Flight Test of Gliders and Powered Gliders

Ronald Blume
Type Certification of Gliders and Powered Gliders
Luftfahrt-Bundesamt
D-38108 Braunschweig Germany
[email protected]

Presented at the Motorless Flight Symposium, 8-10 October 2004, Varese, Italy

Abstract
For the certification of an aircraft, it has to be shown, that it complies with all parts of the airworthiness
code (e.g. CS 22 or JAR-22 in the case of gliders and powered gliders). The subparts ‘Flight’, ‘Design and
Construction’, ‘Operating Limitations and Information’ as well as the Flight Manual have to be assessed by
pilots, to allow a statement about the compliance with the relevant paragraphs. For the subpart ‘Flight’, test
flights have to be carried out to show the compliance and to verify the relevant parameters of the pilot
operating handbook. Example of necessary flight test procedures and instruments will be presented and
samples of retrieved data and sources of error will be shown.

Symbols

EASA European Aviation Safety Association LBA Luftfahrt-Bundesamt

CS Certification Standard VD Design speed
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities VNE Never exceed speed
JAR Joint Aviation Requirements VS Stall speed
CD min Minimum drag coefficient CG Centre of gravity
n Manoeuvring load factor W Weight
S Design wing area
IEM Interpretative / Explanatory Material

Introduction generate objective and reproducible values, the pilot needs to

In order to operate an aircraft legally, it has to be certified. be well trained to his task. He also needs to be experienced in
To certify an aircraft means to show that it complies with the flying a large variety of different aircraft to have a solid basis
airworthiness requirements and that its flight characteristics of knowledge for his statements.
meet the airworthiness requirements. For the certification of a
newly designed aircraft, the designer has to apply for the Development of standards for flight
certification to the organisation in charge, normally the In the beginning of aviation, no airworthiness codes were
national aviation authority. The designer will receive a available. All the design was based on trial and error. During
confirmation letter stating the airworthiness code with which this time, the flying community gathered experiences and came
compliance is to be shown. During the following development to notice that each aircraft designer approaches similar
of the aircraft, the designer will prepare substantiation reports difficulties when starting his development. Many pilots/
for each individual paragraph of the airworthiness code. Some designers were injured or killed by mistakes which other
of the reports include results of flight tests carried out by test designers had already solved. For this reason it was decided to
pilots. The reports will be presented to the certifying write the experiences down. The first design guidelines, later
organisation which carries out either complete or spot checks called Airworthiness Requirements, were created. Examples
depending on the amount of change to earlier existing designs of the early steps are the Airworthiness Standards for the
and the qualification of the design organisation. Some of these design of gliders and sailplanes of the Technical Commission
checks may be flight tests conducted by pilots on behalf of the of the Rhön contest, a famous gliding competition in Germany
certifying organisation. In the scope of these test flights, the at that time. They demanded a proof of stability according to
pilots have to measure parameters and make subjective Prof. Lippisch of the Rhön-Rossitten-Gesellschaft in 1927.
statements about the flight characteristics of the aircraft. To The first requirements for the flight characteristics were
written down by the British Air Registration Board in 1948
and contained in the British Civil Airworthiness Requirements,

TECHNICAL SOARING 2 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

Section E - Gliders. These Requirements were also adopted in Ground Handling Characteristics
Germany in 1951. Up to now, the standards have developed in 233 - Directional stability and control
several steps to the actual CS 22, which has been published by
the EASA. Today we can see the Airworthiness Requirements Miscellaneous Flight Requirements
as the sum of the experiences made so far. 251 - Vibration and buffeting
255 - Aerobatic manoeuvres
For the time being, there are several points demanded by
the CS 22, which have to be fulfilled: The airworthiness code says, that:
a) Each requirement of this Subpart must be met at each
CS 22 Subpart B – Paragraphs for Flight appropriate combination of weight and CG within the range of
loading conditions for which certification is requested.
General (…)
21 - Proof of compliance b) Compliance must be established for all configurations (such
23 - Load distribution limits as position of air brakes, wing-flaps, landing gear etc.) at
25 - Weight limits which the sailplane will be operated except as otherwise stated.
29 - Empty weight and corresponding c.g. In demonstrating compliance, the power plant or propeller, if
31 - Ballast retractable, must be retracted, except as otherwise stated.
(…)
Performance (CS 22.21 - Proof of Compliance)
45 - General
49 - Stalling speed The envelope for flight test
51 - Take-off The Airworthiness Code knows two categories of gliders
65 – Climb and powered gliders: the Utility and the Aerobatic category.
71 - Rate of descent For both categories Limit Manoeuvring Load Factors are
73 - Descent, high speed prescribed. Table 1 shows the corresponding values.
75 - Descent, approach Figure 1 shows the flight envelope characterising the
boundaries for the flight tests. The operation of the aircraft as
Controllability and Manoeuvrability well as the official certification flights by the authority will
143 - General later on be carried out up to VNE, which is calculated as 0.9
145 - Longitudinal control times VD.
147 - Lateral and directional control
151 - Aerotowing The test program
152 - Winch-launching and auto-tow launching Flight testing consists of three steps: planning, flying, and
153 - Approach and landing interpretation of the data received. Test flights have to be
155 - Elevator control force In manoeuvres planned precisely. The basis of the tests is given by the
airworthiness code. There are requirements, which deal with
Trim e.g. speeds and glide path angles of the aircraft (stall speed,
161 - Trim minimum and maximum sink speed), pilot forces, respond
times on control inputs that have to be proved.
Stability In principle it has to be verified that the aircraft meets all
171 - General the paragraphs at every loading condition, CG position and
173 - Static longitudinal stability flap and gear setting. Because of the effort, to fly all this cases
175 - Demonstration of static longitudinal stability in detail, normally the most critical cases are selected for flight
177 - Lateral and directional stability test. These are the rear CG positions with maximum mass for
181 - Dynamic stability stall, minimum control force and stability tests and the front
CG positions e.g. for spiral dive and landing.
Stalls This implies that the CG range has to be defined before
201 - Wings level stall the relevant flight test, at least roughly. Also the structural
203 - Turning flight stalls layout and the limit loads have to be known to commence
207 - Stall warning flight test to give the pilot information about the boundaries of
the flight envelope.
Spinning The flight test itself normally starts with ground handling
221 - General and taxiing tests. Thereafter, the first flights will be carried out
223 - Spiral dive characteristics in a very conservative manner, e.g. without retracting the gear
and the engine and by keeping the aircraft in a safe speed range
with a certain distance to the stall speed and the maximum

TECHNICAL SOARING 3 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

speed. Primarily, the response to control input and the Development of airworthiness requirements
handling characteristics will be examined. When the basic Airworthiness requirements are not fixed for all times. As
tests have been conducted, the flight regime will be enlarged mentioned, the requirements develop with the achievable
towards stall speed. As one can imagine, these tests will be performance of aircraft as well as with new materials.
carried out at a safe height over unpopulated terrain. Pursuant to the Airworthiness Standards for sailplanes (BVS
At an early stage of the flight tests, the static pressure No. 1-3) of 1939, sailplanes had to be capable of performing a
pickups for altimeter and air speed indicator will be calibrated vertical dive with speed brakes extended without exceeding the
for example by a deployable static probe (shown in Figure 2) maximum speed VNE. Compliance with this requirement could
and a precise reference indicator. be shown as the wings still were short and thick caused by the
With this information about the stall speed, several old wooden design. After introducing fiber reinforced plastics
reference speeds, e.g. for take-off, approach, roll rate and in glider manufacturing, this requirement was changed into a
stability can be calculated, thus the corresponding flights can 45° flight path without exceeding V NE (JAR-22.73). Later,
be performed. To shift the boundary of the flight envelope to with regard to the progress in glider construction using laminar
higher speeds, the aero-elastic behaviour of the aircraft must be airfoils and having in mind the need to reduce drag to increase
the focal point. It is state of the art that knowledge from performance, the 45° path angle was reduced to 30° for non-
ground vibration tests and flutter calculations is used to prove aerobatic gliders and finally as a second way to show
the qualification for higher speeds up to VD. With an aero- compliance to “less than 30° when a rate of descent of more
elastic expert opinion about the uncritical flutter behaviour the than 30 m/s can be achieved” (CS 22.73).
upper speed range will be opened for the in-flight flutter test. Also the stall speed for the landing configuration (V S0)
Having shown the suitability for high speeds, the and maximum weight (VS1) changed during the development
investigations of spin, spiral dive and possible aerobatic of the airworthiness requirements. The first issue of the JAR-
manoeuvres are the next items on the list of the test pilots. For 22 in 1980 demanded 75 km/h for VS0 and 85 km/h for VS1.
spin tests a deployable drag chute (Figures 3, 4, 5) is strongly Later in 1982 it increased to 80 km/h for V S0 and 85 km/h for
recommended. For tests beyond the rear limit of CG, VS1. In 1987 in JAR-22 Amendment 4 it changed to 80 km/h
additionally deployable tail ballast is used in some cases for VS0 and 80 km/h for VS1. Finally in 1995 it changed to 80
(Figure 4). km/h for VS0 and 90 km/h for VS1 which is still applicable
Results of flight tests for spin and stall may lead to a shift today.
of the CG limits which has an influence on the pilot control
forces. For this reason, the flights for measuring the stability Flight test examples
parameters are carried out rather late in the investigations. CS 22.73 requires a high speed descent
Furthermore the possible trim speeds have to be recorded when It must be shown that the sailplane with the airbrakes
the maximum control surface deflections of the controls are extended, will not exceed VNE in a dive at an angle to the
defined for serial production. horizon of:
For powered gliders, there are special tests to be carried (a) 45° when the sailplane is approved for cloud flying and/or
out for take-off performance. Information is needed about the aerobatics when certificated in the Aerobatic or Utility
distance horizontal from rest until reaching a height of 15 m Category;
(not more than 500 m) and the time between lift off and (b) in other cases
reaching a height of 360 m (not more than 4 minutes). For (i) 30°
powered gliders, cooling test flights are required to show that (ii) less than 30° when a rate of descent of more than 30 m/s
the maximum temperature will not be exceeded using the can be achieved.
allowable engine power setting. To test the high speed descent characteristics, the pilot has
For each intended take-off method the flight to accelerate at a safe height up to a speed beyond V A, extend
characteristics have to be shown in detail. Here, the the airbrakes carefully and accelerate further to VNE. Then,
manoeuvrability in the complete take-off phase and the flying straight at VNE, he has to record the altitude versus time
absence of tendencies to ground loop or for uncontrolled pitch over a sufficient period of time. To keep the hands at the
oscillation is of basic interest. controls, this should be done by a video camera or by a
Besides all the data that can be measured the test pilot has dictating machine. Thereafter, the glider or powered glider has
to provide information to the designers about several points to be recovered from the descent, the airbrakes are to be
that are not measurable. According to the airworthiness retracted and the flight continues with the remaining height.
requirements it must be possible for example to perform safe If we take for example the DG-1000S, a double seated
transitions from one flight condition to another, including slip glider, certified for aerobatics with a V NE of 270 km/h this test
and stall and each manoeuvre without “requiring exceptional means a minimum descent rate of about 53 m/s! Thus the pilot
piloting skill”. A spin must be controllable by using “the has to accelerate to about 200-220 km/h, extend the airbrakes
standard procedure”. and push the nose down to reach the maximum speed. To
make a reproducible steady measurement it is recommended to
maintain this state for a period of about 20 seconds, which

TECHNICAL SOARING 4 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

means a loss of altitude of at least 1060 m, plus acceleration off and this speed must be maintained throughout the
and deceleration time. It is also recommended to have a climb.
reserve of altitude left after the test, just in case anything (b) The selected speed must not be less than;
unforeseen happens. Because of the high speed, these tests (1) 1·3 VS1, or
have to be flown in calm conditions that means preferably (2) any lesser speed, not less than 1·15 VS1, that is shown to
early in the morning with an aero tow up to 3000 m. be safe under all reasonably expected operating
conditions, including turbulence and complete engine
CS 22.75 requires a descent, approach failure.
The second test example should be a flight according to CS For this test the maximum weight including water ballast
22.75 Descent, approach. It must be shown that the sailplane has to be established. This can mean that up to 200 litres of
has a glide slope not flatter than one in seven at a speed of 1·3 water are to be added for the latest powered gliders designed.
VS0 with air brakes extended at maximum weight. Again, the take-off mass should be met with sufficient
According to the code, the aircraft has to be loaded to accuracy. The take-off should be recorded extensively to
maximum weight for this test. In this case the maximum mass obtain the relevant data. This means the flight path is to be
with water ballast tanks empty is relevant according to CS recorded from the ground by photos or video, the actual wind
22.49. This means take the empty weight of the aircraft, the is to be recorded because of the requirement of zero wind and
actual weight of the pilot(s) and add the rest of the required the actual speed and climb rate of the aircraft is to be recorded
weight in form of ballast. Because an overload would bear the by video or GPS. Additionally the geometry of the airfield
risk to fail the test and a lack of mass would not provide the should be available, to calculate the achieved distances from
required evidence, the mass should be met within an accuracy the photos or the video. Because of this amount of different
of at least +/- 1kg. After take-off first the stall speed VS0 with data, the measurement of take-off performance bears the most
this mass should be determined if not done already. VS0 means: intensive work following the flight test. The take-off tests are
also relevant for the judgment of the behaviour of touring
(…) the minimum steady speed at which the sailplane is motor gliders as tow planes.
controllable with: Finally, it must be said that the conduct of a test contained
(1) landing gear extended; in Subpart D – Design & Construction in advance of his test
(2) wing-flaps in the landing position; flights in his own interest. Paragraph 807, Emergency Exit
(3) air brakes retracted or extended whichever position results states, that
in the lowest value of VS0; (a) The cockpit must be so designed that unimpeded and rapid
(4) maximum weight; and escape in emergency situations during flight and on the
(5) CG in the most unfavorable position within the allowable ground is possible with the occupant wearing a parachute.
range. (…)
(6) For a powered sailplane: In performing a simulated emergency exit on the ground, the
(i) the engine idling (throttle closed); pilot will gain valuable experience for leaving the aircraft
(ii) propeller in the take-off position; rapidly in case of emergency. An average escape time to bail
(iii) cowl flaps closed position; out should be about 4 to 5 seconds, when the canopy is opened
With this speed multiplied by 1.3 and the airbrakes in advance. To open the canopy in advance will save it from
extended, the glide slope angle has to be measured. That damage and implies, that the procedure to open the canopy will
means the speed is to be maintained and the descent rate or the be trained when removing it.
height versus time is to be recorded over a certain period. If
we take VS0 as 78 km/h the test has to be carried out at 101 Additional tasks for test pilots
km/h. This means a descent rate of at least 4.0 m/s and a loss As is clearly visible, the main tasks for test pilots concern
of 120 m in 30 seconds. Because of the better accuracy it is Subpart C – Flight. In addition to the above mentioned
recommended to use the difference in altitude and time for the working points, the test pilots will be asked for statements
test. about points of the airworthiness requirements, Subpart D -
Design and Construction. For example, CS 22 states that:
CS 22.51 requires powered gliders take-off performance • The cockpit and its equipment must allow each pilot
For powered gliders, the take-off distance has to be to perform his duties without unreasonable concentration or
measured according to CS 22.51 Take-off: fatigue. (771 – General)
(a) For a powered sailplane the take-off distance at maximum • Each cockpit must be free from glare and reflections
weight and in zero wind, from rest to attaining a height of that could interfere with the pilot's vision, and designed so that
15 m must be determined and must not exceed 500 m when the pilot's vision is sufficiently extensive, clear and undistorted
taking off from a dry, level, hard surface. In demonstration for safe operation. (773 - Cockpit View)
of the take-off distance, the powered sailplane must be • Each cockpit control must be located to provide
allowed to reach the selected speed promptly after lifting convenient operation, and to prevent confusion and inadvertent
operation. (777 - Cockpit Controls)

TECHNICAL SOARING 5 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

• The cockpit must be so designed that unimpeded and electrical sensors that can collect a large amount of data
rapid escape in emergency situations during flight and on the simultaneously without requiring input from the pilot may
ground is possible with the occupant wearing a parachute. facilitate the workload significantly. A large step into the
(807 - Emergency Exit) direction of helping the pilot is a video camera recording the
• The cockpit must be designed so as to afford suitable instrument indications and the horizon. Attached to a solid
ventilation under normal flying conditions. (831 – Ventilation) mounting that can withstand loads up to about 10 g, the camera
For certification purposes, official pilots often have to in connection with a remote control and a cable microphone
provide statements about Subpart G —Operating Limitations fulfils the function of recording values and times. It even
and Information. Here, the markings on the airspeed indicator provides information about the accuracy with which the pilot is
and the engine instruments and placards in the cockpit are the flying.
items to look for. A GPS based logger system can also provide additional
information but has the disadvantage that the data rate is 1 Hz
Preparation and equipment for flight test at best and that the filters in the receiver smooth out abrupt
To achieve expressive results of flight tests, some manoeuvres.
important tools are required. In the early days of glider flying The above mentioned tools and their variants are only
just a watch, a pencil and paper in addition to the memory of examples of suitable equipment. After many flight tests, it has
the pilot were used. With technical progress several other turned out, that it is much more useful to be experienced with
items have been added to the standard equipment of a test less complicated tools than to have the most expensive, highly
pilot. The airworthiness requirements demand in the sophisticated tools available. Especially the training of the
Interpretative / Explanatory Material (IEM) 22.21: procedures needed to carry out precise flight manoeuvres will
(1) Instrumentation for flight test bring the best advantage for flight tests and assure that the
(a) For test purposes the sailplane should be equipped with flight tests are reproducible and not a matter of pure chance.
suitable instruments for conducting the required
measurements and observations in a simple manner. If Interpretation of measured data
reliable results cannot be obtained otherwise, the It is not possible to take the recorded results of a flight test
Authorities may request the installation of special test directly as a proof of compliance. Paragraph CS 22.45 –
equipment. General states, that “compliance with performance
(b) At an early stage in the programme the accuracy of the requirements (…) must be shown for still-air in standard
instruments and their correction curves should be atmosphere and at sea-level. “
determined, and particular attention should be paid to the For a solid flight substantiation report, several important
position error of the air-speed indication system; the items are of interest. The conditions have to be documented
influence of the configuration of the sailplane should also precisely that at least the following data will be stored with the
be accounted for. files:
1. wind direction and speed, temperature, degree of turbulence,
The most common tools for test flying are: altitude of test,
(a) The standard instruments or cockpit instruments of better 2. serial number of aircraft, loading conditions, state of design,
accuracy, condition of aircraft,
(b) Parachute, 3. name of the pilot, experience on comparable aircraft,
(c) a written test flight program, 4. sensors and tools used, last calibration, description of
(d) dictating machine, measurement,
(e) camera / video camera with corresponding mountings for 5. description of flight test technique.
the camera that can withstand the planned g-loads, Especially the atmospheric conditions are very important
(f) dynamometers, because of the influence on the speeds of the aircraft. One
(g) ruler for angles (pitch, roll, yaw) , should keep in mind that a speed measurement by GPS or a
(h) tape measure, ground based observer is the speed in relation to the surface of
(i) pencil and paper, the earth; which is in contrast with the airspeed indicator
(j) recording GPS, e.g. logger, reading available to the pilot or barometric sensor that
(k) accelerometer, indicates a speed in relation to the surrounding air as shown in
(l) stop watch, Figure 10.
(m) ground equipment for take-off test, To use speed information measured in different coordinate
(n) electrical sensors in combination with a recording systems, the actual wind has to be used to calculate vectors in
computer. the same coordinate system. For example, it is not possible to
Although most of the measurements needed for the prove the descent angle of 1:7 by a ground based camera and
certification of a glider or powered glider may be performed measurement in the pictures without information about the
with these instruments there may be the need for further wind and the height.
instrumentation. Especially the use of computer systems and

TECHNICAL SOARING 6 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

 Another point to consider is the correction of the available Acknowledgements
engine power for the actual density altitude. Using engine Thanks for pictures to:
power at altitudes other than sea level will provide less climb Akaflieg Braunschweig, Akaflieg Stuttgart, WD Aircraft
rate and acceleration. The results of flight tests have to be GmbH Heubach, DG-Flugzeugbau Bruchsal, DLR
corrected in accordance with the well known procedures. Braunschweig, Mr. Jochen Ewald

Concluding remarks
Flight tests are very interesting in the opinion of many Table 1
people. Test pilots have even been dare devils or heroes for a Limit manoeuvring load factors (CS 22.337)
long time and young boys wanted to become pilot. Looking
closer onto the task of pilots performing flight tests, one can
see that a lot of preparation, training and experience is required
to judge an aircraft, nobody or only a very few people have
flown before. A good test pilot can save a lot of money to the
aircraft designer but also the opposite is possible. Anyway,
pilots are only human and though they can make mistakes.
There have been aircraft that could be flown by test pilots
but not by pilots with very little experience because of their
critical flight characteristics. Thanks to the work of these
pilots, designers obtain the relevant information to improve or
modify the flight characteristics of their aircraft and make
them suitable for a larger range of pilots. In the most of the
present glider design organisations the designers are also the
test pilots, which is even better.
Even the certification of aircraft can be seen as a kind of
quality control to reduce the risk for an average pilot using a
newly designed aircraft. After certification of a glider the pilot
can be sure that within the green arc of the airspeed indicator
he can fly without overloading the aircraft and that the stall
speed without water ballast is less than or equal to 80 km/h. It
also has been verified that he can make an approach to a Figure 1 V-n Diagram, the flight envelope
narrow field with a glide slope of at least 1:7 and that the
relevant data and procedures in the flight manual are correct.

References
CS 22, EASA, http://www.easa.eu.int

JAR-22, Luftfahrt-Bundesamt, http://www.lba.de

AC23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

http://www.faa.gov

Flying Qualities and Flight Testing of the Airplane, Darrol Stinton,

ISBN 1563472440, AIAA Publication

Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight, Bernard Etkin,

ISBN 0-471-24620-4

Fundamentals of Sailplane Design, Fred Thomas,

ISBN 0-9669553-0-7, College Park Press

Die Evolution der Segelflugzeuge Günther Brinkmann / Hans Zacher

ISBN 3-7637-6104-7 Bernard & Graefe Verlag

“Technische Tabellen und Formeln” (technical tables and formulars), Figure 2 Deployable static probe used for calibration of the
Dieter Thomas & Jürgen Freitag, Thomas Flight Test, Buchenstraße static system
15a, D-82256 Fürstenfeldbruck, Germany

TECHNICAL SOARING 7 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

Figure 3 Drag chute for spin tests

Figure 6 Simulated emergency exit

Figure 4 Jettisonable ballast for spin tests

Figure 7 Flight test equipment

Figure 5 Drag chute for spin tests after use, partly released to
reduce drag

Figure 8: Possible camera system with second remote camera

and radio transmission.

TECHNICAL SOARING 8 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006

Figure 9 Example of a ground equipment for take-off and
landing test. A camera is looking through a transparent grid. It
requires a very precise setup.

TECHNICAL SOARING 9 VOLUME 30, NO. 1/2 - January/April 2006