Kinetic Energy and Work-Energy Theorem

The work-energy theorem states that the work

done by all forces acting on a particle equals
the change in the particle’s kinetic energy.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Outline the derivation of the work-energy theorem

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The work W done by the net force on a

particle equals the change in the particle’s
kinetic energy
KE: W=ΔKE=12mv2f−12mv2iW=ΔKE=12mvf
2−12mvi2.
 The work-energy theorem can be derived
from Newton’s second law.
 Work transfers energy from one place to
another or one form to another. In more
general systems than the particle system
mentioned here, work can change the
potential energy of a mechanical device,
the heat energy in a thermal system, or the
electrical energy in an electrical device.
Key Terms
  torque: A rotational or twisting effect of a
force; (SI unit newton-meter or Nm;
imperial unit foot-pound or ft-lb)
The Work-Energy Theorem

The principle of work and kinetic energy (also

known as the work-energy theorem) states
that the work done by the sum of all forces
acting on a particle equals the change in the
kinetic energy of the particle. This definition
can be extended to rigid bodies by defining
the work of the torque and rotational kinetic
energy.

Kinetic Energy: A force does work on the block. The

kinetic energy of the block increases as a result by the
amount of work. This relationship is generalized in the
work-energy theorem.

The work W done by the net force on a

particle equals the change in the particle’s
kinetic energy KE:
W=ΔKE=12mv2f−12mv2iW=ΔKE=12mvf2−12mv
i2
where v  and v  are the speeds of the particle
i f

before and after the application of force,

and m is the particle’s mass.
Derivation

For the sake of simplicity, we will consider the

case in which the resultant force F is constant
in both magnitude and direction and is parallel
to the velocity of the particle. The particle is
moving with constant acceleration a along a
straight line. The relationship between the net
force and the acceleration is given by the
equation F = ma (Newton’s second law), and
the particle’s displacement d, can be
determined from the equation:
v2f=v2i+2advf2=vi2+2ad
obtaining,
d=v2f−v2i2ad=vf2−vi22a
The work of the net force is calculated as the
product of its magnitude (F=ma) and the
particle’s displacement. Substituting the
above equations yields:
W=Fd=mav2f−v2i2a=12mv2f−12mv2i=KEf−KEi=ΔK
E
Work-energy
theorem
The work-energy theorem explains the idea
that the net work - the total work done by all
the forces combined - done on an object is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of
the object. After the net force is removed (no
more work is being done) the object's
total energy is altered as a result of the work
that was done.
This idea is expressed in the following
equation:[1]
 is the total work done
 is the change in kinetic energy
 is the final kinetic energy
 is the initial kinetic energy
For more information on this and other
concepts related to work and energy,
see Hyperphysics.

Figure 1. In the top image, positive work is done as a

force is applied in the direction of movement, resulting in
an increase in velocity and kinetic energy. In the bottom
image, negative work is done as a force is applied
against the direction of movement, resulting in a
decrease in velocity and kinetic energy.[2]

Example
To further understand the work-energy
theorem, it can help to look at an example.
Imagine a skier moving at a constant velocity
on a flat, frictionless surface. If someone
comes up behind him and pushes them for a
distance - essentially doing work on the skier -
then they will speed up as a result of their
kinetic energy increasing. This type of working
is known as positive work since the force
was applied in the motion of the skier. If
however the person pushed opposite to the
skiers motion, the skier would slow down as a
result of their kinetic energy decreasing. This
type of work is known as negative work. The
visual above shows an example of such a
situation, just with the skier replaced by a
block.
Since in reality there are no frictionless
surfaces, the friction force opposing the skiers
motion would have to be accounted for and
this is why the equation contains the term
Wnet, as it is a sum of all the forces acting over
a distance.[3]
ork and energy[edit]
The work W done by a constant force of magnitude F on a
point that moves a displacement s in a straight line in the
direction of the force is the product

.
For example, if a force of 10 newtons (F = 10 N) acts along
a point that travels 2 metres (s = 2 m), then W = Fs = (10
N) (2 m) = 20 J. This is approximately the work done lifting
a 1 kg object from ground level to over a person's head
against the force of gravity.
The work is doubled either by lifting twice the weight the
same distance or by lifting the same weight twice the
distance.
Work is closely related to energy. The work-energy principle
states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is
caused by an equal amount of positive work done on the
body by the resultant force acting on that body. Conversely,
a decrease in kinetic energy is caused by an equal amount
of negative work done by the resultant force. Thus, if the net
work is positive, then the particle’s kinetic energy increases
by the amount of the work. If the net work done is negative,
then the particle’s kinetic energy decreases by the amount of
the work.[6]
From Newton's second law, it can be shown that work on a
free (no fields), rigid (no internal degrees of freedom) body,
is equal to the change in kinetic energy KE corresponding to
the linear velocity and angular velocity of that body,

The work of forces generated by a potential function is

known as potential energy and the forces are said to
be conservative. Therefore, work on an object that is
 merely displaced in a conservative force field, without
change in velocity or rotation, is equal to minus the
change of potential energy PE of the object,

These formulas show that work is the energy

associated with the action of a force, so work
subsequently possesses the physical dimensions, and
units, of energy. The work/energy principles discussed
here are identical to electric work/energy principles.

Constraint forces[edit]
Constraint forces determine the object's displacement in the
system, limiting it within a range. For example, in the case of
a slope plus gravity, the object is stuck to the slope and, when
attached to a taut string, it cannot move in an outwards
direction to make the string any 'tauter'. It eliminates all
displacements in that direction, that is, the velocity in the
direction of the constraint is limited to 0, so that the constraint
forces do not perform work on the system.
For a mechanical system,[7] constraint forces eliminate
movement in directions that characterize the constraint. Thus
the virtual work done by the forces of constraint is zero, a result
which is only true if friction forces are excluded.[8]
Fixed, frictionless constraint forces do not perform work on the
system,[9] as the angle between the motion and the constraint
forces is always 90°.[9] Examples of workless constraints are:
rigid interconnections between particles, sliding motion on a
frictionless surface, and rolling contact without slipping.[10]
For example, in a pulley system like the Atwood machine, the
internal forces on the rope and at the supporting pulley do no
work on the system. Therefore work need only be computed for
the gravitational forces acting on the bodies. Another example
is the centripetal force exerted inwards by a string on a ball in
uniform circular motion sideways constrains the ball to circular
motion restricting its movement away from the centre of the
circle. This force does zero work because it is perpendicular to
the velocity of the ball.
The magnetic force on a charged particle is F = qv × B,
where q is the charge, v is the velocity of the particle, and B is
the magnetic field. The result of a cross product is always
perpendicular to both of the original vectors, so F ⊥ v. The dot
product of two perpendicular vectors is always zero, so the
work W = F ⋅ v = 0, and the magnetic force does not do work. It
can change the direction of motion but never change the
speed.

Mathematical calculation[edit]
For moving objects, the quantity of work/time (power) is
integrated along the trajectory of the point of application of the
force. Thus, at any instant, the rate of the work done by a force
(measured in joules/second, or watts) is the scalar product of
the force (a vector), and the velocity vector of the point of
application. This scalar product of force and velocity is known
as instantaneous power. Just as velocities may be integrated
over time to obtain a total distance, by the fundamental
theorem of calculus, the total work along a path is similarly the
time-integral of instantaneous power applied along the
trajectory of the point of application.[11]
Work is the result of a force on a point that follows a curve X,
with a velocity v, at each instant. The small amount of
work δW that occurs over an instant of time dt is calculated as

where the F ⋅ v is the power over the instant dt. The sum of

these small amounts of work over the trajectory of the point
yields the work,

where C is the trajectory from x(t1) to x(t2). This integral is

computed along the trajectory of the particle, and is
therefore said to be path dependent.
If the force is always directed along this line, and the
magnitude of the force is F, then this integral simplifies to

where s is displacement along the line. If F is constant,

in addition to being directed along the line, then the
integral simplifies further to

where s is the displacement of the point along the

line.
This calculation can be generalized for a constant
force that is not directed along the line, followed by
the particle. In this case the dot
product F ⋅ ds = F cos θ ds, where θ is the angle
between the force vector and the direction of
movement,[11] that is

When a force component is perpendicular to the

displacement of the object (such as when a body
moves in a circular path under a central force), no
work is done, since the cosine of 90° is zero.
[6]
 Thus, no work can be performed by gravity on a
planet with a circular orbit (this is ideal, as all
orbits are slightly elliptical). Also, no work is done
on a body moving circularly at a constant speed
while constrained by mechanical force, such as
moving at constant speed in a frictionless ideal
centrifuge.
Work done by a variable force[edit]
Calculating the work as "force times straight path
segment" would only apply in the most simple of
circumstances, as noted above. If force is
changing, or if the body is moving along a curved
 path, possibly rotating and not necessarily rigid,
then only the path of the application point of the
force is relevant for the work done, and only the
component of the force parallel to the application
point velocity is doing work (positive work when in
the same direction, and negative when in the
opposite direction of the velocity). This
component of force can be described by the
scalar quantity called scalar tangential
component (F cos(θ), where θ is the angle
between the force and the velocity). And then the
most general definition of work can be formulated
as follows:
Work of a force is the line integral of its scalar tangential
component along the path of its application point.
If the force varies (e.g. compressing a spring) we need to
use calculus to find the work done. If the force is given
by F(x) (a function of x) then the work done by the force
along the x-axis from a to b is:

orque and rotation[edit]

A force couple results from equal and opposite forces, acting
on two different points of a rigid body. The sum (resultant) of
these forces may cancel, but their effect on the body is the
couple or torque T. The work of the torque is calculated as

where the T ⋅ ω is the power over the instant δt. The sum of

these small amounts of work over the trajectory of the rigid
body yields the work,
This integral is computed along the trajectory of the rigid
body with an angular velocity ω that varies with time, and
is therefore said to be path dependent.
If the angular velocity vector maintains a constant
direction, then it takes the form,

where φ is the angle of rotation about the constant unit

vector S. In this case, the work of the torque becomes,

where C is the trajectory from φ(t1) to φ(t2). This

integral depends on the rotational trajectory φ(t), and
is therefore path-dependent.
If the torque T is aligned with the angular velocity
vector so that,
and both the torque and angular velocity are
constant, then the work takes the form,[1]

A force of constant magnitude and perpendicular to

the lever arm

This result can be understood more simply by

considering the torque as arising from a force
of constant magnitude F, being applied
perpendicularly to a lever arm at a distance r,
as shown in the figure. This force will act
through the distance along the circular
arc s = rφ, so the work done is

Introduce the torque τ = Fr, to obtain

as presented above.
Notice that only the component of torque
in the direction of the angular velocity
vector contributes to the work.

Work and potential energy[edit]

The scalar product of a force F and the
velocity v of its point of application
defines the power input to a system at an
instant of time. Integration of this power
over the trajectory of the point of
application, C = x(t), defines the work
input to the system by the force.
Path dependence[edit]
Therefore, the work done by a force F on
an object that travels along a curve C is
given by the line integral:

where dx(t) defines the

trajectory C and v is the velocity along
this trajectory. In general this integral
requires the path along which the
velocity is defined, so the evaluation of
work is said to be path dependent.
The time derivative of the integral for
work yields the instantaneous power,
Path independence[edit]
If the work for an applied force is independent of the path, then the work done
by the force, by the gradient theorem, defines a potential function which is
evaluated at the start and end of the trajectory of the point of application. This
means that there is a potential function U(x), that can be evaluated at the two
points x(t1) and x(t2) to obtain the work over any trajectory between these two
points. It is tradition to define this function with a negative sign so that positive
work is a reduction in the potential, that is

The function U(x) is called the potential energy associated with the applied

force. The force derived from such a potential function is said to
be conservative. Examples of forces that have potential energies are
gravity and spring forces.
In this case, the gradient of work yields
and the force F is said to be "derivable from a potential."[12]
Because the potential U defines a force F at every point x in space, the
set of forces is called a force field. The power applied to a body by a
force field is obtained from the gradient of the work, or potential, in the
direction of the velocity V of the body, that is
Work by gravity[edit]

Gravity F = mg does work W = mgh along any descending path

In the absence of other forces, gravity results in a constant

downward acceleration of every freely moving object. Near Earth's
surface the acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.8 m⋅s−2 and the
gravitational force on an object of mass m is Fg = mg. It is
convenient to imagine this gravitational force concentrated at
the center of mass of the object.
If an object is displaced upwards or downwards a vertical
distance y2 − y1, the work W done on the object by its weight mg is:
where Fg is weight (pounds in imperial units, and newtons in SI
units), and Δy is the change in height y. Notice that the work
done by gravity depends only on the vertical movement of the
object. The presence of friction does not affect the work done on
the object by its weight.
Work by gravity in space[edit]
The force of gravity exerted by a mass M on another mass m is
given by

where r is the position vector from M to m.

Let the mass m move at the velocity v; then the work of
gravity on this mass as it moves from position r(t1) to r(t2) is
given by

Notice that the position and velocity of the mass m are

given by

where er and et are the radial and tangential unit

vectors directed relative to the vector from M to m, and

we use the fact that   Use this to simplify the

formula for work of gravity to,

This calculation uses the fact that

The function

is the gravitational potential function, also

known as gravitational potential energy. The
negative sign follows the convention that
work is gained from a loss of potential
energy.