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Do pro-environmental factors lead to purchase intention of hybrid vehicles? The

moderating effects of environmental knowledge

Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah, Nurul Syafiqah Tanwir

PII: S0959-6526(20)33688-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123643
Reference: JCLP 123643

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 13 November 2019

Revised Date: 28 May 2020
Accepted Date: 3 August 2020

Please cite this article as: Hamzah MI, Tanwir NS, Do pro-environmental factors lead to purchase
intention of hybrid vehicles? The moderating effects of environmental knowledge, Journal of Cleaner
Production, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123643.

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CRediT author statement
Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah: Writing- Original draft preparation, Writing- Reviewing
and Editing, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition

Nurul Syafiqah Tanwir: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology

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 Do pro-environmental factors lead to purchase intention of hybrid

vehicles? The moderating effects of environmental knowledge

Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah*, Nurul Syafiqah Tanwir

Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor,
Kampus Puncak Alam, 42300 Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. I. Hamzah), [email protected] (N.

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S. Tanwir),

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Acknowledgment
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We would like to thank the Office of the Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation),
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Universiti Teknologi MARA Selangor, Malaysia, for funding this research via the Lestari
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Grant (600-IRMI 5/3/GIP (035/2018)).

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 Abstract

This research aimed to investigate the antecedents of Malaysians purchase intention of hybrid

vehicles through the integration of the Norm Activation Model (NAM) and the Theory of

Planned Behavior (TPB). Data was collected from vehicle owners (n = 256) across suburban

areas of the Greater Kuala Lumpur and was analyzed using Partial-Least Squares Structural

Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). Specific pro-environmental factors, namely perceived green

value, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm, were found to exert a positive

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influence over green purchase intention. Additionally, the results show that environmental

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knowledge has positive moderating effects on the link between perceived green value and
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green purchase intention. Perceived behavioral control was shown to mediate the effects of
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environmental concern and responsibility on green purchase intention. The findings reinforce
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the current view that pro-environmental factors overcome self-interest in buyers’ decision-
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making process. Given the limited literature integrating TPB and NAM within the hybrid

vehicle market context, especially in the developing economies, the findings provide a novel
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perspective for future research to build on.

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Keywords: Environmental knowledge; Ecological behavior; Purchase intention; Norm

activation model; Theory of planned behavior; Hybrid vehicles

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 Do pro-environmental factors lead to purchase intention of hybrid vehicles?
The moderating effects of environmental knowledge

Abstract
This research aimed to investigate the antecedents of Malaysians purchase intention of hybrid
vehicles through the integration of the Norm Activation Model (NAM) and the Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB). Data was collected from vehicle owners (n = 256) across suburban
areas of the Greater Kuala Lumpur and was analyzed using Partial-Least Squares Structural
Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). Specific pro-environmental factors, namely perceived green
value, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm, were found to exert a positive
influence over green purchase intention. Additionally, the results show that environmental
knowledge has positive moderating effects on the link between perceived green value and green
purchase intention. Perceived behavioral control was shown to mediate the effects of

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environmental concern and responsibility on green purchase intention. The findings reinforce the
current view that pro-environmental factors overcome self-interest in buyers’ decision-making

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process. Given the limited literature integrating TPB and NAM within the hybrid vehicle market
context, especially in the developing economies, the findings provide a novel perspective for
future research to build on.
1. Introduction
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As the earth is repetitively experiencing record-breaking temperatures, science assures us that
climate change is an inevitable outcome. In addition to the power sector and manufacturing
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industry, road transport is accountable for a substantial portion of fossil fuel consumption and
carbon emission that contributes to global warming. In order to mitigate and combat the adverse
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effects of climate change, electrified and hybrid vehicles are positioned as effective clean
mobility solutions (Neves, Cardoso Marques, & Alberto Fuinhas, 2019). In most developed
economies, people are rapidly shifting from internal combustion engines' based vehicles (ICEVs)
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to electric vehicles. In bold attempts to phase out ICEVs (or termed as “de-ICEing” initiatives),
cities such as Copenhagen, Oslo, London, Paris and Amsterdam have set deadlines to ban fossil-
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fuel-based vehicles from their roads (Ren & Jermain, 2019). While the numbers of newly
released electric vehicle (EV) models are unprecedented, the pace of its adoption and its overall
market share remains dismal (Egbue & Long, 2012).
In addition to Japan, other Asian countries have seen tremendous growth in their population rate
and their economy over the past three decades. Unsurprisingly, the vast majority of projected
increases in greenhouse gas emissions is expected to come from this specific continent. By 2030,
the share of Asia in the entire worldwide transport sector–related CO2 emissions will increase to
31% (Asian Development Bank, 2018). In cognizant of the threats of climate change, Malaysia's
commitment to the reduction of CO2 emissions was ratified by the United Nations Climate
Change Conference (UNFCCC) in 2016. The country targets to reduce its GHG emission
intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 relative to the emission intensity of GDP in 2005 (Fulton,
Mejia, Arioli, Dematera, & Lah, 2017). Despite the introduction of policies to outline the
emission reduction measures by Asian governments, many of these projection targets are
ambiguous and unquantified (Fulton et al., 2017). Considering that earlier adopters of hybrid and
EVs originate from developed Western nations, the majority of scholarly work on hybrid vehicle
adoption is focused on these countries.
As the laggards in electrified private passenger vehicle adoption, developing countries are not
well poised for the mass market of EV. This situation is ultimately due to charging infrastructure

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limitations (Neves et al., 2019), low-income levels (Yong & Park, 2017), and relatively higher
costs of full EVs as compared to its ICE counterparts (Adnan, Vasant, Imran Rahman, & Noor,
2016). Given this scenario, such countries are struggling to match their developed counterparts in
terms of hybrid vehicles' adoption levels. Within the Malaysian context, hybrid vehicle sales
constitute 4.6 percent of the total passenger vehicles market in 2019, while only 26 EVs were
sold during the same period (Yusof, 2019). Although these statistics appear to be negligible,
hybrid vehicles are expected to facilitate the growth of EVs. Azmi and Tokai (2017) forecasted
that 1.43 million of hybrid vehicles and 43,000 units of EVs would actively roam the country's
roads by 2040, if supportive policies are in place, including lower vehicle taxes and more
stringent emission regulations.
Although hybrid vehicles are slowly gaining acceptance from the public, not much is known on
the psychological factors that lead to a faster rate of their adoption. Intention to purchase, rather
than purchase behavior, is widely used given that it is almost impossible to analyze drivers'
actual behaviors as consumers (Bjerkan, Nørbech, & Nordtømme, 2016). The core premise of
TPB is that human behavior results from rational choices that are driven by attitude, subjective

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norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). Meanwhile, NAM posits that individuals'
behavior (purchase intention) is predicted by personal norms (intrinsic factors concerning a

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particular behavior) rather than the social norm that reflects externally imposed rules (Schwartz,
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Driven by the fact that the threat of climate change is real and suggestions that the government is
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serious about it (Fulton et al., 2017; Ooi & Amran, 2019), collective efforts in augmenting
consumers' knowledge and awareness on these issues will undoubtedly go to great lengths in
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battling environmental degradation. The core of the issue is that we have limited knowledge on
whether they are lacking this knowledge or having a restrictive sense of psychological will
towards endorsing this pro-environmental change (Wang, Wang, Li, Wang, & Liang, 2018). The
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roles of consumers' knowledge in spurring pro-environmental attitude were equally equivocal in

previous studies. For instance, it was reported that attitudinal outcome was positively influenced
by knowledge of climate change (Masud et al., 2015) and knowledge of EVs (Wang et al., 2018).
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In a contradictory finding, Higueras-Castillo, Liébana-Cabanillas, Muñoz-Leiva, and García-

Maroto (2019) reported that customers' prior knowledge of hybrid vehicles adversely affects
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their attitude towards electric and hybrid vehicle adoption. In line with the inconclusive
predictive ability of environmental knowledge in spurring sustainable energy behavior (Steg,
Perlaviciute, & van der Werff, 2015), this study attempts to address this research void through
integrating the variables with factors from the TPB and NAM.
Overall, the contribution of this research to the literature is two-fold. Firstly, it offers a novel
perspective that integrates both TPB and NAM in explaining the drivers behind hybrid vehicle
purchase intention. This integration may assist researchers in understanding the drivers of hybrid
vehicle adoption, and at the same time, encourage further development of the proposed
framework for future research in green mobility adoption. Secondly, environmental knowledge is
positioned as the moderator within the relationship of the TPB-NAM factors and hybrid vehicle
purchase intention. This proposition answers the call from researchers who advocated the
incorporation of knowledge (about the environment and green products) into a holistic
multivariate model that can effectively predict the intention towards green consumerism (Han,
Wang, Zhao, & Li, 2017; Suki, 2016a). Given the shortcomings of the extant research within this
domain, this research attempts to enhance the knowledge on the impact of knowledge, pro-
environmental obligation, and TPB factors on consumers’ decision making related to hybrid
vehicles.

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This manuscript is outlined into five main sections. The introduction section summarizes the
underlying issues, study objectives, and theoretical problems of the research. The following two
sections seek to explicate the nexus among the TPB and NAM variables, and the environmental
knowledge construct. The literature review segment introduces the concept of both the TPB and
NAM, as well as environmental knowledge. Furthermore, it articulates the contribution of such
concepts towards consumers' adoption of hybrid vehicles. The hypothesis development part
exhaustively converges and scrutinizes existing theoretical evidence prior to conceptualizing the
inferences based on sound judgment and intellectual reasoning. Next, the methodological part
explains the data collection procedures and the samples and measures utilized in this research.
The result section details the main findings of this study that were derived from systematic
empirical analyses. Finally, the discussion section concludes the study with insights on
theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and future research directions.

2. Review of Literature

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TPB and NAM

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A significant number of studies have sought to explore the areas of environmental psychology
that aim to understand the factors affecting green consumption behaviors. Many of this research
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emphasizes the role of the TPB (Ajzen, 1991) and the NAM (Schwartz, 1977). The central tenets
of the TPB suggest that a particular behavior is likely to occur when people possess a positive
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attitude towards the behavior (attitude), feel that their social circles approve or support the
behavior (social norms), and believe they are capable of adopting the behavior (perceived
behavioral control). Meanwhile, the NAM suggests that personal norms serve to indicate the
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altruistic behavior of the consumer, hence influencing their decision-making process towards
pro-environmental outcomes. Numerous studies have indicated that a single application of the
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NAM or TPB is insufficient to explain green behavior intention (He & Zhan, 2018; Liu, Sheng,
Mundorf, Redding, & Ye, 2017; Zhang, Liu, & Zhao, 2018). TPB is deemed to be highly skewed
towards self-interest and social approvals, while NAM revolves personal pro-environmental
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motivations and moral obligations. Thus, the paradoxical tensions between TPB and NAM are
addressed through the integration, in synergy, of both frameworks.
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Nevertheless, emerging research in pro-environmental behavior is increasingly focusing on the

integration of TPB and NAM. For instance, the integration of TPB and NAM is used to predict
consumers’ pro-environmental behavior within the household consumption setting that includes
recycling, intake of organic meals, and purchase of fair trade goods (Gatersleben et al., 2014;
Park & Ha, 2014; Shi, Fan, & Zhao, 2017). Additionally, personal norm and other TPB factors
are incorporated as determinants of intention to reduce travel among car drivers (Liu et al., 2017;
Setiawan et al., 2014). Furthermore, this amalgamation is positioned as antecedents of citizens'
environmental complain intention (Zhang et al., 2017). However, little is known if the
integration works well in predicting the adoption of hybrid vehicles, especially in the context of a
developing country. Against this backdrop, this study contends that personal norms (reflected
through environmental responsibility and concern), social norms, attitude and perceived
behavioral control form a potential set of antecedents that influence intentions within the
purchase of hybrid vehicles.
Although NAM and TPB are empirically established, both of these frameworks offer different
perspectives to explain human behaviors. Scholars argued that the primary motivation to
purchase hybrid vehicles stems from the functional and utilitarian aspects of the vehicles and
their supporting infrastructure (Axsen & Kurani, 2013; Krupa et al., 2014). Others have
contended that a motivation to support a green-environment is a primary driver in explaining

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green purchase intention. For instance, noble self-identity and salient values are the essential
antecedents of pro-environmental behavior (Gatersleben et al., 2014; Peters, Gutscher, & Scholz,
2011). Meanwhile, environmental sustainability surpasses self-interest benefits (that include
range and price), in predicting purchase intention of electric vehicles (Degirmenci & Breitner,
2017). Therefore, the adoption of hybrid vehicles can be an outcome influenced by multiple
factors, including altruistic obligation and self-interest. Hence, the combination of these two
theories can offer complementary perspectives to explain consumers' intention to purchase
hybrid vehicles. However, TPB and NAM are rarely studied together in determining people's
adoption of hybrid vehicles. Thus, we know little about their relationship and relative impact on
hybrid vehicle purchase intention. The existing environmental literature that integrates TPB and
NAM is summarized in Table 1 below. The selection of these sources was based on three main
criterias namely; (i) indexed in Elsevier's Scopus, (ii) published within the past six years, and
(iii) conducted empirical investigation of environment-related outcomes through the integration
of TPB and NAM.
Table 1. Summary of previous environmental studies that integrated the TPB and NAM frameworks.

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Sources NAM related factors Dependent Variable Sample

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Asadi et al. (2019) AC, AR, PN Green IT adoption intention 183 Malaysian manufacturers
Lopes, Kalid, Rodríguez, & AC, AR, PN Energy-saving behavior 99 Brazilian chemical industry
Ávila Filho (2019)
Wang, Sun, Wang, & AC, AR, PN
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Intention to purchase energy-
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369 consumers in Beijing, China
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Zhang (2019) efficient appliances
Shin, Im, Jung, & Severt AC, AR, PN Intention towards restaurants’ 461 restaurant patrons in the United
(2018) organic menus States
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Wang, Wang, Guo, Zhang, AC, AR, PN Energy-saving behavior 494 residence in Shandong
& Wang (2018) Province, China
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Han & Hyun (2017) AR, PN, PA Intention to visit an 424 visitors of museums in South
environmentally responsible Korea
museum
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Shi et al. (2017) EC, PN Household emission reduction 418 urban households who lived in
behavior dense haze areas of China
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Liu et al. (2017) AC, AR, PN Intention to reduce car travel 600 car drivers in Beijing,
Shanghai, and Guangzhou, China
Zhang et al., (2017) AC, PN Environmental complain 1958 citizens across China
intention
Han, Jae, & Hwang (2016) AC, AR, PN Pro-environmental decision 350 cruise ship travelers in the
making United States
Nguyen, Zhu, & Le (2015) AC, AR, PN Intention towards waste 180 households in Hanoi, Vietnam
separation
Setiawan, Santosa, & AC, AR, PN Pro-environmental car usage 312 university-based car
Sjafruddin (2014) commuters in Indonesia
Park & Ha (2014) PN Intention to recycle 421 consumers across the United
States
Han (2014) AC, AR, PN Intention towards an 340 convention visitors across the
environmentally responsible United States
convention
Gatersleben et al. (2014) PN, EV, EI Pro-environmental attitude 135 households in the United
Kingdom

*Note: AC=awareness of consequences; AR=ascription of responsibility; PN=personal norm,

PA=problem awareness; EV=environmental values; EI=environmental identit; EC=environmental
concern.

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Environmental Knowledge
Although Table 1 outlines several studies that amalgamate the TPB and NAM in assessing pro-
environmental intentions and behaviors, environmental knowledge remains a missing link that is
still not widely understood. Consumers may find it challenging to engage in pro-environmental
actions when they are not well informed, have incorrect knowledge, or has no knowledge of
green ecological choices (Gifford & Nilsson, 2014). They are often confused about the
knowledge that they already have. For instance, underestimating their own energy consumption
and entirely associating the burden of global warming with the industry rather than with their
individual-level behaviors (Steg, Perlaviciute & van der Werff, 2015). People’s lack of
knowledge could be a psychological barrier to the acceptance of electrified vehicles (Wang
Wang Li 2018). Hence, the roles of environmental knowledge should be strategically embedded
within the TPB and NAM frameworks in unraveling new theoretical insights into the adoption of
hybrid vehicles.
From the consumers’ perspective, environmental knowledge can be defined as one's ability to

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comprehend and evaluate issues surrounding human consumption activities and behaviors that
can influence the environment positively or negatively (Haron, Paim, & Yahaya, 2005). Previous

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literature suggests that general environmental knowledge positively affects consumer beliefs and
attitudes towards environmentally friendly products (Choi & Johnson, 2019; Goh & Balaji, 2016;
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Suki, 2013). This positive change transcends beyond beliefs and attitudes into consistent actions.
For instance, Pothitou et al. (2016) posited that people with a broader knowledge of household
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energy savings are likely to achieve them by changing their habits. Similarly, people with higher
environmental knowledge portray higher levels of pro-environmental behavior such as eating
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fewer meat meals, frequently using public transport, and buying things that have less throw-away
packaging (Fielding & Head, 2012). Some scholars contended that the complexities of
knowledge in assisting environmentally friendly behavior need to be better mapped in future
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research. Levine and Strube (2012) concluded that consumers' knowledge and intention
significantly predict their environmental behavior through different pathways, albeit both not
being significantly linked with one another.
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Previous literature suggests that environmental knowledge positively affects consumer beliefs
and attitudes towards environmental-friendly products (Choi & Johnson, 2019; Goh & Balaji,
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2016; Suki, 2013). In terms of hybrid cars, scholars have recognized the positive impact of
environmental knowledge in influencing intentions to adopt these vehicles (Mohiuddin, Al
Mamun, Syed, Masud, & Su, 2018; Nayum & Klöckner, 2014; Nordlund, Jansson, & Westin,
2016). Drawing upon these arguments, we suggest that consumers’ environmental knowledge
shall direct consumers’ pro-environmental behavior towards hybrid vehicles’ purchase intention.
The next section explores and justifies the hypotheses supporting this theoretical proposition.

3. Hypotheses Development

The concept of perceived value has deep roots within the consumer and marketing literature.
From the consumers' perspective, the term reflects one's assessment upon receiving the desired
quality and attributes in return for the amount paid (Zeithaml, 1988). Despite this, value is a
complex construct entrenched in diverse disciplines, and there is no clear consensus on its
specific definition (Brennan & Henneberg, 2008). Consequently, it is often interpreted
differently and may not capture the ecological altruism of potential hybrid vehicle buyers if the
pro-environmental attributes of the value propositions are unclear. De Groot and Steg (2008)
conceptualized three categories of green value orientations that guide consumers' principles in

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their lives and eventually lead to environmentally sustainable behavior. The three value
orientations are (1) egoistic value, which assesses cost and benefit based on self-interest; (2)
social-altruistic value, which considers collective and mutual responsibility; and (3) biospheric
value, which focuses purely on nature and living world's preservation (De Groot & Steg, 2008).
Uniquely, there is a clear demarcation of tangible and intangible benefits in their interpretations
of green value.
In establishing a parsimonious representation of green value, tangible individual benefits are
considered to be powerful motivators that should not be overlooked. These benefits, such as cost
savings and health advantages, can be easily identified and appear to be useful for marketers in
enticing consumers aside from the intangible benefits (Hartmann & Ibáñez, 2006). Based upon
this discourse, we define perceived green value as an individual's conscience towards
appreciating pro-environmental actions, which in turn benefits them through the reduction in
both environmental harm and energy costs. Studies have shown that green value plays a
significant role in facilitating consumers' intention towards purchase intention of hybrid and
electric vehicles (Degirmenci & Breitner, 2017; Lin & Wu, 2018). Similarly, when consumers

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feel that the hybrid technology is compatible with their green value mindset, consumers are more
likely to have the intention of adopting the technology (Ozaki & Sevastyanova, 2011; Shanyong

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Wang et al., 2018). This discussion drives the formulation of the following hypothesis:
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H1 Perceived green value positively affects green purchase intention.
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A person’s attitudinal predisposition consists of the evaluation (either positive or negative) of
feelings and preferences towards an object or idea (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Attitude is
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categorized into two categories, explicit and implicit. Explicit self-report measures of
environmental attitudes are readily accessible, self-reportable, and conveniently measure through
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standard questionnaire surveys (Levine & Strube, 2012). Meanwhile, implicit attitudes exist
outside of conscious awareness that need an immediate reaction to a stimulus and hence, require
experimental research design to capture their articulated feelings (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).
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Consumers’ attitude that is shaped through positive feelings and constructive image of specific
products or brands eventually drive them towards ecological purchase intention (Thøgersen, de
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Barcellos, Perin, & Zhou, 2015). Studies on environmental attitudes have indicated that people
hold benevolent views regarding the environment, in addition to environmentally sustainable
products (Levine & Strube, 2012). Consumers who have a favorable impression towards such
green products will feel that their purchase is beneficial, worthwhile, and satisfactory.
Accordingly, we define green purchase attitude as one's internal beliefs and values towards
environmentally sustainable products and services. A positive attitude towards sustainable
products is regarded as the most important driver of green purchasing behavior (Cerri, Testa, &
Rizzi, 2018). Likewise, research has also shown that generally, people have favorable attitudes
towards the ownership of hybrid and electric vehicles (L. Han et al., 2017; Higueras-Castillo et
al., 2019). Subsequently, consumers who exhibit perceived green attitude tend to demonstrate
positive intention towards the purchase of these vehicles (Degirmenci & Breitner, 2017;
Jayaraman, Yun, Seo, & Joo, 2015). Hence, it is proposed that the green purchase attitude
positively affects green purchase intention among consumers. Drawing upon these arguments,
the following statement is hypothesized:
H2 Green purchase attitude positively affects green purchase intention.

Perceived behavioral control is an indispensable enabler of intentions considering that a person

needs to realize their own ability to perform specific actions before deciding to take action.

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Perceived behavioral control is defined as "people's perception of the ease or difficulty of
performing the behavior of interest" (Ajzen, 1991). Wang et al. (2016) indicated that perceived
behavioral control has positive effects on consumers' purchase intention of hybrid vehicles. As
justified by Lin and Wu (2018), consumers' control over their financial capability reflects their
personal belief towards purchasing hybrid vehicles. Furthermore, Lou, Wang, and Yang (2017)
highlighted that the high price of hybrid vehicles was found to restrict the influence of
consumers' perceived behavioral control towards hybrid vehicles' purchase intention. The
premium price of hybrid vehicles is a concern that needs to be addressed since its offering may
go beyond the affordability of the mainstream and middle-income consumer groups (Jayaraman
et al., 2015). Although the price of hybrid vehicles is generally higher than conventional
vehicles, Simsekoglu and Nayum (2019) highlighted that consumers with better control over
their financial capacity tend to have a better perceived behavioral control over hybrid vehicles'
purchase intention. Consumers who find it easier to purchase hybrid vehicles are at a higher
advantage than those who have trouble in doing so. Therefore, it is proposed that perceived
behavioral control positively affects the consumers' purchase intention towards purchasing

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hybrid vehicles.
H3 Perceived behavioral control positively affects green purchase intention.

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Subjective norm is defined as the “perceived social pressure from others to perform or not
perform in certain circumstances” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188). Lapinski and Rimal (2005, p. 130)
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emphasized the two types of subjective norms, which are; (i) injunctive (“refers to peoples’
beliefs about what ought to be done in a situation”) and (ii) descriptive norms (“refers to beliefs
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about what is actually done by most others in one’s social group"). There is an abundance of
scientific evidence ascertaining the relationship between subjective norm and green behavior.
For instance, this scenario was observed within the context of retail shopping (Chen & Deng,
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2016), waste recycling (Park & Ha, 2014), car travel reduction (Liu et al., 2017), and lodging of
environmental complaint (Zhang et al., 2017). In terms of the hybrid vehicles adoption intention,
subjective norm is not an exception. Specifically, the social pressure of one’s social network
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(e.g., relatives and friends) revealed a significant influence on the intention of purchasing pro-
environmental vehicles (Afroz, Masud, Akhtar, Islam, & Duasa, 2015). As highlighted by Wang
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et al. (2016), social pressure plays a vital role in influencing consumers’ behavior to the extent of
dominating their personal moral norms. Thus, as articulated, it is proposed that subjective norm
positively affects consumers’ purchase intention of hybrid vehicles.
H4 Subjective norm positively affects green purchase intention.

Environmental concern reflects the consumers’ consideration and awareness of environmental

issues. Consumers with higher environmental awareness are more likely to choose new vehicle
technologies, including hybrid vehicles (Hackbarth & Madlener, 2016; Krupa et al., 2014).
Additionally, individuals exposed to higher levels of environmental concern and environmental
knowledge tend to significantly demonstrate more pro-environmental behaviors and lesser
environmental harmful behaviors (Fielding & Head, 2012). According to Cerri, Testa, and Rizzi
(2018), environmental concern is one of the significant predictors in shaping consumers'
behavior towards pro-environmental consumption. Moreover, consumers' concern about air
quality caused by emissions from conventional vehicles has dramatically encouraged them to
purchase hybrid vehicles (Razak, Yusof, Mashahadi, Alias, & Othman, 2014). Interestingly, the
high price of hybrid vehicles has not dampened the positive influence of consumers'
environmental concerns towards their intention to adopt hybrid vehicles (Juan, Hsu, & Xie,
2017). In other words, consumers' strong concern on preserving environmental wellbeing

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reinforces their willingness to act towards environmentally sustainable outcomes. Taken
together, it is proposed that environmental concern positively affects consumers’ intention of
purchasing hybrid vehicles.
H5a Environmental concern positively affects green purchase intention
H5b Green purchase attitude mediates the effect of environmental concern on green purchase
intention.
H5c Perceived behavioral control mediates the effect of environmental concern on green
purchase intention.

Environmental responsibility reflects the degree of ones' behavioral responsibility towards

environmental wellbeing. An individual's responsibility is considered as a self-imposed action
that involves opting for eco-friendly products, reducing unsustainable consumption, and
affectively involved in environmental protection issues (Yu, Yu, & Chao, 2017). From the

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perspective of green purchase behavior, the value of environmental responsibility among
consumers may mitigate the adverse effects of conventional consumerism and eventually leads

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towards green consumerism (Ferri & Pedrini, 2018). Many business organizations nowadays are
shifting towards a greener business venture to encourage environmental responsibility among
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consumers for a pro-environmental purchase behavior (Tan, Muzafar, & Tan, 2017). Consumers
who value environmental knowledge demonstrate a positive influence on pro-environmental
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behavior (Rezai, Kit, Mohamed, & Nasir, 2013). This scenario is likely to occur when
consumers start to realize that the collective efforts are direly needed in battling climate change
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and environmental degradation for the planet to be inhabitable for future generations. In regard
to the consumers' purchase intention of hybrid vehicles, the tendency to purchase
environmentally-friendly vehicles increases when the consumers have higher levels of
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responsibility towards preserving the environmental wellbeing (Jayaraman et al., 2015). Hence,
consumers' environmental responsibility plays a significant role in influencing consumers'
behavior toward ecological consumption. This sense of responsibility can only be achieved if
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there is a heightened sense of awareness among the community to mitigate air quality
degradation, caused by internal combustion engine vehicles. Therefore, it is proposed that
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environmental responsibility positively affects consumers’ intention to purchase hybrid vehicles.

H6a Environmental responsibility positively affects green purchase intention.
H6b Green purchase attitude mediates the effect of environmental responsibility on green
purchase intention.
H6c Perceived behavioral control mediates the effect of environmental responsibility on green
purchase intention.

Environmental knowledge refers to an individual’s knowledge of the environment and the

pressing issues surrounding it, such as climate change, deforestation, and sea contamination of
non-degradable waste. Previous studies indicate that environmental knowledge is positively
associated with consumer beliefs and attitudes towards the consumption of green products (Choi
& Johnson, 2019; Suki, 2013). However, skepticism in green products prevents consumers from
purchasing these products. This skepticism is derived from consumers' anxiety over potential
exaggeration and misleading claims made on the products' label or advertising (Goh & Balaji,
2016). Besides, consumers are deemed to be poorly informed due to their insufficient knowledge
of hybrid vehicles (Higueras-Castillo et al., 2019), and knowledge on the environment and
climate change (Kardooni, Yusoff, & Kari, 2016). Hence, the lack of knowledge makes it

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difficult for consumers to make informed purchase decisions of hybrid vehicles, thus slowing
down the adoption of these vehicles (Larson, Viáfara, Parsons, & Elias, 2015). Choi and Johnson
(2019) conclude that consumers who consider themselves fairly knowledgeable about general
environmental issues have a proper inclination to purchase green products. This is primarily
because their findings indicate that environmental knowledge significantly contributes to
additional variance in green purchase intention. However, Levine and Strube (2012) asserted that
the path from environmental knowledge to intention was statistically insignificant in predicting
pro-environmental intentions. Thus, consumers' perceived environmental knowledge is proposed
to positively moderate the impact of attitude, perceived value, perceived behavior control, and
social norms towards green purchase intention.
H7 The effects of pro-environmental factors precisely (a) perceived green value, (b) green
purchase attitude, (c) perceived behavioral control and (d) subjective norm on green purchase
intention is stronger at higher levels of environmental knowledge than at lower levels of
environmental knowledge.

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In summary, the present study addresses gaps in existing knowledge and the issues discussed in

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the previous paragraphs by presenting the following questions: (1) what is the most influential
factor that drives hybrid car purchasing decisions? (2) How does environmental knowledge play
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an interactive role in influencing hybrid car purchasing decisions? Furthermore, (3) what are the
important areas that require the utmost attention from automotive brands to attract hybrid car
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buyers?
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H5a
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Perceived Green
Value
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H1
Environmental H5b Green Purchase
Concern Attitude H2
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H5c Green Purchase

Intention
H3
Environmental H6b
Perceived
Responsibility Behavioral Control H4
H6c

Subjective Norms
H7a H7b H7c H7d

Environmental
Knowledge
H6a

Figure 1. Research framework

4. Methodology
Samples and Data Collection Procedures
Prior to the primary survey, a pilot study involving 100 vehicle owners in Kuala Lumpur was
conducted. The initial study indicated that the reliability of the proposed measures is acceptable

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(ranging from 0.848 to 0.972). Due to the unavailability of the sampling frame, we utilized the
purposive sampling technique. The actual survey was administered online to Malaysian car
drivers across the country, utilizing an online-based survey from the period of May to June 2019.
As suggested by Schillewaert and Meulemeester (2005), online data collection offers a faster,
efficient, and better quality of responses as compared to offline distribution while reaching a
well-identified target population that would otherwise be difficult to reach via offline
distribution. In this case, an invitation was posted on Facebook, the country's prominent social
media platform, to car clubs and societies across Malaysia. Those who volunteered to participate
in the study were directly led to SurveyMonkey, an online survey platform. The platform allows
respondents to be filtered based on the study's requirement. The study required participants to
possess a valid driving license and have adequate purchasing power (individual salary of at least
RM3000). Consistent with Cohen's (1988) rule of thumb for power analysis and the Gpower
software, 172 samples were needed for the model to yield a medium effect size (f = 0.15). From
the online field survey, 256 samples were acquired. Hence, the samples comfortably exceeded
the required sample size and were hence used in thorough statistical analysis.

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Measures

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Three constructs of TPB were identified based on previously described studies on pro-
environmental attitudes and behaviors, especially drawing on Ajzen's (1991) philosophy and
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measurement of TPB constructs. Meanwhile, the NAM is represented by three variables, namely
perceived green value, environmental concern, and environmental responsibility. These variables
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reflect personal norm and altruistic values towards environmental preservation in line with
Schwartz's (1977) conceptualization of NAM. As for the other variables, environmental
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knowledge functions as a moderator, while green purchase intention is positioned as the

dependent variable.
Green Purchase Intention was measured with a five-items scale adapted from an extensive
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literature survey (Adnan, Nordin, Rahman, & Rasli, 2017; He & Zhan, 2018; Nordlund et al.,
2016) and was modified by the authors for this study. Green Purchase Intention was used to
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assess the respondents' intention to purchase a hybrid vehicle soon. Perceived Behavioral Control
was measured using a six-item scale adapted from Paul, Modi, and Patel (2016), which focuses
on measuring efficacy and difficulty of hybrid vehicle ownership perceived by the respondents.
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The construct focuses on consumers' capabilities, willingness, and confidence in the adoption of
these vehicles. Meanwhile, Green Perceived Attitude was quantified using a five-item measure
adapted from Bong Ko and Jin (2017). The construct is operationalized as consumers' self-
reported evaluation of their internal beliefs and views towards sustainably environmental
behavior (Levine & Strube, 2012). In this case, respondents were asked to rate their general
attitude towards hybrid vehicles. As for Social Norms, five items were adapted from Oliver and
Lee (2010) and Chen and Deng (2016) to measure respondents' belief in expectation from
essential people within their social networks. In terms of Perceived Green Value, the five items
scale was modified from Han et al., (2017) and Rejikumar (2016). Perceived Green Value is
within the context of the consumers’ subjective valuation of the advantages offered by hybrid
vehicles in terms of economic benefit and environmental sustainability.
Furthermore, Environmental Concern refers to people’s general consideration towards
environmental wellbeing and their willingness to protect it. Environmental Concern was
measured using four items adapted from Goh and Balaji (2016). Environment Responsibility
was measured using six items adapted from Yu, Yu, and Chao (2017) and Rejikumar (2016) to
assess consumers’ sense of responsibility towards environmental protection. Meanwhile,
Environmental Knowledge was measured using a five items scale modified from Mostafa
(2007). A five-point Likert type scale was operationalized for all constructs, and participants

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were asked to rate their responses to specific statements from (1) strongly disagree to (5)
strongly agree. All the instruments were content validated, fine-tuned, and cross-checked by a
panel of experts in consumer psychology and behavior. These experts consisted of a professor
from a management faculty as well as an associate professor from a business school.
5. Results
Statistical analysis
A total of 256 respondents survey data were collected. Among those responses, 13 were
discarded due to the failure of meeting the eligibility requirements of the study. Some did not
possess a driving license, while others fell short of the minimum required a monthly salary of
RM3,000. Of the 246 usable responses, 55% were male, and 45% were female. In terms of
seniority, 59.8% of the respondents were aged between 18 to 34 years old, 39.5% were aged
between 35 to 54 years old, and less than 1% were aged over 54 years old. In respect to
education level, 25.8% of the participants had diploma certifications, 34.8% held bachelors’
degrees, and 37.1% possessed post-graduate qualifications. More than half of the samples earned

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a monthly salary of RM3,000 to RM6,000, 32.4% of the respondents earned RM6,001 to
RM9,000, and 10.2% earned more than RM9,000. Purchasing power is necessary for a person to

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purchase a hybrid vehicle considering the price premium this type of vehicle commands over its
ICEV’s counterparts. The higher price tags can be attributed to the high manufacturing cost for
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the battery system and the lack of economies of scale for producing hybrid vehicles’ core
components (Hao, Cheng, Liu, & Zhao, 2017).
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The data collected was analyzed using PLS-SEM (SmartPLS 3.0). This software is deemed a
suitable tool since the objectives of this research are concerned with the extension of existing
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structural theory (TPB and NAM factors) and maximization of variance explained in the
outcome, which is green purchase intention (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017). Before
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hypotheses testing, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the construct
validity of the variables and to assess the psychometric properties of the multi-item constructs.
Considering that the items are well established, and the dimensionality of each construct is
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determined based on the solidly grounded theory, CFA was considered the most appropriate test
to be conducted on the dataset.
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Table 2. Measurement Model
Loading
Items s AVE CR
Environmental Concern
EC1 I am concerned about the environment. 0.897 0.69 0.90
EC2 The condition of the environment affects the quality of my health. 0.846
EC3 I am willing to make sacrifices to protect the environment. 0.788
EC4 I think individuals have a responsibility to protect the environment. 0.783

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Perceived Environmental Responsibility

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PER1 I consider the environmental issue when making a purchase. 0.833 0.63 0.87
PER2 I have changed my principal products for ecological reasons. 0.871

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PER3 I am emotionally involved in environmental protection issues 0.735

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PER4 I would rather be willing to reduce my unsustainable consumption to help protect the environment. 0.739
Perceived Green Value

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PGV1 I know that hybrid cars offer to save on energy costs. 0.874 0.70 0.90
PGV2 I know that hybrid cars have better fuel consumption as compared to conventional cars. 0.833

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PGV3 I know that hybrid cars produce lesser harmful emission as compared to conventional cars. 0.847
I know that hybrid cars give me more savings from higher tax exemption as compared to
PGV4 conventional cars.
Green Purchase Attitude
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GPA1 Purchasing hybrid cars is good. 0.866 0.78 0.95
GPA2 Purchasing hybrid cars is beneficial. 0.914
GPA3 Purchasing hybrid cars is worthwhile. 0.889
GPA4 Purchasing hybrid cars is satisfactory. 0.907
GPA5 Purchasing hybrid cars is valuable. 0.844
Perceived Behavioral Control
PBC1 I believe I have the ability to purchase a hybrid car. 0.858 0.71 0.94
PBC2 If it were entirely up to me, I am confident that I will purchase a hybrid car. 0.855
PBC3 I see myself as capable of purchasing a hybrid car in the future. 0.892
PBC4 I have the willingness to purchase a hybrid car. 0.838

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PBC5 There are likely to be plenty of opportunities for me to purchase a hybrid car. 0.846
PBC6 I feel that purchasing a hybrid car is totally within my control. 0.778
Subjective Norm
SN1 If I bought a hybrid car, most people who are important to me would agree with my decision. 0.826 0.72 0.93
SN2 If I bought a hybrid car, most people who are important to me would appreciate my green purchase. 0.861
SN3 If I bought a hybrid car, most people who are important to me would find it as a desirable purchase. 0.852
SN4 If I bought a hybrid car, most people who are important to me would support my purchase decision. 0.861
SN5 If I bought a hybrid car, it would be consistent with the trend of social development. 0.849

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Environmental Knowledge

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EK1 I am very knowledgeable about environmental issues. 0.889 0.71 0.88

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EK2 Compared to the average person, I am more familiar with issues related to the environment. 0.883
EK3 I know how to select vehicles that produce the least carbon emissions. 0.748

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Green Purchase Intention
GPI1 In the near future, I will consider buying a hybrid car. 0.874 0.72 0.91

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GPI2 In the near future, I will consider switching to a hybrid car. 0.857

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GPI3 I prefer hybrid car over conventional car. 0.846
GPI4 I prefer hybrid car even if it is more expensive as compared to a conventional car. 0.806

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Constructs’ validity and reliability
To establish convergent validity and internal consistency, the factor loadings, composite
reliability (CR), and the average variance extracted (AVE) were simultaneously considered for
each dimension. Convergent validity, a subtype of construct validity, refers to the degree to
which the items measuring the same constructs are related to each other, which is assessed by
checking the AVE of each construct. Meanwhile, internal consistency examines if the measures
consistently represent the same latent construct and can be assessed by CR. Convergent validity
requires AVE of 0.5 or higher to be adequate, and internal consistency is considered acceptable
if each construct’s CR exceeds 0.7 (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2014).
Table 2 lists the factor loadings, CR, and AVE for the six constructs in our study. The loadings
of all the items were above the pre-determined threshold of 0.7, which was suggested by Hair et
al. (2017). Four items were discarded due to low factor loadings. Factor loading is a
discrimination parameter, which indicates how well an item can discriminate itself from another.
Hence, this indicates that the set of items has high discriminant and convergent validity.

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Furthermore, following the removal of low factor loadings, an observation of the AVE and CR
indicates that all items were above the respective recommended 0.5 and 0.7 level (Hair et al.,

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2014). These statistics provide further evidence for the scales’ internal consistency and
convergent validity.
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Table 3. Discriminant Validity among different constructs

Construct EC PER PGV GPA PBC SN EK GPI

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Env. Concern (0.830)

Perc. Env. Responsibility 0.688 (0.796)
Perc. Green Value 0.638 0.721 (0.834)
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Green Purch. Attitude 0.557 0.645 0.784 (0.884)

Perc. Behavioral Control 0.591 0.673 0.717 0.647 (0.845)
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Subjective Norm 0.606 0.718 0.732 0.694 0.752 0.850

Env. Knowledge 0.535 0.723 0.608 0.500 0.739 0.720 (0.843)
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Green Purch. Intention 0.517 0.666 0.609 0.518 0.677 0.550 0.624 (0.846)
*Diagonals in parenthesis reflect the square root of AVE

As seen in Table 3, the square root of the AVE of each construct exceeds the correlation of other
constructs, and each item loading in the table is much higher on its assigned construct than on the
other constructs. In other words, the construct shares more variance with its measures compared
to the variance shared with other constructs in the model. Therefore, the model in this study
demonstrated adequate convergent and discriminant validity.
Common method bias
The data were tested for the potential risk of standard method variance. Harmann one-factor test
was performed using factor analysis tool in SPSS. It was found that there is no single general
factor accounting for more than 50 percent of the covariance among the measure. Hence, the
standard method is not issued (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). The results of
the intercorrelations among the key constructs (as shown in Table 3) indicated that none of the r
values is substantially significant. Therefore, common method bias does not impose a significant
threat to the validity of the research findings (Bagozzi, Yi, & Phillips, 1991). Furthermore,
several procedural remedies were employed before the field survey in an attempt to reduce the
effects of standard method variance. These included the assurances of anonymity and a well-

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written cover story of the survey (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). Recent studies
that employed TPB and NAM have utilized single source informants, since the use of other
informants (family members or colleagues) can be prohibitively time consuming and expensive.
Structural model evaluation
After validity and reliability were assured, the PLS model was assessed based on the coefficient
of multiple determination (R2) of the model. The R2 value for green purchase intention in the
model is 0.489. This indicates that the TPB and NAM factors explain 48.9 percent of the
variance in green purchase intention, which is encouraging considering that recent environmental
research has typically explained only 20–35% of the variance in hybrid vehicle purchase
intention (Adnan et al., 2018; Nordlund et al., 2016; Shanyong Wang et al., 2016). The first set
of hypotheses examine the direct impact of the TPB-NA dimensions on green purchase intention.
Green purchase intention is positively predicted by perceived green value (β = .16, p < .05),
perceived behavioral control (β = .33, p < .001) and environmental responsibility (β = .20, p <
.01), which supports H1, H3 and H6a. Other antecedents do not significantly influence green

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purchase intention; hence H2, H4, and H5a were not supported. In terms of the moderating
effects of environmental knowledge on the link between green purchase intention and the four

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predictors, we only found support for one moderator model (H7a). Environmental knowledge is
found to enhance the effect of perceived green value on green purchase intention (β = .20, p <
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.05). The interaction effect is visualized in Figure 2. Therefore, it is plausible to state that the
moderator model of environmental knowledge fits our data and can explain consumers' green
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purchase intention. The results of the direct effects and interaction effects are summarized in
Table 4.
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Table 4. Path Coefficients of Direct Effects and Interaction Effects

Hypo. Path β S.E. t-value f2 Decision
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Direct Effects
H1 PGV → GPI 0.157* 0.083 1.897 0.018 Supported
H2 GPA → GPI 0.040 0.056 0.720 0.001 Not Supported
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H3 PBC → GPI 0.327** 0.085 3.862 0.075 Supported

H4 SN → GPI -0.113 0.078 1.451 0.007 Not Supported
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H5a EC → GPI -0.002 0.043 0.056 0.000 Not Supported

H6a PER → GPI 0.201** 0.076 2.649 0.029 Supported
Interaction Effects
H7a PGV*EK → GPI 0.200* 0.096 2.077 0.024 Supported
H7b GPA*EK → GPI -0.036 0.066 0.546 0.001 Not Supported
H7c PBC*EK → GPI 0.017 0.049 0.349 0.000 Not Supported
H7d SN*EK → GPI -0.001 0.049 0.014 0.000 Not Supported
Notes: ** p<0.01; * p<0.05; S.E.=Standard error; R2=0.489

Concerning interaction effects, environmental concern and environmental responsibility

indirectly influence green purchase intention through green purchase attitude and perceived
behavioral control. The estimated indirect effect for a range of mediators was calculated. In order
to assess the predictive ability of the predictor variables in imposing an indirect effect on green
purchase through green purchase attitude and perceived behavioral control, the bootstrapping
method was applied in accordance with Preacher and Hayes (2008). The bootstrapping analysis
showed that the indirect effects of both environmental concern and environmental responsibility
via green purchase attitude were not significant. Nevertheless, perceived behavioral control
significantly mediates the relationship between environmental concern (β = .08, p < .01) and

15
environmental responsibility (β = .135, p < .001) on green purchase intention. Results indicated
that none of the bias-corrected lower limit (2.5%) and upper limit (97.5%) confidence intervals
included zero. Hence, the mediation hypotheses for H5c and H6c are well supported. The results
of the mediator model are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Path Coefficients of Indirect Effects
Hyp. Indirect Effects β S.E. t-value p-value LLCI ULCI Decision
Not
H5b EC → GPA → GPI 0.008 0.022 0.386 0.350 -0.017 0.057 Supported
Not
H6b PER → GPA → GPI 0.017 0.036 0.467 0.320 -0.041 0.075 Supported
H5c EC → PBC → GPI 0.078 0.030 2.610 0.005 0.038 0.135 Supported
H6c PER → PBC → GPI 0.135 0.039 3.470 0.000 0.076 0.207 Supported
Notes: S.E.=Standard error; LLCI=Lower level confidence interval; ULCI=Upper level confidence interval.

Importance-Performance Matrix Analysis

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As an extension of the results of the current study, we employed a post-hoc importance-

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performance matrix analysis (IPMA) (Martilla & James, 1977). The IPMA addresses gaps in the
previous literature on the topic as the present findings on environmentally friendly factors are
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insufficient in offering suggestions on which dimension of the constructs provides significant
marketing impact towards hybrid vehicles adoption. As Figure 3 indicates, the vertical axis
represents the ‘importance’ measure (total effect), while the horizontal axis represents the
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‘performance’ measure (index values). Results show that perceived environmental responsibility
and perceived behavioral control are the essential factors amongst the other variables.
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Meanwhile, subjective norm is among the worst-performing factors and the least important
variables in the prediction of green purchase intention.
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Figure 2. Interaction effect of Environmental Knowledge
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*Note: EC=environmental concern, PER=perceived environmental responsibility, PGV=perceived green value,

GPA=green purchase attitude, PBC=perceived behavioral control, SN=subjective norm, EK=environmental
knowledge.
Figure 3. Importance Performance Matrix Analysis

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6. Discussions
Collectively, environmental knowledge, perceived behavioral control, perceived environmental
responsibility, and perceived green value are considered to be essential drivers in shaping green
purchase intention among consumers. Considering that these variables are derived from TPB and
NAM, the results have shown that the integration of the two models is adequately working in
enriching our understanding of hybrid vehicles' purchase intention. Concerns regarding climate
change only translate into pro-environmental consideration if consumers have better control and
overcome difficulties in performing the intended ecological behaviors.
The following sub-sections discuss the results obtained from this empirical study, which
employed self-reported measures. Additionally, it reports the importance of each factor observed
within the collected data following a thorough analysis. The results show that six hypotheses are
significant, including a hypothesis that involved a moderating variable (environmental
knowledge) and another hypothesis on the mediating variables (perceived behavioral control).
Since the R-squared statistic indicates that the developed model fits well with the collected data,

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the antecedents have sufficient predictive ability in explaining green purchase intention.
6.1 Perceived Green Value

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Perceived Green Value is considered to have a positive effect on hybrid vehicle purchase
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intention (H1). When people believe that the economic and environmental benefits are favorable,
then they are more likely to display higher levels of green purchase intention. The finding is in
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tandem with other studies that indicated that pro-environmental behavior intention is influenced
by environmental, economic factor (Simsekoglu & Nayum, 2019; Wai Yee, Hassan, &
Ramayah, 2016), environmental and frugal self-identity (Gatersleben et al., 2014), and
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environmental values (Degirmenci & Breitner, 2017). In other words, people would appreciate
the synergistic benefits that hybrid vehicles offer towards their financial wellbeing as well as the
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reduction of greenhouse gasses. In terms of the positive intervention effects of Environmental

Knowledge on Green Purchase Intention (H7a), the effect of Perceived Green Value is stronger
at high levels of Environmental Knowledge (rather than at low levels of Environmental
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Knowledge). This finding is in line with previous research, including the results of Choi and
Johnson (2019) that demonstrated Environmental Knowledge having a significant contribution to
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variance in Green Purchase Intention.

6.2 Green Purchase Attitude
Green Purchase Attitude is concerned with one's belief that achieving the intended
environmentally friendly behavior is either advantageous or disadvantageous. The relevant
literature of TPB has consistently suggested that attitudinal factors affect the behavioral intention
of users, particularly in the field of green consumerism. Surprisingly, the findings indicate that
Green Purchase Attitude had no significant relationship with the intention to purchase hybrid
vehicles (H2). This indicates that a positive attitude towards the idea of owning environmental-
friendly products does not influence consumers' intentions towards pro-environmental behavior.
The result is inconsistent with some of the previous literature, including the recent findings of
Adnan et al. (2018), Chen and Hung (2016), and Wang et al. (2016). In this case, consumers'
favorable attitude does not necessarily translate into their intention towards hybrid cars' adoption.
Rather, it could be suggested that consumers' knowledge of the features and attributes of hybrid
vehicles plays a bigger role than their levels of favorability towards these vehicles. In this regard,
higher levels of product knowledge were found to weaken the effect of attitude on green
purchase intention (Chen & Deng, 2016). An implication that stems from this is the possibility
that people would reconsider their willingness to purchase beyond their initial impressions of
pleasantness and desirability. Consumers may evaluate the benefits of the hybrid vehicles

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meritoriously rather than emotionally, in order to ensure that they are making the right purchase
decisions. This contradicting beliefs and goals is a form of cognitive dissonance commonly
experienced by consumers in enacting sustainable energy behavior (Levine & Strube, 2012; Steg
et al., 2015). In other words, although many people view environmental friendly behavior
favorably, only a few were able to translate that attitude into actual pro-ecological behaviors.
6.3 Perceived Behavioral Control
Perceived Behavioral Control refers to perceived self-efficacy and sufficiency of resources for
consumers to decide on their purchase of hybrid vehicles. The result indicated that Perceived
Behavioral Control positively affects Green Purchase Intention. This is consistent with the
findings of the emerging literature on hybrid vehicles’ purchase intention (Adnan et al., 2018;
Shanyong Wang et al., 2016). It can be suggested that if people have confidence and capability
in owning hybrid vehicles, their purchase intention of hybrid vehicles will be greater. According
to the TPB, when one perceives that certain behavior is well within his or her ability and
confidence, it will activate a sense of readiness to perform that behavior (Ajzen, 1991).

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6.4 Subjective Norms

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TPB suggests that people rely on social influences and peer approvals when deciding whether or
not to perform certain actions. Although groups of hybrid vehicle owners are small in
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comparison to their ICEV’s counterparts, people want to be seen similar to, or assimilate with
groups that are related to green social movement (Ozaki & Sevastyanova, 2011). Based on the
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findings, the domain Subjective Norms were found to have no significant effects on Green
Purchase Intention. This result is similar to the findings of (Jansson, Nordlund, & Westin, 2017),
(Chen & Hung, 2016) and (Paul et al., 2016). A suggested mechanism(s) to explain this
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relationship is that strong personal motives that one's hold affects his or her behavior towards the
intention of purchasing hybrid vehicles, in such a way that it nullifies any other factors including
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social influences (Hong, Khan, and Abdullah, 2013). When it comes to car buying, consumers
tend to rely more heavily on what they believe will fit their needs rather than rely on others’
opinions (Mohiuddin et al., 2018).
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Based on this unexpected finding, we can further deduce that the consumers' social network,
consisting mainly of peer and family members, is not exerting sufficient influence in shaping
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their willingness to purchase hybrid vehicles. It could be that their social influencers are not fully
aware of the benefits of adopting pro-environmental behavior (Fransson & Gärling, 1999).
6.5 Environmental Concern
Environmental Concern is related to people's consciousness of environmental problems, which is
often expressed through the purchase of green products (Suki, 2016). Contrary to earlier
expectations, Environmental Concern was found to have an insignificant relationship with Green
Purchase Intention. These findings corroborate with the study of Wang, Li, and Zhao (2017), and
Choi and Johnson (2019), while at the same time contradict those reported by Sang and Bekhet
(2015), Chen and Hung (2016), Goh and Balaji (2016) and Adnan et al. (2018). However, the
significant indirect effect of Environmental Concern on Green Purchase Intention through
Perceived Behavioral Control is consistent with the findings of Paul et al. (2016). Thus, it
signifies that consumers' cognition of environmental consciousness will translate into purchase
intention only when they have the confidence and capabilities of owning these vehicles. In
deciding whether to adopt hybrid vehicles, consumers try to assess their ability to adapt to the
changes that entail. Since hybrid vehicles are still lagging behind ICEVs in terms of cost-
effectiveness, switching to hybrid vehicles required careful environmental consideration and
high levels of self-efficacy among consumers.

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6.5 Environmental Responsibility
People have a sense of personal responsibility to protect the environment when they are morally
obliged towards the pro-environmental cause. This altruistic attitude is often imbued within their
values and identity that are likely to influence their behavior across situations and contexts
(Gatersleben et al., 2014). The study reports that Environmental Responsibility has significant
effects on Green Purchase Intention. The findings further lend theoretical support to the previous
work within the green purchase intention literature (He & Zhan, 2018; Jayaraman et al., 2015;
Kumar & Ghodeswar, 2015). Feelings of responsibility are effectively ascribed when people are
actively mindful of their consumption and purchases that are potentially harmful to mother
nature. Strong beliefs that hybrid cars can mitigate pollution issues enhance consumers' sense of
green self-identity. Subsequently, this also enhances their predisposition towards adopting these
vehicles (Higueras-Castillo et al., 2019). Furthermore, Perceived Behavioral Control mediates
the relationship between Environmental Responsibility and Green Purchase Intention.
Consumers who feel that they are responsible for the environmental pollution caused by using
ICEVs have a higher tendency to develop strong pro-environmental principles. Over time, self-

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assurance and conviction drive them to internalize these moral obligations as an integral part of
their norms. Subsequently, these values influence their intentions to engage in pro-environmental

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behaviors (Liu et al., 2017) (Zhang et al., 2018).

7. Conclusion
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Theoretical Implications
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In terms of direct effects, Perceived Behavioural Control has the most significant impact on
Green Purchase Intention, followed by Environmental Responsibility and Perceived Green
Value. In this sense, self-assurance, sensitivity towards ecological behavior, and positive
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assessment of cost and emission benefits are central in swaying consumers’ preference from
conventional cars toward hybrid cars. Regarding the moderating model, we found that
environmental knowledge exerts a positive interaction effect on the relationship between green
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purchase value and green purchase intention. This finding indicates that consumers who have
higher levels of environmental knowledge would have a higher intention to purchase hybrid
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vehicles. This occurs when consumers perceive hybrid vehicles to have better cost efficiencies
and be less polluting than conventional vehicles. This result is not consistent with the claim that
environmental knowledge is a direct predictor (Goh & Balaji, 2016) and indirect antecedent
(Bong Ko & Jin, 2017) of green purchase intention. Instead, it is consistent with the findings of
Choi and Johnson (2019), who reported a significant contribution of environmental knowledge to
variance in green purchase intention. Environmental knowledge leverages the existing beliefs
that consumers have about the salient benefits of using green products, specifically on
environmental and economic values. These beliefs are likely to influence them to be more
engaged in environmentally friendly behaviors.
It is noteworthy to mention that the moderating effect of environmental knowledge on the
relationship between the other hypothesized predictors and HV purchase intention is not
significant. There are several possible explanations for such outcomes. Consumers with a high
level of perceived behavioral control may feel capable of owning hybrid vehicles without
bothering too much with the knowledge that they possess. Meanwhile, those who have a positive
attitude towards these vehicles are likely to engage in self-driven initiatives in order to search for
information on these environmentally-friendly vehicles. Furthermore, people with significant
concerns towards social acceptance might not worry much if they possess insufficient

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environmental knowledge. Thus, consumers’ environmental knowledge may not significantly
strengthen the effects on HV’s adoption intention.
Considering that a large body of literature on hybrid vehicles purchase intention has been
devoted to investigating the phenomenon in countries where the market share of these vehicles
are increasingly becoming significant (Europe and China), this study contributes to the existing
body of knowledge by examining an emerging economy such as Malaysia, where the market
share of hybrid cars is minimal. Despite its status as a developing economy, Malaysia is an
important market to be studied, given the administration's emphasis on automotive sector
development that contributed to 4 percent of its GDP. The country is the third biggest automotive
producer in Southeast Asia, and it intends to increase its production volumes to 1.47 million
units by 2030, which is considered to be a massive shift from 571,632 units in 2019.
Additionally, the country aims to become the regional hub of next-generation vehicles (including
electrified vehicles) through the adoption of smart technologies in line with Industrial Revolution
4.0, and this ambitious roadmap is outlined in its National Automotive Policy 2020 (MITI,
2020). Considering this development, researchers should neither neglect nor underrate the

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potential theoretical advancements contextualized on developing economies. It is estimated that
rising middle-class consumers from the emerging markets will offset the slower growth of the

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global automotive revenues by 2030 (McKinsey, 2016). Theoretically, we conclude that the
integration of TPB-NAM fits well with the data in explaining the green purchasing phenomenon
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within the automotive sector. In other words, altruistic processes (derived from NAM) and TPB-
based psychological factors synergize well together in guiding consumers to make well-informed
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decisions on environmentally sustainable actions.
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Practical Implications
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Based on the IPMA analysis, perceived environmental responsibility and perceived behavioral
control are the areas that need to be emphasized based on their relative importance relative to the
other constructs. These two variables are the most reliable predictors among the other
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independent variables. On the other hand, the subjective norm has little impact in the context of
shaping hybrid vehicle purchase intention due to its lower importance and performance
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compared to most of the other constructs. Managers should strategically divert their time and
resources to focus on the areas of importance rather than areas that require less attention. In this
case, campaigns that encourage empowerment and freedom of making choices towards behaviors
that are supportive of ecological causes must be widely communicated and rewarded. When
firms continuously support communities to uphold green consumerism values, this effort will
infuse a long-lasting sense of pride and altruism in protecting the environment (Hartmann &
Ibáñez, 2006).
Brandings strategy that reflects a deep sense of responsibility towards the environment can be
considered to win the hearts of ecologically conscious consumers. Furthermore, self-confidence
and perceived ability to own hybrid vehicles are integral for consumers to make informed
decisions about their purchase behavior, rather than obtaining social approvals or gaining
appreciation from peers and family members. The self-confidence is shaped through
environmental concern and responsibility. Hybrid vehicle brands should engage with the
authorities in ensuring that awareness campaigns are enriched with messages that promote
ecological responsibilities and concerns. The consumers’ heightened sensitivity towards these
issues can potentially increase their self-confidence in adopting hybrid vehicles.
From the policy-making perspective, the government can take a more proactive role in nurturing
the green automotive supply chain ecosystem (Wang et al., 2017). More fiscal incentives can be

21
provided to automotive firms so that they could use it to build the economies of scale and
structure the pricing of their product model to suit with the financial capability of the middle-
class consumers. Special incentives in the form of tax and duties exemptions should continue to
be awarded to manufacturers that locally assembled their hybrid vehicles or manufacturers of
imported vehicles from countries that mutually participated in Free Trade Area (FTA) treaties.
Despite these initiatives, the country's annual sales of hybrid cars remain small compared to ICE-
based cars. Part of this problem could be attributed to excessive trade protection and over-
dependence on the domestic market (Wad & Govindaraju, 2011). Hence, adaptation towards
export-oriented business strategies (that include emission standards, regulatory requirements, and
market customizations) is vital in further progressing the automotive sector.
Beyond the aggressive pursuit of green consumerism, we wish to iterate that environmental
responsibility is a collaborative agenda. More often than not, responsive remedial environmental
actions tend to occur whenever mistakes and negligence happen, such as recent emission
scandals involving several prominent European automakers. Businesses, societies, and
governments will have no problems to enact environmental responsibility if they continuously

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learn how to be mutually proactive in ‘walking the talk’ and collectively accountable for their
own inactions (Valentini & Kruckeberg, 2018). Accordingly, higher stakeholders’ conscience in

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nurturing confidence and building accountability will go to great lengths in solving the global
climate change problem in the long term. -p
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Limitations and future research directions
This research is not without noteworthy limitations. Firstly, this research focused on consumers’
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adoption intention rather than actual adoption behavior since it could be costly and time-
consuming. Nevertheless, intention often predicts behavior, and intention is considered as the
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proxy variable for adoption behavior (Heath & Gifford, 2002). Secondly, given the convenience
sample, we acknowledge the limited generalizability of the findings. Caution must be exercised
in generalizing these results beyond the survey participants. The composition of the sample,
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whose responses were solicited online, might not accurately representative of the actual
population.
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Additionally, volunteer-bias and self-selection bias is a concern. Given that all items were self-
reported, it is also a possibility that social-desirability bias played a role in conveying people’s
responses. Furthermore, this research did not distinguish the types and brands of hybrid vehicles.
There are possibilities that consumers would react differently to different types and brands of
hybrid vehicles. Subsequent research could focus on how consumers respond to different types
and brands of hybrid vehicles. Looking into cultural issues, researchers would have no issue in
adopting the model in the Western context. The Malaysian society, like other Asian cultures, is
known to embrace a collectivist culture where social norms are valued, and individual actions are
influenced by peer pressure. However, this social value is associated with hybrid vehicle
purchase intention in both individualist and collective cultures (Oliver & Lee, 2010).
Further research on this topic is necessary. Future research should utilize study designs that
collect data from a more extensive and more diverse sample of participants. The data collection
could be conducted in different geographic areas with different demographic groups in order to
ensure the generalizability of the results. For instance, the samples could cover several countries
from the Southeast Asian region that are experiencing modest growth in the green automotive
sector. Furthermore, researchers might want to investigate the drivers and inhibitors of fully
electric vehicle adoption by current hybrid vehicle owners. This recommendation is in line with
Hao’s et al. (2017) prediction that the cost-effectiveness of electric vehicles would improve

22
significantly over time and may surpass hybrid vehicles in the next decade. Further research is
also needed to clarify the roles of both the public and private sectors in developing more
profound environmental knowledge and concerns through public information policies and
consumer education (Wang et al., 2017). Finally, more antecedents and other consequences, such
as actual purchase, satisfaction, trust, and willingness to pay a premium, could be incorporated to
produce more insightful theoretical implications.

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 Table 1. Summary of previous environmental studies that integrate the TPB and NAM
Sources NAM related factors Dependent Variable Sample
Asadi et al. (2019) AC, AR, PN Green IT adoption intention 183 Malaysian manufacturers
Lopes, Kalid, Rodríguez, & AC, AR, PN Energy-saving behavior 99 Brazilian chemical industry
Ávila Filho (2019) workers
Wang, Sun, Wang, & AC, AR, PN Intention to purchase energy- 369 consumers in Beijing, China
Zhang (2019) efficient appliances
Shin, Im, Jung, & Severt AC, AR, PN Intention towards restaurants’ 461 restaurant patrons in the United
(2018) organic menus States
Wang, Wang, Guo, Zhang, AC, AR, PN Energy-saving behavior 494 residence in Shandong
& Wang (2018) Province, China
Han & Hyun (2017) AR, PN, PA Intention to visit an 424 visitors of museums in South
environmentally responsible Korea
museum
Shi et al. (2017) EC, PN Household emission reduction 418 urban households who lived in

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behavior dense haze areas of China
Liu et al. (2017) AC, AR, PN Intention to reduce car travel 600 car drivers in Beijing,

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Shanghai, and Guangzhou, China
Zhang et al., (2017) AC, PN Environmental complain 1958 citizens across China

Han, Jae, & Hwang (2016) AC, AR, PN

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intention
Pro-environmental decision 350 cruise ship travelers in the
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making United States
Nguyen, Zhu, & Le (2015) AC, AR, PN Intention towards waste 180 households in Hanoi, Vietnam
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Setiawan, Santosa, & AC, AR, PN Pro-environmental car usage 312 university-based car
Sjafruddin (2014) commuters in Indonesia
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Park & Ha (2014) PN Intention to recycle 421 consumers across the United
States
Han (2014) AC, AR, PN Intention towards an 340 convention visitors across the
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environmentally responsible United States

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Gatersleben et al. (2014) PN, EV, EI Pro-environmental attitude 135 households in the United
Kingdom

*Note: AC=awareness of consequences; AR=ascription of responsibility; PN=personal norm,

PA=problem awareness; EV=environmental values; EI=environmental identit; EC=environmental
concern.
Table 4. Path Coefficients of Direct Effects and Interaction Effects
Hypo. Path β S.E. t-value f2 Decision
Direct Effects
H1 PGV → GPI 0.157* 0.083 1.897 0.018 Supported
H2 GPA → GPI 0.040 0.056 0.720 0.001 Not Supported
H3 PBC → GPI 0.327** 0.085 3.862 0.075 Supported
H4 SN → GPI -0.113 0.078 1.451 0.007 Not Supported
H5a EC → GPI -0.002 0.043 0.056 0.000 Not Supported
H6a PER → GPI 0.201** 0.076 2.649 0.029 Supported
Interaction Effects
H7a PGV*EK → GPI 0.200* 0.096 2.077 0.024 Supported
H7b GPA*EK → GPI -0.036 0.066 0.546 0.001 Not Supported
H7c PBC*EK → GPI 0.017 0.049 0.349 0.000 Not Supported

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H7d SN*EK → GPI -0.001 0.049 0.014 0.000 Not Supported
Notes: ** p<0.01; * p<0.05; S.E.=Standard error; R2=0.489

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Table 5. Path Coefficients of Indirect Effects
Hypo. Indirect Effects β S.E. t-value p-value LLCI ULCI Decision
H5b EC → GPA → GPI 0.008 0.022 0.386 0.350 -0.017 0.057 Not Supported
H6b PER → GPA → GPI 0.017 0.036 0.467 0.320 -0.041 0.075 Not Supported
H5c EC → PBC → GPI 0.078 0.030 2.610 0.005 0.038 0.135 Supported
H6c PER → PBC →GPI 0.135 0.039 3.470 0.000 0.076 0.207 Supported
Notes: S.E.=Standard error; LLCI=Lower level confidence interval; ULCI=Upper level confidence interval.

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Figure 1. Research framework

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Figure 2. Interaction effect of Environmental Knowledge

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*Note: EC=environmental concern, PER=perceived environmental responsibility, PGV=perceived green value,

GPA=green purchase attitude, PBC=perceived behavioral control, SN=subjective norm, EK=environmental
knowledge.
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Figure 3. Importance Performance Matrix Analysis

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Highlights

• This study assimilates norm activation model and theory of planned behaviour to
elucidate green purchase intention of hybrid vehicles.
• Perceived green value (PGV), perceived behavioural control (PBC) and perceived
environmental responsibility (PER) positively influence the green purchase intention
(GPI) of hybrid vehicles.
• Environmental knowledge exerts positive contingent effects on the link between PGV
and GPI.
• Automotive firms should empower consumers in making ecological choices and

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incorporate green values as part of their core branding strategies.

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About the authors
Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah (Ph.D.) is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Business and
Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA. His research interests include green marketing,
consumer behaviour and technology innovation. Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected].

Nurul Syafiqah Tanwir is a post-graduate student at Universiti Teknologi MARA. Her

research focuses on ecological behavior and hybrid vehicle adoption.

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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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