling on one alternative
means NOT going with the others. If ambivalent, perhaps not sure is best. Hence, the
parameter whether runs from compare to commit.
Purpose
The intention of the question? It arises within a state of uncertainty, your own or
someone else’s, regarding which of the available options to decide or choose. So,
clarification is being sought, yours or another’s. The alternatives may range from to be
or not to be on the one hand, to which flavour of the month do I want? on the other.
Either you will make up your mind, or you won’t – if ambiguous, stall for time!
Explication
Existentialists put great store by freedom of choice – our right to exercise it, and the
implications it entails for human character. Psychoanalysis, on the other hand, looks at
the psychological effort involved and calls it the burden of choice. But regardless of
whether we recognize it, or like it or not, alternatives are present in most circumstances.
The mature thing to do is to see the situation as an opportunity, and make the best of it.
Implication
One of Arthur C. Clarke’s famous laws is that Any sufficiently sophisticated technology is
indistinguishable from magic. Part of modernization that brought humanity freedom of
choice, was the replacement of supernaturalism with a secular outlook. Unsubstantiated
beliefs, whether in deities or magic, would supposedly vanish. But despite our many
freedoms, a strain of fatalism persists; does triviality produce only the illusion of choice?
References

Charles Tilly Barry Schwartz

WHY? THE PARADOX OF CHOICE
MPrinceton UP, Princeton, 2006 Harper Perennial, New York, 2005

WHICH?
Definition
The word which is a pronoun. When used as a question, it asks for an indication
of a specific decision or choice. Which one do you want? implies that no matter how many
alternatives there are, the expectation is that you will designate the one you have in mind.
The underlying parameter runs from qualifying (for inclusion) to restricting (for exclusion)
– either you raise your standards, or narrow the field. Hence, the parameter which runs
from qualify to restrict.
Purpose
The intention of the question? Either the time, or the situation is appropriate for the
choice or decision to be made – no more stalling, debating, pondering or calculating. The
question puts you on the spot, psychologically speaking – make up your mind, and if you
have done so, let us in on it. This question is the antidote to vacillation, or even worse,
procrastination. Those still reluctant may reply with “You decide (or choose).”
Explication
When you see no other feasible alternatives but one, or your preferences are unequivocal,
it may be straightforward to say which one gets the nod. But circumstances in general, or
your situation in particular, may confer advantage on keeping your options open. Both
organizations and projects are often managed with the principle of corrigibility these
days, on the premise that flexibility is a hedge against any subsequent need for change.
So you can be “damned if you do, damned if you don’t.” Go figure!
Implication
A world traveller I recently heard speak claimed he enjoyed visiting the American South
because at least the people there really had opinions – not the pap the passes for public
opinion in sophisticated places! The decisions or choices you either have made, or are
about to make, could very possibly shock a great many people UNTIL you warn them
they are about to be shocked – then they will slough off the whole thing and that’s it.
References
Dorothy Strachan
John Bruin QUESTIONS THAT WORK
HOMO INTEREOGANS ST Press, Ottawa, 2001.
Ottawa UP, Ottawa, 2001
Peter Drucker
Charles Tilly MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES
WHY? OF THE 21ST CENTURY
Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006 HarperBusiness, New York, 1999

WHITHER?
Definition
The word whither is an adverb. When used as a question, it asks to what place
or destination something is going. Whither goest thou? is asking about your goals, either
locational or social. The expression is also “old English” likewise not much used anymore,
but the query is still common enough. People want to know not only who you are, but the
objectives you have as you journey amongst them – have another story ready. Hence, the
parameter whither runs from destination to goal.
Purpose
The intention of this question? The expectation often is that wherever you are going
explains the route you are taking and the way you “carry yourself”. Whither you are
going can give you a reason for the steps you take to get there, but there are usually other
roads to Rome too, so you do not have to be committed to a particular path to get there.
Often people prefer the passageway as well as the destination.
Explication
Some people put great store by the intentions for their futures. Where they plan to be,
what they plan to do, the results they expect to achieve, the benefits they hope to enjoy,
the detriments they wish to avoid – all this, and more, supposedly indicates the kind of
person you are and how things will turn out. What this reasoning overlooks however, is
the role of luck, or fate (or whatever you chose to call it) in the outcome.
Implication
Some of the people who enquire about whither thou goest? may simply be looking for
someone to share the road with – if you have similar objectives or destinations, perhaps
you would like their company? Others however, may be trying to divert you, on a detour
or a u-turn, to an entirely different destination, or no destination at all. On looking back,
people often recall small steps that lead to major divergences from their intentions.
References

William Ascher Charles Tilly

FORECASTING WHY?
Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 1978 Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006
William Sheridan©2006 [to return to the MindMap click here]

WHO?
Definition
The word who is a pronoun. When used as a question, it asks for identification
regarding individuals or groups. Who is it? is asking about recognition – identify the
person or group on the basis of a name, a role, a status, etc. Who are you? asks an
individual or group to locate themselves within a particular context, be it place,
relationship, or purpose. The person asking usually gives clues about the extent of details
being sought. Hence, the parameter who runs from identity to identify.
Purpose
The intention of this question? Is the person or group known to anyone here? Is the
person or group qualified or disqualified, eligible or ineligible for some consideration
based on identification? Is there more information pertinent to the person’s or group’s
identify or status that needs to be verified or processed? When asking such questions,
seek the minimum of information necessary. Respect privacy and confidentiality.
Explication
In addition to a name, a person or group likely has some or all of (a) an address; (b) a
phone number; (c) a fax number; (e) an e-mail address; (f) a personal or professional web
site; (g) a job; (h) a family (spouse, children, parents, other relatives); (i) friends; (j)
awards; (k) publications; (l) achievements; (m) failures; (n) a reputation; etc. Some, or
all, or none of these might be relevant to a particular enquiry. The aim, presumably, is to
keep posing the questions until either the identification, or the specific attributes are
revealed, or no further information is shared.
Implication
In situations of either change or continuity, a major question that needs to be raised is

"Who are the winners and the losers?" This is one entry point into the concept that is an
important aspect of any of the identities and particulars of the people effected. The
rationale for this question is "the need to know" so as to assess impacts and arrange
for amelioration. Information is power because it provides leverage. Don’t exploit!
References

Howard S. Becker Charles Tilly

TRICKS OF THE TRADE WHY?
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998 Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006

WHY?
Definition
The word why is an adverb. When used as a question, it asks for an explanation
or justification of something. Why did this happen? is looking for a way to make sense of
some sequence of events. Why is this so? seeks to understand the disposition of things.
Why did you…? is a search for motivation. Why are you…? enquires into your identity or
state of being. Such questions are thought of as deeper. Hence, the parameter why runs
from rationalize to explain.
Purpose
The intention of the question? Not just a description, but some deeper insight is the
intention of the query. The problem with this question is that it can lead to that famous
infinite regress of asking and re-asking WHY? ad infinitum. When used in this way, this
is the ultimate question, to which there are only interim answers – beyond a few
repetitions, such questioning itself stops making sense.
Explication
Why would anyone keep asking WHY? It’s a way of avoiding decisions or choices or
actions. As long as the person on the receiving end is willing to grant the interlocutor the
presumption of “good faith” then time must be devoted to trying to answer the question.
That is the time that would otherwise be spent in (a) trying to decide or choose, (b) telling
the decision or choice that was made, or (c) acting out the designated option. Stalling.
Implication
Questions are only meaningful, especially this question, if answers that make sense are
actually available and acceptable. Even in the most generous of circumstances (during
Root Cause Analysis), the WHY question is limited to six rounds. Normally a limit of
half that number should be sufficient. The aim of questioning (and the philosophy behind
it) is to solicit information – otherwise you are wasting somebody’s time and patience.
References
Dorothy Strachan
John Bruin QUESTIONS THAT WORK
HOMO INTEREOGANS ST Press, Ottawa, 2001.
Ottawa UP, Ottawa, 2001
Stuart Sim & Borin Van Loon
Charles Tilly INTRODUCING CRITICAL THEORY
WHY? Icon Books, Cambridge, 2001
Princeton UP, Princeton, 2006

The Human Knowledge Mindmap The Guide To Studying, Learning, Thinking & Working in The Knowledge Society

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Human Knowledge Mindmap The Guide To Studying, Learning, Thinking & Working in The Knowledge Society

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Human Knowledge Mindmap The Guide To Studying, Learning, Thinking & Working in The Knowledge Society

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE HUMAN KNOWLEDGE MINDMAP

The guide to studying, learning,

Please read the introductory guidelines for an explanation of

How to use it?

Who should use it?

What are the implications?

1. Arthur Koestler 2. Edward de Bono 3. Jerry Rhodes

William Sheridan©2006 more page 2

EFFECTIVE THINKING: parallel tracks and alternate tacks

(Conceptual Pragmatism) (Cognitive Economy) (Pinball Methodology)

Clarence Irving Lewis Nicholas Rescher James Burke

William Sheridan©2006 page 3

The Prototype of Concept R&D

Application of Concept R&D

Read the entire Human Knowledge MindMap through once.

Edward de Bono Andre Kukla

Samuel C. Wheeler Gary Klein

William Sheridan©2006 page 5

William Sheridan©2006 page 6

(2) correlate vs. altruism Inferential Operators

How is altruism manifest?

How is analogy used?

By analogy, computer information storage is metaphorically called "memory", but computer

John Dewey Edward De Bono

To appraise is to estimate qualitative and/or quantitative characteristics. What (or who) is

If a process is being appraised, it should be either completed or sufficiently advanced to

To arrange is to configure or to organize. Decide what it is you want to arrange – what

Premature closure of an arranging exercise is the penchant to rush to completion before

Authenticity is the quality or condition of being genuine or trustworthy. Decide what it is

Since authentication is a separate consideration from functionality, and the process of

Edward Alsworth Ross Donald Black

William Sheridan©2006 [To return to the MindMap click here]

What (is behaviourism)?

How (does behaviourism work)?

Stephen Ray Flora

Many people have a “naturalistic” notion about circumstances – it is a form of fatalism

A variety of methodologies have been recommended, some formal, others “rule of

Collectivism is a reference-group doctrine of behaviour. It involves the coordination of conduct

How is collectivism manifest?

To confirm is to verify the accuracy of information. Decide what it is you want to

The purpose of confirmation is to double-check on results as reported or understood.

What (is constructivism)?

How (does constructivism work)?

Arthur Koestler Jerry Rhodes

2005© William Sheridan [To return to the MindMap click here]

Paul Thagard Sergio Senay & Pablo Blasberg

Richard Fumerton John Dewey

William Sheridan©2006 more [To return to the MindMap click here]

From Attention to Intention

How is deism manifest?

Mark Juergensmeyer, ed. Neale Donald Walsch

To designate is to specify or characterize for a role or a function. Decide what or who

“When something is owned by everyone, it is owned by no one.” The implication is that

What (is determinism)?

How (does determinism work)?

William Ascher & William Overhold

2005©William Sheridan [To return to the MindMap click here]

What (is dichotomy)?

"Dichotomy" is a technical term, defined by Webster's New World Dictionary as meaning