Industrial Hydraulics

INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics is a new trend of power transmission. All sophisticated equipments and

systems which require precise control are normally incorporated with hydraulic system.
It has gained popularity because of its accuracy, response, effective working and
maintenance free operation. It has made his approach to any level from our house hold
equipments to very precise and sophisticated system like, aircraft and war field
equipments.
This study material focuses on the subject “Industrial Hydraulics”. Principle of

working, different hydraulic component construction and functions along with their
specific applications have been described in this study material. This study material will
help to know how can we do best with our hydraulic system. Our trainees and employees
will be certainly benefited by this study material.
_________________________ _________________________
Prepared by Approved by
S.P.Sharma K N Choubey
Sr. Manager - Mechanical Group Head - Mechanical
Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 1 of 72

Sl. No. Topics Page #
01. Introduction and basic principles of Hydraulics 03
02. Hydraulic Fluids 13
03. Strainers and Filters 18
04. Introduction to Pump 24
05. Gear Pump 27
06. Vane Pump 30
07. Piston Pump 33
08. Pressure Relief Valve 37
09. Reducing Valve 40
10. Check Valve 42
45 Direction Control Valve 45
12. Flow Control Valve 49
13. Actuator 53
14. Accumulator 60
15. Hydraulic Circuits 64
16. Questionnaire for self Evaluation 69

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS
Let us see first what is "HYDRAULICS". By the term "hydraulics" is understood the
transmission and control of forces and movements by means of fluids. The fluids used
to transmit the forces and movements are generally incompressible fluids, like water and
oil. External forces applied on it will increase the pressure of the fluid, which resist the
external forces, but the volume the fluid will remain constant. Practically, the fluids are
compressible at very high pressure in a very negligible amount, say by 1/2 % at 1000
PSI, 1 % at 2000 PSI and 1.1 % at more than 2000 PSI pressure.
There are normally two fields of application of hydraulics, which are completely distinct
both in their basic principles and in their potential application. When a load is moved
or hanged by the pressure energy of the system, as in a hydraulic jack, it is called
Hydrostatic power transmission, but, when high velocity of fluid or very high kinetic
energy of the fluid is used to get the high rotation of a water turbine, it is called
Hydrodynamic power transmission.
Industrial Hydraulics basically deals with the hydrostatic power transmission. These
are some characteristic features of hydraulic systems, because of which, they have
prevailed over other forms of power transmission.
1. It is a self lubricated system.

2. Simplicity of operation.
3. Sensitive, smoothly variable speed controls.
4. The equipment is economical in space and weight.
5. Simple safe guarding against overloads, by means of a pressure limiting valve.
6. Ease in monitoring and checking the hydraulic system by means of pr. gauge.
7. Ease of transmitting motion and power from prime mover to machine.
8. As a gear box, it provides positive drive, hence no chances of slippage between
driver and driven elements.
The use of hydraulics is, of course, subject to some limitations, which should be
monitored here.
1. Friction on various components increases the temperature of the oil.

2. A great deal of care must be taken in the design and manufacture to avoid leakage.
3. High initial cost of the components.
4. Fire hazards as hydraulic system contains oil and rubber connections like hoses,
etc.
A pump is driven by a diesel engine or an electric motor. It sucks in oil, thus

converting the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The pressurised oil is delivered
through pipes and control elements to the driven unit, which converts the hydraulic
energy back into mechanical energy. Pump pressurises the oil and transfers it to the
driven unit. It flows, therefore, it has velocity. Hydraulic energy, therefore, comprises
pressure energy and velocity energy and the combination is called
hydraulic energy.
FORCE : The force can be defined as an external agent which changes the position of
rest or of motion of a body moving with uniform speed in a straight line.
Therefore, Force = Mass x Acceleration
PRESSURE : The force acting on unit area is called pressure or the intensity of force is
called pressure. The different units for force and pressure are given as:
Therefore, Pressure = Force / Area
FORCE PRESSURE
POUNDAL
POUND-WT. P.S.I.
KG-WT Kg/cm2
NEWTON N/m2 (PASCAL)
CONVERSION : Pound-wt = 32 Poundal ; Newton = 9.81 Kg. wt.

4
1 Kg/sq. cm = 9.81 x 10 Pascal (Pa) ; 1 Bar = 105 Pascal
1 Bar = 14.2 PSI
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE : This is the pressure, exerted by the weight of air column
on unit area. At sea level, the values of atmospheric pressure are:
(a) 14.7 psi ; (b) 1.01325 Bar ; (c) 1.033 kg/sq. cm ; (d) 760 mm of Hg.
(e) 10.3 Metre of water
GAUGE PRESSURE : When a pressure gauge shows zero reading at atmospheric

pressure, The pressure shown by this pressure gauge is known as the gauge pressure.
In this type of pressure, the value of atmospheric pressure is not added.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE : When gauge pressure is added with atmospheric pressure, it

is known as absolute pressure.
Therefore, Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure

VACUUM PRESSURE : It always exists below the atmospheric pressure. This is the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure actually existing in
the chamber. When the absolute pressure at any point is equal to zero, it is called
absolute vacuum.
Therefore, Vacuum pressure = Absolute pressure - Actual pressure (abs)
PASCAL's LAW : The hydro-static system is based on PASCAL's LAW. It states,

"Pressure applied on confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, acts
perpendicular to the surfaces and exerts equal forces on equal areas."
Thus, it can be seen from Pascal's Law that applying a small force of 10 lbs on smaller
area like the bottle cork of 1 sq. inch full of liquid, can generate a proportional amount of
the force of 200 lbs on the area of 20 sq. inch where it acts. In this way, pascal's law
gives us an idea to multiply the forces.
BRAMAH's PRESS : Bramah was the first British mechanic, who applied Pascal's law
in making a press, known as Bramah's press.
Bramah stated "if a small force is applied on confined fluid through a small area , it will
create a proportionally larger force on a larger area, the only limit to the force a machine
can exert is the area to which the pressure is applied.

It can be seen that a small force (f = 10 lb) applied on smaller area (a = 1 sq. inch), is
balancing the larger force (F = 100 lbs) applied on the bigger area (A = 10 sq inch).
Forces or weight which will balance with this arrangements are proportional to the piston
areas.
Here, F/A = f/a ;
or, F/f = A/a = Ratio of piston area square
Also, it can be seen that piston movements are proportional to each other. Piston
movements actually depends upon the displacement of a fixed amount of liquid from
one cylinder to other. Thus, the larger piston area (A) moves lesser than the smaller
piston area (a).

In this way it follows the law of conservation of energy. Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, but, it can be simply transformed from one form to other. Thus, energy
at all the places remains same. The only limitation of the force achieved is because of
the displacement moved against the load. Larger the load will have smaller the
displacement.
Here, a x l = A x L ; (l & L are the displacement in smaller & bigger
area respectively)
or, L = a x l/A;
Also, f x l = F x L
PRESSURE AND FLOW : Pumps used in hydraulic systems are positive
displacement type. It means that, except for changes in efficiency, the pump output
is constant regardless of pressure, if the pump RPM is constant. It has the positively
sealing between inlet and outlet, so that whatever fluid is gets in is forced out the outlet
port except the internal leakage.
Pump in a hydraulic system simply creates a flow, but pressure is caused by a resistance
to flow. Pressure depends upon the resistance and it varies proportionally. Less
resistance causes less pressure, where as a larger resistance creates larger pressure.
Resistances may come in the system by a load on an actuator and the resistance offered
by the orifice in the pipe.

PARALLEL FLOW PATHS : The liquid always passes through the least resistance
path. When two parallel flow paths offer different resistances, the pressure will
increase only to the amount required to take the easier path. Thus, two actuators of
different loads connected parallel to the pump will move one by one and synchronising
motion will not be achieved.
SERIES FLOW PATH : When resistances to flow are connected in series, the pressures
are added up. The pressure at the pump is the sum of the pressure required to open
individual valves at the pressure drop across the valve. Thus, to move a certain load,
pump has to bear more pressure than the actual pressure required for moving the load
alone.


PRESSURE DROP THROUGH AN ORIFICE : An orifice is a resistance passage in a

hydraulic line or component, used to control flow or create a pressure difference. When
oil is flowing through an orifice, there must be a pressure difference or pressure drop
across the orifice. Also, if there are no flow, there is no difference in pressure across the
orifice.
PRESSURE INDICATES WORK LOAD : The pump delivery is directed to the cylinder,
in which piston is under load, pressure is generated in the system. Pressure will be
directly proportional to the load applied and inversely proportional to the cross sectional
area of the piston. When, there is no other losses like friction, the pressure will be equal
to the load divided by the cross sectional area. There is no other parameter to effect the
amount of pressure in the system.
Therefore, Pressure = Load/area.
FLOW RATE OF A PUMP : The volume of oil delivered by the pump in unit time is called
flow rate of a pump. Normally, it is specified either in gallon per minute (GPM) or litre per
minute (LPM).
1 Gallon = 231 Inch3 ; 1 Litre = 1000 cm3 ; 1 Gallon = 3.78 Litres
The pump flow rate depends upon the pump rpm and its displacement. It also
depends upon the pressure on which it delivers the oil. In general, flow rate of a pump is
taken at 1200 RPM at a pressure of 7 Bar or 100 PSI.

SPEED OF AN ACTUATOR : How fast a cylinder moves or a motor rotates depends on

its size and the rate of oil flow going into it. To relate flow rate to speed, consider the
volume that must be filled in the actuator to effect an given amount of travel. The effect
of pressure on actuator speed is nothing.
Therefore, v = Q/A.
The velocity of fluid flowing through the pipe depends directly on the flow rate of the
pump and inversely on the cross sectional area of the pipe or the square of the inside
diameter. Friction of fluid flowing through the pipe is proportional to the square of its
velocity. Friction creates turbulence in the oil stream and resists the flow, resulting in an
increased pressure drop through the line. Very low velocity is recommended for the
pump inlet line, because very little pressure drop can be tolerated there.

REGENERATIVE SYSTEM : When pump delivery line is connected with both ports of a
differential piston area cylinder, the piston will move in forward direction only. This type
of movement is because of the resultant of the forces acting on both sides of the
piston, though having the same pressure. The effect of this type of system is the
increase in speed, as the returned oil coming from rod end side is again entering into
the system through cap end side. But, the pressure requirement to move the load will be
higher, as return oil is acting on the system as back pressure. This is called regenerative
system.
POWER : Whenever a force or push is exerted through a distance, work is done. The
rate of doing work is called power. Normally, power is expressed either in HORSE
POWER or KILOWATT. When flow rate of the pump and pressure required to move the
system are known, power can be calculated as,
HORSE POWER = PSI x GPM x 0.000583.

KILOWATT = (BAR x LPM )/ 612.
The above expressions can be used only when pump efficiencies is 100%. In
case of lower efficiencies, Power will be higher and can be calculated by dividing them
by the efficiencies.
Torque is generated in the hydraulic motor when it is rotated against a load by

supplying oil into the system.
Therefore, Torque (Pound-inch) = (63025 x HP)/RPM

and, Torque (N-cm) = 9550 x KW)/RPM
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HYDRAULIC FLUID
Hydraulic fluid is essential for the running of any hydraulic system. The
transmission of motion and power in the system is done through the hydraulic fluid.
Listed below are the different functions of hydraulic fluids:
POWER TRANSMISSION : It transmits motion and power from prime mover to

machine.
LUBRICATION : It lubricates all the moving parts of the system.
SEALING : In many instances, it provides the only seal against pressure inside hydraulic
components.
COOLING : It cools the system against generated heat due to various losses in the
system.
In addition, there should be some quality requirement of hydraulic fluids:
(a) Prevent rust.
(b) Prevent formation of sludge, gum and varnishes.
(c) Depress foaming.
(d) Maintains its own stability.
(e) Separate out water.
(f) Compatibility with seals and packings.
PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS :
VISCOSITY : It is the measure of the fluid resistance to flow, Or, it is the reverse
measure of fluidity.
Units of viscosity:
1. Poise/ centi poise.

2. Stoke/ centistoke.
3. Society of automotive engineers (SAE).
4. Saybolt universal seconds (SUS).

EFFECT OF LOW VISCOSITY :
1. Quick system response.

2. Increased internal leakage from various components.
3. Increased wear of moving parts.
4. Increased fluid temperature.
EFFECT OF HIGH VISCOSITY :
1. Slow response.
2. Increased overall pressure drop.
3. Greater vacuum at pump inlet, causing cavitation.
4. Increased fluid temperature and shorten fluid life.
VISCOSITY INDEX : Viscosity index is an measure of fluid's resistance to change in

viscosity due to change in temperature.
POUR POINT : It is the lowest temperature at which the fluid refuses to flow. As a
thumb rule the pour point should be 20o F below the lowest temperature to be
encountered in the system.
LUBRICITY : Hydraulic fluid must protect all the rubbing surfaces from excessive
wear. But, the lower clearances of the components cause the oil film to be squeezed
very thin and there may be metal to metal contact. To reduce the friction between the
surfaces, additives are mixed in the oil to make the oil more slippery and help them to
wet and cling the metallic surfaces. The property of the fluid which gives the clinging and
slipperiness to lubricate the surfaces, is called the lubricity.
RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION : Chemical reaction of the fluid with oxygen, is called

oxidation. Oxidation produces:
(i) resins (ii) Acids (iii) Gums (iv) Varnishes (v) Sludges.
The rate of oxidation depends on: (i) Temperature (ii) Amount of air in oil (iii) Amount of
contamination in oil. No appreciable oxidation takes place below 54 o C.
RESISTANCE TO FOAMING : Fluid may create foam, when mixed with air. The amount
of foam can be reduced by adding some antifoam additives. These additives form
unstable foam with larger bubbles which breaks faster. This reduces the total amount of
foam, that is formed in the oil.

RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND PITTING : Corrosion occurs in hydraulic

systems due to acid attack on the metal of the system. These acids are formed in the oil
by oxidation or by breaking some of the oil in their constituents. Rusting occurs by air
bubbles in the system, which oxidiges the metal surfaces in presence of water. Additives
are mixed with the oil to reduce the effect of corrosion and rusting. These additives form
a thin and strong adherent film on metal surfaces and resists the action of water, air and
acid.
DEMULSIFICATION : Small amount of water gets into the hydraulic fluid in the form of
water vapour that is carried in with the air that constantly finds its way into the system.
When air is suspended in the fluid, the water vapour also becomes emulsified in the fluid.
Water fluid emulsion may be thin and slurry, thick and pasty or heavy or gummy
depending on the amount of the water and the fluid viscosity. Emulsion frequently
promotes the collection of impurities, which increases friction and wear of in the
system. Many fluid use chemicals to prevent emulsion and promotes the breakdown of
emulsion, This phenomenon is DEMULSIBILITY.
As the emulsion breakdown, the water separates and settles to the bottom of the
reservoir, which can be drained periodically. Any free water in the fluid decreases its
lubricity and causes increased leakage and erratic pump action.
CORROSION AND RUSTING : Corrosion is generally considered to be any

deterioration of a metallic surface caused by the chemical action of an acid or alkali.
Rusting is the oxidation of the steel surfaces caused by the oxygen in the air in the
presence of moisture. There are several ways of preventing or minimising rust and
corrosion. The best is to have the hydraulic system operate at moderate temperature
and pressure and proper operating condition. In this way, fluid oxidation and acid action
are reduced and air and water formation can be controlled. Rust and corrosion
preventive additives are also mixed with the oil to minimise rusting and corrosion.
COMPATIBILITY : The hydraulic fluid must be compatible with the materials and the
seals used in the system. i.e. it should not react unfavorably with any of the metal,
plastics, paints or other materials used in the system's components.

TYPES OF FLUIDS :
The following types of hydraulic fluids are commonly used in industrial hydraulic
systems:
PETROLEUM OIL : Petroleum oils are the most commonly used hydraulic fluids. In
general, it has excellent lubricity, higher demulsibility, more oxidation resistance and
higher viscosity index. Oil naturally protects against rust, seals well, dissipates heat
easily and easy to keep it clean by filtration or gravity separation of contaminants. The
disadvantage of this fluid is that it is not fire resistant.
WATER OIL EMULSION : These fluids are least expensive fire resistant fluids. In
addition to water and oil, the emulsions contain emulsifiers, stabilizers and other
additives to hold the two liquids together.
WATER GLYCOL FLUID : Water glycol fluids are compounded of 35% to 40% water
to provide resistance to burning, a synthetic chemical glycol and a water soluble
thickener to improve viscosity. They also contain additives to improve foaming, rust
and corrosion and to improve lubricity.
Some of the disadvantages of these fluids are:
1. It is necessary to continue to measure the water content and make up for vaporization
to maintain the viscosity.
2. Evaporisation may also causes loss of certain additives.
3. Operating temperature must be kept low.
4. The cost is high.
SYNTHETIC FLUID : These are most costly hydraulic fluids being used presently.
Synthetic fluids are laboratory synthesized chemicals. Different types of synthetic
fluids are phosphate esters, chlorinate, hydro carbons, silicons, silicate esters.
Since synthetic fluids do not contain any water or other volatile material, they operate
well at high temperature. These are also suitable for high pressure systems.
Synthetic fire resistant fluids don't operate well at low temperature. Auxiliary heating
systems are required in cold condition.

These fluids have the highest specific gravity, so the pump inlet condition require
special attention. The viscosity index of synthetic fluids are generally low ranging
from 80 to minus 400. So, they should be used where the temperature is relatively
constant. These fluids are not compatible with nitrile and neoprene seals. So, special
seal materials should be used.
FLUID MAINTENANCE :
Hydraulic fluids are expensive. Further, changing the fluid and flushing or
cleaning, improperly maintaining the system is time consuming and costly. Therefore, it
is important to take care of the fluid properly.
STORAGE AND HANDLING :
Here are some simple rules to prevent contamination of the fluid during storage
and handling:
1. Store drums on their sides. If possible keep them inside or under a roof.
2. Before opening the drum, clean the top and bung thoroughly so no dirt can
get in.
3. Use only clean containers, hose, etc. to transfer the fluid from the drums
to the hydraulic reservoir. An oil transfer pump equipped with 25 micron filter
is recommended.
4. Provide a 200 mesh screen in the reservoir filler pipe.
IN OPERATION CARE : Proper in operation care of hydraulic fluid includes:
1. Prevent contaminations by keeping the system tight and using proper air
and fluid filtration.
2. Establish fluid change intervals so that the fluid will be replaced before it
breaks down. Test oil regularly.
3. Keep the system filled properly to take advantage of its neat dissipating
characteristics and prevent moisture from condensing on inside walls.
4. Repair all leaks immediately.
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STRAINERS AND FILTERS
Clean hydraulic fluid is essential for a hydraulic system to function properly. During the
operation, the hydraulic system picks up and generates a lot of contaminants. Strainers
and filters are the devices to remove insoluble contaminants from the fluid.
Presence of undesirable and insoluble substances in the fluid is known as contaminants.

Contaminants may be in the form of water, grease, dust, carbon, resin, acids, metal
wear, welding slags, scales, etc.
There are three different sources through which contaminants may enter into the system:
BUILT-IN : It is because of the improper care in assembly, maintenance & servicing.

Care in assembly and system flushing reduces their numbers, but it can never be
eliminated. These are burrs, chips, dirt, dust, fibre, sand, welding slag, paints, scales,
etc.
INGRESSION : Contaminants get into the system during careless transportation, dirty
containers, used for handling the fluids, fluid vessels kept open while storing the fluid,
missing or damaged filler cap and breather cap, leak through the joints and seals,
dusty and dirty environments, poor grade of the sealing agent, etc.
GENERATION : These are particles generated in the system due to wear of the various
components like pump, valves. actuators, decomposition and the break -up of the fluid
due to overheating, high pressure and extended use.
These are the following types of failures:
INTERMITTENT : These are the temporary failures caused by the particles lodged in the
clearances and the orifice.
CATASTROPHIC : These are the sudden loss of control or total failure due to the
blockage of clearances, orifices, etc. by altering the viscosity and the flow rate of the
fluid, clogging the narrow passages of the pipes, valves and results in starvation and
erratic operation.
DEGRADATION : These failures are due to wear, corrosion, rusting, cavitation, which
progressively increases the friction of the moving parts, resulting in heavy power loss,
generation of heat, etc.

STRAINERS : Strainer is a metal screen made of the fine wire, capable of separating
larger contaminants. The degree of filtering fineness of the screen is rated by its mesh
number. Higher the mesh number finer the screen.
Mostly strainers are provided in the suction line of the pump, breather filter, filling ports,
screen, etc.
Strainers are generally of two types: (I) Sump strainer (ii) Inlet filter.
In construction, the cartridges of the filtering elements

are same, but location of the strainers are different.
Sump strainers are generally kept inside the fluid and
at the extreme end of the suction line. It may be fitted in
one, two or more in number to provide a free flow of
the oil and to save the strainer from clogging.
Inlet filters are generally mounted above the oil level and hence can be cleaned easily
without disturbing the pipe lines and condition of the oil. Some filters are equipped with
indicators to indicate the condition of the filtering element and to guide the operator or
the maintenance personnel to take action in time. The indicator may be of colour signal
or light signal or the buzzer.

FILTER : Filter is a fine medium, whose primary function is the retention of insoluble
contaminants from the fluid by some porous medium. It is rated for filtering fineness
by micron size. A filter normally rated at 10 microns would trap particles 10 micron in
size or larger.
When a filter is specified, it is nominal rating. If a filter is a 10 micron nominal rating, it

will trap most of the particles 10 microns in size or larger. But, the particles larger than
10 micron can also pass through the filter element. Absolute rating is however more
accurate and specifies that the value in microns will be the size of the largest hard
spherical particle which the filter will retain.
The absolute rating, thus, is the size of the largest opening or porosity in the filter.
Absolute rating is an important factor only when it is mandatory that no particles above
a given size be allowed to circulate the system.
FILTERING MATERIAL : These are the following types:
(a) Mechanical : These filtering elements are made of closely woven metal screen
or discs. These are relatively coarse.
(b) Absorbent : These are made of wide range of porous material, including paper,
cotton, sintered materials, etc.
(c) Adsorbent : Adsorbent or active filters such as charcoal, fuller's earth should be
avoided in hydraulic system, since they remove essential additives from the
hydraulic fluids.
LOCATION OF FILTERS : Filters are located at different locations in the hydraulic

circuit. If it is fitted in the pressure line, i.e. just after the pump, it is known as pressure
line filter. Now-a-days this type of pressure filters are in use as it can catch most of the
particles coming either from the reservoir or generated by the pump and stops
recirculating of the contaminants.
Filters fitted in return line of the circuit is known as return line filter. This position
of the filter is also essential, as it does not allow the contaminants to go in the
reservoir.
Sometimes, a filter is fitted in the separate hydraulic unit and it is known as off line
filter. This arrangement of filtering device is suitable for the higher capacity reservoir.
This system need not be run continuously. It may be operated for an hour or two as per
the capacity of the reservoir.


TYPES OF FILTERS : LIsted below are filters classified by its method of operation:
• Full flow filter.

• Proportional filter.
• Mechanical filter.
Out of these above filters, full flow filter is mostly used because of its simple
construction, working and servicing. Full flow filter is the filter, through which total fluid
passes and gets filtered. The filter has a body connected in the line in the correct
direction. Inside the body, there remains a paper cartridge through which only oil can
pass. The filters are equipped with a spring loaded bypass check valve. In case of
filtering element being clogged and the fluid not passing through it, high pressure
results in the filter housing and opens bypass check valve. The unfiltered fluid is directed
to the tank. The high pressure of the system may damage the filtering element, thus
saving the element, fluid is directed through the bypass check valve without filtering.

Proportional filters are used where some portion of oil is required to filter only. It can be
fitted in any of the direction and because of the throttling action, it filters the oil. It does
not have any check valve in the line, because there is no danger of blocking the line fully.
Mechanical filters are not used much now-a-days. It has a large nos. of fine thickness
leaves mounted over the other under a particular gap. The oil only passes through the
gas. In case of clogging the filtering leaves or fins, it can be cleaned easily with the help
of a mechanical cleaner mounted over the same filter.
Surface and depth type of filters are used in the system. Surface type filter can stop the
contaminants, but some times it can not stop them because of its construction. Depth
type filter can stop any type of the contaminants. The only difference is that the surface
filter can be cleaned easily, where as depth type filter can not be. Cost wise depth type
filters are much costlier than the surface filter.
============ OOO =============

INTRODUCTION ON PUMP
A pump is an essential element for any hydraulic system, as it acts as the input device,
which takes the power from the prime mover and expends it to the actuator to do some
useful work. The function of a pump is similar to the function of the heart of a human
body. Heart sucks the blood from the artery and sends it to the veins. Hydraulic pump
sucks oil from lower energy level and delivers it to higher energy level. The pump creates
the flow, but pressure comes on the delivery line due to resistance applied on the pump.
All pumps have their individual pressure capabilities. Under these pressure, pumps can
deliver enough amount of flow required by the system at optimum energy consumption.
Sometimes, it is called as an energy converter, as it convers mechanical energy into the
pressure energy. In case of pump failure, the entire system collapses.
In general, pumps are of two types:

a) Non-positive displacement type or hydrodynamic pumps.
b) Positive displacement type or hydrostatic pumps.
Non-positive displacement pumps are not normally used in the hydraulic system, as
pressure increases, flow rate of the pump decreases, even though pump rpm remains
constant. Therefore, the speed of an actuator never remains constant at variable
pressure. Centrifugal pump is a common pump under this category. This type of pump
has no positive seal between suction and delivery, therefore, under pressure some part
of oil flows back from delivery to suction and decreases the net flow rate of the pump.

Positive displacement pumps are used in hydraulic systems. In this type of pump, The
flow rate remains constant at any pressure, if RPM of the pump remains constant. There
is a positive seal between suction and delivery in this type of the pump, therefore, oil
sucked by the pump flows to delivery side only without returning to tank. In this way it
maintains a constant flow rate at any pressure. The constant flow rate keeps the speed
of the actuator constant. Practically, at higher pressure, some oil leaks internally, but,
the effect of that leakage is negligible in comparison to the flow rate of a centrifugal
pump.
Given below are different types of positive displacement pumps:
(a) Gear pump

- External gear pump
- Internal gear pump
(b) Vane pump

- Unbalanced type
- Balanced type
- Intra- vane type or double vanes pump
(c) Piston pump

- Axial piston pump
- In-line axial piston pump
- Bent axis axial piston pump
- Radial Piston pump

SOME DEFINITIONS :
DISPLACEMENT : It is the volume of oil delivered by the pump in one rotation. It

remains fixed at any rpm. Displacement multiplied by RPM gives the flow rate of the
pump.
FLOW RATE : It is the volume of oil delivered by the pump in unit time. Generally, the
pump flow rate is specified at 1200 rpm and 100 PSI or 7 bar pressure. The change
either in rpm or pressure will change the flow rate of the pump.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY : It is the ratio of output power to input power. It is generally
expressed in percentage.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY : It is the ratio of output flow to input flow. It is also
expressed in percentage.
OVERALL EFFICIENCY : The overall efficiency of the pump is the multiplication of
mechanical efficiency and volumetric efficiency. It is also expressed in percentage.
SUCTION LIFT : It is the height of the pump from the fluid level. For a vented reservoir
ideally it should not be more than the atmospheric pressure. However, as there are
number of losses during oil flow in the pipe, this height is kept minimum. A high suction
lift may cause cavitation also. As a thumb rule, it should not be more than 2.5” height of
Hg or 3 to 4 feet height of oil.
DELIVERY HEAD : It is the maximum height of liquid from the pump. It depends upon
the capability of the pump to bear the load of the liquid on the delivery side of the
pump.
POWER : It is the multiplication of pressure and flow rate, or weight of liquid raised by
the pump in unit time multiplied by the total height raised.
AERATION : If air leaks through the suction side of the pump, is called aeration. It may
be either in form of large bubbles, foam or in various degrees of suspension. It creates
noise in the pump. It also causes extreme and rapid ring wear and produces jerky
motion.
CAVITATION : An excess pressure drop or too much vacuum pressure in suction side
of the pump creates cavitation. Its effect in the pressure side of the pump as high
velocity liquid rushes at very high speed to fill the cavity. It creates noise, vibration and
damaging of the surrounding components.
========== OOO ==========

GEAR PUMP
Gear pump is coming under the category of positive displacement pump. It is a very
common type of pump used in hydraulic system. It is robust, less dirt sensitive, less
noisy, simple in construction and capable to take higher pressure upto 210 bar in
modified condition. Otherwise, it is very much suitable upto a pressure of 80 Bar to
protect the life of the pump.
In external gear pump, two spur gears are running in meshed condition inside a casing.
One gear is driving the other gear. Gears are also surrounded by two pressure or side
plates. In the middle of the casing suction and delivery ports are made. The suction and
delivery ports of the pump are determined by the diameter as suction side has the bigger
diameter than the delivery side Theoretically, a gear pump can be stalled keeping any
direction of rotation, but, practically it should not be. Manufacturer always provides
correct direction of rotation mark and the suction and delivery ports. If the pump is
rotated in wrong direction, the pump will fail very soon. Normally, suction port is made of
bigger diameter than the delivery port to avoid the cavitation. In case of wrong direction
of rotation, the bearing drain line oil will be connected with the delivery side and high
thrust of the oil will create severe wearing and damage the pressure plate. Also, the
shaft seal will damage.
As the gear teeth unmesh, it increases the volume and creates the partial vacuum in the
suction side. The atmospheric pressure pushes the oil to the suction side to make up
the vacuum pressure and thus, suction is created. The oil which is sucked by the pump
is now entrapped between the gear teeth and the casing and is carried over by the gear

teeth to the delivery side. In delivery side, the gear teeth are meshing to each other,
thus it expels the oil from the gear teeth chambers and send it to the system at any
pressure. It is called delivery. Because the low clearances between the mating parts, it
requires no priming. Negative suction is possible, but positive suction is better. Also, to
avoid unnecessary cavitation, the suction side is given low pressure drop by designing
suitable suction pipe diameter, less bend, less suction head, etc. Normally a suction lift
equal to 2.5" of Hg is recommended.
The flow rate of a pump generally depends upon the rpm of the pump, as all other
parameters are fixed those are not liable to change. Thus, gear pump is called a fixed
displacement pump.
Clearances between the parts of a gear pump are very important. At higher pressure,
these small clearances increase the leakage of the oil and hence reduces the volumetric
efficiency of the pump. There are the following different types of clearances:
a) Radial or tip clearance : It is the clearance between the tip of the gear teeth and
casing. It should be minimum, otherwise, leakage will increase.
b) Axial clearance: It is the gap between the face of the gear and pressure plate. It
should be kept minimum as possible.
c) Bearing clearance: It is also very important, otherwise it will affect the radial
clearance and sometimes allow to rub the tip of the teeth with the casing.
d) Backlash: Minimum backlash should be given between the gears.
A gear pump always behaves like unbalance type by pressure, as high

pressure acting on delivery side cannot be compensated with the low oil pressure
acting on suction side. This unbalance force tends to push the shaft in suction side,
creates ovality on bearing and casing. In high pressure pump, such type of effect is very
high. To reduce the effect, a small slot is cut along the periphery of gears in the pressure
plates, which extends the pressure zone and changes the direction of acting of resultant
forces.
For a general gear pump, the maximum pressure can go upto 80 Bar. To take thrust on
the bearing, gear pump always has the bush bearing. Also shaft diameters are made
larger to reduce pressure intensity on the bearing.

A gear pump is very much suitable for low RPM and for contaminated
surroundings. But, it creates too much noise because of mechanical contact of gear teeth
and the oil friction. Its direction can not be changed as per the desire and spares are also
not very much available. A worn out gear pump can not be repaired except replacing the
whole pump with the new unit.
========== OOO ==========

VANE PUMP
Vane pump is a positive displacement pump. It is used in hydraulic system because of

its high efficiency, low noise level and long life.
In an unbalanced vane pump, a slotted rotor is splined to the drive shaft and revolves
inside a cam ring. Vanes are fitted in the rotor slots and follow the inner surface of the
rotor ring, as the rotor turns and creates centrifugal force. Generally, a minimum
starting speed of 600 rpm will throw the vanes out. Centrifugal force and pump outlet
pressure under the vanes hold them against the ring. Pumping chambers are formed
between the vanes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring and two sides plates. With the
ring offset from the centre line of the rotor, the chambers increase in size and take in fluid
as they pass the pump inlet port. Then, as they cross over the centre, the chambers
become progressively smaller and fluid is expelled at the pump outlet.
This pump has a somewhat limited pressure capability because of its unbalanced
hydraulic loading. Its displacement, however, can be varied or even reduced to zero by
moving the ring towards the centre line of the rotor.
Balanced vane pumps operate in the same manner like unbalanced vane
pump. The difference is only in the inner contour of the ring, which is an ellipse rather
than a circle. This configuration forms two sets of pumping chambers on opposite sides
of the rotor, but are interconnected through the passages within the housing. Forces
caused by the pressure build up on one side are canceled out by equal and opposite
forces on the rotor. The displacement of a vane pump cannot be adjusted.

Interchangeable rings with different contours and widths are available, making it possible
to quickly modify a pump to increase or decrease its delivery.
The direction of rotation can be reversed easily by reversing the position of the cam ring.
By doing so, major diameter of the cam ring will be reversed by 90 degree and hence
reverses the flow direction.
The intra-vane design provides a means of controlling the outward thrust of the vane
against the ring and maintains the tip loads within reasonable limits. In the intra-vane
cartridge, full system pressure is applied only to the area between the vane and the
thrust. This area is small and thrust is correspondingly light. During vane travel through
pressure areas, full system pressure is applied against the bottom area of the outer
vane. The valving of the pressure to and from the bottom area of the vane is through
holes drilled in the rotor. This selective application of pressure maintains the vane in
substantially constant radial hydraulic balance in all positions. Vane tip wear is
compensated for, automatically. As the vane wears, pressure moves the vane further
out in the rotor slot holding the vane against the cam ring.
The flex side plates for both inlet and outlet are symmetrical. Pressure is fed behind
each side plate into two kidney shape cavities which are sealed by special seal packs.
The two flex side plates and their associated kidney shaped cavities function in the
following manner. As pressure builds up in the outlet, pressure also builds up in the
cavities. The pressure in the cavities hold the flex side plates in hydrostatic balance
against the rotor and provide optimum running clearances for minimum internal leakage
and minimum friction.

The flex side plates also provide passages for feeding under vane pressure to the space
between the vane and the insert. The bronze faces of the flex side plates ride next to
the rotor and provide excellent wear and cold start characteristics.
The inlet and outlet support plates hold the flex side plates in the position and contain
passages which allow fluid to pass from the inlet to the pumping cartridge and from the
cartridge to the outlet port.
========= OOO ==========

PISTON PUMPS
All piston pumps operate on the principle that a piston reciprocating in a bore will draw in
fluid as it is retracted and expel it on the forward stroke.
Piston pumps are highly efficient units available in the wide range of capacities from very
small to high. Most are capable of operating in the medium of high pressure range (1500
PSI - 3000 PSI) with others going much higher.
Being variable and reversible they lend them-selves very well to large press applications
and hydrostatic drives.
Because of their closely fitted parts and finely machined surfaces, cleanliness and good
quality fluids are vital to long service life.
There are the two basic designs of the piston pump: Radial and axial. Both are available
as fixed and variable displacement types. A radial pump has the pistons arranged
radially in a cylinder block while in the axial piston pump, the pistons are parallel to each
other and to the axis of the cylinder block. The axial piston pump is further divided into
two types; In-line axial and bent axis.
RADIAL PISTON PUMP :
In a radial piston pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside a
circular reaction ring or rotor. As the block rotates centrifugal force, charging pressure or
some form of mechanical action causes the pistons to follow the inner surface of the ring

which is offset from the centre line of the cylinder block. As the pistons reciprocate in
their bores, porting in the pintle permits them to take in fluid as they move outward and
discharge it as they move in.
The size and number of the pistons and, of course the length of their stroke determines
pump displacement. In some models the displacement can be varied by moving the
reaction ring to increase or decrease piston travel.
IN-LINE PISTON PUMP :
In in-line axial piston pump, the cylinder block and drive shaft are on the same centre line
and the pistons reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft. The Simplest type of axial piston
pump is swash plate type.
The cylinder block in this pump is turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted in bores in the
cylinders are connected through piston shoes and a retainer ring, so that the shoes bear
against an angled swash plate. As the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swash
plate, causing the pistons to reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the valve plate so
that the pistons pass the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they
are forced back.
In these pumps, the displacement is also determined by the size and number of pistons
as well as their stroke length, the latter being a function of the swash plate angle.

In variable displacement models of the in-line pump, the swash plate is installed in a
movable yoke "pivoting" the yoke on pintles changes the swash plate angle to increase
or decrease the piston stroke, The yoke can be positioned manually, with a servo control,
with a compensator control, or by any of several other means. The maximum angle of
the unit is limited to seventeen and half degree by construction.

BENT AXIS AXIAL PISTON PUMP :
In a bent axis axial piston pump, the cylinder blocks turns with the drive shaft, but at an
offset angle. The piston rods are attached to the drive shaft flange by ball joints, and are
forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and
cylinder block changes. A universal link keys the cylinder block to the drive shaft to
maintain alignment and assure that they turn together. The link does not transmit force
except to accelerate and decelerate the cylinder block and to overcome resistance of the
block revolving in the oil filled housing.
The displacement of this pump varies with the offset angle, the maximum angle being 30
degrees, the minimum zero.
Fixed displacement models are usually available with 23 degree or 30 degree angles. In
the variable displacement construction a yoke with an external control is used to change
the angle. With some controls, the yoke can be moved over centre to reverse the
direction of flow from the pump.
Various models are used to control displacement of variable displacement bent-axis

pumps. Typical controls are the hand wheel, pressure compensated, and servo.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
A pressure relief valve is found in every hydraulic system. It is a valve which serves the
purpose of a safety valve. It remains normally closed between pressure and tank lines.
Its purpose is to limit the maximum pressure of the system to a preset maximum by
diverting some or all the flow to tank when the pressure setting is reached.
Pressure relief valve is of two types:

• Simple or direct operated or unbalanced type pressure relief valve.
• Compound or pilot operated or balanced type pressure relief valve.
Simple pressure relief valve consists of a ball or poppet, which is held on the seating in
the valve body by a heavy spring. When the pressure at the inlet is insufficient to
overcome the forces of the spring, the valve remains closed. When the preset pressure
is reached, the ball or poppet is forced off its seat and allows flow through the outlet to
tank for as long as pressure is maintained. An adjusting screw is provided to vary the
spring force,. Thus, the valve can be set to open at any pressure within the specified
range.
The pressure at which the valve first begins to divert flow is called the cracking
pressure. As flow through the valve increases, the poppet is forced further off its seat
causing increased compression of the spring. Thus, the valve is bypassing is full rated
flow, the pressure can be considerably higher than the cracking pressure.

Pressure at the inlet when the valve is bypassing its maximum volume is called full flow
pressure. The difference between full flow pressure and the cracking pressure is
known as the pressure override. This pressure override can result in considerable loss
before its maximum setting is reached. Also, it gives a fluctuation, in piston speed as
actual flow rate entering the system decreases.
Compound pressure relief valve is used to minimise the pressure override. It operates in
two stages. The pilot stage in the upper valve body contains the pressure limit valve, a
poppet held against a seat by an adjustable spring. The port connections are made
on the lower body. Diversion of the full flow volume is accompanished by the balanced
piston in the lower body. Because of its connection, the balance piston remains under
hydraulic balance. Pressure of inlet port acting under the piston is also sensed on its
top by means of an orifice drilled through the large land. At any pressure lesser than the
valve setting, the piston is held on its seat by a light spring.

When pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its
seat limiting pressure in the upper chamber. The restricted flow through the orifice into
the upper chamber results in an increase in pressure in the lower chamber. This
unbalances the hydraulic forces and tends to raise the piston off its seat. When the
difference in pressure between the upper and lower chambers is sufficient to
overcome the force of the light spring of 20 psi, the large piston unseats permitting
flow directly to tank. Increased flow through the valve causes the piston to lift further off
its seat, but since this compresses only the light spring, very little override is
encountered.
========== OOO ==========

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
A pressure reducing valve is a pressure control valve which controls the pressure of a
particular branch of the hydraulic circuit. The pressure relief valve can not replace this
valve as the pressure relief valve acts as a safety valve and limits the maximum
pressure of the system. Also, two pressure relief valves adjusted at different pressures
can not provide two different pressures in the system as the lower pressure adjusted
valve will open and allow oil to go to the tank at lower pressure only. Pressure reducing
valve limits and maintains the reduced pressure in a particular branch of the system.
Pressure reducing valves are normally open type valves which allow the flow till
the setting pressure or maintains reduced pressure in the actuators. They are actuated
by pressure sensed in the branched circuit and tend to close as it reaches the valve
setting, thus preventing further build up of pressure.
There are two types of pressure reducing valves:
• Direct operated pressure reducing valve.

• Pilot operated pressure reducing valve.
A direct operated pressure reducing valve is having a valve body with two pipe
connections and a spring loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If the main
supply pressure is below the valve setting, fluid will flow freely from the inlet to the outlet.
An internal connection from the outlet passage transmits the outlet pressure to the spool
end opposite to the spring.

When the outlet pressure rises to the valve setting, the spool moves to partly block the
outlet port. Only enough flow passes to the outlet to maintain the preset pressure. If the
valve closes completely, leakage past the spool could cause pressure to build up in
the branch circuit. Instead continuous bleed to tank is permitted to keep it slightly open
and prevent down stream pressure from rising above the valve setting. A separate
drain passage is provided to return this leakage flow to tank.
The pilot operated pressure reducing valve has a wider range of adjustment and
generally provides more accurate control. The operating pressure is set by an
adjustable spring in the pilot stage in the upper body. The valve spool in the lower body
functions essentially in the same manner as the direct acting pressure reducing valve.
It is also an open type of valve. In case of lower pressure, the spool is hydraulically
balanced through an orifice in its centre, and the light spring holds it in the wide open
position. When pressure reaches the valve setting, the pilot valve opens and diverts the
flow to the drain passage limiting pressure above the spool. Flow through the orifice in
the spool creates a pressure difference that moves the spool up against the spring
force. The spool partially closes the outlet port to create a pressure drop from the
supply to the branch system.
Again the outlet port is never entirely closed. When no flow is called for, in the branch
system, there is still a continuous flow through the spool orifice and pilot valve to drain.
Both types of valves reverse the flow only if the system pressure is less than the valve
setting. If the reverse flow is higher, a bypass check valve is required. This may be an
integral part of the valve.

CHECK VALVES
A check valve can function as a direction control valve or as a pressure relief valve. In a
simplest form, it is a 2/2 way direction control valve, which has two connections and
unidirection flow. It does not allow flow in reverse direction. The check valve can be
used:
• To isolate pumps from a running pump, when number of pumps are

connected in parallel as stand by to provide flow in the same line.
• To stop a vertical load to fall down.
• To bypass a flow control valve.
• To bypass pressure control valves.
• To raise the pilot pressure in the system.
• To bypass a filter in case of jamming of the cartridge of the filter.
There are three types of check valves:
• In-line check valve.
• Right angle check valve.
• Pilot operated check valve.
In-line check valves are so named because they are connected into the line and the oil
flows straight through. The valve body is threaded for a pipe or a tubing connector,
and is machined inside to form a seat for a poppet or ball. A light spring holds the
poppet seated in the normal closed position permitting the flow to be passed only in one
direction.
In the free flow direction, the spring force is overcome by the acting pressure of the oil
on the poppet and the valve cracks open at cracking pressure of the spring. These
cracking pressures of the spring are changing as per the requirement. The springs are

not adjustable. In reverse direction of flow, spring and the back pressure of the oil hold
the poppet closed in its position to stop the reverse flow.
This type of check valve is suitable for small flow rate of the oil, as higher flow rate will
face more resistance in its line because of spring and poppet situated in the same line.
A right angle check valve has a steel poppet along with a light spring and hardened
seat pressed into the iron body. It gets its name from the angle between the flow
passage to the poppet and the passage away from the poppet. These valves are built
in threaded or flanged connection. It is a heavier duty and suitable for very high flow rate
of the pump.
In the free flow direction, again the spring force of the valve is overcome by the acting
pressure of the oil on the poppet and the valve cracks open to allow the flow. In
reverse direction of the flow, spring force along with the oil back pressure hold the
poppet again on its seat to stop the reverse flow.
Check valves are suitable to hold the vertical loads as there is no internal leakage
through the valves. To provide a rigid position of the load normally check valves are
fitted between direction control valve and the cylinder. A simple check valve however
cannot solve this problem as it does allow the flow in reverse direction when it is needed
by the operator.
To overcome this problem pilot operated check valves are used in the same
position as conventional check valves. The pilot operated check valve is working in the
same way as a simple check valve, but it can allow the reverse flow also when it is
needed by the operator.

In construction, the top half of the valve just looks like a right angle check valve and
works in the same way also. The bottom half of the valve has a piston and piston rod
arrangement in the same body which moves with the pilot pressure at the bottom of the
piston. The other end of the piston rod rests on the poppet of the valve and thus when
piston moves up it moves the poppet also by opening the valve and allowing the reverse
flow. The pilot pressure required to open the valve is normally 40% of the applied
pressure in reverse direction.
Pilot operated valves are of internal and external drain type. While reversing,
if the flow is unrestricted, internal drain type check valves are used. But, if the return
flow is restricted, external drain type check valves are used. An internal drain type
check valve may not provide positive sealing and also may give tremendous shock and
generate noise in the system.
========== OOO ==========

DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE
The basic function of a direction control valve is to direct inlet flow to either of two outlet
ports. The flow to the "P" port (pump port) of the valve can be directed to either port
"A" and "B" (cylinder ports). In the four way valve the alternate port is open to tank port
permitting return flow to the reservoir. In two way valves the alternate port is blocked
and the tank port serves only to drain leakage from within the valve.
Most of these valves are of sliding spool type. They are built in two position and three
position versions. The three position valve has a centre position. Methods of actuation
include manual levers, mechanical cams and linkages, springs, solenoids, pilot
pressure and others.
In a 2/2 way spool type of direction control valve, a cylindrical spool moves back and
forth in a machined bore in the valve body. It may be spring off or detend type. In one
position, the flow is permitted from "P" to "A" and in other position, the flow is blocked.
It may be of opposite flow direction type also. Machines passages from the port
connections in the body are interconnected through annular grooves in the spool or
blocked by the spool lands.
In a 3/2 way spool type direction control valve has the same construction as 2/2 way
direction control valve, except that it has one more port connection for the tank line. In
one position, the flow is permitted from "P" to "A" and in other, it is from "A" to "T". The
flow may be of opposite type also. It may be again spring offset or detend.
In a 4/2 way direction control valve, there is one more port connection for cylinder known
as "B". In one position flow is permitted from the "P" port to the "A" port and in the other
position from "P" port to "B". Other ports and passages are opened to tank. From the
construction, it looks like a 5/2 way direction control valve as it has two tank ports. But
these two tank ports are connected inside the valve to be a single tank port. It may be
again spring offset or detend type.
A 2/2 way valve provides flow only in one position, thus it can not be used for the
movement of a piston. However, 3/2 and 4/2 way valves are for the movement of single
acting and double acting cylinder respectively. These two types of valve can not stop
the piston in mid position. The valves may be actuated either manually, or by electrical or
pilot pressure.

4/3 way spool type direction control valve has one addition centre position. This centre
position of the valve stops a moving piston at any intermediate position. It is identical to
a 4/2 way direction control valve, except for the machining of the spool lands. The lands
are of different widths which make the valve of different centre positions.

These valves are available with a variety of interchangeable spools. All of these types of
valves have identical flow patterns in the shifted positions, with the different centred
conditions. The open centre type interconnects all ports and pump delivery to tank at
low pressure. It provides the unloading of the pump as well as avoiding the surges. But, it
can not hold the vertical load.
The closed centre valve has all ports blocked, so that pump delivery may be used for
other operations within the circuit, otherwise it is forced to tank over the pressure
relief valve. It is suitable for holding the load, but can not provide unloading of the
pump.
The tandem type has both cylinder ports blocked in centre position, but the pressure
port is open to tank. This valve provides unloading of the pump and holding the load in
centre position.
A float centre has cylinder ports connected with tank and pressure port closed. This
valve provides the floating position of the piston.

Spools of the valves may be held in centre positions by the centred spring, or detends.
Spools may be shifted either by the lever, cams, solenoids or pilot.
These valves can be actuated either by a manually operated levers or knobs, or

mechanically operated devices, like cams, springs, rockers, etc. The valves can be
also actuated by the solenoids or the oil pressure known as the pilot pressure. these
valve may come in their original position either by spring off set or detend.
========== OOO ==========

FLOW CONTROL VALVE
A flow control valves is used to regulate the actuator speed. The speed of an actuator
depends upon the flow rate of the oil which is pumped into the actuator per unit time. It
is possible to regulate the flow by a variable displacement pump, but in many circuits it
is more practical to use a fixed displacement pump and regulate the flow with a flow
control valve.
There are three basic methods of applying flow control valves to control
actuator speed. They are :
• Meter-in
• Meter-out
• Bleed-off.
In meter-in operation, the flow control valve is fitted between the pump and the
actuator. The flow control valve regulates the flow which is going inside a actuator.
The excess flow of the pump is going to tank through the pressure relief valve. This
system controls the flow only in one direction, as the flow control valve has a check
valve in opposite direction and parallel to flow control valve. To control the speed in
both directions two flow control valves are fitted in two lines of the actuator. This
method is highly accurate. It is used in applications where the load continually resists
the movement of the actuator.
The meter-out control is used where the load might tend to run -away. The flow control
valve is located between cylinder and the tank. The return oil of the tank is allowed to
pass through the flow control valve, which resists the flow and stops the tendency of
the load falling down due to its own weight. It is also a very accurate system to control
the speed of an actuator.

In a bleed-off method, the flow control valve is fitted in a bypass line between pump and
tank. The flow control valve allows a certain amount of oil flow to tank and rest of the oil
to go to the system. It saves a lot of power, but this type of system does not give
accurate speed. This type of system should not be used where there is a possibility of an
over running load.
The flow control valve can be divided into three types :
• Simple or non-pressure compensated type.

• Pressure compensated type.
• Pressure and temperature compensated type
A simple or non-pressure compensated type flow control valves are as simple as an

orifice. The orifice area can be changed by rotating the screw against the poppet and
spring, thus, making it a small orifice. The back pressure of the oil along with the spring
keeps the orifice constant while oil flows from inlet to outlet. As the direction of the flow
reverses, The check valve opens, allowing all the oil to pass without metering and
controlling of speed.

It is called as non-pressure compensated, as the speed of the actuator changes as the

pressure of the system changes. The speed does not remain constant at any pressure
of the system.
In a pressure compensated flow control valve, the speed of the piston remains constant
at any working pressure as there is the provision to keep the pressure difference
constant across the orifice at any working pressure. it is done by using a compensator
inside the valve, which floats as per the requirement and positions to keep the pressure
drop constant. The floating position of the compensator varies the size of the orifice and
controls the flow accurately. The return flow through the valve is through a check valve
mounted in parallel condition to the flow control valve.
CHECK
VALVE

The pressure and temperature compensated type flow control valve controls the flow rate
of the oil in case of temperature rising. Temperature rising increases the fluidity of the oil
and increases the flow rate. A thermostat is mounted inside a pressure compensated
flow control valve, which controls the flow rate in case of temperature variation by vary
the orifice of the valve.
========== OOO ==========

ACTUATORS
Actuators are the output device, which are used to deliver power to the machine. This is
the unit, which remains connected with the machine. It converts pressure energy of the
pump into the mechanical energy and drives either a cylinder or hydraulic motor.
Actuators are of two types : Linear and Rotary.
Linear actuators are the cylinders. Its output is in a straight line motion along with the
force. Cylinders are classified as single or double acting and as differential or non-
differential. Single acting also may be spring return or load return.
Ram type cylinder is also a single acting cylinder with load return. It has one fluid
chamber and exerts force only in one direction. Most are mounted vertically and
retract by the force of gravity on the load. Ram type cylinders are used in elevators,
jacks and automobile hoists.
A telescopic cylinder is used where the collapsed length must be shorter than could be
obtained with a standard cylinder. Up to 4 and 5 sleeves can be used, while most are
single acting, double acting units are also available.

A double acting cylinder is so named because it is operated by hydraulic fluid in both

directions. This means it is capable of a power stroke either way. The standard double
acting cylinder is classed as a differential cylinder because there are unequal areas
exposed to pressure during the forward and return movements. The difference being a
function of the cross sectional area of the rod. The expanding stroke is slower, but
capable of exerting a greater force than can be obtained when the piston and the rod
are retracted.
Double rod cylinders are used where it is advantageous to couple a load to each end, or
where equal displacement is needed on each end. They too are double acting cylinders
but are classified as non-differential. With identical areas on either sides of the piston,
they can provide equal speeds and/or equal forces in either direction. Any double acting
cylinder may be used as a single acting unit by draining the inactive end to tank.
The essential parts of a cylinder are a barrel, a piston and rod, end caps and suitable
seals. Barrels are usually seamless steel tubings, honed to fine finish on the inside. The
piston, usually cast iron or steel, incorporate seals to reduce leakage between it and the
cylinder barrel. Step cut automotive type steel rings are used where some leakage can
be tolerated. For supporting loads or very low feed rates, a T-ring or O-ring with two
heavy duty back up rings is often used. The ports of the cylinders are in the end caps,
which may be attached directly to each end of the barrel, or secured by the bolts. The
rod packing is a cartridge type including both the seals and wipers for easy replacement.

Various cylinder mountings provide flexibility in anchoring the cylinder. Rod ends are
usually threaded for attachment directly to the load or to accept a clevis, yoke or similar
coupling device.

The rating of a cylinder includes its size and pressure capability. Cylinder size is piston
diameter and stroke length. The speed of the cylinder, the output force available and
the pressure required for a given load depend on the piston area. The area of the
piston rod must be subtracted when the piston is being retracted. The speed of a piston
is equal to the flow rate, divided by the cross section area of the piston.
The out put force is equal to the pressure applied on the piston area, multiplied by the
cross sectional area of the piston.
Cylinder cushionings
are often installed at
either or both ends of a
cylinder to slow it down
near the end of the
stroke and prevent the
piston from hammering
against the end caps.
A stop tube is a spacer placed on the cylinder rod next to the piston on cylinders with a
long stroke. The stop tube, by increasing the minimum distance from the piston to the
rod bushings, provide more support for side loading on the rod, thus minimising
chances of rod bearing failures.

Hydraulic motors are the rotary actuators. The basic function of hydraulic motor is to
rotate a components under some rpm and torque. It receives high pressure oil from the
pump and converts it to mechanical energy.
The hydraulic motors are of the following types :
• Gear motor
• Vane motor
• Piston motor
In construction, there is very little difference in a gear pump and the motor. Gear motor
has both the ports of equal diameters. It has a third line coming from the bearing
chamber, known as the drain line. The meshing area of gear teeth are made in such a
way that pressurised oil can not be intrapped in it.

Vane pump and vane motor are similar in appearance, but they have the
differences in construction. All vanes are projected towards the cam ring through the
springs. The spring may be a simple or of rocker arm type. Rocker arm type has the
provision to load on two vane mounted perpendicularly to each other. It has a shuttle
valve arrangement through which pressurised oil can be projected under side of each
vane to bring it out at any RPM. It also has a separate drain line.

Piston motors are made similar to the piston pumps. Only measuring notches are cut on
both sides of kidney shape ports made in the valve plate.
========== OOO ==========

ACCUMULATOR
An accumulator is a mechanical device that stores the energy of fluid under pressure.
The stored energy is readily available as a quick source of power.
An accumulator can perform various functions:
As a pressure reserve : In hydraulic systems where the operating cycle requires large
flows to be available for short period. Here the accumulator helps to avoid the necessity
of using a large pump requiring a high drive power capacity to suit the intermittent large
flow requirement. The pump need only be large enough to recharge the accumulator
during idling.
As emergency unit : That is, as an energy source during brief pump failure, so that a
work cycle already commenced can be completed, or to implement a safety cycle.
As leakage oil reserve : For the maintenance of pressure to compensate leakage

losses and to maintain pressure over a long period, e.g. for clamping and holding
operations.
As anti-vibration device : Either for prevention of pressure knocks, unpleasant

operating noise resulting from system vibrations, or to calm pulsating flow from a pump.
To cushion pressure surges : During operating cycle, e.g. when using pressure
switches or measuring instruments.
As fluid energy source : For independent operation of auxiliary or pilot circuits when
pump flow is required to perform the main operating movements.
The hydraulic fluid is compressible. So, we can not store hydraulic energy by simply
filling up a container by fluid under pressure. The construction of an accumulator is
different. When fluid under pressure enters the accumulator chamber, it does one of
three things: it compresses a spring, or it compresses the gas, or raises a weight. Any
tendency for pressure to drop at the inlet causes the element to react and force the fluid
back out.

TYPES OF ACCUMULATOR : Basically, there are three types of accumulators:
• Weight-loaded accumulator
• Spring loaded accumulator
• Gas charged accumulator
Weight loaded accumulator consists of a vertical piston or ram which has the provision
for adding or removing weights to vary the pressure. Pressure is always equal to the
weight imposed divided by the piston or ram area exposed to the hydraulic fluid. This is
the only type of accumulator where pressure remains constant throughout its stroke
length. This type of accumulator is heavy and bulky and is used for heavy presses where
constant pressure is required or in applications where large volume is necessary.
Spring loaded accumulator consists of a spring loaded piston in a cylinder. Energy is

stored as the spring is compressed by fluid flowing into the accumulator. In this type the
pressure will not remain constant, because pressure depends on spring force.

The most common type of accumulator is the gas charged accumulator. In this type one
side of the accumulator is charged with some inert gas like Nitrogen and the other side is
charged with the hydraulic fluid. A separator, which may be a piston, diaphragm or bag
separates the gas from the fluid.
Oxygen should never be used because of its tendency to burn or explode under
pressure. Air is also not recommended for the same reason. A gas charged accumulator
should be precharged before sending oil inside the accumulator. Accumulator pressure
varies in proportion to the compression of the gas, increasing as fluid is pumped in and
decreasing as it expelled out.
There are various types of gas charged accumulator. These are :
• Piston type
• Diaphragm type
• Bladder type
The piston accumulator has a pressure barrel with piston to separate gas and oil
chambers. Nitrogen is precharged through the gas valve upto precharge pressure. Oil is
charged from the other side of the accumulator. As oil enters inside the accumulator, gas
or oil pressure increases. This pressure goes upto the setting of the pressure relief valve
of the system. If pressure comes down at the inlet of the oil, the charged oil comes out.

Piston type accumulator has a larger capacity to store the oil, but there is variation in
pressure while charging and discharging. Also, because of friction between seals and
cylinder wall, the response becomes slower. Damaged seal may drop the pressure of the
gas.
Diaphragm type accumulator is also a gas charged accumulator. A rubber diaphragm

separates the chambers. This type is normally used to take the shock load. Its capacity is
very low, but its gas pre-charged pressure remains higher than the other type.
Bladder type accumulator is a common type gas charged accumulator. Inside the
accumulator shell there remains a rubber bladder which separates the two chambers.
Gas is precharged first before using the accumulator. Oil is charged against the gas,
which in turn increases the pressure of the hydraulic fluid. The bladder used inside the
accumulator is of replacable type. To avoid the extrusion of the bladder, an anti-extrusion
valve is fitted in the oil line.
Gas precharged pressure varies as per the application and on the type of accumulators.
Normally, 100% of minimum working pressure is kept as a precharge pressure in case of
piston type accumulator. For a diaphragm type, it is almost 80% of the maximum working
pressure. A bladder type has precharged pressure either 90% of the minimum or 25% of
the maximum.
It has been seen that the efficiency of an accumulator also depends upon isothermal and
adiabatic charging and discharging of the oil. Isothermal changes are better as it can
hold or discharge more oil if the temperature is kept constant during charging or
discharging. Adiabatic process is not recommended. Since a perfect isothermal process
is not possible, it is done by polytropic process.
The size of an accumulator depends on how much oil is required for the system. It can
be possible either using a smaller capacity accumulator or a larger capacity accumulator.
In a smaller size accumulator, there will be a large variation in pressure, therefore it is
required to get a larger size of accumulator. Again there may be some other problems in
having a larger sized accumulator and thus, for selecting proper size of accumulator,
accumulator curves should be referred.

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
A hydraulic circuit can be defined as a combination of various hydraulic components in a

systematic manner. All the hydraulic components are shown in graphical form. The
hydraulic circuit gives us an idea about the application and the functions of different
components used in the system. It does not show the sizes, flow rate, speed and
pressure of the system. It also helps us to analyse and rectify the problems occurring in
the system.
Any hydraulic circuit may consists of mainly three units known as Input unit,
Output unit and Controlling unit.
INPUT UNIT : It is also known as the pumping unit. This is the unit, which takes
power/energy from the prime mover and expends it for the system to do some useful
work. It is an energy converter, which converts the mechanical energy into the hydraulic
energy. As the output, it provides the flow and the pressure. The reservoir along with the
suction, return and drain line, the pump and the prime movers are the essential
components used for an input unit.
OUTPUT UNIT : It is also known as the working unit. It takes the power/energy from the
input unit and expend it for the machine. It is also an energy converter, which converts
the hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy. It provides torque and rpm as output.
The out put may be in the form of linear motion or rotary motion. Cylinders and
hydraulic motors are used as output units and are commonly known as actuators.
CONTROLLING UNIT : An input unit can be connected directly with the output unit to
get some work, but the system will not work as per the requirement. The system will
work systematically only after using the controlling unit. This unit controls the
pressure, direction of motion and the speed. Pressure control valves, Direction control
valves, Flow control valves are the components used for the controlling unit. These
components are having their specific positions in the system.
Along with the above said units, there is an AUXILIARY UNIT which assists the
system for its better performance. This unit controls and monitors various parameter
viz. pressure, temperature, contaminations as well as provides the facilities to
interface with electrical and electronics. Pressure gauge, thermometer, cooler, filter,
strainer, limit switches, pressure switches, accumulators are some examples of
components used as auxiliary components.

Input unit, output unit and controlling units have their specific positions in the circuit.
Input unit is at the bottom, where as controlling and output units are kept at the middle
and the top. Auxiliary units are placed at different positions. Components are connected
by straight lines which constitute piping and tubes. All the lines are drawn
orthogonally. Pipe connections are shown by a dot. Ports are indicated by the
designated letters or words. All the arrows shown in the circuit should be filled up.
Some practical exercises are given in the next page.
========== OOO ==========

PRACTICAL EXERCISES
EXERCISE NO : 01
Draw a hydraulic circuit for a single acting cylinder, vertically placed. Piston should
move up when the lever of a D.C.valve is operated. Piston should come down with
its own load. Adjust the pressure of the system to 500 psi.
EXERCISE NO : 02
For the above circuit, make the arrangement for the pump unloading in normal position
of the valve. Suggest all the possible methods.
EXERCISE NO : 03
Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, vertically placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move up and down only after actuating the direction control valve
either by a knob or a lever or a solenoid.
(b) In normal position of the valve, the piston should be in retracted condition.
(c) In case of power failure of the pump, the piston should not come down, if the load
is moving up.
(d) In idle condition of the system, the pump should be unloaded.
(e) The pressure of the system should not be more than 500 PSI.
EXERCISE NO : 04
Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, horizontal placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating
the lever of a valve.
(b) While starting and stopping the movement of the piston, there should not be
pressure
surges in the system.
(c) In idle condition of the system, the pump should be unloaded.
(d) The pressure of the system should not be more than 500 PSI.

EXERCISE NO : 05
Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder, vertically placed with the following
conditions:
(a) Piston should move up and down and stop at any desired position by actuating the
lever of a valve or a solenoid.
(b) In centre position of the valve the pump should be unloaded.
(c) The piston should be locked on its position.
(d) The pressure of the system should not be more than 500 psi.
EXERCISE NO : 06
conditions:
(a) Piston should move in either direction and stop at any desired position by actuating a
D.C.Valve.
(b) The D.C.Valve used should be a solenoid controlled and pilot operated.
(c) In centre position of the valve, the pump should be unloaded.
EXERCISE NO : 07
conditions:
the lever of a valve.
(b) The piston should move forward in regenerative condition.
(c) In centre position of the valve, the pump should be unloaded.
EXERCISE NO : 08
conditions:
the solenoids.
(b) The pressure of the system should not be more than 500 PSI.
(c) Piston should move in either direction with control speed.
(d) The flow control valve should be fitted in meter-in or meter-out condition.

EXERCISE NO : 09
conditions:
the solenoids.
(b) The pressure of the system should not be more than 500 PSI.
(c) Piston should move in forward direction with higher speed upto the middle, then its
speed slows down.
(d) The backward speed should be fast.
EXERCISE NO : 10
Draw a hydraulic circuit for a double acting cylinder horizontally placed with the following
conditions:
(a) The system should have three pressures 30 bar, 40 bar and 50 bar and can be
changed
with operating the solenoids.
(b) The pump should be unloaded in centre position of the valve.
(c) The piston should move to and fro and should stop at any desired position.
(d) The pressure gauge should be connected with isolating valve.
========== OOO ==========

QUESTIONNAIR FOR SELF EVALUATION
1. What do you mean by Hydraulics? What are the different advantages and
limitations of Hydraulics?
2. What do you mean by force and pressure? What are the different units of
pressure used in the system?
3. What is Pascal’s Law? How is it a force multiplier?
4. What is meant by conservation of Energy? How can be explained in terms of
Hydraulics?
5. What is the function of pump in Hydraulic system?
6. How pressure is created in the system? Is there any effect of flow rate on
pressure?
7. Define flow rate. What are the various units of flow rate normally used in Hydraulic
system?
8. What determines the speed of an actuator? Is there any effect on speed due to
pressure?
9. Define relationship between fluid velocity and pipe friction.
10. Define work and power. Write down formula to calculate HP and KW.
11. What are the primary function of hydraulic fluid?
12. Define viscosity. What are the different units of viscosity?
13. What are the effects of low and high viscosity of oil in hydraulic system?
14. What is viscosity index? How does it effect the system?
15. What are the various properties of oil? How are rust and corrosion prevented?
16. What is demulsibility?
17. What are the different types of hydraulic fluids?
18. What step will you take to keep fluid in better condition?
19. What do you mean by contaminants? What are the different types and their
sources?
20. What are the effects of contaminants?
21. What are the different types of strainers and where are they used?
22. How a strainer cartridge can be cleaned safely and effectively?
23. What are the different types of filters?
24. What do you mean by nominal and absolute filter rating?
25. What is the function of bypass check valve fitted along with a filter?
26. Explain the following :
(a) Full flow filter
(b) Partial filter
(c) Surface filter
(d) Depth filter

(e) Beta ratio of a filter

(f) Efficiency of a filter
27. Why filters are not used in suction line of a pump?
28. Draw graphical symbol of strainer and filter?
29. Define a pump. What are the different types of pump?
30. Why centrifugal pumps are not used in hydraulic system
31. What makes a pump a positive displacement type?
32. Differentiate between positive and non-positive displacement type pump.
33. What are external and internal leakage of a pump? On which factors leakage of a
pump depends.
34. What are the different types of positive displacement type pump?
35. Explain the following :
(a) Displacement
(b) Flow rate
(c) Aeration
(d) Cavitation
(e) Power
(f) Mechanical efficiency
(g) Volumetric efficiency
(h) Overall efficiency
(i) Balanced type pump
(j) Unbalanced type pump
(k) Fixed displacement type pump
(l) Variable displacement type pump
36. Draw graphical symbol of a fixed and variable displacement type pump.
37. Why a gear pump is called as appositive displacement type pump?
38. Explain the construction and working of an external gear pump.
39. How a gear pump has become an unbalanced type pump?
40. Explain the term, radial clearance, side clearance and backlash of a gear pump.
How do they effect the efficiency of a gear pump?
41. Why not a gear pump can be rotated in reversed direction?
42. Draw graphical symbol of a gear pup.
43. What are the different advantages of vane pump? What are the different types of
vane pump?
44. Why vane pump is called a positive displacement type pump?
45. What makes a vane pump balanced type?
46. Explain the construction and working of a balanced and unbalanced type vane
pump.
47. What do you mean by pressure compensated type vane pump?

48. How flow rate of a vane pup is calculated?

49. Explain the construction of an intra-vane pump?
50. What are the advantages of intra-vane pump over a balanced type pump?
51. Draw graphical symbol of a vane pump.
52. What are the different types of piston pump?
53. Explain the construction of an in-line axial piston pump. Why odd number of
pistons are incorporated in any piston pump?
54. What makes a piston pump positive displacement type?
55. Explain the working principle of a variable type piston pump.
56. How flow rate of a piston pump can be calculated?
57. What are the functions of external drain in a piston pump?
58. Why not a piston pump can be rotated in reversed direction?
59. Why drain line of a piston pump is kept high from pump level?
60. What do you mean by pressure compensated and constant power pump?
61. draw graphical symbol of a piston pump.
62. What are the functions of a pressure relief valve? Where is the position of a
pressure relief valve in the system?
63. What are the different types of pressure relief valve?
64. Explain the construction and function of a directly and compound type pressure
relief valve?
65. What do you mean by a cracking pressure, full flow pressure and pressure
override?
66. How pressure in a pressure relief valve is adjusted?
67. What is the function of a pressure reducing valve in the circuit?
68. What are the different types of pressure reducing valve? Where are they used?
69. What is the function of a bypass check valve fitted along with a reducing valve?
70. Can a pressure relief valve work as a pressure reducing valve?
71. What is the function of external drain fitted with a reducing valve?
72. Draw graphical symbol of a pressure reducing valve.
73. What are the different function of check valves in a hydraulic system?
74. What are the different types of check valve?
75. Explain the construction and working of a check valve.
76. What do you mean by a pilot operated check valve? Where are these valves
used?
77. What are the different types of pilot operated check valve?
78. What are the limitations of a pilot operated check valve?
79. Draw the graphical symbol of conventional and pilot operated check valve.
80. Define a direction control valve. How direction control valve is designated?
81. What do you mean by a 4/3 way direction control valve?

82. What are the different centres used in a 4/3 way direction control valve?
83. What are the different functions of different centers of a DC valve?
84. What do you mean by a pilot operated direction control valve?
85. Draw graphical symbol of different types of direction control valves.
86. What is the function of a flow control valve?
87. Explain the working principle of a flow control valve.
88. What is meter-in, meter-out and bleed-off connection of clow control valve?
89. What the limitations of flow control valve?
90. Explain the construction and function of a simple type flow control valve.
91. Why a simple flow control valve is called as a non-pressure compensated type
flow control valve?
92. What is a pressure compensated type flow control valve?
93. What is the function of bypass check valve fitted along with a flow control valve?
94. Explain the function of a temperature compensated type flow control valve.
95. Draw graphical symbols of all different types of flow control valves.
96. Define actuator. What are the different types of actuator?
97. Explain the construction of a double acting cylinder.
98. What do you mean by cylinder cushioning?
99. What is the function of stop tube?
100. What are the different mountings used along with an actuator?
101. Draw graphical symbol of a double acting cylinder both ends cushioning.
102. What is an accumulator? What are the different functions of an accumulator?
103. What are the different types of accumulator?
104. Why only inert gas is precharged in a gas charged accumulator?
105. What do you mean by maximum, minimum and pre-charged pressure?
106. How an accumulator can be pre-charged?
107. What is the use of safety block?

Industrial Hydraulics - SPS

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What topics are covered in the document?

What are the main components of a hydraulic system discussed?

What are the main components of a hydraulic system discussed?

Hydraulics is a new trend of power transmission. All sophisticated equipments and

This study material focuses on the subject “Industrial Hydraulics”. Principle of

Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 1 of 72

Sl. No. Topics Page #

01. Introduction and basic principles of Hydraulics 03

02. Hydraulic Fluids 13

03. Strainers and Filters 18

04. Introduction to Pump 24

05. Gear Pump 27

06. Vane Pump 30

07. Piston Pump 33

08. Pressure Relief Valve 37

09. Reducing Valve 40

10. Check Valve 42

45 Direction Control Valve 45

12. Flow Control Valve 49

15. Hydraulic Circuits 64

16. Questionnaire for self Evaluation 69

Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 2 of 72

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS

1. It is a self lubricated system.

1. Friction on various components increases the temperature of the oil.

A pump is driven by a diesel engine or an electric motor. It sucks in oil, thus

CONVERSION : Pound-wt = 32 Poundal ; Newton = 9.81 Kg. wt.

GAUGE PRESSURE : When a pressure gauge shows zero reading at atmospheric

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE : When gauge pressure is added with atmospheric pressure, it

Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 4 of 72

PASCAL's LAW : The hydro-static system is based on PASCAL's LAW. It states,

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PRESSURE DROP THROUGH AN ORIFICE : An orifice is a resistance passage in a

Therefore, Pressure = Load/area.

1 Gallon = 231 Inch3 ; 1 Litre = 1000 cm3 ; 1 Gallon = 3.78 Litres

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SPEED OF AN ACTUATOR : How fast a cylinder moves or a motor rotates depends on

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HORSE POWER = PSI x GPM x 0.000583.

Torque is generated in the hydraulic motor when it is rotated against a load by

Therefore, Torque (Pound-inch) = (63025 x HP)/RPM

========== OOO ==========

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POWER TRANSMISSION : It transmits motion and power from prime mover to

PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS :

1. Poise/ centi poise.

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EFFECT OF LOW VISCOSITY :

1. Quick system response.

EFFECT OF HIGH VISCOSITY :

VISCOSITY INDEX : Viscosity index is an measure of fluid's resistance to change in

RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION : Chemical reaction of the fluid with oxygen, is called

Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 14 of 72