FRONT AXLE AND STEERING SYSTEM

Front axle carries the weight of the front part of the automobile as well as facilitates steering and
absorbs shocks due to road surface variations. The front axles are generally dead axles, but are
live axles in small cars of compact designs and also in case of four-wheel drive. The steering
system converts the rotary motion of the driver’s steering wheel into the angular turning of the
front wheels as well as to multiply the driver’s effort with leverage or mechanical advantage for
turning the wheels. The steering system, in addition to directing the vehicle in a particular
direction must be arranged geometrically in such a way so that the wheels undergo true rolling
motion without slipping or scuffing. Moreover, the steering must be light and stable with a
certain degree of self-adjusting ability. Steering systems may also be power assisted.

FRONT AXLE

The front axle (Fig.) is designed to transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs to the
front wheels, turning right or left as required. To prevent interference due to front engine
location, and for providing greater stability and safety at high speeds by lowering the centre of
gravity of the road vehicles, the entire centre portion of the axle is dropped. As shown in Fig.,
front axle includes the axle-beam, stub-axles with brake assemblies, u ack-rod and stub-axle arm.

Front axles can be live axles and dead axles. A live front axle contains the differential
mechanism through which the engine power flows towards the front wheels. For steering the
front wheels, constant velocity joints are contained in the axle half shafts. Without affecting the
power flow through the half shafts, these joints help in turning the stub axles around the king-
pin.

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The front axles are generally dead axles, which does not transmit power. The front wheel hubs
rotate on antifriction bearings of tapered-roller type on the steering spindles, which are an
integral part of steering knuckles. To permit the wheels to be turned by the steering gear, the
steering spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are hinged on the end of axle. The pin that
forms the pivot of this hinge is known as king pin or steering knuckle pin. Generally dead front
axles are three types. In the Elliot type front axles the yoke for king spindle is located on the ends
of I-beam. The axle ends are forked to hold the steering knuckle extension between them. The
reverse Elliot front axles have hinged spindle yoke on spindle itself instead of on the axle. The
forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle. This type is commonly used as this facilitates
the mounting of brake backing plate on the forged legs of the steering knuckle. In the Lemoine
type front axle, instead of a yoke type hinge, an L-shaped spindle is used which is attached to the
end of the axle by means of a pivot. It is normally used in tractors. The axle beam in use is of I or
H-section and is manufactured from alloy forged steel for rigidity and strength. As compared to
dead front axles, a totally different type of swivelling mechanism is used on the live front axle.
To connect the wheel hub axles with driving axle shafts, constant velocity joints are used for the
vehicles fitted with the front live axles. Tracta, Rzeppa (or Sheppa) on Bendix constant velocity
or universal joints are normally used.

Front axles are subjected to both bending and shear stresses. In the static condition, the axle may
be considered as a beam supported vertically upward at the ends i.e. at the centre of the wheels
and loaded vertically downward at the centers of the spring pads. The vertical bending moment
thus caused is zero at the point of support and rises linearly to a maximum at the point of loading
and then remains constant.

There are two types of front axles:

DEAD FRONT AXLE

Dead axles are those axles, which do not rotate. These axles have sufficient rigidity and strength
to take the weight. The ends of front axle are suitably designed to accommodate stub axles.

LINE FRONT AXLE

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Line axles are used to transmit power from gear box to front wheels. Line front axles although,
front wheels. Line front axles although resemble rear axles but they are different at the ends
where wheels are mounted. Maruti-800 has line front axle.

STUB AXLE

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FUNCTION OF A STEERING SYSTEM

The function of a steering system is to convert the rotary movement of the steering wheel in
driver’s hand into the angular turn of the front wheels on road. Additionally, the steering system
should provide mechanical advantage over front wheel steering knuckles, offering driver an easy
turning of front wheels with minimum effort in any desired direction.

The main causes of stiff steering include

(i) insufficient lubrication of the king-pins or steering linkage,

(ii) tyre pressure too low,
(iii) wheels out of track, i.e. toe-in not correct, and
(iv) Stiffness in the steering column itself, caused by lack of lubricant or over
tightening.

STEERING SYSTEM (LINKAGE) LAYOUT

The steering system is designed to enable the driver to control and continuously adjust the
steered path of the vehicle. Also it provides a positive response to whatever direction the driver
may makes on the steering wheel. To achieve these objectives, a suitable mechanical linkage is
incorporated between the front steered road-wheels and the driver’s steering-wheel. This

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mechanism operates effectively under all normal conditions without interfering with the wheel
traction or with the suspension movement.

The steering linkage shown in Fig. performs the above functions. When driver turns the steering
wheel, motion is transmitted down through the steering tube to the steering gear. The steering
tube revolves inside the steering column. The steering gear changes the direction of motion and
increases the turning force applied by driver at the steering wheel in accordance with the gear
ratio. The gear rotates the steering arm (Pitman arm), which transfers the motion to the steering
knuckles through the steering gear connecting rod, tie-rod, and knuckle arms. This type of
linkage is called the relay steering linkage.

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REQUIREMENTS OF STEERING SYSTEM:

1) It must keep the wheel at all times in to rolling motion without rubbing on the road.
2) This system should associate to control the speed.
3) It must light and stable.
4) It should also absorb the road shocks.
5) It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
6) It should have self-centering action to some extent.

FUNCTIONS OF STEERING SYSTEM

1) To convert rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular motion of the front road
wheels.
2) To provide directional stability to the vehicle.
3) To minimize wear of tyres.
4) To turn vehicle at driver’s will.
5) To provide perfect rolling motion of the road wheels at all times.
6) To multiply the effort of the driver by leverage so that turning of wheels is easy.
7) To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
8) To absorb road shocks thus preventing them to get transmitted to the hands of the driver.
9) To swing the wheels to the left or right.

AUTOMOTIVE STEERING MECHANISM

To achieve correct steering, two types of steering mechanisms are used.

1) Davis Steering Mechanism

2) Ackermann Steering Mechanism

The main difference between these two is that the Davis mechanism has sliding pairs, whereas
the Ackermann mechanism has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more friction than the
turning pair and hence Davis mechanism will wear out after certain time. Therefore Ackermann
mechanism is preferred to the Davis mechanism.

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DAVIS STEERING MECHANISM

The Davis Steering gear has sliding pair; it has more friction than the turning pair, therefore the
Davis Steering Gear wear out earlier and become inaccurate after certain time. This type is
mathematically Accurate.

The Davis gear mechanism consists of cross link KL sliding parallel to another link AB and is
connected to the stub axle of the two front wheel by levers CAK and DBK pivoted at A and B
respectively. The cross link KL slides in the bearing and cross pins at its ends K and L. The slide
blocks are pivoted on these pins and move with the turning of bell crank levers as the steering
wheel is operated. When the vehicle is running straight the gear is said to be in its mid-position.
The short arms AK and BL are inclined an angle (900+α) to their stub axles AC and BD
respectively. The correct steering depends upon the suitable selection of cross arm angle α, and is
given by

tan α = b/2l, Where b = AB = distance between the pivots of front axle.

l=wheel base

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ACKERMANN STEERING MECHANISM

To achieve true rolling for a four wheeled vehicle moving on a curved track, the lines drawn
through each of the four wheel axes must intersect at the instantaneous centre (Fig.). The actual
position the instantaneous centre constantly changes due to the alternation of the front wheel
angular positions to correct the steered vehicle’s path. Since both rear wheels are fixed on the
same axis but the front wheel axles are independent of each other, the instantaneous centres lies
somewhere along an imaginary extended line drawn through the axis of the rear axle.

The Ackermann principle is based on the two front steered wheels being pivoted at the ends of
an axle-beam. The original Ackermann linkage has parallel set track-rod-arms, so that both
steered wheels swivel at equal angles. Consequently, the intersecting projection lines do not meet
at one point (Fig.). If both front wheels are free to follow their own natural paths, they would
converge and eventually cross each other. Since the vehicle moves along a single mean path,
both wheel tracks conflict continuously with each other causing tyre slip and tread scrub.
Subsequent modified linkage uses inclined track-rod arms so that the inner wheel swivels about
its king-pin slightly more than the outer wheel. Hence the lines drawn through the stub-axles
converge at a single point somewhere along the rear-axle projection (Fig.).

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Side-pivot steering with parallel-set track-rod arms Side-pivot steering with inclined track-rod arms.

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION DIAGRAM FOR ACKERMANN-LINKAGE

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ANALYTICAL SOLUTION

If the slight inclination of the track rod (Fig.) is neglected, the movements of M and N in the
direction parallel to the axle beam PQ can be considered as the same, say z. Let M’, N’ represent
the correct steering position and, r, denote the cross-arm radius.

EXAMPLE

A track has pivot pins 1.37 m apart, the length of each track arm is 0.18 m and the track rod is
behind front axle and 1.27 m long. Determine the wheel base which will give true rolling for all
wheels when the car is turning so that the inner wheel stub axle is 60° to the centre line of the
car. A geometrical construction may be used.

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CONDITION FOR TRUE ROLLING

Road-wheel and tyre rolling conditions

A. True-rolling. B. True scrub. C. Tyre steer. D. Condition for true rolling. E. Condition for tyre
scrub.

True rolling occurs only when the direction of motion of the vehicle is perpendicular to the
wheel axis (Fig. A), i.e. the wheel is subjected to forward force. When wheel is subjected to side
force that acts parallel to the wheel axis, a true scrub action is produced (Fig. B). When the
wheel is subjected to both forward and side forces, the movement is compounded of true rolling
and lateral distortion (Fig. C). This condition occurs when the wheels are being steered, i.e. the
direction of motion is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of rotation. On a circular path,
true rolling condition occurs when the projected axes of several wheels all moving in different
curved paths intersect at a single point called the instantaneous centre (Fig. D). When these
projected axes do not intersect at a single point, a degree of tyre scrub results (Fig. E).

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Whenever a vehicle takes a turn, the front wheels must turn in a definite manner both in relation
to each other and to the axis of the rear wheels so that the lateral slip may be avoided and true
rolling for all the wheels is obtained. For this, as explained above, all the wheels must always
rotate about the instantaneous centre. Since the rear wheels have a common and fixed axis, it is
quite obvious that this common centre, 0, would lie somewhere on its extension (Fig.)

This equation gives the fundamental condition to be satisfied by all types of steering mechanism
if true rolling for all the wheels is to be obtained avoiding any lateral slip. The steering linkage
used in the vehicles must maintain the proper angles with the wheels when taking a turn. But
practically it is not possible to maintain absolutely correct angles for the wheels for all turning
angles.

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TURNING CIRCLE RADIUS

When a vehicle takes a turn without experiencing any lateral slip, all the wheels rotate about a
common centre along different turning circles (refer above fig)

Thus the turning circle radius can be defined in different ways. In order to avoid confusion, the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) adopted the following definition. “The turning radius of
an automotive vehicle is the radius of the arc described by the centre of the track made by the
outside front wheel of the vehicle when making its shortest turn”. The turning radius depends
upon a, b, c and the maximum angle 0 through which the inside front wheel can be deflected
from the straight-ahead position. Thus R0f when expressed in these parameters becomes,

EXAMPLE-

A motor car has a wheel-base of2.743 m and pivot centre of 1.065 m. The front and rear wheel
track is 1.217 m. Calculate the correct angle of outside lock and turning circle radius of the outer
front and inner rear wheels when the angle of inside lock is 40°.

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AXLE-BEAM SUSPENSION STEERING SYSTEM

This steering system (Fig.) incorporates a steering-wheel to impart motion to the steering-box
which transfers the steering effort through the drop-arm and drag-link directly to one of the two

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stub-axles pivoting at the ends of the axle-beam. Both the stub-axles are joined together by a
track-rod.

The functions of the components are as follows:

STEERING BOX

The steering box uses a reduction gear which provides a much larger force to the steering linkage
with only a small effort. Simultaneously, the degree of stub-axle movement is decreased for a
given angular movement of the steering wheel so that the oversensitivity of the steering with
respect to driver’s touch on the wheel is reduced.

DROP-ARM

This forged lever-arm is bolted on to a tapered steering-box output rocker-shaft and it hangs or
drops downwards. It imparts a circular-arc movement to the drag-link through its swing action.

DRAG-LINK

This tubular rod converts the circular movement of the drop-arm into a linear push or pulls
motion of the drag-link arm, attached rigidly to one of the stub-axles. A ball-joint is fitted at each
end of the rod so that a relative movement is provided in planes.

DRAG-LINK ARM

This arm joints the drag-link to one of the stub-axles and provides sufficient leverage to convert
the linear movement of the drag-link to an angular movement about the stub-axle king-pin.

STUB-AXLES

The stub-axle is a short axle-shaft to which one steered road-wheel is mounted. It uses two
extended horizontal prongs that fit over the ends of the axle-beam. The king-pin, a short circular
bar, passes vertically through both prongs and the eye of the axle-beam to form the hinge pivot.
The stub-axle acts as the wheel axle as well as the pivot support member in the horizontal plane.

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TRACK-ROD ARMS

Each stub-axle uses a forged track-rod arm bolted approximately at right angles to the wheel axis
in the horizontal plane. This arm provides the leverage to rotate the stub-axle about the king-pin.
This rotary movement is transferred to the other stub-axle through the track-rod.

TRACK-ROD

A tubular track-rod spans the wheel track and pivots together the two stub-axles. The ends of this
rod carry ball-joints, which in turn are bolted to the track-rod arms of each stub axle. These ball-
joints are allowed to move only in the horizontal plane. The drag-link movement is either a pull
or a push action and rotates one of the stub-axles. This motion is transferred to the other stub-
axle through the track-rod.

INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION STEERING SYSTEM

In the rigid-beam suspension, the stub-axle is pivoted at each end of the axle-beam.
Consequently the relative movement is permitted only in the horizontal plane due to which
effective track-rod length is not affected by any vertical suspension deflection.

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Independent-suspension steering, on the other hand, copes with up a down movement of each
stub-axle independent of the other due to which the distance between track-rod-arm ball-joint
centers varies continually. Therefore, if a single track-rod joins the two stub-axles together, the
slightest bump or rebound tends to pull both stub-axle arms at once and thus interferes with the
steering-track toe-in or toe-out. To overcome the problem of the changing distance between
track-rod-arm ball-joint centers, a three-piece track-rod is used. The centre portion of the track
rod may be a relay-rod suspended between the steering-box drop-arm and an idler arm fixed to
the body structure (Fig.). Large cars normally use the system shown in Fig. When the steering-
wheel is acted, the drop-arm conveys movement to the relay-rod, which in turn transmits this
motion to both tie-rods and stub-axles. The drop-arm and idler-arm relay joints provide
movement only in the horizontal plane. The tie-rod joints provide movement in both the
horizontal and vertical planes.

Also the centre portion may from the track shaft of a rack-and-pinion steering-box (Fig.). In both
the cases, this part moves only in the horizontal plane. Movement in the vertical plane is
provided by the two outer connecting rods, known as tie-rods. The tie-rods swing about the ball-

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joints placed at the end of the middle track rod member. In earlier designs, independent
suspension steering incorporated stub-axles and king-pin pivots similar to those used with the
axle-beam. But current systems use ball-swivel joints for the stub axle pivot and are also spaced
further apart. The most popular steering system used for small and medium cars is shown in Fig.
This type of steering box has a rack-and-pinion housing bolted along the body cross-member.
The angular movement of steering wheel is converted to a linear to-and-fro movement of the
rack. Each end of the rack shaft is attached to a tie-rod by means of a ball-and-socket joint. The
outer tie-rod ends also use ball-joints, which are bolted to the stub-axle track-rod arms. The rack
shaft thus provides the transverse steering thrust and the tie-rod ball joints allow pivoting in two
planes.

STEERING GEARS

The steering gearbox provides the driver with leverage to enable him to exert a large force at the
road wheel with a minimum effort, and to control the direction of the wheel. Turning effort on
the steering wheel is multiplied through the steering gears to turn the front wheels, even when
the vehicle is at rest. Therefore, the steering gearbox has two main functions. It produces a gear
reduction between the input steering wheel and the output drop arm (Pitman arm) and it redirects
the input to output axis of rotation through a right angle.

The overall angular gear ratio between the steering wheel and the road wheel varies from about
12:1 to 30:1, depending on the load on the road wheels and the type of steering. The lower ratio
is for the light small vehicles and the higher ratio for heavy vehicles. As the ratio is lowered, a
more number of turns are required to move the wheels from lock to lock making it difficult for a
rapid change in vehicle direction.

Normally, the steering road wheel stub axles must be able to twist through a maximum steering
angle of 40 degrees either side of straight ahead position. Therefore, lock to lock drop arm
angular displacement amounts to 80 degrees and with a 12:1 and 30:1 gear reduction the number
of turns of the steering wheel would be as follows:

Lock to lock steering = 80 x 12/360 = 2.66 revolutions the wheel turns for 12:1 reduction.

Lock to lock steering = 80 x 30/360 = 6.66 revolutions the wheel turns for 30:1 reduction.

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These results show that the while the 12:1 reduction requires the steering wheel to be rotated
through 1:33 turns from the straight ahead position, the 30:1 reduction requires 3.33 turns which
is more than twice of the former angular displacement. Thus with the 12:1 gear reduction, the
steering may be heavy but can be turned from the straight ahead position to full lock and back
again relatively quickly. However the 30:1 reduction provides a light steering wheel but the
vehicle is forced to corner much slower if the driver is able to complete the manoeuvre safely.

Over the years, several types of steering gearbox have been used, these include:

1) Screw and nut.

2) Rack and pinion.
3) Cam and peg.
4) Worm and roller.
5) Worm and sector.
6) Re-circulating ball

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WHEEL ALIGNMENT

It returns to the positioning of the front wheels and steering mechanism that gives the vehicle
directional stability; reduce the tyre wear to a minimum.

Factors effect the wheel alignment:

1. Factors pertaining to wheel: -

a. Balance of wheels (Static and Dynamic) b. Inflation of tyre c. Brake adjustments.

2. Steering Linkages.

3. Suspension System

4. Steering Geometry

(A) Primary (or) Adjustment angles

1. Camber angle
2. Caster angle
3. Toe in and Toe out

(B) Secondary (or) Diagnostic angles

1. Steering Axis Inclination (S.A.I)

2. Turning angle (or) Toe out on turns
3. Thrust angle
4. Included angle
5. Set back & Scrub radius–a. caster b. camber c. king pin inclination d. toe-
in and toe-out etc.

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STEERING GEOMETRY

It refers to the angular relationship between the front wheels and parts attached to it and car
frame.

CAMBER ANGLE

DEFINITION:

Camber angle is the angle between the vertical line and centre line of the tyre when
viewed from the front of the vehicle.

SIGN CONVENTION:

Camber angle is positive when this is outward. This happens when wheels are further
apart at top than at bottom. On the contrary, camber angle is negative when angle is
inward. This happens when wheels are further apart at bottom than at top.

AMOUNT & EFFECTS

The camber should not be more than 2o, because this causes uneven or more tyre wear on
one side than on other side. The front wheels are usually fitted with positive camber
angle. This is done to prevent tilting of top of wheels inward due to excessive load or
play in the king pin and wheel bearing. The load brings the wheels to vertical position.
Excessive camber is not good because it prevents proper wheel contact with the road.
Unequal camber causes the vehicle in that direction in which camber is more. This
disturbs the directional stability. Camber angle is shown in Figure.

KING PIN INCLINATION/ STEERING AXIS INCLINATION (SAI)

DEFINITION

It is the angle between king pin centre line and vertical line when seen from the front of
the vehicle. It is also called steering axle inclination.

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 AMOUNT & EFFECTS

King pin inclination and caster are used to improve directional stability in cars. Because
of these provisions wheels tend to return to the straight ahead position after the vehicle
completes any turn (due to steering left or right). This is also used to reduce steering
effort when steering a stationary vehicle. In addition to this, it reduces tyre wear. This
inclination varies from 4 to 8o in modern cars. On older vehicles and trucks with kingpins
instead of ball joints, Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is referred to as (KPI) King Pin
Inclination.

INCLUDED ANGLE

DEFINITION:

Included angle is the sum of the Camber and Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) angles
Included angle is not directly measurable.

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 EFFECTS

It is used primarily to diagnose bent suspension parts. If the camber is negative, then the
included angle will be less than the Steering Axis Inclination (SAI), if the camber is
positive, it will be greater. The included angle must be the same from side to side even if
the camber is different. If there is a difference, then something is bent, possibly the
steering knuckles.

CASTER ANGLE

DEFINITION

Caster angle is the tilt of king pin centre line towards front of back from the vertical line.
It is the angle between the vertical line and king pin centre line in the p wheel plane when
looked from side. It is shown in Figure.

SIGN CONVENTION

Caster angle is positive when top of the king pin is backward and negative when it is
forward.

AMOUNT AND EFFECTS

The value of this angle in vehicles ranges from 2 to 8o. The caster angle provides
directional stability to vehicle by making wheels to follow in the direction of movement
of vehicle. The vehicle tends to roll out on turns when caster angle of both front wheels is
positive. But it tends to back or lean in on turns when caster angles are negative. Positive

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 caster angle increases the steering effort and tends to keep the wheels straight. Negative
caster is provided in heavy duty vehicles to reduce steering effort.

TOE-IN AND TOE-OUT

DEFINATION

The front wheels are slightly turned in at front side such that the distance between wheels
at front is little less than the distance at back, when seen from top. This difference in
distance is called toe-in; alternately the front wheels are slightly turned out at front side
such that the distance between wheels at front is greater than the distance at back. Actual
amount of toe-in is 3 to 5 mm.

PURPOSE OF TOE-IN

(a) To ensure that wheels are rolling parallel.

(b) To stabilize steering and prevent slipping towards sides.

(c) To prevent excessive tyre wear.

(d) To offset the effect of small deflections in the wheel support system.

The wheels are set with toe-in but they move parallel when car moves forward.

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SLIP ANGLE

DEFINITION

The angle between direction of the motion of the vehicle and the center plane of the tyre
is known as Slip Angle. It ranges from 8º to 10º.

UNDER STEER

When the front slip angle is greater than that of rear, the vehicle tends to steer in the
direction of side force. Then it is known as under steer. This provides greater driving
stability, especially when there is a side wind.

OVER STEER

When the rear slip angle is greater than that of front slip angle, the vehicle tends to move
away from the direction of center path. This is known as over steer. This is advantageous
when the vehicle moving on the road having many bends curves.

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STEERING GEAR RATIO OR REDUCTION RATIO

It has been defined as the “number of turns on the steering wheel required to produce on
turn of steering gear cross shaft to which the pitman arm is attached. Generally it varies
between 14'.1 and 24'.1.

SCRUB RADIUS

DEFINITION

Scrub Radius is the distance between the extended centerline of the steering axis and the
centerline of the tire where the tread contacts the road. This distance must be exactly the
same from side to side or the vehicle will pull strongly.

SIGN CONVENTION

If the steering centerline is inboard of the tire centerline, the scrub radius is positive. If
the steering centerline is outboard of the tire centerline, the scrub radius is negative. Rear-
wheel drive cars and trucks generally have a positive scrub radius while FWD cars
usually have zero or a negative scrub radius because they have a higher Steering Axis
Inclination (SAI), angle. Using different wheels other than stock can alter the scrub
radius.

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SET BACK

Set back is when one front wheel is set further back than the other. With alignment
equipment that measures toe by using only the front instruments, any setback will cause
an un-centered steering wheel. Any good 4-wheel aligner will reference the rear wheels
when setting toe in order to eliminate this problem. Some good alignment equipment will
measure set back and give you a reading in inches or millimeters. Some manufacturers
consider a setback of less than 1/4-inch normal tolerance. More than that and there is a
good chance that something is bent. Setback is Caused By: Manufacture or Collision.

THRUST ANGLE

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 Thrust angle is the direction that the rear wheels are pointing in relation to the centerline
of the vehicle. The vehicle will "dog track" if the thrust angle is not zero and the steering
wheel will not be centered. The best solution is to first adjust the rear toe to the centerline
and then adjust the front toe. This is done during an all wheel alignment if the rear toe is
adjustable. If the rear is not adjustable, then the front toe must be set to compensate for
the thrust angle, allowing the steering to be centered. If the thrust angle is not correct on a
vehicle with a solid rear axle, it often requires a frame straightening shop to correctly
reposition the rear axle. A vehicle with independent rear suspension, the toe must be
adjusted individually until it has reached the appropriate setting for its side of the vehicle;
incorrect thrust angle is often caused by an out-of-position suspension or incorrect toe
settings. So in addition to the handling problems that are the result of incorrect toe
settings, thrust angles can also cause the vehicle to handle differently when turning left
vs. right.

TURNING RADIUS:

It is the radius of the circle on which the outside front wheels moves when the front
wheels are turned to their extreme outer position. This radius is 5 to 7.5 m for buses and
trucks.

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ALIGNMENT RANGES

The vehicle manufacturers' alignment specifications usually identify a "preferred" angle for
camber, caster and toe (with preferred thrust angle always being zero). The manufacturers also
provide the acceptable "minimum" and "maximum" angles for each specification. The minimum
and maximum camber and caster specifications typically result in a range that remains within
plus or minus 1-degree of the preferred angle.

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