N-l

,~

--2. Non \~v'\(~o.r s:qc4em. f"q~c..:({oV\$

Q. b,.f'..r~'~\f\-hc.J E'91At.d?o~s . (v. p3 )

i:'+l~Jt)
bEt. .(l;~OIl\: ~hO'M.01.Ab. ~. 61 5 kw-- ~ LA se:u.&l fo
be.. ~~CMe--~ " ..p d~ ~~ . .fJ.¥pllCi ~ ~V\~
~ -I:::b O~VJ)"~.) V\OV\ ~noWl~.

u l J ~~ ~ ~ ..p(~j~t)? , r+ £,il+) ~ -spD-,./hPd,

iliiA CJ ~ ro~~b l.st. +0 clf~
~4 L-t) ~J ~ +C>b)~) Y)
 N-2

Df2+/h t~OYl: SI..oL 'oS pet £e:- M LA C\. ~ l.o<\b s pCtUL ~V :{

I) M lA fJ. Sv. 6 ~ 01 V / 2)1'--1 z.t, a. j,:.e1M- t.NL (~ '!:tftA <:A-.

D.4'~6"': 'I NOf'I'WIJ L~ 'NlfJJ- V~C~5PQ~ ~ 4

V-eLk SpaUL] X) ~+l a.. /\ltd ~oI.. ~V'c.,-h·O\;\ ~~J
I,
v,gAA.,

3.2.1 o 'A X ) n 4 ~ II· II: X --b1R s ~ .f. ~ .(.c, /I" wI .. it Or)( /0 ~ ~ 'h~ ~d .­
(I) u~JI ~O 'f/~t;X) U1' 1/=0 Vi
'"2<--:::OX
(2) I1fi?CII::.Id.}lI~/J VI)<6X) 'da<.e:fK SC~-Llhr
(0) 1I~1-jll:: II-xil +--Iljll 'I?J ~ 6:iR. fr~4fl.~ 'Nr4
 N-3

=) II A I~ = 'M~ i
~ I alJ' I (Ab~ 5~-)
J

-.) ~II Al/il = ~~

.J
~ IQlSI
L ,
(co/lA~'A Sl.IM)

~ II A1~ :: f/1"",,-, (A~AJrZ

tv~ 11~II.¥(~ ~ !4A F
iA
~{rf ~t...cL at 11
i\
 N-4­

Pc!\- ~V'\ c.A';Qt\s. a( f.'W\iL

. OrO······ ,Yp
11~(t)lIp ~ (f(~L~JIf>J1;']: lphOr"" -6 ~
~'f 6- [\)00) ·.~.~.~Eit.p wLt~ 1/?:llp h{~~
~rtorVV\..=. H.1C'({oO~:-!~tJ.~L-t)l . ~d. ~ Gi..,
~ (,clA II 't1l~e.K';!f.>1-s
 N-5

~ '3. ~ ,,"2. ?t-op4.f"M% Ff.A)1\ cJ..\0 ~ •

CoV\+;~ (3,"2, ~)'4 ~~(J;~')~ .~:Lo)~) -+ 1< U .

£o~l,t\M,~ . ~ [fJ,oD )t.{&o.t~~'j€.1J >9 . . . '3- cS ((QJ +1)) .~
'" "fO.i -+:: <; ( Q • Ol») It - tt> ,1'( ~ (£ Q).J.0 ::)/f (+') -,c £.-t-o) J.( £0
Ji(i) ,. .' . '
+'(,Q' .S~~,:,~ ,,- , "'1--..
', .

L ;pS~~1-+2 (3 .. 2 ,6). A ~V\c<ho~ ~:[ C(J bJ -b 1R. ~l'pS::~L41.

~ [~I b }Zi: ..
/.r:(1C.) -:p(~z.)/l:-kl~1 -1::1./ ) k~ 0 .

\I ~') ~2 6 La. bJ
~Q...hI~O~': ~ $,.Qq...u...tJol'\ CA.. ["?t[1..P:, " , ) "?'t.) '1C3J .. - •. )1'lE:,X
G L::' i;)

i.. 0. no f ....... J V4- <:oJ",.. 6 P"'- '-2.. io ::,a.i.d 10 = ~ INk~

ftl 1£0 eX ~t,(., ~ ~~ € ~ (.)) 3- a~ I~-kd""-' tJ:: Ci)
S.1-.
/I"}:i -1Cll// <. E 'di 2 N
4~ ov\ ~ 80.11 B( '"1Co J c:) =f:'k: (:; X ; II -1t;- "Xoll (f:.}
At+.iA~~:""" cltf",..:J,o ~ i CoVl ~~ku?- ~ ~. $I! Fill «L.

f¥.lg CD.,~? ~ ~() w,. ~ ...(l&tct.... E 't?, .T.§{')COJ t )

eo Y\ dtur-v...b o.iJ( ~. 4. ~.~ ILq WI. b.- of ~ '¥i ':. ­

t;:fwln o VI: A SL~V1 ~ f ~{S;~ Ct VIC: VVl..'-c1.. It'Nt:t- SpA CA....

~ So..('cJ +0 he-,dCAtAt.6 Se'~"'$2- ~, ~ .~~£::>O
3- "1"" I ~+t~ N::: /J(E..) s~ +.

II ~t - ~JII <£. w L v-..c! v-t- L)S ~ f\J

- - - -.... ~. -- - - - - - - - - _..._----­
 N-7

b~~ ~,,~ ~p f.Lf ()( J /1- Ji x ) (y) 11· /l y ) k ~ f

V1()1~cf 11~w... -5fC(~j ~t::i. SVPfo$JI- ,.f.: X-i>.Y.
~ ~ scv.~J +0 6i coV\~~~ a..* '}C.;:, ~) ~ ~~ e )0/
3- (A f~ ((£,) sA-,
II .() 11d - ~(~~J 1/'( (. f. w~ .... ""'- II "){- /1 < r;
if ..p lb coY\Jlr\M~ crt .t~ "Yo} .~ ~ 5Ovt"d do k COil\~~()fA.~.
;J b:: [(£) ~J VlO+ ckt;~ ctJd ~...y~) -:9. -l)I SIAAJ
~ k !A+IV--~ C.Dr-..J,tW~.
,.-...,
AV',' L~ Pf'lf:ud.vd- 5p~c.L,rl ~
li~~ ~L~ 'Opa..~X) Go.
~~ a. KV\c~Ot"\'.("l·): XxX-t>t<)".J... ~ &"II~",",'VI(J
'" 1C 10 rn..s h~J
(l) L..."X)~) ;::'<<j,1C> V'?£/~ l:=)<

(1..) t. '¥) ~ t-~) :: < '?C) 'j) l-( 1! 1 ~)\J"?e, 'tJj ~ t£:; X

(3) <'l) o{~) =0( <1',~) 'J/)cJ.'j/;; X} 0( €- ~

(4) <~)..y > ~0 'd 'X E:: X) <1C) -:k:)= 0 'f{ ';;lc'= OX
~O'f.f'IM# G/~'" JV\ ~ ptf\..O~c.:A- £ f~ CA. (y) <# J") ) ) ~',,-,-
/1 • II : X ~ tR ~ Yz
II" II: <?t >l "):
~ iI\ (X) /J . II) u ca 1'\0\ 1NIt/ I;N.~ ~ PC( CA...
 f'J-8

Co~h(A~~'o V\ H~f2il'l(j ~O{,.eVo"'? ~

S v PfO ~ T LA a l'\ op .fJ-1..~ J e)
,: T'l-z:)) 'tK"'......-.b tf<. ""

or

+(~) :-") ~ =?< +-- -4!( 'k.) ~ I("\:;)

~G i ~~~, ~Y'-Jl~;s~b.~~~_.~]'l!J:feJ ~ ~ VA: ~ (X J II-II) k

0 ... VI

fA, BaV\t(. ~k 6pQ c.a) (MAd It.A- T: X~ X ..

S"'f'PO'&-4 3- ~ J..:~~J ~o~.s~ f< 1 *.5".J..

1/ T(?C)- T~ 1/ !::. f II 1C- '!j II 'V~J j e X

~V\ } I) 3- ~A.cA-'<r o~ 1C~e X s. ..J.. Tt.-x-tlj =?C~

Ql'"\~2)~ S9r""GA- f~l; '%iJ.,=T(/)t',)lCOT\~~Jo -1C~

..fut- an J '?Co
" .~~ LII"Y.-~I{
~~~ 3) 117y*-'l~/lf=L /I'X,,-roJl j"
. -­
I-I>
T(":~/ / j
UTI'l" ­ n ~0."T( 'j)
--rLvv--: ~ (X) \loll) k 0-- ~t{ t-;~ (~ S~U1-)
'---­
~ i.e.*- B:: ~ '?C : //~- ~II!:: orJ 4l< C lo~ ~ bJJ) ~ $OHo'llL r ~XJ r-~o ­
L.d- T~ X~)4 5~ '1-: r

o r VV\f~ 8 I'da Ij~ ,/:e.. . T(1(.) 6- -:B \J?cc 13

2) 3: r<I ~,~- 1/ /r"K) - T{~JV!: f 1I-r:-1j II \;;/1<-, ~

e::B

4 . . /) "3 ~d1: ~ ~*~ B

z) '[1([: '/£[f'1 - ',t"Ki)"'!5 -I> ?C
fF
 t-J-l O

"-1'f'~ ~ ~o ~"" 50
s~ r w~k .:sok:
--P('1):. ':k + <.0 So (3 '1<:) =0
3

T(~') = ~ +- ""+ (OS ('3--r)

.3

» format long

» [[0:9}' xi xi+f(xi) f(xi}]

ans = •
&. T(~l) .p(~l)
o o -0.33333333333333 -0.33333333333333
1.00000000000000 -0.33333333333333 -0.40232299084494 -0.06898965751160
2.00000000000000 -0.40232299084494 -0.38683321158288 0.01548977926205
3.00000000000000 -0.38683321158288 -0.39084927868525 -0.00401606710237
4.00000000000000 -0.3~084927868525 -0.38983435210584 0.00101492657941
5.00000000000000 -0.38983435210584 -0.39009263383973 -0.00025828173389
6.00000000000000 -0.39009263383973 -0.39002701964517 0.00006561419456
7.00000000000000 -0.39002701964517 -0.39004369575119 -0.00001667610602
8.00000000000000 -0.39004369575119 -0.39003945793057 0.00000423782062
9.00000000000000 -0.39003945793057 -0.39004053489889 -0.00000107696832
~'?9:J

4
~ I
./,/
3
>/--------- ~~/,/
./
2

1~ ~
~(, ;) ///
-~-----.

"i<'
E=;'
~ ~ ~. ,/////

0
,,..----- .~ ~
~
~
~
,
/
, /

" ~~
-1

//
~--r~~2--i,// ~~
-2
/////
-3 r--------/·

-4 I
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3 4 5

0.1
~/,/CCCCCC/
o -
..

I//'c/cc/
-0.1 -
..

-..
'1"""1
j/'//
~
)( -0.2
~
E=;' .///
-0.3
...../
/
..
/

-0.4

~L· ....
V
........--

.... / .... / /
i...--...... I
-0·?0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1

x, x(k)
 tJ - r'2..

(.) ~ =-P (t) -?C)) f 20 j

~'o):: 1t':o ) /)C6-~VlJ ..f!:a<?IR~R~
0~ 11'\ cl~ a .s CJ UOII'\ -0}(/~-:
?.J ~ IA J0/24 d. h~ a. lA. 'M- ~ :5 D/ tuf,b j,1 ]­

J3 'Cr DUO,.., ~ ~ u-r:J [0 J T tv4... J

0.

'Xl-) ~
,; =-P(f I ~)
0 vJJ--
~iQ.b~ .e~w~ o~ [0,
Q"," I
rJ c.-."
IM.L dt·"'\

6 bt.f)·~ ~) ~.+: '\.A c..oV\.J;·~.~)

-t

(2) ~ i+-) = ';to +!.+

o
(~J 1<=£1::)) cI t:) -t €[o} T J
tL.ote."",-- CLoc~ Bx/;'k ... CA. f UVlA'~k,l4J ) •
vppo~ .p t..4 c.Oj.'\~~ tV' -&-1'% , 3 ~~ CQiA~~~
/ ) r'""} h < k ~cI +Lt.. £bUOc.,..lilA~ QV'fJ- sa...f,i·ft..dr:l:
(/~(--t)?') - +(i) 'j)1J f k R1t-~JJ J \tot, ~ cBJ V'~ 6[0) T J
(llpsc~it:a: CO~D~

IAJk 13 = f')C 6'iR n: 111'- ~JI '- r :1.

~... $1) h~ ~«c. ~ sot,.ji"ov> 0.'-" [0, b) 0t., ~ """"
0""-
S Ul S fA• .f.h c.. u-:I~ SWt&J.J fa sa..;/l s.~;
h b ek.~ ( r
-rL.OUIM.: Globo-Q &'x,~,j."'CA.>+ ()...u~~)
5"-ffo~ ~ J'cr.- ~co:l, T ~ r o )o'b) :t ~.~
Co~~~~ kT ~cJ hT s,-f.

! ~(f:/ ~) - ~ (t , jll L kT /I?:- ~II ':I~) j e:tit'J \I~ € [0) TJ

1/ ~ ( t. 'X-o) II ~ hr
J 'It e: [Q J T 1
ttll\ (I) ~ .JqcC4.-c+~ "NL. -SoUOII\ o~ [OJ 00)
 A
'i-1-A- S 1- t;, ~HI £+­

1i ::: A(if) ~ ~ (-toJ ~W2V',

t,..;-E- kV\c>~ ~~OIA- ~!

~ov~w, 2. I
(0 Hl ( ~·ow. {,.;:. = Nt)?C ~ b~ ~ clr:cI {I
1/ § (t 1 -tOJ/! LIZ:) tI-t>t1::» /( £):;. $O'm(l. pO~~ ~oV\s-lov..:J-;,.

(iO All ~()~J:; cd :i~A{t)?C !oJ -to ~ ~ -t-b oD

(I /I Itt.) to)I/-t:. 0 ~ -t -t> oG'

~.
!
 fJ-IS

LIV'\,t~Il~-Tn~C!~ '5~6~~ (LTI)

~O\('· +-A.4- s~c +e~

....; ::. A ~ ) -xJ.A-o) ~,/~II'}
w~ kV\~ ~. ~O~ LA:

2 .. 2.

(L) ALL ~e?~

+L.. h~VtVJlC!vVs.
1cI:i=A?C
A h().v.4...
CWL­ bfiH.A~~
po~:~ /\1L~ p~
hol;'\
iI ad
Q..v\cA ~a ~fl z·e.J\.C /lI2~ p rhdJi QAL ~ 1,1>'\' J. ~

(Li) /4l{ ~'oVVJ 01 -i~A~ -k",d 10 ~ ~ -t ~ ~

11 aJ..{ ~ ~~V\ ~A(JJ). crt A h~ Y\J2~~~ /V!~ p~ .
 ~: Ui~s(;t~

~-r~

Ab~ Se."o f\J Otr~

S = ~(1;) 'j) S)
~t-{A ~ ~~Io~
6
lCl := '::.l
•
;) "Y 1..' ~ 'Ij
+-t.... . . . ~

'1C / ::: '1C 2­

i" : : ~L i::) 'Jt,,) ?(,.)

1C,

I.
 N-I. 7~

Table 2.1 summarizes the various kinds of equilibrium points for

second-order linear systems.
TABLE 2.1

Ty~ol
Eig~nvQlu~, 01 A Equilibrium Point

A., Al real, A. < 0, Al < 0 Stable node

Ait Al real. A, > O. Al > 0 Unstable node
A.. Al real. A,A2 < 0 Saddle point
A.. A2 complex conjugates, Re A, > 0 Unstable rocus
A" Al complex conjuaates, Re A. < 0 Stable rocus
A.. Al imaainary Center
 ~-/8

TABLE 2.2

!f.qllilibrium Point ~ I = 0, ~ J = 0 EqllJllbrilun Point XI == 0, XJ = 0

O/tM Lwariud System (7)-(8) o/tll4 NonllMlITiud System (/H2)
Stable node Stable node
Unslable nodo Unstable nodo
Saddle point Saddle point
Stable focus Stable focus
Unslable focus Unstable focus
Center 7

e-K~~Crz: Vay\ ~ Po I 's ~~"..ltDII\

'3>),< [j -,':d td t- ~:o )"M. >0

~~~ S.Vr $

~ 1 .;:: Ij tGf;;::" %'"Z.

'iC"2.- ;:; <-5 i~ :: - (C I +-,1< [/- '(C, "1 J -X:z..
-e~.b",,,,",- POlJ
1C, -= "1?"'2,- ~0
~z. ::- 0 :; - 1CI r 0 ;-.., "it' I ~ 0
2... Nl.(~ccJ .rV\...te.<t'~oV'

:3. I~ c..rthe.$
~ A t'\ J50 C t. i ~. lb tkf'v-..R J t;(A ~ loc:::..v..$. ot ~ pO I ~k
UJ'lt{ a. ~~V\ falll(fd- S/Op-tL, 4~I'f>Oc..I,;"", ~+L
610f"L 0{ u L J.,f';.JJc! ~ ~

S (~/l~l.)= J.~? = 17. £:~'l -,:::~) =' 0<

. ~, '~~(1CIJ~t,) .

. ! ·
1£1 :: 1C'l..

ic~ =- - '1(, ~ ( / - ~,' ) -;r2­

5 = :. ft:. I +.P (. /-~, 't) ~ a. .:: c(

~~2..
 tJ -11 /8.. 2.

... , ....... \~

........... YJ

........ _
--- ---
I

--- ___ ---

--. -- .......

~J
\""'­
___ N
--!-
-­
'\
,
\
I
I
I l
- ____ t

___ 0
--
... _
_.... ...
\
\
\
I
I
I
l
l
I
----
___I
- ....
o -....... "\ \
.......",
.... '\
\ \
II

I
II

,~.
I''''

........ ',\\1
.... \\\1
... I
I
I
--- ---
/
o
.... .... _­0 _-
,
.... ,
-­ ---
... ----­
"'-
---- --- "
..._-._.,.. -- ­ -­
....
'\

--- ... --­

--- --- ......
___ \n
--­ - ... _- --- ---- '" I
~
-----!
-­ ........ , ....

....

o .- N f")
I I I

isoc/, VI,.a, ... ~

LOV\d...t-re~ .. ~
 Van der Pol Oscillator

0.3

0.2

" " '\ \

0.1

-0.1
\ \ " , , ~ - -
I / / I I
I ,I I / I , I , j
~ , , , - - - ~ / / I I I I I •/ •I f/ 1
•
, , , - - - - - ~ / / / / I I I I I I I II
-0.2 , , - - - - - - ~ / / / / / / I I I I I I I I I
, - - - - , / /' /' ./ ./ / I I I I I I I I I I
-"'1"0"//////1 /11111//
- - - / ./ ./ ;/ / ;/ / / ~;"I /i ' ~1~/I; ,/ /
~
-0.3L_~-L-__-_·_­__-~"~-__/_ __/_·~·~~';./~/_·~;/_"~/~~/~~~~~1~~p~/-a'!t:2~"~~'o!~ /111///1/
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

VO Vld er)Y\ .. VV\

V Q \f\ d P {?y>' V'.I\

 tJ- 20

Van der Pol Oscillator

3
~ ~ ~
I

~ ,
~ ,~ \
\ \
\
~
~
\ \ \
~
~
\
~ i
~
\
i
2 \ \
• ~
I
i \
~
\ \

i •I
1 \ I
i i

-1 I \

,
\
" i
\ \ \ \

\
\

\
\
\
~

,,, ,i
I ~

,,, ,
-2 \
1f + ~.
I
I i
·fl, \ \
~!
1\ ,
, \ \ \ \ \
, ~
-3 ; "
\ \ , - - , \ \ i 1

-3 -2 -1 0 2 3

.~, vf. VOV\d eV"'il W\

vCA V\ d (.II,( (J~ , VV\
 f'J -'2J

~
.~"

. . G )<fAVv..f> f.u:. a6 Li,..;j c ~ c~

+k .h~MOnAe o,sci 110)0,..

~ ~ YI.(A f: cn'cJ
a iA aM.. pll ~J.a..
i .
~ . J (01'1 d.i.j,OIr< ~
 Harmonic Oscillator

/ ' / ' /,-;t

2
"",~ ~
/ /' ....___""J'
~ --~
-~
,<,

1,5
I
I
11
/' /"" ~ -.;;..
~
~
'",,­ \

-
~
/ , />1 ~
1 -'"
~

I
t ,I / ./ ;/
--.,.
\ \ \
0.5
t 1-
! ,. "'"

,
/ ! "- \ \ \ \
~\
0­ l' I~
I t I I
'II t
\ \ \ "- ,/
I I

-0.5 ~~ ~ \\
I .j j
\ \ \
"
~,

/
.: j
~
\ '\\ \
I If I
-1

, " \ " "" "" ""- ~ p:/

/'
"t--..
---
'"
" ""i-­
¥ ;/
-1.5 K
'\. ~ ""'-. "t~_-. .._
< ..........
""f:---­ ~

-2
\ ,,- \~
" "' " ....
",'-
'-""-..­

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

r"'\..
 N-23

Nonlinear Oscillator-radial component

1.5

O.S

-0.5

-1

-1.5
/

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 o 0.5 1 1.5 2

p= 10 b
V ..p h I0 Sc. r " V'VI

nl o-sc..e 0 · M
 fJ-24

Nonlinear Oscillator

2 '~"'~
-~
..........

~
""-,,­ \
......."":'!;..
''>\ '\. \

-~"""-~ .......- .--'"

- ~
~
~ J
1.5 \ \
'¥
.---""" .~?1' /"., ?'
\ \

1 /'" ,/ /
. ! /' .,..
~
Vt

~ j
,/ ! I
'",

0.5 11
I
/
'"
" \
I
a t
" \
\
/
1­

-0.5
f

1 , I

-1 1 ,1 .~
I

~ ,/1'/ /

;/

j \
~ ~.........-~

-1.5 1 if\
i
IIA,\
I
l
!

"\ "- ~- k-' ..:.--- ..

~:: ,~" ...... f--....

-2 / ~\.
'. "'-....... ""':"-.... ""'E_... ~- .........

a 1 1.5 2

\J.Q. If\ l05C-, M

V\ \ 0'S C. e ~ , VV\
L/~ t4c~

~vWh()" : ~ it~ ~w <ll.p...

~ocb<,- S~o~ -+0 \l -i::. -h-tc).
=+(1')
I
1'; :A
0­

Benck:xso~s ~OI{~:VA. (~f~~ ~ St-.OW~~D M~ a..

t;~ c~~ L~ does n.<.Yf- 4/~)

5i-Jp po~ b ~ ~ s /~f ~ Co V'I N ckJ ~at0V1 1/1' IR "Z.. t

\j~ (~'J u, dfNd ~:..J

d;cr+ :;V+(~)::: ~~ + ~~
ow-,e/. V{' (~) -=I- 0 'r:i1<: E: D evv.ci cPo es Vto-f chIMA ~r v- /n ~.

~seclor~ aI ..x=+{-?C).
*, =
i z :: -
"'K: z. + 'X "1C"'"1.
~I
I

+ 1(/?C"l"
"6 F L. 11''' [; J
•
~I =- 'It'l..
"yz, :: - ~ I
J4c ~ I hi I:s a. Co V1 ~ PICA...... of ~"ooLt:c
 Bendixson"s theorem example

3 '\ ~ ~
" "­ .-'1" //
\ \ '\ .-'" / /' /'
\ \ -­ ./ /
2

\ \
" \
".'"

'"
,., I

,­ !

-1 I ~

,/ /
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 34
) Chap. 2 Second-Qrder Systems
') ) Sec. 2.4 Periodic Solutions and Limit Cycles /)35

41 [definition] Let x(t) be a solution trajectory of [2.3(I)H2.3(2)]. X2

A point z e R" is said to be a limitpoinl of this trajectory if there
exists a sequence (/Ji in R+ such that I. - 00 as n - 00 and
x(tJ - z as II - 00. The set of all limit points of a trajectory x(t)
is called the limit sel of the trajectory and is denoted by L.
XI
42 .R.EMARK.S: Basically, a limit point of the trajectory x(t) is a point
z which has the property that, as time progresses, the trajectory
passes arbitrarily close to J infinitely many times. We sballencoun­ .
ter limit points and limit sets again in Chap. S. (\Ol'\ II ~GI...I'-'
FIG. 2.19
::::~ 0 :>ci II ~ (
\ 43 Tlutotw~ (poincar6-Bendi.xso~rr Let 46 Example. Consider once again the system (9}-( I0), and let M
44 S == (X(/), t ~ O} be the annular region defined by
denote a trajectory in RI of the system [2.3(l)H2.3(2)]. and let L ¥I M = ((xu xJ: 0.9 If ~ .xi + xi 1.1p"}
denote its limit set. If L is contained in a closed bounded region M Then M contains no equilibrium points of the system (9}-(10). Further­
in RI and if M contains no equilibrium points of [2.3(1)H2.3(2)]. more, a sketch of the velocity vector field for this system reveals that,
then either all along the boundary of M, the vector field always points into M, as
(i) S is a periodic solution of [2.3(I)H2.3(2»), or depicted in Fig. 2.19. Hence we can apply Theorem (43) and conclude
(0) L is a periodic solution of [2.3(1)H2.3(2)].

..
that M contains a periodic solution.

We shall omit the proof because it is beyond the scope of this Example. In applying Theorem (43), the condition that M should
boot. not contain any equilibrium points is vr:ry important. To see this. con­
sider the system
45 REMA.u:.s: Roughly speaking. what Theorem (43) states is the fol­
lowing: Suppose we can find a closed bounded region M in RI such
.- XI = -Xl + XI
that M does not contain any equilibrium points of [2.3(I)H2.3(2)] 50 X" = -Xl - Xi
and such that all limit points of some trajectory S are contained in The velocity vector field for this system is sketched in Fig. 2.20. If we
M. Then M contains at least one periodic solution of [2.3(l)}­ choose M to be the unit disk centered at the origin. then all along the
[2.3(2)]. In practice, it is very difficult to verify that M contains all boundary of M the velocity vector field points into M. Hence all trajec­
the limit points of a trajectory. However, because M is closed, it can
be shown that if some trajectory x(t) is eventually contained in M, X2
i.e., there exists a time t. < 00 such that x(t) e M V I ~ 10 • then
L is contained in M~ Thus the theorem comes down to this: If we can
find a closed bounded region M containing no equilibrum points
such that some trajectory is eventually confined to M, then M con­
tains at least one periodic solution. Now, a sufficient condition for
a trajectory to be eventually confined to M is that, at every point -\ XI
along the boundary of M, the velocity vector field always points into
M. If this is the case, then any trajectory originating within M must
remain in M, and hence M contains at least one periodic solution
trajectory. (This is depicted in Fig. 2.19.) FIG. 2.20
-\
,
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tv
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