Title: Farm Power, Engine Tractors &

Republic of the Philippines
Isabela State University

Cabagan Campus
PROVINCIAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE
TITLE
Learning Module in Agritech
311:
Farm
Tractors
Power, &
Engine A
Engr. Ace Gerson L.

Gamboa
Agritech 311: Farm Power, Tractors and Engine
OVERVIEW
“A dream doesn’t become a reality through magic; it takes sweat, determination
and hard work.”
- Colin Powell
Dear Future Agriculturists,
Welcome! In this course, you will learn about the different classifications of forces
and other preliminary requirement needed to power a common agricultural machinery.
There are many varying natural forces needed to fully power a machine. Let’s take a
common farm tractor for instance, a common tractor will need a certain amount of power
for it to move. Not only that, but it will also require a lot of maintenance and careful
evaluation for it to continuously operate. This course will enable you to fully understand the
nature of farm machinery and what lies beyond a common engine.
As a result of your educational experiences in the course Agritech311, you should be

able to:
a. Explain the basic concepts and principles of how an engine works and the
mechanics needed for it to fully operate;
b. Identify the basic parts of a farm machinery, specifically, a farm tractor;
c. Solve and explain the design of engine; and
d. Evaluate the design of an engine.
Your academic experience an Agricultural Technology student will be utilized in this

course. To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at
the end of the semester, this module is divided into the following:
LESSON 1: Introduction to Mechanization – This aims to give you an overview of the course;
explain the nature of basic farm machineries and mechanization and its principles by
introducing the scope, state, levels and models of mechanization.
LESSON 2: System of units and Basic Conversions – Any branch of science that
encompasses taking measurements, comprehending them and then communicating these
data to other people requires us to speak the same basic form of language. In this section,
we will be tackling the units of measurement and how to convert to and from one another.
LESSON 3: Engine and Its Working Principles – This lesson will introduce the heart of
mechanization which is the engine. It aims to discuss the different types of engines, the
parts of a common engine, how they function and how they work altogether. This lesson
also aims to explain how to properly design the important, or most commonly used, parts of
an engine using the fundamental principles of basic mathematics and physical sciences. It
also aims to discuss the differences between the identified classifications of an engine.
LESSON 4:
LESSON 5:
Lesson 1
MODULE 1
INTRDUCTION TO MECHANIZATION
Course Overview:
Mechanization, for many years now, has been a huge part of agriculture and
production. The history of mechanization has been determined by many farmers to make
the production of agricultural yields easier. Mechanization, in general, has made a
collectively massive impact on the economy, which is why there have been many
versions of it depending on the state of a country. Mechanization is also a very wide
topic, because of this, experts have limited the scope of it. Depending on the scope and
the version of mechanization, state, levels and models were brought into existence. This
lesson will discuss and explain the state, levels and models of mechanization in the
agricultural aspect of the Philippines.
Learning Outcome and Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a. explain the nature and principles of basic farm machineries and mechanization
principles;
b. discuss the history and importance of mechanization to the country’s
productivity; and
c. explain and discuss the differences on the levels and models of mechanization.
Learning Content
A. Introduction to Agricultural Mechanization
Agricultural Mechanization is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanize
the work of agriculture, which greatly increases farm work productivity.
The effective mechanization contributes to increase production in two major ways:

a. Timeliness of operation
b. Quality of work
As defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Agricultural

Mechanization is the system of production of food and fiber that embraces the use of
tools, implement and machines for agricultural land development, production, harvesting
and on-farm processing. As a discipline, agricultural mechanization covers the
manufacture, distribution and utilization of tools, implements, and machines.
Agricultural Mechanization is also the use of hand and animal-operated tools and
implements as well as motorized equipment to reduce human effort, improve quality,
perform operations that cannot be done by other means, and improve the timeliness of
various operations, thereby increasing yield, quality of product and overall efficiency.
The definition offered by FAO emphasizes the scope of services and different levels of
mechanization (scope: manufacture to after-sales service; levels: the use of tools,
implements and machines; the use of human, animal and mechanical sources of power).
Table 1. Objectives and Benefits of Mechanization
Objectives Benefits
Reduce human effort Increase yield

Improve quality Increase the quality of the product
Perform operations that cannot be done by Increase overall efficiency
any other means
Improve timeliness of operation of various
operations
As seen on table 1, the main objective of farm mechanization is to improve the processes
and make agricultural production easier. Mechanization reduces the drudgery of farm
works, increase the productivity of farm workers and increase the timeliness and quality
of farm works.
B. Power in Agriculture
POWER is required on the farm for doing two (2) kinds of WORK.
B.1. Three (3) main sources of Power
Farm Mechanization also employs a combination of three main sources of power,
these are:
a. Human;
b. Animal; and
c. Mech
a nical
Figure 2. Combination and Human and FigureB.2.

1. Combination of Human Ut
Animal power and Mechanical power
i liz
ation of Farm Power
a. Tractive work – requiring pulling or drawing effort
Examples:
 Plowing and Land preparation
 Planting and seeding
 Crop cultivation
 Harvesting
 Hauling
b. Stationary Work – usually accomplished by means of belts and gears
 Water pumping
 Processing
 Other jobs of similar nature
C. State of Mechanization
Agricultural system all over the world has undergone changes in terms of cropping
system, type of power sources used and application of inputs to achieve high level of
productivities. Even in the Philippines, mechanization of agriculture has advanced
considerably. In certain region, the level of mechanization has gone far ahead of the
average level in the country. On the basis of annually critical review of the
mechanization position, one observes that the shortage of labor and high labor wages
are the factors which strongly propel mechanization. Consequently, the more labor
intensive operations, such as pumping of irrigation water, land preparation and
threshing are the first operations, which are mechanized. Large amount labor or draft
power, which can be replaced through machines, provides a strong incentive to
mechanize.
D. Scope of Mechanization
I. By introducing the improved agricultural implements on small size holdings to be
operated;
II. By using the small tractors, tractor-drawn machines and power tillers on medium
holdings to supplement existing sources; and
III. By using the large size tractors and machines on the remaining holdings to
supplement animal power source
It is quite true that the farmers have the lowest earnings per capita because of the low
yield per hectare they get from their holdings. One of the few important means of
increasing farm production per hectare is to mechanize it. However, in the
Philippines, the economy simply cannot sustain the idea of fully mechanizing
agricultural production.
Reasons why agriculture in the Philippines cannot be fully mechanized:
1. There is a surplus of agricultural labor;
2. There are enough draft animals available in the country to do the farm work
effectively;
3. The size of farm holdings of the majority of the farmers is too small to justify the
use of a tractor on their farms;
4. The investing capacity, of the farmers is too poor to buy a tractor and tractor-
drawn implements;
5. The technical know-how of the people in the country is low;
6. In the absence of suitable farm road system, the tractor and tractor-drawn
machines cannot be effectively utilized under the present conditions;
7. It will not be possible to increase the yield by using mechanical power;
8. Mechanization will not result in lowering the cost of production;
9. It will not be possible to mechanize every bit of farm operation; and
10. A large labor force will get displaced from agriculture.
E. Levels of Mechanization
I. Hand tool technology – use of tools and simple implements powered by human
muscle. Even where sophisticated levels of mechanization are commonly used,
hand tool technology retains importance in agricultural operations
Figure 1. A person can cultivate only one (1) ha of land using hand tools
II. Draft animal technology – implements and machines using animal muscle as the
power source
Figure 2. A carabao can make a maximum sustained pull of 10% of its weight
for about 2-3 hours per day at a normal speed of 0.6-0.8 m/sec
III. Mechanical power technology – agricultural machinery powered by mechanical

or non-animate sources
Figure 3. A classic tractor

In developing countries, distribution of power sources used in agriculture is as

follows:
70% human power
20% animal power
10% engine power
F. Models of Mechanizations
Models of Mechanization
High Land Area to Farmer Ratio (USA Low Land Area to Farmer Ratio
Model) (Japan Model)
Motivated into lands increasing the level of

mechanization in order to cultivate large Motivated into increasing the level of mechanization in
agricultural lands with limited available order to increase yields and cropping intensities to meet
manpower and take advantage of favorable the growing demands for food and agricultural raw
agricultural commodity prices materials
Countries such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia follows the model of High Land
Area to Farmer Ratio while South Korea, China, Sri Lanka follows the Low Land
Area to Farmer Ratio.
G. Potential Benefits from Mechanization
1. Increased cropping intensity and production
 Tractors, power tillers, irrigation pumps, harvesters and threshers increase
cropping intensities
 Irrigation pumps increase yields
 Harvester and threshers reduced losses which effectively increased yields
2. Increased productivity of labor
3. Full utilization of farm products and by-products
 Availability of machines allow the processing of farm products and by-
products.
 For example, the case of coconut and pineapple. Rather than just selling
the nut and the fruit, they can now be processed into different products.
4. Reduction of losses
 Development of harvesting, threshing and processing machines reduces

harvest and postharvest losses for about 10-40% for main agricultural
crops.
5. Increased value added of farm products
 Secondary and tertiary processing open up market potentials and lead to
retail prices.
6. Employment and livelihood generation
 Machines designed to increase cropping intensities and production will
correspondingly increase labor requirements for production and
postharvest operations.
 Machine designed to diversify farm products and by-products open up
various livelihood opportunities.
 Use of machine will require the putting up of repair shops in the village
areas.
7. Import Substitution
 Local agricultural machinery manufacturing will minimize the importation
of agricultural machinery.
8. Export Possibilities
 Locally manufactured agricultural machinery can be exported to countries
with similar farming conditions such as the Philippines.
Teaching and Learning Activities

I. Quiz (Quiz #1 – 15 points)
1. Enumeration: In agricultural mechanization, what are the three main sources of
power? (3 points)
2. Enumeration: What are the three levels of mechanization? (3 points)
3. Multiple Choice: A potential benefit of mechanization that allows other forms of
processing to open up other product potentials that may lead to retail prices. (1
point)
a. Reduction of losses
b. Import substitution
c. Increased value added of farm products
d. Export possibilities
e. None of the above
4. Multiple Choice: A person can cultivate __ hectare/s of land using hand tools. (1
point)
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
5. Multiple Choice: Farm Mechanization employs a combination of three main

sources of power, these are presented as follows, except: (1 point)
a. Human
b. Animal
c. Mechanical
d. Tractor
6. Enumeration: In developing countries, what is the distribution of power sources
used in agriculture? (3 points)
7. Enumeration: What are the benefits of mechanization as mentioned by the
definition provided by FAO? (3 points)
Answer Key:
1. Human, Animal and Mechanical
2. Hand tool technology, Draft animal technology, Mechanical power technology
3. C
4. A
5. D
6. 70% human power, 20% animal power, 10% engine power
7. Increase yield, Increase the quality of the product, Increase overall efficiency

II. Homework (HW#1 – 50 points)
Topics:
1. What are the problems in mechanizing Philippine farms?
2. What are some of the possible solutions to problems in mechanizing our farms?
Directions: Write a paper that would discuss your chosen topic. Maximum of 3
pages, single spaced, font size 12, Arial, justified.
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

 SeDi
 Facebook Group
 Module
 Video Presentation
 Exercises (Quiz)
 Exercises (Assignment)
Assessment Task
Topics:
1. What are the problems in mechanizing Philippine farms?
2. What are some of the possible solutions to problems in mechanizing our farms?
3. In your opinion, in which model of mechanization does Philippines fall into?
4. In your opinion, what is the most important level of mechanization?
Support your chosen answer by citing some references.
Directions: Write a paper that would discuss each of the topic. Maximum of 5
pages, single spaced, font size 12, Arial, justified.
References
Belonio, A. 2010. Agricultural Machinery and Equipment. Department of Agricultural

Engineering and Environmental Management: Central Philippine University Press.
Belonio, A. 2010. Agricultural Power, Machinery and Allied Subjects. Department of
Agricultural Engineering and Environmental Management: Central Philippine University
Press.
Parker, R. 2011. Science of Agriculture Mechanization. Mississippi: Mississippi Department
of Education.
Lesson 2
MODULE 2
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND BASIC CONVERSIONS

Course Overview:
Any branch of science that encompasses taking measurements, comprehending
them and then communicating these data to other people requires us to speak the same
basic form of language. Whatever profession we have, we will always need a reliable and
stable way of communication these measurements. In this section, we will be tackling the
units of measurement and how to convert to and from one another.
a. define and compare the two (2) different kinds of units;
b. classify the units into metric or English units; and
c. apply the basic system of units through basic computations and conversions
Learning Content
A. The Need for a Common Language
In the past, researchers and people of science, that collects measurements and presents
them, were struggling to communicate the information to their readers and listeners.
This is how the system of units were introduced. Imagine this, in the early century, if a
certain person, say Person A, wanted to measure the length and width of his house, he
would then use some form of preexisting measurement in his surroundings, like the length
of his arm, or the length of a tree branch, and use that to measure and communicate the
obtained measurement to other people. Person A would then say that his house’s length is
15 times the length of his arm. This would have been fine as it is, but how about
communicating this information to Person B, whose arm length is shorter than Person A?
Figure 4. Person A communicating to Person B about the length of his house
A very huge and obvious discrepancy would have transpired and would’ve caused a
massive delay to an important data had the information been sensitive.
The dangers of this was noted by many scientists and researchers which is why the
system of units came into existence. We are very much familiar with using a common
ruler as a way of measuring length, time is usually measured by a stopwatch, and a mass
is measured by a scale. But the old-age question is, how do we know if the measurements
obtained by these devices are accurate? How can we be sure that the rulers, stopwatches
and scales are measuring things correctly?
All devices may vary slightly in size from each other because of some environmental
conditions, but in order to ensure extreme accurate measurements, scientists and
researchers have introduced the units of measurement. The metric system and English
system, also called the imperial system of measurements, are both common systems of
measurement used today.
The International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French Système international
d’unités) is the metric system used in science, industry, and medicine. SI is also known as
the modern form of the metric system. SI is widely recognized in nearly every country in
the world.
B. Units of the SI
The SI units has seven (7) base units, these are:
 kilogram for mass;
 second for time;
 kelvin for temperature;
 ampere for electric current;
 mole for the amount of substance;
 candela for luminous intensity; and
 meter for distance
Figure 5. The Seven Base Units of SI
The table below shows the symbol for each of the seven base units along with their
corresponding names:
Table 2. The base units
Unit name Unit symbol Quantity name

kilogram kg mass
second s time
kelvin K temperature
ampere A electric current
mole mol amount of substance
candela cd luminous intensity
meter m distance
All SI units can be formed by a combination of seven base units.

a. Mass
Mass is a quantitative measure of an object’s inertia, or resistance to changes in
motion. Mass is a scientific term used to describe the density and type of atoms in any
given object.
b. Time
Originally, time was measured in the passing of days. Eventually these days were
broken into 24 hours, the hours broken into 60 minutes and each minute into 60
seconds.
c. Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average energy per molecule in a substance. Units of
Fahrenheit and Celsius have been used for hundreds of years to measure temperature.
On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees, and this
defines the degree increments. On the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0 degrees and
boils at 100 degrees. The fatal flaw in these units, however, is that they don’t start at
0. The fact that it is possible to have negative temperature values on these scales
quickly makes things confusing. Kelvin, on the other hand, is defined as being
absolute 0, or the coldest possible temperature something can be. The size of an
increment in the Kelvin scale is the same as an increment in the Celsius scale, and 0
Kelvin = -273.15 degrees Celsius.
d. Electric Current
Current is the measure of the rate of charge passing through a point or any movement
of electric charge carriers.
e. Amount of Substance
It is how much of something a material have, for example, the number of mangoes on
a tree or the number of atoms in an apple.
f. Luminous Intensity
A common candle emits about 1 cd. It is a measure of the wavelength-weighted
power emitted by a light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle, based on
the luminosity function, a standardized model of the sensitivity of the human eye.
g. Distance
Length is a measure of linear distance. The measurement of something from one end
to another end. It is also the physical size of an object.
C. Derivation and Conversion of Units

 US Customary Unit of English Unit
 Metric or SI
In converting units, we will only be using four (4) of the base seven units of the SI.
From there, we will be deriving other units. These four units are:
 Mass, kg
 Time, s
 Temperature, K
 Distance, m
SI derived units are commonly used in our course. The derived units are a
combination of the imperial units of measurement. These units are expressed as a
product or a quotient of one or more base units, possibly scaled by an appropriate
power of exponentiation.
Table 3. SI Derived Units
Unit name Unit Quantity name

Symbol
square meter m2 area
cubic meter m3 volume
meter per second m/s speed, velocity
meter per second m/s2 acceleration
squared
Kilogram meter per Kg-m/s2 force
square second or
or N
Newton
The metric or SI units may be converted into their corresponding US customary unit
of English unit.
Table 4. The base units of SI or metric converted into US customary unit or English Unit
Unit name (SI Unit symbol Quantity name Unit name (US Unit
or metric) customary unit or symbol
English Unit
kilogram kg mass pound lb
second s time second s
kelvin K temperature fahrenheit F
meter m distance feet ft
Table 5. Derived units of SI or metric converted into US customary unit or English Unit
SI or metric Quantity name US customary unit or Unit name

Unit Symbol English Unit
m2 area ft2 square foot
m3 volume ft3 cubic foot
m/s speed, velocity ft/s foot per second
m/s2 acceleration ft/s2 foot per second
squared
kg-m/s2 force lb-ft/s2 pound foot per square
or or second
N lbf or
Pound force
For ease of understanding and convenience, the conversion of the SI or metric units,
as well as their derivation, into their corresponding US customary or English units is
presented below.
1 kg = 2.2 lb
1s = 1s
1 °K = -457.87 °F
1m = 3.28 ft
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 m/s = 3.28 ft/s
1 m/s2 = 3.28 ft/s2
1 kg-m/s2 = 7.22 lb-ft/s2
The given units and their conversion are also given as:
1N = 0.23 lbf
1 ft = 12 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 kg = 9.81 N
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min
= 550 ft-lb/sec
= 76.2 kg-m/sec
= 746 W
Example
Example1:
# 1:
Convert 5 kg into its equivalent English unit.
Solution:
2.2 lb
5 kg x
1 kg
2.2 lb
5 kg x
1 kg
5 kg=11lb
Final Answer:
5 kg=11 lb
5 kg, when converted to English units, is equal to 11 pounds.
Example
Example1:
# 2:
Convert 1 m2 into its equivalent English unit.
Solution:
1 m2 x ( 3.28 ft 3.28 ft
1 m ) ( 1m )
x
2
3.28 ft
1 m2 x ( 1m )
(3.28)2 ft 2
1 m2 x
(1)2 m 2
2 10.76 ft 2
1m x
1 m2
1 m2=10.76 ft 2
Final Answer:
1 m2=10.76 ft 2
1 m2, when converted to English units, is equal to 10.76 ft2.
Example
Example1:# 3:
Convert 1 in to its equivalent SI unit.
Solution:
1 ft
1∈x
12∈¿ ¿
1 ft
1∈x
12∈¿ ¿
1∈¿ 0.083 ft
1m
0.083 ft x
3.28 ft
1m
0.083 ft x
3.28 ft
1∈¿ 0.0254 m
Final Answer:
1∈¿ 0.0254 m
1 in, when converted to SI unit, is equal to 0.0254 m.
Republic of the Philippines
Isabela State University
Cabagan Campus
PROVINCIAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE

I. Problem Set #1
Name:_____________________________________________ Date Performed:_______________________
Course, Year and Section:__________________________ Date Submitted:_______________________
Problem Set #1: System of Units
A. Solve the following using the proper way of solving a problem. Show your solution and box
your final answers. (5 pts each)
1. 10 in is how much in m?
2. Convert 13kg into N.
3. Convert 5 m/s into ft/min.
4. What is 7 cm if it is converted into ft?
5. Convert 50 m2 into its equivalent English unit.
6. 30 ft3 is how much when converted into in3?
7. Convert 17 m/s2 into ft/s2.
B. Classify the given units. Write M if the unit presented is SI or metric units, and write E if it’s
written in US Customary unit or English units. Write their corresponding equivalent units in
SI/metric or English unit. (2 pts each)
______1. in = ______
______2. m = ______
______3. m/min = ______
______4. N = ______
______5. Lb = ______

II. Homework (HW#2 – 30 points)

 SeDi
 Facebook Group
 Module
 Exercises (Problem Set)
Assessment Task
Topics:
1. What system of units do you usually use in your everyday life? Cite some
examples.
2. In opinion, what should be the system of units to be used for agriculture and
agricultural science?
Directions: Write a paper that would discuss each of the topic. Maximum of 5 pages,
single spaced, font size 12, Arial, justified.
References
Essentials of the SI: Base and Derived Units. (n.d.). Retrieved from The NIST Reference on
Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html
SI Metric System of Units. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www2.ucdsb.on.ca/tiss/stretton/CHEM1/ametric1.html
Team, T. A. (2020, July 5). The Ultimate Guide to SI Units and Unit Conversions. Retrieved
from Albert.io: https://www.albert.io/blog/ultimate-guide-to-si-units-and-unit-conversions/
Lesson 3
MODULE 3
ENGINE AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLES

Course Overview:
Engine is arguably the most important factor of any automated system—it is
considered as the heart that pumps the necessary requirement for a system to move. In
this section, engine will be introduced and it will discuss the different types of engines,
the parts of a common engine, how they function and how they work altogether.
a. Explain the mechanics of an engine and its parts;
b. Classify different engines with their corresponding usage and maintenance;
and
c. Solve for the different sizes of the basic parts of an engine
Learning Content
A. What is an Engine?
 An engine is a mechanical device or a machine that converts heat energy from
burning of fuel, which generates thermal energy, into mechanical energy or useful
work.
 The combustion of fuel such as coal, petrol, and diesel generates the heat, which is
then supplied to a working substance at high temperature.
 Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of releasing
energy from a fuel and air mixture.
B. Types of an Engine
There are many different classifications of an engine. However, there are only two
types, these are:
a. External Combustion Engine (ICE); and
b. Internal Combustion Engine (ECE)
F.1. External Combustion Engine (ECE)

This refers to any engine that receives its heat from a source other than
the fluid that makes the engine work. An external combustion engine are also
known as steam engine. Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in
a boiler that is located outside the engine and is allowed in to the cylinder to
operate the piston to do mechanical work. The combustion of fuel takes place
outside the engine and the steam formed is used to run the engine. Heat energy
is applied indirectly to the piston by an intermediate medium which is water
vapor.
External combustion engines are no longer used in transportation, as mobile

designs are not efficient enough, but they continue to be used in power plants.
For example, a natural gas power plant boils water into steam to turn a turbine,
creating electricity. The external combustion design means that the natural
gas does not come in direct contact with the water, and the engine still uses the
immense amount of energy emitted to do useful work. A coal-fired power

plant works in much the same way, where coal is taken into the plant from the
mine and burned in a boiler. Pipes send water into the boiler, and the burning
coal boils the water, creating steam, which turns a turbine and creates
electricity.
Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of an ECE
Figure 7. How External Combustion Engines Work (ck12.org)
There are two main families of external combustion engines; steam engines
which rely on expanding steam (or occasionally some other vapor) to drive a
mechanism; or Stirling engines which use hot air (or some other hot gas). The
use of both technologies reached their zeniths around 1900 and have declined
almost to extinction since.
Figure 8. Low Temperature Stirling Figure 9. Miniature Steam Engine

Engine (amazon.co.uk) (Wikipedia.com)
F.2. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

In internal combustion engine, the fuel is ignited inside the cylinder, the
combustion takes place inside the engine and the heat is generated within the
cylinder. This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and the pressure of
the air is increased tremendously. The ignition of compressed mixture causes
rapid combustion and instantaneous application of pressure to the piston which
rotates the crank shaft that produces mechanical work.
Figure 10. Schematic Diagram of an ICE

Figure 11. Internal Combustion Engine Single Cylinder (bigstockimage.com)
C. History of the Engine

Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal
combustion engines.
 Leonardo da Vinci (Italian), 1506 – described a compression-less engine.
 Abbe Jean de Hautefeuille (French), 1678 – proposed the use of an explosive

powder to obtain power.
 Christiaan Huyghens (Dutch), 1680 – credited with having been the first man
actually to construct an engine having a cylinder and piston, use explosive as fuel.
 William Barnett (English), 1838 – use of compression and improved system of

flame-ignition.
 Jean Joseph Lenoir (Belgian), 1860 – actually construct and manufacture of an ICE
on a commercial scale, later proved to be impractical, mechanical efficiency was up to
5%. Prior designs for such engines were patented as early as 1807, but none were
commercially successful. Lenoir's engine was commercialized in sufficient quantities
to be considered a success, a first for the internal combustion engine.
 Alphonse Beau de Rochas (French), 1862 – advanced the modern theory and
application of ICE. His achievement lay partly in his emphasizing the previously
unappreciated importance of compressing the fuel–air mixture before ignition (but
never succeeded in constructing an engine upon his theory).
 Dr. Nicolaus A. Otto (German), 1876 – copy the engine of Beau, four stroke-cycle
principle (Otto cycle). He successfully developed the compressed charge internal
combustion engine which ran on petroleum gas and led to the modern internal
combustion engine.
 Dugald Clerk (Scottish), 1878 – first two-stroke-cycle engine,

engine producing one power impulse for every revolution
instead of for every two revolutions.
 Dr. Rudolph Diesel (German), 1892 – conceived the idea of

utilizing the heat produced by high compression for igniting
the fuel charge in the cylinder (compression ignition engine). He first worked with
steam, his research into thermal efficiency and fuel efficiency leading him to build a
steam engine using ammonia vapor.
 1920’s - Multi-cylinder compression ignition engines were small enough to be used

with cars and trucks.
D. Advantages of ICE over ECE

 More efficient
- ICE are usually more efficient than ECE in the sense that there is a higher
concentration of losses in using ECE in terms of operational materials, such as
fuel and oil and this is also due to their relatively poor power/weight ratio and
also the worse energy/weight ratio of solid fuels.
- Greater percentage of the heat and energy value of the fuel is converted into
useful power (15-30%). ECE is often as low as 3% and seldom exceeds 10%
 Weighs less
- Although ICE are also heavy in nature, ECE are heavier because of the general
presence of boiler and the furnace.
 More compact
- Since the combustion takes place outside of the engine in ECE, it is more
bulky and will require more space. The ICE, however, has its engine inside the
cylinder, making it more compressed.
 Original cost
- The primary disadvantage of ECE is that a large area of heat exchanger is
necessary to transmit heat into the working cylinder(s) and also to reject heat
at the end of the cycle. As a result, ECE are generally bulky and expensive to
construct.
 Less time and work necessary preliminary to starting

- In ECE, the temperature should be at a higher point for the steam to form, and
the steam has to form a considerable amount before the engine will start.
 Less time and attention required while in operation

- In ICE, once the engine starts, it doesn’t require a lot of effort from the worker
for it to operate, because it can take care of itself, the while in ECE, an
operator is required to give attention to the system because it will require some
form of ignition material to be given to it.
 Greater range of adaptability

- Since ICE are more compact, it can be used to a greater range, like moving
vehicles to farm lands. While ECE requires to be on a single position, it cannot
be transported as much.
Table 6. Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine
External Combustion Engine Internal Combustion Engine

 Combustion of air-fuel is outside the  Combustion of air-fuel is inside the
engine cylinder (in a boiler). engine cylinder.
 The engines are running smoothly and  Very noisy operated engine.
silently due to outside combustion.
 Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output  It is light and compact due to lower ratio
due to presence of auxiliary apparatus like of weight and bulk to output.
boiler and condenser. Hence it is heavy
and cumbersome.
 Working pressure and temperature inside  Working pressure and temperature inside
the engine cylinder is low; hence ordinary the engine cylinder is very much high;
alloys are used for the manufacture of hence special alloys are used.
engine cylinder and its parts.
 It can use cheaper fuels including solid  High grade fuels are used with proper
fuels. filtration.
 Lower efficiency about 15-20%.  Higher efficiency about 35-40%.
 Higher requirement of water for  Lesser requirement of water.
dissipation of energy through cooling
system.
E. Physical Nomenclature of an Internal Combustion Engine
The following are the abbreviations and symbols used in describing the physical
nomenclature of an engine:
 Bore (d ) – the diameter of an engine;

 Stroke ( L) – the distance that the piston travels from the bottom-dead center (
BDC) to top-dead center (TDC), or vice versa;
In old engines, the stroke was always greater than the bore but the recent trend is
towards a shorter piston stroke. This is because in the short piston stroke, the less of
power due to friction is minimized. Also, the inertia and centrifugal load on the
bearings are reduced. In the square engine, which is the latest in technology, the bore
and strokes are equal.
 Crank throw – the distance from the center of the crankshaft to the center of the
crankpin;
 Piston displacement ( Pd ) – the volume displaced by the piston during one stroke;
 Total Piston displacement (Total Pd ) – the sum of the piston displacement of
individual cylinders;
 Clearance Volume(C v) – the volume within the cylinder above the piston when
the piston is at the top of its stroke;
 Total Cylinder Volume (V ) – the sum of piston displacement and clearance
volume;
 Compression Ratio(C r) – ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume;
 Piston speed( S) – the volume displaced by the piston during one stroke;
 Peripheral speed ( Ps ) – the rate at which the rim of a wheel, pulley, or gear
travels.
Figure 12. Physical Nomenclature of an ICE (pinimg.com)

Figure 13. Physical Nomenclature of an Engine (energymaterials.co.uk)
From the figures above, take note of the following formula:
 Piston displacement ( Pd )
π d2
Pd =( )4
(L) Equation 1
Where: d = bore
L = stroke
 Total Piston displacement (Total Pd )

π d2
Total Pd =Nx
4[( ) ]
( L) Equation 2
Total Pd =Nx Pd
Where: d = bore
L = stroke
Pd = piston displacement
N = number of cylinders
 Total Cylinder Volume (V )
V =C v + Pd Equation 3
Where: C v = Clearance Volume

Pd = Piston Displacement
 Compression Ratio (C r)
C v+ P d Equation 4
C r=
Cv
Where: C v = clearance Volume

Pd = piston Displacement
 Piston Speed ( S)
S=2 L x n Equation 5
Where: L = stroke
n = speed of rotation
 Peripheral Speed ( Ps )
Ps =πDn Equation 6
Where: D = diameter of the wheel

n = speed of rotation
These equations are used when computing for and designing the nomenclature of an
engine. Examples of application of these equations are presented below.
Example
Example1:# 4:
Find the displacement of a piston with a 4-inch bore and a 5-inch stroke.
Given:
d=4∈¿
L=5∈¿
Required: Piston displacement ( Pd )
Solution:
π d2
Pd = ( )
4
(L)
Pd =¿
Pd =¿
Pd =( 4 π ∈¿2)¿ ¿
Pd =20 π ∈¿ 3 ≈ 62.83 ¿3 ¿
Final Answer:
The displacement of a piston with a 4-inch bore and a 5-inch stroke is approximately
equal to 62.83 in3.
Example
Example1:# 5:
The engine has: bore = 87.5 mm, stroke = 91.4 mm. The number of cylinders of the
engine is 2. Find the piston displacement and the total piston displacement.
Given:
d=87.5 mm
L=91.4 mm
N=2
Required: Piston displacement ( Pd ); Total Piston displacement (Total Pd ¿
Solution:
π d2
Pd = ( )
4
(L)
π ( 87.5 mm )2
Pd = ( 4 )(91.4 mm)
7656.25 π mm2
Pd = ( 4 )
(91.4 mm)
Pd =(1914.0625 π ∈¿2) ¿ ¿
Pd =549606.9085 mm3
Total Pd =Nx Pd
Total Pd =2 x 549606.9085 mm3
Total Pd =1099213.817 mm3
Final Answer:
The piston displacement of the engine is equal to 549606.9085 mm 3, and, having 2
cylinders, its total piston displacement is equal to 1099213.817 mm3.
Example
Example1:
# 6:
If an engine has a piston displacement of 100 in3, and has a total cylinder volume of
160 in3, what is the clearance volume?
Given:
Pd =100 ¿3
V =160 ¿ 3
Required: Clearance volume (C v)
Solution:
V =C v + Pd
C v =V −P d
C v =160 ¿3−100 ¿3
C v =60 ¿3
Final Answer:
The clearance volume of the engine is equal to 60 in3.
Example
Example1:# 7:
If an engine has a piston displacement of 100 in 3, and has a clearance volume of 60
in3, what is the compression ratio?
Given:
Pd =100 ¿3
C v =60 ¿3
Required: Compression Ratio (C r)
Solution:
C v+ P d
C r=
Cv
3 100∈¿3
C r=60 ¿ + ¿
60 ¿ 3
C r=2.67
Final Answer:
The compression ratio of the engine, having a 100-in3 and 60-in3, piston displacement
and clearance volume, respectively, is 2.67.
F. Parts of an Internal Combustion Engine
In an engine many parts work together to achieve the goal of converting chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy. These parts are bolted together and the
combination of all these parts is known as the engine. These parts are presented as:
Figure 14. Major Components of an ICE
F.1. Components of an Engine

The components of an engine can be classified into four (4) groups:
1. Power Chain – these are parts that receives, exerts, and transmits the
motive forces;
2. Stationary Parts – parts that are meant to constrain and support moving
parts;
3. Valve System – these parts time the operating sequence; and
4. Auxiliary parts & Accessories – the objective of these parts is to cool and
lubricate the surfaces and provide ignition and fuel for the engine.
Figure 15. Parts of an ICE (Miriam-Webstersinc.com)
F.2. Components and Their Parts

F.2.A. Power Chain
 Piston – receives and transmits the pressure forces in the combustion
chamber to the rotating crankshaft through the connecting rod.
Figure 16. Piston

 Piston rings – retain compression and reduces cylinder wall contact

thereby reducing friction losses and wear; these are used to maintain a
pressure tight seal between the piston and cylinder walls and also it
transfer the heat from the piston head to cylinder walls. These rings are
fitted in grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at
one end so they can expand or slipped over the end of piston.
Figure 17. Piston rings
 Piston pin – serves to fasten the piston to the upper end of the
connecting rod; wrist pin; these are hardened steel parallel spindles
fitted through the piston bosses and the small end bushes or eyes to
allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the piston to
connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.
Figure 18. Piston pin
 Connecting rod – transmits the power of combustion from the piston

to crankshaft. One end of the connecting rod is connected to piston
through piston pin while the other is connected to crank through crank
pin. It transmits the reciprocating motion of piston to the rotary crank.
There are two end of connecting rod one is known as big end and other
as small end. Big end is connected to the crankshaft and the small end
is connected to the piston by use of piston pin.
Figure 19. Connecting rod
 Connecting rod bearing – bearing where connecting rod fastens to

crankshaft. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. Everywhere there
is rotary action in the engine, bearings are used to support the moving
parts.
Figure 20. Connecting rod bearing/Engine bearing
 Crankshaft – converts the rectilinear motion of the piston into

rotation. It receives the efforts or thrust supplied by piston to the
connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of piston into
rotary motion. The crankshaft mounts in a bearing so it can rotate
freely.
Figure 21. The crankshaft
 Flywheel – inertia; keeps the engine at uniform speed when the

crankshaft is not receiving power from the piston. Fly wheel is a
rotating mass used as an energy storing device.
A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel
is to rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft
rotation more uniform.
Figure 22. Flywheel
Figure 23. The flywheel (newkidscar.com)

Figure 24. The Power Chain (howcarworks.com)
Figure 25. The Power Chain (ResearchGate.com)

Figure 26. The Power Chain (SlideShare.com)
F.2.B. Stationary Parts

 Engine block – confines the expanding gases and forms the
combustion chamber; it is a container fitted with the piston, where the
fuel is burnt and power is produced.
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the
intake of fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The
main function of cylinder is to guide the piston. For cooling of
cylinder, a water jacket (for liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin
(for air cooling used in most of bikes) are situated at the outer side of
cylinder.
At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head and at the bottom end crank
case is bolted.
 Cylinder head – houses the valves and forms a cover to the cylinder.
One end of the cylinder is closed by means of cylinder head. This
consists of inlet valve for admitting air fuel mixture and exhaust valve
for removing the products of combustion. The inlet valve, exhaust
valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The
main function of cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not to
permit entry and exit of gases on cover head valve engine.
 Combustion chamber – end of the cylinder between the head and the
piston face where combustion occurs; sometimes synonymous with the
term "cylinder.”
Figure 27. Schematic diagram of a cylinder block
 Crankcase – serves the purpose of supporting the shaft, mounting the

cylinder, housing the running parts, and forming the reservoir for
lubricating oil. It supports and covers the cylinder and the crank shaft.
It is the main body of the engine to which the cylinder are attached and
which contains the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing. It also serves as
the lubricating system and sometime it is called oil sump.
Figure 28. Crankcase
 Intake manifold – serves to conduct the air or air-fuel mixture into the
cylinder.
 Exhaust manifold – serves to conduct the burned gases away from the
engine
Figure 29. Stationary Parts schematic diagram
F.2.C. Valve System

 Valves – used for opening and closing ports leading into or out of the
combustion chambers. They must streamline the gases and make it
possible for them to move into and out of the combustion chamber as
rapidly as possible, and, when the gases leave the combustion
chamber, they must be so directed that they will not swirl or congest in
a manner that will prevent the complete scavenging of the cylinder.
 Valve Seats – as maybe formed in the cylinder

head or block or maybe a removable inserts
of special alloy steel. It is the surface against which an intake or an

exhaust valve rests during the portion of the engine operating cycle
when that valve is closed.
Figure 30. Valve seats (performanceheadengineering.co.uk)

II. Problem Set #1
Name:_____________________________________________ Date Performed:_______________________
Course, Year and Section:__________________________ Date Submitted:_______________________
Problem Set #1: System of Units
G. Solve the following using the proper way of solving a problem. Show your solution
and box your final answers. (5 pts each)
8. 10 in is how much in m?
9. Convert 13kg into N.
10. Convert 5 m/s into ft/min.
11. What is 7 cm if it is converted into ft?
12. Convert 50 m2 into its equivalent English unit.
13. 30 ft3 is how much when converted into in3?
14. Convert 17 m/s2 into ft/s2.
H. Classify the given units. Write M if the unit presented is SI or metric units, and write
E if it’s written in US Customary unit or English units. Write their corresponding
equivalent units in SI/metric or English unit. (2 pts each)
______6. in = ______
______7. m = ______
______8. m/min = ______
______9. N = ______
______10. Lb = ______

III. Homework (HW#2 – 30 points)

 SeDi
 Facebook Group
 Module
 Exercises (Problem Set)
Assessment Task
Topics:
3. What system of units do you usually use in your everyday life? Cite some
examples.
4. In opinion, what should be the system of units to be used for agriculture and
agricultural science?
Directions: Write a paper that would discuss each of the topic. Maximum of 5 pages,
single spaced, font size 12, Arial, justified.
References
Essentials of the SI: Base and Derived Units. (n.d.). Retrieved from The NIST Reference on
Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html
SI Metric System of Units. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www2.ucdsb.on.ca/tiss/stretton/CHEM1/ametric1.html
Team, T. A. (2020, July 5). The Ultimate Guide to SI Units and Unit Conversions. Retrieved
from Albert.io: https://www.albert.io/blog/ultimate-guide-to-si-units-and-unit-conversions/
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed text books. The information presented here is merely a collection by the
committee members for their respective teaching assignments. Various sources as
mentioned at the reference of the document as well as freely available material from
internet were consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of the information lies
with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not intended to be
used for commercial purpose and the committee members are not accountable for any
issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The committee members
make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the
contents of this document and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The committee members shall be liable
for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special,
incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Republic of the Philippines

Isabela State University

Engr. Ace Gerson L.

As a result of your educational experiences in the course Agritech311, you should be

Your academic experience an Agricultural Technology student will be utilized in this

The effective mechanization contributes to increase production in two major ways:

As defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Agricultural

Table 1. Objectives and Benefits of Mechanization

Reduce human effort Increase yield

Figure 2. Combination and Human and FigureB.2.

III. Mechanical power technology – agricultural machinery powered by mechanical

Figure 3. A classic tractor

In developing countries, distribution of power sources used in agriculture is as

Motivated into lands increasing the level of

 Development of harvesting, threshing and processing machines reduces

Teaching and Learning Activities

5. Multiple Choice: Farm Mechanization employs a combination of three main

Teaching and Learning Activities

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Belonio, A. 2010. Agricultural Machinery and Equipment. Department of Agricultural

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND BASIC CONVERSIONS

Figure 4. Person A communicating to Person B about the length of his house

Figure 5. The Seven Base Units of SI

Table 2. The base units

Unit name Unit symbol Quantity name

All SI units can be formed by a combination of seven base units.

C. Derivation and Conversion of Units

Table 3. SI Derived Units

Unit name Unit Quantity name

SI or metric Quantity name US customary unit or Unit name

1 m2, when converted to English units, is equal to 10.76 ft2.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Problem Set #1: System of Units

Teaching and Learning Activities

II. Homework (HW#2 – 30 points)

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

SI Metric System of Units. (n.d.). Retrieved from

ENGINE AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLES

F.1. External Combustion Engine (ECE)

External combustion engines are no longer used in transportation, as mobile

immense amount of energy emitted to do useful work. A coal-fired power

Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of an ECE

Figure 7. How External Combustion Engines Work (ck12.org)

Figure 8. Low Temperature Stirling Figure 9. Miniature Steam Engine

F.2. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

Figure 10. Schematic Diagram of an ICE

Figure 11. Internal Combustion Engine Single Cylinder (bigstockimage.com)

C. History of the Engine

 Leonardo da Vinci (Italian), 1506 – described a compression-less engine.

 Abbe Jean de Hautefeuille (French), 1678 – proposed the use of an explosive

 William Barnett (English), 1838 – use of compression and improved system of

 Dugald Clerk (Scottish), 1878 – first two-stroke-cycle engine,

 Dr. Rudolph Diesel (German), 1892 – conceived the idea of

 1920’s - Multi-cylinder compression ignition engines were small enough to be used

D. Advantages of ICE over ECE

 Less time and work necessary preliminary to starting

 Less time and attention required while in operation

 Greater range of adaptability

External Combustion Engine Internal Combustion Engine