Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Reducing teacher burnout: A socio-contextual approach

Janne Pietarinen a, *, Kirsi Pyhältö b, Tiina Soini c, Katariina Salmela-Aro d
a
School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher education, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 2, P.O. Box 111, Finland
b
University of Helsinki Centre for Research and Development of Higher Education, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki,
Siltavuorenpenger 5A, P.O. Box 9, 00014 Finland
c
School of Education, University of Tampere, FI-33014 Finland
d
Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, University of Helsinki, Fabianinkatu 24, P.O. Box 4, 00014, Finland

h i g h l i g h t s

Proactive strategies are beneficial in reducing teacher burnout.

Both self- and co-regulation strategies are key to successful problem solving.

The effect of strategies on perceived fit is mediated by burnout experience.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study was to examine the interrelation between teachers’ proactive strategies and
Received 20 June 2012 perceived teachereworking environment fit that would be mediated by the socio-contextual burnout
Received in revised form experience. Altogether 2310 Finnish teachers completed the study’s survey. The results indicate that
25 January 2013
teachers can learn the kinds of strategies that allow them to reduce burnout and construct a better
Accepted 26 May 2013
working environment fit. Both the learning and use of the strategies is highly embedded in a school’s
social interactions.
Keywords:
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Teacher burnout
Proactive strategies
Teachereworking environment fit

1. Introduction burnout levels of Finnish white-collar and human services workers

(Kalimo & Hakanen, 2000). Understanding burnout among teachers
Teachers’ burnout has been recognised as a serious occupational is particularly important, because the phenomenon has significant
problem in school systems worldwide (e.g. Borg & Riding, 1991; implications not only for teacher motivation, job satisfaction,
Loonstra, Brouwers, & Tomic, 2009; Rudow, 1999). Several studies health and longevity (i.e. career length) (e.g. Jalongo & Heider,
suggest that in comparison with other academic, client-related 2006; Leung & Lee, 2006), but also for student behaviour and
professions, teaching surpasses the average levels of stress, learning (Dorman 2003; Lamude, Scudder, & Furno-Lamude, 1992;
although there is significant contextual variation in teacher training meta-analysis by Montgomery & Rupp, 2005). It has been shown,
and working conditions between countries (Akca & Yaman, 2010; for example, that teacher burnout is related to an increased use of
Schaufeli, Daamen, & Van Mierlo, 1994; Smith, Brice, Collins, performance-oriented teaching practices (Retelsdorf, Butler,
Mathews, & McNamara, 2000; Travers & Cooper, 1993). In partic- Streblow, & Schiefele, 2010), which are in turn related to
ular, teachers have been found to suffer from high levels of increased cheating behaviour (Anderman & Midgley, 2004), more
exhaustion and cynicism, which constitute the core dimensions of negative social relations (Tolmie et al., 2010) and less improvement
burnout (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Taris, LeBlanc, Schaufeli, & in conceptual application skills among students (Fraser, 1998;
Schreurs, 2005; Wright & Hobfoll, 2004). Teachers in Finland e Gillies & Ashman, 2003). Recent research on teacher burnout has
well-educated professionals with great expertise and enjoying a enhanced our understanding of its various levels and dimensions as
high degree of autonomy e have been found to have the highest well as the factors that contribute to it (Dorman, 2003; Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2009). However, the complexity and dynamics of the so-
cial working environments in schools has often been neglected in
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ358 50 465 0642. studies on burnout among teachers (Devos, Dupriez, & Paquay,
E-mail address: janne.pietarinen@uef.fi (J. Pietarinen). 2012; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Parker, Martin, Colmar, & Liem,

0742-051X/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.05.003
 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72 63

2012). The purpose of this study is to examine the interrelated However, the role played by social behaviour has been largely
factors that may reduce teacher burnout. We have adopted a sys- neglected, even though burnout was identified as a social problem
temic and quantitative design to study teacher burnout because the by both workers and social commentators (Maslach, 2003) long
phenomenon is regulated simultaneously by several nested social before it became a focus of systematic empirical study. In fact, since
factors. By analysing the interrelations between teachers’ proactive the concept emerged, instead of being presented as an individual
strategies, perceived working environment fit and experienced stress response, burnout has been approached in terms of inter-
burnout, our objective is to gain a better understanding of the personal problems in an individual’s transactions with others in the
complexity and dynamics of the teacher burnout process workplace, as well as from theories of social comparison (Buunk,
(Clandinin, Pushor, & Murray Orr, 2007; Maslach, 2003; Sharplin, Ybema, Gibbons, & Ipenburg, 2001; Festinger, 1954) and social ex-
O’Neill, & Chapman, 2011) Teacher burnout is explored here change (Adams, 1965) within an early framework (Buunk &
within a socio-contextual framework, and it is assumed that teacher Schaufeli, 1993; Geurts, Schaufeli, & De Jonge, 1998; Schaufeli, van
burnout is highly socially embedded and context-dependent. Dierendonck, & van Gorp, 1996). More recent studies have
focused on social support as a buffering resource (Xanthopoulou,
2. Teacher burnout Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2007).
Social interrelations play a central role in teachers’ work, and
Burnout develops gradually as a result of extensive and prolonged hence in teacher burnout. Teachers often work with both pupils and
work-related stress (Freudenberger, 1974; Holland, 1982; Peeters & members of the professional community in a single school day. In
Rutte, 2005). Burnout syndrome has three distinct symptoms: this context, lack of social support, perceived inequity and a poor
exhaustion (Maslach et al., 2001), cynicism (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, & sense of community (Milfont, Denny, Ameratunga, Robinson, &
Taris, 2008; Maslach & Leiter, 1999, 2005; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003) Merry, 2008; Santavirta, Solovieva, & Theorell, 2007; Sharplin
and professional inadequacy (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000; Hakanen, et al., 2011) have been shown to be central sources of teacher
Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; meta-analysis by Montgomery & Rupp, stress and exhaustion. Also, unresolved confrontations and
2005). Exhaustion means a lack of emotional energy, and feeling destructive friction in social interactions have been reported to
strained and tired at work (Maslach et al., 2001), whereas cynicism contribute to teacher burnout (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz, &
means indifference or aloofness towards work in general, and also a Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Dorman, 2003; Leung & Lee, 2006; Schaufeli
disaffected or acerbic attitude towards students, parents or col- & Bakker, 2004). In their study on Finnish comprehensive school
leagues, as well as low organisational commitment (Schaufeli & teachers, Pyhältö, Pietarinen, and Salmela-Aro (2011) found that
Buunk, 2003). Professional inadequacy, referring to feelings of insuf- teachers’ experiences of destructive friction and problematic en-
ficient competence, encompasses both social and non-social aspects counters with pupils contributed to feelings of professional in-
of occupational accomplishments (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000; Hakanen adequacy, while destructive friction within the professional
et al., 2006; meta-analysis by Montgomery & Rupp, 2005). community was often reported to cause cynicism. The literature on
Several studies have shown a strong relationship between teacher burnout suggests that the sources of teacher burnout are
exhaustion and cynicism across organisational and occupational highly embedded in the social interactions of the school commu-
settings, whereas feelings of inadequacy appear to be a conse- nity, and may vary not only between schools but also between the
quence of exhaustion or cynicism, or seem to develop indepen- social working contexts within a single school (see also Fernet,
dently (Leiter, 1993; Maslach, 2003; Maslach & Leiter, 2008). Guay, Senécal, & Austin, 2012; Kokkinos, 2007; Skaalvik &
Golembiewski’s (1989) framework suggests that burnout de- Skaalvik, 2009). Although the central role played by social inter-
velops in phases, resulting in eight distinct clusters representing action in teachers’ occupational well-being has been recognised,
progressively more maladaptive states (Golembiewski, 1989; the complexity and dynamics of the social working environments
Golembiewski, Boudreau, Goto, & Murai, 1993; Golembiewski, provided by the school have often been neglected in studies on
Munzenrider, & Carter, 1983). This phasing model suggests that burnout among teachers (Devos et al., 2012; Parker et al., 2012).
cynicism develops first and is followed by feelings of inadequacy, Accordingly, the consequent gap in the literature needs to be
with emotional exhaustion emerging in the final more virulent addressed in order to gain a better understanding of the social
stages of burnout (Golembiewski, 1989; Taris et al., 2005). Leiter’s contexts of teacher burnout (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009) as well as
(1989) model (see also Leiter & Maslach, 1988) has been shown to its process variables, such as the strategies teachers use to prevent
represent a far better fit with the data than Golembiewski’s model burnout (Parker et al., 2012). Hence, in the present study we build
(Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Taris et al., on previous findings concerning the context-dependence of
2005): it indicates that emotional exhaustion is the initial compo- teacher burnout, assuming that elements of the social contexts vis-
nent of burnout leading to the development of cynicism as an à-vis pupils and the professional community are key factors in
ineffective coping strategy, which eventually cumulates in feelings burnout.
of inadequacy (Leiter, 1989). Empirical research in the occupational
field has generally confirmed a link between emotional exhaustion 3. The teachereworking environment fit
and cynicism, but the lack of evidence for a link between cynicism
and feelings of inadequacy has resulted in alternative models to Research into teacher burnout has shown that various personal
account for this discrepancy (Maslach et al., 2001). In this regard, and environmental factors, such as high neuroticism and low ex-
Lee and Ashforth (1993) provided longitudinal support for an traversion, lack of social support as well as time constraints and a
alternative model based on Leiter’s, in which emotional exhaustion large number of work assignments, contribute to teacher burnout
predicts both cynicism and feelings of inadequacy. Finally, longi- (Cano-Garcia et al., 2005; Chan, 2003; Dorman, 2003; Lee &
tudinal research by Taris et al. (2005) suggested an alternative Ashforth, 1996; Leung & Lee, 2006; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004;
model that combined Leiter’s framework with Lee and Ashforth’s, Swider & Zimmerman, 2010). This implies that teacher burnout is
in which emotional exhaustion has both direct and indirect effects affected by the complex dynamic between the teacher and his or
on feelings of inadequacy while cynicism also directly predicts her working environment rather than a single personal or envi-
feelings of inadequacy. ronmental attribute.
Burnout as a social problem in many service professions has The employeeeworking environment fit framework (Locke,
been the impetus for much earlier research (Maslach, 2003). 1969, p. 316) has been developed to describe the interplay
64 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72

between an employee and the working environment contributing to contribute to teacher burnout (Brouwers, Evers, & Tomic, 2001;
to the burnout experience. The basic idea of a dynamic employeee Kokkinos, 2007; Maslach & Leiter, 1999; Peeters & Rutte, 2005;
working environment fit (Holland, 1985) is that a poor fit increases Stoeber & Rennert, 2008). This implies that social resources are
the risk for burnout while a good fit is likely to reduce it (Cable & likely to reduce burnout, while misfit caused by a lack of them
Edwards, 2004; Edwards & Cable, 2009). increases its risk.
The fit contributing to teacher burnout can be considered in However, rather than perceiving their social working environ-
terms of the Job Demands-Resources Model (Demerouti, Bakker, ment as one unified entity, teachers often tend to perceive it as
Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001), which proposes that both de- complex, dynamic and multicontextual (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000;
mands and resources exist in the working environment. ‘Demands’ Parker & Salmela-Aro, 2011), and providing distinct resources and
refer to physical, psychological, social or organisational working challenges to teachers. In terms of exploring teacher burnout this
conditions and challenges therein, which require sustained effort, indicates that different schools’ social environment variables
whereas ‘resources’ refers to aspects of the work that reduce de- should not been summarised into a single measure (see also
mands and challenges (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009). Although teacher burnout is associated
2001). Strain often occurs when job demands override the re- with the teacheresocial working environment fit, teacher well-
sources at an employee’s disposal (see meta-analysis Alarcon, 2011; being is not always determined by it: teachers can also modify their
Landy & Conte, 2007). Thus the prolonged experience of low re- working environments by using different strategies to cope with
sources combined with high demands can lead to burnout (Hobfoll, the stressors. We therefore propose that by adopting different
Freedy, Lane, & Geller, 1990) strategies, a teacher can actively modify the fit. However, this
Teachereworking environment fit characterised by high de- perspective has often been neglected in research on teacher
mands and low resources has been shown to be a determinant of burnout.
burnout (see Demerouti et al., 2001; Hakanen et al., 2006; Schaufeli
& Bakker, 2004 Job Demands-Resources Model). This implies that a 4. Teachers’ proactive strategies
lack of congruence (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Kristof, 1996; Verquer,
Beehr, & Wagner, 2003) between a job’s demands and its resources, Teachers’ cognitive and behavioural efforts to reduce, tolerate or
particularly if the demands override the resources, produces stress, master work-related stress are often referred to in the literature as
job dissatisfaction, and in the worst case, burnout (Pillay, Goddard, coping strategies (Carmona, Buunk, Peiro, Rodríguez, & Bravo,
& Wills, 2005; Sharplin et al., 2011). This ‘misfit’ has also been 2006; Lazarus, 1993; Parker et al., 2012; Sharplin et al., 2011),
shown to be a predictor of turnover and early retirement (Barnett, achievement strategies and social strategies (Nurmi, Salmela-Aro, &
Gareis, & Brennan, 1999; Goodman & Svyantek, 1999). However, a Haavisto, 1995). When confronted with stressful situations both
misfit resulting from too low demands compared to resources may individual teachers and teacher communities can use a variety of
also reduce work engagement by causing boredom. strategies to cope. For instance, they can adapt to or ignore the
The characteristics of the kinds of dynamics that increase the challenges posed by the situation. These can include self- or co-
risk of burnout have been reported to include continuously work- regulation strategies, or both. Drawing on the literature on self-
ing overtime (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010) and being unable to regulative learning (e.g. Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2005;
recover from strenuous work (Burke & Richardsen, 2001; Hakanen Zimmerman, 2002), the present study sees self-regulation as
et al., 2006; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Van Der Hulst & referring to a teacher’s self-generated strategies, i.e. thinking,
Geurts, 2001). Further, a sense of lack of control (Skaalvik & feeling and behaving in ways that are oriented to cope with work
Skaalvik, 2009), meaningless (Loonstra et al., 2009), insufficient stressors. Co-regulation (see also Järvelä, Volet, & Järvenoja, 2010),
reward, and unfairness, along with problems in social relations, a on the other hand, refers here to the identification and active use of
lack of social support and a poor sense of community (Sharplin the social resources at hand to cope with stressors. The self- and co-
et al., 2011) have been identified as predictors of teacher burnout. regulative strategies used by teachers in a given situation may vary,
In turn, a concordance, i.e. good fit, between job resources and for example in terms of how conforming or active they are.
demands has been suggested to promote work engagement and Two basic sets of coping strategies, direct action and palliative,
reduce teacher burnout (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & are often distinguished in the literature. There is evidence of active,
Bakker, 2002), even (Schaarschmidt, Kieschke, & Fischer, 1999) social and optimistic strategies (that aim to resolve or eliminate
when facing professional problems and setbacks (Hallberg & perceived stressors) being effective in reducing teacher burnout
Schaufeli, 2006; Schaarschmidt et al., 1999). This relationship be- (e.g. Austin, Shah, & Muncer, 2005; Grossi, 1999; Kyriacou, 2001).
tween resources and demands essentially boils down to teachers’ Further there is also evidence that using the social resources at
“perceptions” of their environment, i.e. the teachereworking hand is related to higher achievement scores among students
environment fit. (Leana, 2011). This implies that using active and social strategies
Evidence suggests that particularly the social resources of the can be effective in reducing teacher burnout and improving student
school environment, such as a positive climate (Hoy & Spero, 2005) performance. The use of active, social and optimistic strategies may
or opportunities to receive constructive feedback and professional reduce teacher stress through several mechanisms. Firstly, these
recognition (Kokkinos, 2007; Peeters & Rutte, 2005; Stoeber & strategies are likely to facilitate meaningful goal orientation and
Rennert, 2008), may play a central role in reducing teacher goal attainment, and hence reduce burnout (Butler, 2007; Devos
burnout and promoting job satisfaction as well as good job per- et al., 2012; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Secondly, those who use
formance (Klusmann, Kunter, Trautwein, Ludtke, & Baumert, 2008; direct action and engagement rather than avoidance strategies are
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). For instance, more effective in dealing with the challenges and demands they
in a recent large-scale study of 25,135 teachers, Johnson, Kraft, and face in their work; such positive actions in turn contribute to suc-
Papay (2011) identified three key characteristics of schools as cess, satisfaction and work engagement and hence reduce burnout
working environments: working relationships with colleagues, the as well (Salmela-Aro, Tolvanen, & Nurmi, 2011). These ‘optimistic’
school principal’s leadership, and characteristics of the school social strategies promote social efficacy beliefs that are likely to
culture that contribute to teacher work satisfaction and retention. increase persistence in the face of challenges (Baumeister,
In turn, lack of support from colleagues, principals and parents as Campbell, Kruger, & Vohs, 2003). Furthermore, positive emotions
well as unsolved chronic problems with pupils have been reported are thought to promote a more flexible use of strategies
 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72 65

(Fredrickson, 2001) as well as a willingness to try out new inno- interactions and challenges in their work. Taken together, the
vative ideas in order to resolve situations (Linnenbrink-Garcia, proactive strategies such as self- and co-regulation adopted by
Kempler, Rogat, & Koskey, 2011; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, teachers may not only reduce the risk for teacher burnout but also
2005), hence inducing teacher learning and a more positive affect. may contribute to a constructive teacheresocial working environ-
The findings concerning the relationship between palliative and ment fit. However, the dynamics and effects of different strategies
avoidance coping strategies that aim to reduce emotional distress adopted by teachers to reduce burnout and construct a better fit
and enhance teacher well-being are less consistent (e.g. Folkman & have not been studied extensively.
Moskowitz, 2004; Sharplin et al., 2011). Previous research suggests
that a continuous unilateral use of palliative and avoidance stra- 5. Aim of the study
tegies seems to increase dysfunctional professional behaviour and
further contribute to teacher burnout. For instance, there is some The study aims to gain a better understanding of the interrela-
evidence that dysfunctional or reactive strategies, such as avoid- tion between teachers’ proactive strategies (self- and co-
ance and withdrawal, may decrease professional self-efficacy, regulation) and perceived teachereworking environment fit that
which can in turn increase difficulties in facing problems at work would be mediated by a socio-contextual burnout experience.
(Langelaan, Bakker, van Doornen, & Schaufeli, 2006). However, Constructing an optimal teachereworking environment fit is seen
these strategies that aim to reduce stress by modifying internal or here as a dynamic and relational social endeavour (Fernet et al.,
emotional reactions have been found to serve as a trigger for 2012). Based on previous research into teachers’ strategies to
adopting social and direct action strategies. For example, support- reduce burnout and promote a better teachereworking environ-
ive colleagues can help teachers engage in adaptive and social ment fit (Parker et al., 2012), the following three hypotheses were
coping behaviours that could lead to more efficient and less tested (see Fig. 1):
stressful working practices (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005). Accord-
ingly, a teacher’s ability to use multiple coping strategies has been 1) Two proactive strategies adopted by teachers regulate the
found to be effective in reducing teacher exhaustion (Austin et al., experienced socio-contextual burnout (Akca & Yaman, 2010;
2005; Carmona et al., 2006; Howard & Johnson, 2004; Kyriacou, Alarcon, 2011): self- (SELF-REG) and co-regulation (CO-REG).
2001). Further, not identifying and utilising social resources predicts
It has been shown that teachers have an opportunity to direct exhaustion (EXH), cynicism towards the teacher community
and re-direct their own development and behaviour in a way that (CYN), and inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction (INAD);
reduces burnout symptoms (Fernet et al., 2012). Moreover, teachers 2) Perceived teachereworking environment fit (FIT), professional
have a chance to modify the school environment so that it produces recognition (RECOG) and a constructive and enabling work
fewer stressful situations. It has been suggested that teachers’ climate (CLIMATE) are regulated by the experienced socio-
practices, especially their ways of dealing with socially challenging contextual burnout (EXH, CYN and INAD) and the proactive
pedagogical situations, decrease exhaustion, inadequacy and cyni- strategies (SELF-REG and CO-REG) adopted by the teacher.
cism (e.g. González-Morales, Rodríguez, & Peiró, 2010; Saks, Moreover, perceived exhaustion (EXH) predicts cynicism to-
Uggerslev, & Fassina, 2007). Soini, Pyhältö, and Pietarinen (2010) wards the teacher community (CYN) and inadequacy in
found that teachers who experienced a positive work drive as teacherepupil interaction (INAD) (Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Leiter,
well as empowerment in their work reported using active, reflec- 1989);
tive and holistic problem-solving strategies, or self-regulation stra- 3) The interrelation between teachers’ proactive strategies and
tegies, to proactively handle stressful matters in their work. perceived teachereworking environment fit is mediated by the
In addition, teachers can co-regulate their behaviour in an socio-contextual burnout experience.
interactional social context. In line with this, a positive social
climate including positive support has been reported to be related
to teacher satisfaction and motivation (Alhija & Fresko, 2010; 6. Method
Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011) and negatively related to burnout
(e.g. Hakanen et al., 2006). More precisely, optimistic social stra- 6.1. Research context
tegies such as help-seeking may assist individuals in feeling able to
cope and in reducing the sense of isolation that can be experienced All Finnish comprehensive school teachers hold a Master’s de-
by teachers and other education workers (Salmela-Aro et al., 2011). gree in educational sciences or another domain such as mathe-
For instance, peer support has the greatest effect on teachers’ work matics or biology, with compulsory additional studies (35 credits)
engagement when teachers experience high levels of stress caused in educational science. Primary teachers who typically work in
by pupils’ misbehaviour (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti, & grades (0)1e6 hold a MA degree in educational science, with the
Xanthopoulou, 2007). In addition, teachers with high levels of so- main subject being applied educational sciences or educational
cial support from colleagues have reported a lower intention to psychology, while subject teachers who typically teach in grades
leave teaching than those with a low level of support (Pomaki, 7e9 (lower secondary school) usually have an MA in some subject
DeLongis, Frey, Short, & Woehrle, 2010). Moreover, teachers lack- with an additional compulsory one year of study in educational
ing collaborative interaction with colleagues have been found to be science. Special education teachers who teach in both primary and
more emotionally vulnerable (Hoy & Spero, 2005). secondary schools in grades (0)1e9 have an MA in educational
Creating environments that encourage and support instru- science, with the main subject being special education. Finland has
mental help-seeking can enable teachers to gather together re- no private school system or tuition: education is publicly funded,
sources and information, thus empowering them to approach including daily school lunch and health services such as dental care.
problem-solving situations with confidence in their ability to find Up until the age of 16, all Finnish adolescents receive a similar basic
solutions (Karabenick, 1998; Nelson-Le Gall & Resnick, 1998). This education. There are no ability-tracking or other systems that
indicates that co-regulation, the capacity to seek and receive social separate comprehensive school students early on into academic or
support from colleagues and the ability to identify and utilise the vocational education, and flexible accountability structures are in
social resources at hand to reduce stress, is particularly important place that emphasise trust in individual schools (Aho, Pitkänen, &
when teachers attempt to proactively deal with stressful Sahlberg, 2006).
66 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72

Table 1
The non-response analysis.
a
Sample statistics (%) National statistics (%)

n ¼ 2310 teachers N ¼ 36,890 teachers

Gender
Female 81 73
Male 19 27
Teachers’ age
<40 years 38 32
40e49 years 30 33
50 years 32 35
a
National Board of Education, 2010.

inadequacy (Pyhältö et al., 2011), and consists of 9 items measuring

three factors of socio-contextual teacher burnout: a) exhaustion (3
items), b) cynicism towards the teacher community (3 items), and c)
inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction (3 items). All items were
rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree)
Fig. 1. Hypothesised model of interrelations between teachers’ proactive strategies
(SELF-REG and CO-REG), experienced socio-contextual burnout symptoms (EXH, CYN
to 7 (completely agree) (excluding the stress item that was rated on
and INAD) and teachereworking environment fit (FIT). a 10-point scale).
The Teachereworking environment fit scale consists of 6 items
6.2. Participants measuring two factors of experienced teachereworking environ-
ment fit: a) received professional recognition (3 items) and b)
Altogether 2310 comprehensive school teachers, including pri- constructive and enabling work climate (3 items). The scale draws on
mary (n ¼ 815; 35%), subject (n ¼ 729; 32%), and special education Bakker et al.’s (2007) job resources components that were derived
teachers (n ¼ 761; 33%) completed the study survey. A probability from the Healthy Organisation Barometer (Lindström, 1997;
sampling method (N ¼ 6000) was used. The total response rate was Lindström, Hottinen, & Bredenberg, 2000). Hence the experienced
39%. All respondents had MA degrees, and all were in various fit was measured from both the individual and professional com-
phases of their careers. Hence the response rates for class, subject, munity perspectives. The professional recognition factor measured
and special education teachers were not biased. Moreover, the the individual teacher’s experienced appreciation as a member of a
schools in which the participants worked varied in size and in professional community (i.e. the person-centred approach to the
terms of grades taught. The specific non-response analysis is pre- perceived fit). The constructive and enabling work climate factor
sented in Table 1. measured teachers’ shared capacity to contribute to the optimal fit
The analysis showed that the sample representation was plau- within the professional community, as experienced by the
sible (see Table 1). The mean age of the respondents was 45.3 years respondent (i.e. the environment-centred approach to the
(SD ¼ 9.84; Min/Max: 25/68 years). In terms of age, the sample was perceived fit). All items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging
therefore representative of the Finnish teacher population (see also from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree).
National Board of Education, 2010). The majority of respondents
was women (n ¼ 1878) and the minority men (n ¼ 429). Accord- 6.4. Data analysis
ingly, female teachers were slightly over-represented in the sample
(see Table 1). The hypothesised model (Fig. 1) was tested using structural
equation modelling (SEM). The adopted confirmatory analysis
6.3. Measures strategy made it possible to analyse the relations between variables
and latent factors, and hence statistically determine the extent to
Three scales for measuring teachers’ a) proactive strategies (7 which the hypothesised model was consistent with the data
items), b) socio-contextual burnout (9 items), and c) experienced (Muthén & Muthén, 1998e2010). The analyses were conducted
teachereworking environment fit (6 items) were developed by the using an Mplus statistical package (version 6.1; Muthén & Muthén,
authors for the study.1 The final versions of the scales are shown in 1998e2010). The parameters of the model were estimated using an
Appendix 1. MLR procedure, which produces maximum likelihood estimates
The Proactive Strategy scale was based on the research evidence with standard errors and c2 test statistics that are robust to non-
showing that functional strategies for reducing exhaustion can be normality (Muthén & Muthén, 1998e2010; Salmela-Aro,
adopted in teachers’ everyday routines (Pyhältö et al., 2011; Tolvanen, & Nurmi, 2009). The goodness-of-fit of the estimated
Salmela-Aro, 2009). The scale consists of 7 items measuring two standardised model was evaluated by a c2 test, Comparative fit
factors of proactive strategies: a) self-regulation (4 items) and b) co- index (CFI), TuckereLewin Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of
regulation (3 items). All items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardised Root Mean Square Error
scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). of Approximation (SRMR). A non-significant c2 value, CFI and TLI
The Socio-contextual Teacher Burnout scale draws on both values above .95, an RMSEA value below .06 and an SRMR value
Maslach and Jackson’s (1981) burnout scale and Elo, Leppänen, and below .08 indicate a good fit with the data (Muthén & Muthén,
Jahkola’s (2003) single-item stress scale in terms of measuring 1998e2010; Salmela-Aro et al., 2009).
teachers’ perceived exhaustion. The scale was constructed by
specifying the social contexts of experienced cynicism and 7. Results

The aim of this study was to examine the interrelation between

1
Due to pre-testing, validity, and reliability analyses of the scales, the items with teachers’ proactive strategies and perceived teachereworking
insufficient internal consistencies were excluded from the questionnaire. environment fit that would be mediated by the socio-contextual
 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72 67

burnout experience. Accordingly, the hypothesised latent factor well as to seek and receive social support from colleagues e
structures of the teachers’ proactive strategy, socio-contextual correlated positively with experienced teachereworking environ-
burnout and teachereworking environment fit scales were tested ment fit (.30). However, the self-regulation strategy did not have a
(Bollen, 1989; Hu & Bentler, 1999). The means, variances and cor- direct effect on perceived fit. Moreover, cynicism towards the
relations for the items are presented in Table 2. teacher community correlated negatively (.88), and inadequacy in
teacherepupil interaction positively (.28), with experienced fit. On
7.1. Teachers’ proactive strategies, experienced burnout and the contrary, the experienced exhaustion did not correlate with
teachereworking environment fit perceived fit. These results suggest that perceived teacherework-
ing environment fit is dependent on the proactive strategies
The whole model fitted the data, and the results validated the adopted by the teacher and the experienced burnout symptoms.
proposed factor structures and measures of teachers’ proactive More specifically, the perceived fit that includes receiving profes-
strategies, socio-contextual burnout and teachereworking envi- sional recognition from colleagues and experiencing a constructive
ronment fit (see Fig. 2 and Appendix 1). and enabling work climate in the professional community was
The tested theoretical model showed that teachers’ successful found to be regulated by the teachers’ co-regulation, ability to
co-regulation and ability to identify and utilise resources correlated utilise social resources, cynicism towards the teacher community
negatively with perceived exhaustion (.17), cynicism towards the and inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction (R2 ¼ 94).
teacher community (.47) and inadequacy in teacherepupil inter- The third tested hypothesis was that the interrelation between
action (.29). Moreover, teachers’ self-regulative strategy correlated teachers’ proactive strategies and perceived teachereworking
negatively with exhaustion (.52), but was positively related to environment fit, i.e. receiving professional recognition and experi-
cynicism towards the teacher community (.34). Furthermore, encing a constructive and enabling work climate, is mediated by the
teachers’ self-regulative strategies did not correlate with inadequacy socio-contextual burnout experience. The optional indirect paths
in teacherepupil interaction. Both of the proactive strategies (SELF- from proactive strategies (SELF-REG and CO-REG) to perceived
REG and CO-REG) significantly explained exhaustion (R2 ¼ 40). teachereworking environment fit (FIT) are presented in Table 3.
The experienced exhaustion correlated positively with cynicism The results showed that both self- and co-regulation strategies
towards the teacher community (.45) and inadequacy in teachere had, through the socio-contextual burnout symptoms, statistically
pupil interaction (.47). In addition, adopted proactive strategies significant indirect effects on the experienced teachereworking
together with exhaustion explained cynicism towards the teacher environment fit (see Table 3). Self-regulation had a negative indi-
community (R2 ¼ 36) and inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction rect effect (.16) and co-regulation a positive indirect effect on
(R2 ¼ 43). These results confirmed that the two correlated (r ¼ .58) perceived fit (.38). These indirect effects confirmed that the effec-
proactive strategies, self- and co-regulation, adopted by teachers tiveness of the adopted strategies in contributing to an optimal
regulate socio-contextual burnout (hypothesis 1). However, it working environment fit varies through the socio-contextual
seems that merely using self-regulation was not by itself effective burnout symptoms experienced by teachers.
in reducing the risk for cynicism towards the teacher community or Moreover, the specific indirect effect analysis (see Cheung,
inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction. 2007; Preacher & Hayes, 2008; Taylor, MacKinnon, & Tein, 2008)
The second hypothesis was that perceived teachereworking showed that the self-regulation strategy had significant indirect
environment fit with the professional community is regulated by effects through cynicism towards the teacher community (.30)
socio-contextual burnout and the proactive strategies adopted by and the exhaustion and cynicism (.21) on the perceived fit. In
the teacher. The model confirmed that a teacher’s co-regulation e addition, the co-regulation strategy had a significant indirect effect
the ability to identify and use resources for coping with stressors as through the cynicism towards the teacher community (.42) on the

Table 2
Correlation matrix of items, and item means and variances.

Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

1. STRA11 1.00
2. STRA12 .63 1.00
3. STRA13 .66 .56 1.00
4. STRA14 .57 .46 .48 1.00
5. STRA21 .26 .21 .28 .27 1.00
6. STRA22 .28 .31 .28 .27 .38 1.00
7. STRA23 .30 .30 .30 .35 .37 .33 1.00
8. EXH11 .44 .42 .33 .37 .16 .23 .23 1.00
9. EXH12 .43 .37 .31 .39 .20 .24 .26 .62 1.00
10. EXH13 .44 .36 .29 .35 .21 .24 .25 .61 .66 1.00
11. CYN21 .15 .11 .15 .14 .21 .29 .14 .24 .27 .30 1.00
12. CYN22 .14 .10 .11 .15 .21 .30 .16 .25 .28 .29 .68 1.00
13. CYN23 .15 .13 .13 .14 .23 .33 .19 .30 .33 .28 .47 .47 1.00
14. INAD31 .25 .23 .19 .24 .23 .09 .30 .35 .32 .34 .16 .20 .21 1.00
15. INAD32 .24 .24 .21 .24 .27 .16 .37 .32 .38 .35 .18 .19 .26 .54 1.00
16. INAD33 .26 .25 .21 .27 .23 .13 .23 .38 .33 .31 .15 .17 .20 .48 .44 1.00
17. FIT11 .13 .13 .15 .18 .31 .39 .26 .24 .24 .24 .49 .49 .55 .14 .20 .16 1.00
18. FIT12 .10 .09 .12 .13 .31 .45 .23 .19 .20 .19 .50 .48 .50 .05 .13 .07 .70 1.00
19. FIT13 .14 .14 .14 .16 .29 .40 .29 .24 .24 .26 .49 .49 .52 .13 .20 .15 .82 .71 1.00
20. FIT21 .13 .09 .11 .14 .22 .34 .16 .22 .25 .26 .61 .59 .50 .06 .10 .06 .58 .60 .59 1.00
21. FIT22 .15 .12 .14 .14 .26 .34 .17 .20 .23 .25 .65 .61 .45 .05 .09 .06 .57 .62 .58 .75 1.00
22. FIT23 .23 .21 .19 .18 .19 .28 .14 .21 .23 .27 .50 .46 .29 .08 .07 .08 .43 .48 .46 .52 .59 1.00
Means 4.76 4.79 5.20 5.67 5.03 4.89 5.71 4.67 2.27 2.95 3.22 3.34 2.34 3.45 2.10 2.89 5.40 5.22 5.57 5.28 4.55 4.42
Variances 1.89 1.99 1.68 1.47 1.30 2.22 .85 6.06 2.52 4.07 3.18 2.87 2.67 3.37 1.56 2.48 1.61 1.88 1.61 1.99 2.47 2.58

All the correlations were significant at p level <.001.

68 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72

Fig. 2. Standardised model: c2 (196, N ¼ 2310) ¼ 1343.46, p < .001; RMSEA ¼ .05; CFI/TFI ¼ .94/.93; SRMR ¼ .05. Normed Fit Index (NFI) ¼ 1  (1343.46:20295.46) ¼ 0.93 (Bentler &
Bonett, 1980). All parameters were significant at p level <.001.

perceived teachereworking environment fit. The indirect paths

Table 3 through the perceived inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction
Indirect paths and effects (standardised coefficients). were also statistically significant, but the specific indirect effects
Effect SE p CI
were moderate (see Table 3). These results suggest that the input of
teachers’ proactive strategies in terms of contributing to an optimal
Effects from SELF-REG to FIT
teachereworking environment fit is particularly mediated by
Total indirect .16 .04 .00 95% CI [.23 to .09]
Specific Indirect exhaustion and cynicism towards the teacher community.
FIT
CYN
8. Discussion
SELF-REG .30 .04 .00 95% CI [.38 to .22]
FIT
CYN 8.1. Limitations of the study
EXH
SELF-REG .21 .03 .00 95% CI [.16e.26] The construct validity of the scales used in this cross-sectional
FIT
INAD
study as well as the tested model was acceptable (Bentler &
EXH Bonett, 1980; Bollen, 1989; Hu & Bentler, 1999). However, the
SELF-REG .07 .01 .00 95% CI [.08 to .05] scales have thus far not been validated in other school systems or
Effects from CO-REG to FIT teachers’ work environments in Finland or abroad. Further construct
Total indirect .38 .05 .00 95% CI [.29e.47]
validation of the scales introduced in this study is therefore needed.
Specific Indirect
FIT More specifically, the results confirmed that teachers’ proactive
CYN strategies in particular appeared to be significant determinants of
CO-REG .42 .04 .00 95% CI [.33e.50] burnout symptoms and perceived fit in terms of social resources
FIT constructed in the professional community. Accordingly the validity
INAD
CO-REG .08 .02 .00 95% CI [.11 to .05]
and reliability of the co- and self-regulative strategy measures could
FIT be increased by constructing additional items for both sub-scales.
CYN The co-regulation sub-scale particularly requires further refine-
EXH ment. The developed burnout scale sufficiently specified the social
CO-REG .07 .02 .00 95% CI [.04e.10]
contexts of experienced cynicism and inadequacy in teachers work.
FIT
INAD The exhaustion scale consists of approved items and a prospective
EXH item for estimating the intensity of experienced exhaustion. The
CO-REG .02 .01 .00 95% CI [.03 to .01] explanatory power of the prospective item within the exhaustion
Note: CI ¼ confidence intervals; percentile bootstrapping method for the specified scale can be further analysed with forthcoming longitudinal data.
mediation effects was used (sample size 500). Furthermore, the complexity of interrelations between teachers’
 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72 69

experienced socio-contextual burnout, proactive strategies and and perceived teachereworking environment fit, is mediated by
perceived fit needs to be further studied. It might be the case, for the socio-contextual burnout experience (see also Hakanen et al.,
example, that the perceived fit would predict the burnout symptoms 2006). The self-regulation strategies had a negative indirect ef-
and proactive strategies adopted by teachers rather than vice versa. fect, whereas the co-regulation strategies had a positive indirect
This requires longitudinal research carried out in different social effect, on perceived fit with the working community. Moreover, the
contexts and educational systems (Elo et al., 2003). results revealed that the effect of teachers’ proactive strategies
The study’s response rate was moderate; however, the repre- (self- and co-regulation) contributing to an optimal teachere
sentativeness of the sample was acceptable. Previous studies (Cook, working environment fit are particularly mediated by two burnout
Heath, & Thompson, 2000; Krosnick, 1999) have shown that the components, experienced exhaustion and cynicism towards the
representativeness of samples is a much more important criterion teacher community. These findings indicate that the sources of and
for evaluating the validity of a study than the response rate, strategies for reducing teacher burnout symptoms are embedded in
particularly if a probability sampling method is used. In this study, the social determinants of the school community (see also Fernet
the sample was not biased in terms of the teachers’ perceived socio- et al., 2012; Kokkinos, 2007; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009).
contextual burnout. More specifically, teachers who experienced Our study showed that proactive strategies contribute to both
high levels of exhaustion, cynicism towards the teacher community experienced burnout and perceived teachereworking environment
and inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction also responded to the fit. In other words, the findings supported the assumption that
questionnaire. Finally, despite the study’s limitations, the scales it teacher behaviour does matter in terms of perceived fit and expe-
described and its novel results that are related to the socio- rienced burnout. The results suggest that adopting proactive stra-
contextual approach to reducing teacher burnout have the poten- tegies that allow teachers to simultaneously regulate their own
tial to contribute to future research in this field. behaviour and their working environment are effective in reducing
burnout. However, focussing solely on self-regulation appears to be
8.2. Conclusions less effective. Furthermore, the findings indicated that the effect of
proactive strategies on perceived fit is primarily mediated by
This study provides new evidence of the interrelation between experienced burnout.
teachers’ proactive strategies (self- and co-regulation), socio- We used the concepts of self- and co-regulation to assess the ways
contextual burnout and perceived teachereworking environment in which teachers approach and deal with challenging and prob-
fit. Supporting our hypotheses (H1), teachers’ proactive strategies, lematic situations in their work (Eronen, Nurmi, & Salmela-Aro,1997;
both self- and co-regulation, were found to ameliorate their expe- Nurmi, Aunola, Salmela-Aro, & Lindroos, 2003). These strategies may
rienced socio-contextual burnout (Pyhältö et al., 2011; Salmela-Aro also be viewed as ways to access the resources teachers have at their
et al., 2011). The model showed that teacher’s successful co-regu- disposal e either as individual human capital or as social capital in the
lation, i.e. their ability to utilise social resources, correlated nega- work community (Leana, 2011). The strategies can also be optimistic
tively with all burnout components: exhaustion, cynicism towards and approach-driven (functional) or pessimistic and avoidance-
the teacher community and inadequacy in teacherepupil interac- driven (dysfunctional). The strategies that are used determine the
tion. Moreover, teacher’s self-regulative strategies correlated nega- ways in which challenges are encountered and situations resolved;
tively with exhaustion, while they were positively related to therefore they are key to successful problem solving (Cantor, 1990;
cynicism towards the teacher community. These findings support Nurmi, 1993), which is likely to reduce burnout. Salmela-Aro et al.
research which indicates that teachers’ capacity to use multiple (2009, 2011) had earlier found that increasingly optimistic achieve-
coping strategies is effective e especially in reducing emotional ment (self-regulation) and social strategies (co-regulation) predicted
exhaustion in the teacher community (Austin et al., 2005; Carmona a high level of work engagement and low level of burnout over a ten-
et al., 2006; Howard & Johnson, 2004; Kyriacou, 2001). year period. These strategies apparently provide social skills as well,
However, the findings also imply that self-regulation, i.e. adjusting which have been found to relate to successful planning, problem
the working environment fit through self-adaptation, is less effective solving and coping with different challenges; these, in turn, are
in reducing cynicism towards the teacher community than using co- necessary for successful life pursuit and well-being at work
regulative strategies aimed at modifying the working environment. (Heckhausen, 1999; Salmela-Aro, 2009).
In other words, it seems that reducing socio-contextual burnout In the present study, we see the teachereworking environment
symptoms, i.e. teacher cynicism towards the professional community fit as a central outcome of experienced burnout symptoms and
and inadequacy in teacherepupil interaction, requires adopting strategies adopted by teachers. The sources of teacher burnout as
strategies that enable not only access to the resources of the com- well as resources for occupational well-being are embedded in the
munity (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) but also that have the potential to social interactions of the school community which in turn reflect
contribute to further development of the working environment. By both the society and even global developments. Our results indicate
paying significant attention to the social context, our study sheds new that teachers can learn strategies that allow them to reduce
light on the role of the co-regulation aspect of teachers’ well-being. burnout and construct a better working environment fit, which
In line with our hypothesis (H2), teacher’s co-regulation and may further promote their well-being in work. This implies that a
ability to seek and receive social support from colleagues correlated good fit cannot be achieved by merely adapting to the working
positively with experienced teachereworking environment fit. environment, but rather by actively modifying the environment
However, the self-regulation strategies did not have a direct effect together with others. On the other hand, the working environment
on perceived fit. Moreover, cynicism towards the teacher commu- provided by the school community, including the fit, is likely to
nity correlated negatively, and inadequacy in teacherepupil inter- have an effect on the strategies that teachers have an opportunity to
action positively, with experienced fit. These results suggest that learn. Both the learning and use of multiple strategies are highly
the experienced working environment fit can be seen as a social embedded in the social interactions of the school, and also reflect
outcome which is dependent on teachers’ experienced well-being the opportunities and affordances the school system as whole of-
at work and can be improved by co-regulative strategies adopted fers the teachers. In the context of Finnish teachers’ everyday work,
by members of the professional community. membership in a professional community, with its responsibilities
Finally, in line with our hypothesis (H3), the interrelation be- and rewards, creates an important source of trust and well-being,
tween teachers’ proactive strategies, both self- and co-regulation, and is therefore a significant resource for professional
70 J. Pietarinen et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 35 (2013) 62e72

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