J Sci Food Agric 1995,67,143-152

Modified Atmosphere Packaging Technology :

A Review
Ivor J Church* and Anthony L Parsons
Faculty of Cultural and Education Studies, Leeds Metropolitan University, Calverley Street, Leeds,
L S l 3 H E , UK
(Received 12 May 1994; revised version received 12 August 1994; accepted 8 September 1994)

Abstract : Modified atmosphere packaging is becoming increasingly common. It

has been claimed that the technique enables significant shelf-life extension but in
so doing presents an increased public health risk. This paper reviews the liter-
ature relating to the scientific basis of these claims. It demonstrates that shelf-life,
sensory quality and safety of packaged products may be optimised only by har-
monising a complex relationship between product and process.

Key words: modified atmosphere packaging, vacuum packaging, fruit and veget-
ables, meat, seafood, microbiological safety, sensory quality.

INTRODUCTION VACUUM PACKAGING

The two major spoilage agents, namely aerobic bacteria

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) may be defined
and oxidative reactions, require oxygen. Therefore, its
as ‘the enclosure of food products in gas-barrier
unavailability will inhibit spoilage and thus maximise
materials, in which the gaseous environment has been
quality and/or storage life. Some deterioration,
changed’ (Young et a1 1988) in order to inhibit spoilage
however, will occur due to anaerobic/microaerophilic
agents and therefore either maintain a higher quality
organisms and non-oxidative reactions. This is usually
within a perishable food during its natural life or
minimised by chilled storage. Product compression is
actually extend the shelf-life.
unavoidable and makes vacuum packaging unsuitable
Two forms exist, namely vacuum packaging and gas,
for many products.
gas flush or gas exchange packaging.
Vacuum packaging involves placing a product in a
GAS PACKAGING
film of low oxygen permeability, the removal of air from
the package and the application of a hermetic seal
This technique was specifically designed to overcome
(Smith et al 1990). Gas packaging is an extension of this
some of the problems associated with (or in fact caused
process, involving removal of air from the pack and its
by) vacuum packaging, namely to inhibit a wider range
replacement with specific gases, either singly or in com-
bination. of microbiological spoilage agents and avoid compres-
A number of claims have been made regarding MAP,
sion damage. As with vacuum packaging the products
are usually chill stored to maximise the inhibitory effect.
specifically that, in comparison with air packaging, it
Three gases are generally used-oxygen (OJ, nitrogen
offers shelf-life extension but in so doing presents an
(N2)and carbon dioxide ( C 0 , h a c h of which has a
increased microbiological risk. This paper reviews the
specific function.
basis of these claims in the context of the major com-
modity types, namely fruit and vegetables, meat and Oxygen
meat products and seafood.
The exclusion of oxygen is generally desirable for the
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. reasons previously stated. Its inclusion, however, is
143
J Sci Food Agric 0022-5142/95/$09.00 0 1995 SCI. Printed in Great Britain
144 I J Church, A L Parsons

essential when packaging fresh fruit and vegetables as increases the duration of the lag phase and reduces the
these continue to respire (ie consume 0, and produce growth rate during the logarithmic phase (Farber 1991);
CO,) post-harvest, and in the absence of 0, anaerobic however, the former effect is the greater and therefore as
respiration occurs, the effect of which is to accelerate bacteria move from the lag to log phase of growth the
senescence and spoilage. 0, is also desirable in red inhibitory effects are reduced. Thus, the earlier the
meat packaged for retail sale as it maintains the colour- product is gas packaged the more effective CO, will be
ing pigment myoglobin in the bright red, oxygenated (Brody 1989).
form (oxymyoglobin) that consumers prefer (Hood and It should be noted that much of the work cited above
Riordan 1973). These demands are addressed by the regarding the inhibitory effect of CO, appears to use
control of 0, levels within the packages: in the case of questionable experimental methodologies (ie the use of
produce 0, is reduced to the level at which aerobic res- unbuffered media, the changing of several variables in
piration has been minimised and anaerobic respiration an experiment) and is, as a result, potentially erroneous.
has not yet begun, whereas with meat, enough is intro-
duced to maintain colour without encouraging 0,
induced spoilage reactions. Nitrogen

Carbon dioxide This is inert, tasteless (Inns 1987) and less prone to pass
either into the product or out through the packaging
This is a bacterial and fungal growth inhibitor (Wolfe material than the other gases commonly used. It is con-
1980; Dixon and Kell 1989). Its mode of operation is sequently used as a cushion, ballast, balance or filler
not fully understood (Rizvi 1981; Daniels et a1 1985; gas-replacing 0, either as an alternative to vacuum
Inns 1987; Hotchkiss 1988); however, it is dependent packaging when the product is fragile, or to limit pack
upon the dissolution of the (water and fat soluble) gas collapse caused by the absorption of CO, .
into the packaged product. This has a number of conse- Therefore, the design of an optimum packaging
quences. system for any particular commodity involves the con-
sideration of a number of factors, the most important of
(1) The inhibitory effect is directly related to the which is the relative amounts of 0, and CO, present.
amount of CO, present. Gill and Tan (1980) This is determined by the concentration of these gases
noted that it increases linearly with concentra- within the pack, the headspace volume and the per-
tion up to 50-60% (of total atmosphere in terms meability of the packaging material. Optimisation of the
of volume) above which there is little or no packaging system will result in sensory quality being
further effect on the majority of organisms. Both maximised over time and any public health risks mini-
Shay and Egan (1987) and Gill and Penney mised.
(1988) stated that an amount greater than that
which will dissolve into the product is required
for optimum effect. Therefore, the package FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
volume and the permeability and surface area of
the packaging material are important consider- The shelf-life of produce is limited by physiological
ations. Gill (1988) demonstrated how, in meat, ageing and water loss (O’Beirne 1990a). MAP addresses
the necessary amount of C O , varied according both these factors and enables significant-product
to (and may be calculated from) both pH and
specific-shelf-life extension (Wills et al 1989). Senes-
fatty tissue levels. cence begins when the starch/sugar stored within the
(2) The solubility of CO, is inversely proportional product is consumed. This rate of consumption is deter-
to storage temperature and thus low tem-
mined by the rate of respiration, therefore shelf-life is
peratures have a synergistic effect upon its action inversely proportional to respiration rate (Day 1990).
(Gill and Tan 1980).
MAP reduces the (aerobic) respiration rate by the
(3) When dissolved some of the gas exists as carbon- reduction of 0, tension.
ic acid (Daniels et a1 1985) which can cause
As the packaging system must accommodate the
unpleasant acidic tastes (souring) when high con- gaseous exchange of respiration, vacuum packaging is
centrations of CO, are used. inapplicable, and although gas packaging in its tradi-
(4) The absorption of the gas by the product causes tional sense is sometimes used, the more usual approach
some reduction in gas volume and consequent
is to design a packaging system that produces a suitable
pack collapse. This somewhat unsightly change
atmosphere by relating product respiration and
in appearance is sometimes mistakenly assumed
package permeability. In such a system the package per-
to be indicative of a sealing or material fault. meability (ie to the ingress of 0,and egress of CO,) is
The effectiveness of CO, depends, in addition, upon the selected according to the product respiration rate (ie
growth phase of any organisms present. CO, both rate of 0, consumption and CO, production) in order
ModiJed atmosphere packaging technology: a review 145

that, within a matter of days, the atmosphere modifies 1993). This must be taken into account when selecting
from 20.95% v/v 0, and 0.03% v/v CO, as found in air the packaging material in order that equilibriation of
to c 2-5% v/v and c 3-8% v/v, respectively (Hayakawa relative humidity occurs, typically to a figure not
et a1 1975; Cameron et al 1989; Day 1993). exceeding 90% (Geeson 1990). The use of films with
The application of MAP is however complicated by high water transmission rates will result in shrivelling
the fact that both respiration rates and package per- and wilting, whereas low rates result in excessively high
meability are variables. The respiration rate depends relative humidity levels (ie 98%) which encourages
upon a number of factors including product type (ie fungal decay (Geeson et a1 1985; Geeson 1990). In-pack
apples have a respiration rate of 5-10 ml CO, desiccants of various types are widely used to retard
=-
kg-’ h-’ whereas asparagus has a rate of 60 ml CO, mould development (Prince 1989; White and Roberts
’
kg- h- ‘-O’Beirne 1990a), and within product type 1992).
upon variety (ie one cultivar of lettuce can have twice MAP may also be applied to cut prepared vegetables.
the rate of another-O’Beirne 1990a), maturity (ie ripe In such products enzymatic browning is usually the lim-
bananas respire at four to five times the rate of green- iting factor in terms of shelf-life (Joslyn and Ponting
Wills et a1 1989) and severity of preparation (ie sliced 1951; O’Beirne 1990a). A conflict therefore exists in that
carrots can respire at six to seven times the rate of 0, is necessary for respiration but undesirable in terms
unsliced-Mclachlan and Stark 1985). The storage of browning. This is resolved by reducing the 0, level
temperature also has an effect, the respiration rate to a point just above that at which anaerobic respir-
increasing by two- to three-fold for every 10°C rise ation is possible and chilled storage. This enables
(Ooraikul 1991). Despite this, however, ambient storage limited shelf-life extension, ie from 1-3 to 5-7 days
is common due to the relatively low unit product cost (O’Beirne 1990a). The process used differs to that
and the fact that CO, is four times more efficient in applied to uncut products; Ballantyne et a1 (1988b)
reducing the respiration rate than temperature found that, with shredded lettuce, gas flushing (with 5%
(O’Beirne 1990a). 02/5% co2/90% N, vv) was necessary to prevent
Package permeability depends upon the permeability browning prior to atmospheric equilibriation (to 1-3%
and surface area of the packaging material. Films of 0,/5-6% CO, v/v). The method of cutting determines
various permeabilities are available (O’Beirne 1990a; the amount of cell damage and therefore the amount of
Day 1993; Greengrass 1993). None, however, are suffi- browning-it being minimised by slicing (not chopping)
ciently permeable to accommodate respiration of pro- with a sharp knife and removing the free cellular con-
ducts such as asparagus which must be either packed in tents afterwards with water (Bolin et a1 1977).
microperforated film to increase the rate of gas In products such as peeled and sliced apple and
exchange (Goddard 1988; Geeson 1990) or chill stored potato, enzymic browning cannot be adequately con-
to reduce the respiration rate. The latter approach must trolled by optimum preparation and packaging
be used with care, however, as many types of fruit and (Keijbets 1988) and treatment with either sulphur
some vegetables have a lower temperature limit below dioxide (SO,) or ascorbic/citric acid is necessary
which chilling injury may occur (Morris 1982; Jackman (O’Beirne and Ballantyne 1987; O’Beirne 1988).
et a1 1988). In addition, the permeability of packaging Fruits present few public health risks due to their
films (particularly to CO,) is directly proportional to relatively low pH. A risk does exist however with veget-
temperature (Ooraikul 1991), therefore a film that ables both from mesophilic pathogens (ie Escherichia
creates a near optimum atmosphere at a given tem- coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, Shigella spp)
perature will create a suboptimal atmosphere if the tem- in ambient stored products (Saddik et a1 1985; Brock-
perature is changed. lehurst et a1 1987) and psychrotrophic pathogens such
Ballantyne et al (1988a) discussed packaging opti- as Listeria monocytogenes, Aeromonas hydrophila and
misation for broccoli, demonstrating the complex Yersinia enterocolitica (Brocklehurst et a1 1987; Sizmur
nature of the process. The consequences of poor and Walker 1988; Berrang et a1 1989) in both ambient
package design are significant however. If a film of and chill stored products. Sanitisation of produce, par-
excessive gas permeability is used there will be no atmo- ticularly leafy vegetables, with chlorine (100 pm litre-
sphere modification. Conversely, if a film of insufficient for 5 min) has been widely recommended as being effec-
permeability is used an atmosphere with an 0, content tive, although some doubt has been raised about its
of less than 2% v/v will develop (Priepke et al 1976; effectiveness with L monocytogenes (Brackett 1987;
Myers 1989),causing quality losses due to both anaero- Berrang et a1 1989; Beauchat and Brackett 1990). The
bic respiration and specific physiological disorders possibility of potentially fatal toxigenesis by psychro-
(Kasmire et a1 1974; Brecht 1980; Knee and Hadfield trophic Clostridium botulinum (type E and non-
1981; Rizvi 1981; Zagory and Kader 1988). proteolytic strains of types B and F) theoretically exists
As mentioned previously, water loss may limit shelf- in anaerobic atmospheres caused by 0, depletion
life as produce tends to lose moisture by evaporation at arising from either temperature abuse (causing an
a rate determined by its composition and structure (Day increase in respiration rate and consequent exhaustion
146 I J Church, A L Parsons

of 0,-O’Beirne 1990a) or the use of incorrect pack- will also determine susceptibility to pathogenic growth:
aging materials (Day 1993), although there is little evi- Kautter et a1 (198l), for example, found growth and tox-
dence of a real threat in practical usage. Zagory and igenesis of C botulinum type E in N, packed hamburger,
Kader (1988) noted that, unlike with other commodities, but not in sausage and turkey packed and stored in an
accumulation of C botulinum toxin without sensory identical manner.
indication has not been demonstrated in vegetable Product dimensions have an effect in that they deter-
products-a conclusion that has been supported by mine the surface area available for gaseous exchange
more recent work on mushrooms (Malizio and Johnson and ease of drawing a vacuum in flexible packaging.
1991) and tomatoes (Hotchkiss et a1 1992). It should be Shelf-life is inversely proportional to initial microbio-
recognised that, although MAP allows shelf-life exten- logical load (Sutherland et a1 1975; Christopher et a1
sion some loss of sensory quality is unavoidable. 1979; Kraft 1986), the latter demonstrating that, under
Eversom et a1 (1992) found that, in asparagus, tough- aerobic conditions, samples with an initial microbio-
ness and fibrousness increased with time, especially at logical load of lo3 colony forming units (CFU) cm-,
chilled (0-5°C) temperatures. Geeson et a1 (1991a,b) took approximately twice as long to spoil (ie attain a
noted that, in pears, although gas packaging inhibited level of 107 CFU cm-’) as those with a load of lo5.
detrimental colour changes, its effect upon both flavour Similar, but less predictable, results were obtained in
and texture was at best negligible. Detailed reviews con- anaerobic systems.
cerning MAP of produce include Kader et a1 (1989),
Myers (1989), Prince (1989), Day (1 990), O’Beirne
(1990a), Powrie and Skura (1991) and Day (1993). Process

The in-pack atmosphere is of concern with both

MEAT vacuum and gas packaging. In vacuum packaging an
0, content of less than 2% v/v is required to signifi-
Fresh meat may be preserved by either vacuum or gas cantly reduce oxidative rancidity (White and Roberts
methods (Gill and Tan 1980) in conjunction with 1992). This residual volume is consumed by the respir-
refrigeration. The former has the advantage of technical ation of meat tissue and bacterial activity (Hood 1984)
simplicity but this is countered by the fact that com- causing CO, levels of 10-20% v/v to accumulate (White
pression damage (ie loss of shape and increased drip) and Roberts 1992). It is for this reason that product
commonly occurs, particularly with sub-primal cuts- dimension has an effect as mentioned previously:
Lee et a1 1984; Simard et a1 1985. vacuum packaged ‘large joints’ have a ratio of residual
Shelf-life is limited by either sensory or microbiologi- air to meat low enough to ensure rapid depletion of the
cal factors, although the former, comprising of detri- 0,,whereas with ‘smaller meat portions’ the ratio tends
mental changes in colour (Shay and Egan 1990), odour to be higher and consequently metmyoglobin formation
(Taylor 1985) and exudate retention (Hood 1984) are can cause surface discoloration (Taylor 1985). This dis-
the norm. coloration may present a problem with retail presen-
End-product quality and attainable shelf-life is depen- tation. It would, however, be masked by cooking. The
dent upon both product (type, dimensions, amount of topic of storage atmosphere is considerably more
initial contamination) and process (atmosphere, storage complex in gas packaging, a fact demonstrated by con-
temperature, packaging material and design). flicting recommendations for apparantly identical pro-
ducts : for example, the optimum atmosphere for
Product chicken is 75% N,/25% CO, v/v according to Guise
(1992) and 50% N,/50% CO, v/v according to Smith et
Considerable differences in shelf lives are apparent a1 (1990). Similarly, Selman (1987) recommends 60-85%
between meat from different animals due to their rela- 0,/15-40% CO, v/v for red meat whereas Satomi
tive susceptibility to chemical and microbial spoilage. (1990) favours 70-80% and 20-30% v/v, respectively. It
The former is usually associated with unsaturated fat is unclear whether these latter figures indicate accept-
content (Brody (1989),for example, notes that pork con- able variation or are designed to be made more specific
tains more unsaturated fat than beef and is therefore according to product and process details, although the
more prone to oxidation rancidity), whereas the latter is latter is implied. No conclusive data is available about
usually dependent upon pH (Gill (1989), for example, the effect, if any, of such variations on shelf-life and
noted that the pH of beef muscle was lower than that of product quality. Similarly, nothing is available about
lamb and consequently less conducive to growth of the effect of unavoidable atmosphere variations (c 5%
spoilage organisms. As a result beef can be adequately according to Gill and Molin (1991)) arising from
preserved by vacuum packaging whereas with lamb the equipment function.
bacteriostatic effect of CO, is necessary in order to As can be seen the optimum CO, concentration is
achieve a comparable shell-life). Product composition generally below 40% v/v as higher levels can cause
ModiJied atmosphere packaging technology: a review 147

souring and surface bleaching (Ledward 1970; Seide- however, is needed regarding the practical implications
man et a1 1979). Although the relationship between CO, of this, particularly in terms of the effect, if any, upon
concentration and shelf-life is directly proportional (as the development of sensory spoilage indicators. Storage
demonstrated by Baker et a1 (1986) and Hotchkiss et a1 temperature has a significant effect upon shelf-life, safety
(1985), for example, using chicken), this relatively low and product quality. In studies of MAP of pork at - 1,
concentration is adequate due to the specific effect of 4.4 and 10°C in 40% CO,/6O% N, v/v the storage life
CO, on the microflora. The major spoilage organisms was 8, 5 and 2 weeks, respectively (McMullen and Stiles
in aerobically stored chilled fresh meats are the Pseudo- 1991). Similar results were obtained by Clark and Lentz
monas spp (Enfors and Molin 1980; Farber et a1 1990, (1969),Carpenter et a1 (1976) and Grau (1983).
Farber 1991) which are inhibited both by vacuum- The volume of drip loss from MAP fresh meat is tem-
isation and CO, concentrations in excess of 10-20% perature dependant as temperatures c 0°C maintain
v/v (Gill and Tan 1980; Brody 1989; White and Roberts water holding capacity by reducing protein denatur-
1992). Thus, both vacuum and gas packaging as typi- ation (Hamm 1975) whereas temperatures c 10°C
cally applied will result in its inhibition, allowing other appear to cause significant losses (O’Keeffe and Hood
organisms to become dominant-Brochothrix ther- 1980/81; Simard et a1 1985; Zarate and Zaritzky 1985).
mosphacta and Lactobacillus in aerobic and anaerobic Church (1993) noted that drip is directly related to CO,
systems, respectively (Sutherland et a1 1975). The latter concentration.
is important in public health terms as unlike the other Package design is also of importance. A film of exces-
types Lactobacillus does not necessarily produce sive permeability will fail to maintain the required
sensory evidence of spoilage before any pathogenic atmosphere (Newton and Rigg 1979). Hotchkiss (1988)
organisms can reach unacceptable levels, thus raising notes that shelf-life is directly proportional to film
the possibility that meat packaged in anaerobic systems impermeability and headspace. Similarly shelf-life will
may be palatable yet unfit for consumption (Dainty et be directly related t o contact area between product and
a1 1983). This possibility however is generally dis- atmosphere as this determines gas dissolution. Ade-
counted as Lactobacillus tends to outcomplete the back- quate contact is attained with sliced meats, however,
ground microflora (Newton and Gill 1978) and with other forms the use of rigid containers with ribbed
therefore effectively inhibit pathogenic bacteria. This bases is advised (Hotchkiss 1988).
appears to be the case with the psychrotrophic forms of MAP may also be applied to cooked meats. Anaero-
C botulinum, although, as noted by ACMSF (1992) this bic systems (ie vacuum packaging or 20-40%
should not be relied upon for safety. Listeria mono- C02/60-80% N, v/v--Church 1993) have been shown
cytogenes (Wimpfheimer et a1 1990), Y enterocolitica to enable significant shelf-life extension resulting from
(Eklund and Jarmund 1983; Zee et a1 1984; Kleinlein the inhibitory effect of CO, and the prevention of unde-
and Untermann 1990) and A hydrophila (Enfors et a1 sirable ‘warmed over flavours’ (Tims and Watts 1958;
1979), however, appear more competitive and conse- Sato and Hegarty 1971) arising as a result of oxidative
quently a CO, level of 40% v/v or above is required for rancidity. Such systems, however, present a potential
effective inhibition. These organisms therefore present a public health risk, particularly when products are con-
potential public health risk with vacuum packaging. sumed cold-Marshall et a1 (1991), for example, found
Listeria monocytogenes and Y enterocolitica can grow in growth of L monocytogenes in cooked chicken nuggets
+
high CO, (ie 75% v/v) atmospheres on the so-called at 3, 7 and 11°C in atmospheres of 80% C0,/20% N,
‘dark firm dry’ meats from stressed animals (Gill and v/v. Further research is required to clarify this risk.
Reichel 1989; Kaya and Schmidt 1991). The implica- Cooking (to an internal temperature of 70°C for 2 min)
tions of this, if any, remain unclear. The use of 0, with will produce a significant reduction in L monocytogenes
red meat to maintain colour is unnecessary in situations numbers (ACMSF 1992), and therefore thorough
in which the consumer does not see the raw product cooking in conjunction with the prevention of post-
and subsequent processes (ie removal from packaging, cooking contamination, storage at or around 3°C and a
cooking) reverses or masks the effect. Therefore, simpler relatively short shelf-life should limit the risk to an
(ie anaerobic) atmospheres have both control and cost acceptable level. Considerable concern has been
advantages, although from the above discussion it expressed about C botulinum (Genigeorgis 1986)
would appear that these are counterbalanced by other although relatively little practical evidence of risk exists.
considerations. Aerobic systems, it should be noted, also Specific data on roast beef and other meats demon-
pose problems: L monocytogenes can grow in high (ie strates the complex relationship between atmosphere,
75% v/v) CO, atmospheres if a small amount (ie 5% shelf-life and storage temperature (Seideman et a1 1979;
v/v) of 0, is present with the possibility that the CO, McDaniel et a1 1984; Carr and Marchello 1986, 1987;
will inhibit the spoilage organisms that give sensory Hintlian and Hotchkiss 1987a,b; Young et a1 1989).
indication of spoilage (Farber 1991). Lambert et a1 Coulon and Louis (1989), however, demonstrated how
(1991) demonstrated anaerobic microenvironments the packaging system may be optimised even with
within aerobically packaged products-further research, complex products: bouchte a la reine (a vol-au-vent
148 I J Church, A L Parsons

filled with chicken in a btchamel sauce) had a shelf-life, The major concern regarding seafood is the relative
in air at 5"C, of approximately 5 days. A 50% C0,/50% safety of anaerobic systems. The inherent risk is signifi-
N, v/v atmosphere enabled this to be doubled without cantly higher than in meat (Garcia and Genigeorgis
unacceptable sensory losses or pack collapse, and main- 1987; Stammen et a1 1990; Reddy et a1 1992) due to the
tained a microbiological count acceptable under French greater incidence of C botulinurn in marine environ-
regulation for in excess of 20 days. ments (Huss 1980; Hackney and Dicharry 1988). This
Cured products are packaged in either vacuum or risk, however, only appears to exist in cases of either
anaerobic modified atmospheres as 0, damages the temperature abuse or extended shelf-life. Garcia et a1
nitrosomyoglobin pigment that gives the characteristic (1987), for example, innoculated salmon with type E and
pink colour (Sebranek and Fox 1985; O'Beirne 1990b). non-proteolytic types B and F spores and stored them
Significant variation is apparent in recommendations in a vacuum, in 70% v/v and 100% v/v CO,. Only at
for MAP: 80% N,/20% C 0 2 v/v (O'Beirne 1990b); 4°C did spoilage precede toxigenesis in any atmosphere.
65-80% N,/20-35% CO, v/v (Selman 1987) and 50% At 30°C rejection coincided with toxigenesis, but at 8
N,/50% CO, v/v (Smith et a1 1990). Silla and Simonsen and 12°C the fillets were acceptable in sensory terms
(1985) state that the only advantage gas packaging has after toxin production. Similar results were obtained by
over vacuum packaging with cured sliced products is Solomon et a1 (1977, 1982), Stier et a1 (19811, Grecz and
easier slice separation. Unlike with other meats anaero- Arvay (1982), and Post et a1 (1985). ACMSF (1992)
bic systems do not present a significant risk due to the stated that, if the storage temperature and shelf-life are
raised salt (especially nitrite) content (Paradis and Stiles restricted to 10°C and 10 days, respectively, the risk is
1978; Steele and Stiles 1981; Schmidt and Kaya 1990; minimal. It has been proposed that the risks associated
Skytta et a1 1990; Roberts et a1 1991), however, it has with anaerobic systems may be reduced by the inclusion
been claimed that this is increasing as nitrite levels are of a small amount of 0, (Bernard 1987; Hotchkiss
reduced in response to health concerns (Gardner 1983). 1989), this, however, has now been generally discredited
Specific reviews of MAP of meat have been published (ACMSF 1992).
by Finne (1982), Seideman and Durland (1984), Taylor Davis (1993) stated that L monocytogenes may grow
(1985), Brody (1989), Nobis (1991), Church (1993) and in vacuum packaged fish, although no corroborative
Hood and Mead (1993). data was provided.
Relatively little work has been carried out on other
pathogens or aerobic systems although Ingham and
SEAFOOD Potter (1988) studied A hydrophila in surimi, finding
growth in 36% CO,, 51% N,, 13% 0, v/v in 8 days at
Seafood is highly perishable due to its autolytic 4°C without sensory indication of spoilage.
enzymes and post-mortem pH changes that favour bac- The enhanced shelf-lives attainable with MAP neces-
terial growth (Ward and Baj 1988). It is traditionally sitates some compromisation of sensory quality arising
stored under refrigeration in air, which gives a shelf-life from odour/flavour (Lannelonque et a1 1982; Davis
ranging from 2-14 days depending upon species, 1993), colour (Cann 1984; Davis 1993) and textural
harvest location and season (Stammen et a1 1990). The changes (Wang and Brown 1983). CO, can cause
use of gas packaging, specifically elevated CO, levels, increased exudate or drip if present in amounts greater
has been shown to inhibit normal spoilage bacteria (ie than 60% v/v in oily fish and 40% v/v in white fish, the
Pseudomonas, Alteromonas, Shewanella, Moraxella and latter being more prone to losses due to higher water
Acinetobacter in fish from cold and temperate waters- content (Layrisse and Matches 1984; Davis 1993).
Hobbs 1991) and thus double or triple shelf-life Smoked fish presents a greater public health risk than
(Stammen et a1 1990). The factors that influence product fresh (ACMSF 1992) as the smoke and salt content is
quality and shelf-life are similar to those for meat; insufficient to have a major preservative effect (Whittle
product-in terms of species, season, location of catch, et a1 1990).
freshness and microbiological quality (Eklund 1982; Reviews about the MAP of seafood have been
Gray et a1 1983; Layrisse and Matches 1 9 8 4 F a n d published by Finne (1982), Wilhelm (1982), Stammen et
process-in terms of atmosphere, storage temperature a1 (1990), Skura (1991), Reddy et a1 (1992) and Davis
and package design (Ogrydziak and Brown 1982; ( 1993).
Eklund and Jarmund 1983; Post et a1 1985; Stenstrom
1985; Villemure et a1 1986).
Both vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging is CONCLUSIONS
used, although the former can cause compression
damage. White fish is typically packed in 30% 0,/30% The major conclusion is that, in order to optimise shelf-
N,/40% C O , v/v (Smith et a1 1990) and fatty fish in life, sensory quality and microbiological safety, the
40% N2/60% N, v/v (Smith et a1 1990)-0, being packaging system applied is highly product specific. An
excluded in the latter to minimise rancidity. appreciable amount of research data is available,
Modified atmosphere packaging technology: a review 149

however, much is contradictory and differences in Carr T P, Marchello J A 1986 Microbial changes of pre-
experimental methodologies and/or process parameters cooked beef slices as affected by packaging procedure. J
Food Protect 49 534-536.
often makes meaningful comparisons difficult. Further Carr T P, Marchello J A 1987 Growth of aerobic psychro-
research is required, particularly regarding the effects of trophs and colour changes of precooked beef slices as
minor product variations upon packaging system opti- affected by packaging procedure. J Food Protect 50 733-
misation, and the practical risks associated with the 736.
anaerobic packaging of flesh foods. Sufficient research Christopher F M, Seideman S C, Carpenter Z L, Smith G C,
Vanderzant C 1979 Microbiology of beef packaged in
d a t a currently exists, however, to compile a general various gas atmospheres. J Food Protect 42 240-244.
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