Physics Cover

1
JACARANDA
PHYSICS
VCE UNITS 1 AND 2 | FOURTH EDITION
1
JACARANDA
PHYSICS
VCE UNITS 1 AND 2 | FOURTH EDITION
DAN O’KEEFFE
GRAEME LOFTS
JANE COYLE
MICHAEL ROSENBROCK
ROSS PHILLIPS
PETER NELSON
BARBARA MCKINNON
PETER PENTLAND
GARY BASS
DANIELA NARDELLI
PAM ROBERTSON
JILL TACON
JON PEARCE
C O NT R I B U T I N G AU T H O R S
MURRAY ANDERSON
MOSES KHOR
This edition published 2020 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
Typeset in 11/14 pt Times LT Std
© Clynton Educational Services Pty Ltd (Graeme Lofts), Dan O’Keefe, Peter Pentland, Ross Phillips, Gary Bass, Daniella Nardelli,
Pam Robertson, Jill Tacon and Jon Pearce 2020
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
ISBN: 978-0-7303-7315-5
Previous editions of this title have been published as follows.
Physics 1 VCE Units 1 and 2 and eBookPLUS
Jacaranda Physics 1 Third Edition
Jacaranda Physics 1 Second Edition
Jacaranda Physics 1
© Clynton Educational Services Pty Ltd (Graeme Lofts), Dan O’Keefe, Peter Pentland, Pam Robertson, Barry Hill and Jon Pearce
1996
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the
greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the
educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes
Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this
book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior
written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
Trademarks
Jacaranda, the JacPLUS logo, the learnON, assessON and studyON logos, Wiley and the Wiley logo, and any related trade dress are
trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States, Australia and in other
countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Front cover image: © Denis Belitsky/Shutterstock; © maxchu / Getty Images
Illustrated by various artists, diacriTech and Wiley Composition Services
Typeset in India by diacriTech
Printed in Singapore by
Markono Print Media Pte Ltd
All activities have been written with the safety of both teacher and student in mind. Some, however, involve physical activity or the
use of equipment or tools. All due care should be taken when performing such activities. Neither the publisher nor the authors
can accept responsibility for any injury that may be sustained when completing activities described in this textbook.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
CONTENTS
About this resource .................................................................................................................................................................................................. ix
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................................................................. xi
UNIT 1 WHAT IDEAS EXPLAIN THE PHYSICAL WORLD? 1
AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN THERMAL EFFECTS BE EXPLAINED?
1 Thermodynamic principles 3
1.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Explaining heat using the kinetic theory .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Measuring and converting temperature ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Transferring heat ............................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Thermal equilibrium and the laws of thermodynamics .......................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Specific heat capacity ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.7 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
2 Thermodynamics and climate science 35

2.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
2.2 Earth’s energy systems ................................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.3 The enhanced greenhouse effect ................................................................................................................................................ 45
2.4 Climate models ................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
2.5 Investigating issues related to thermodynamics ..................................................................................................................... 56
2.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW

Practice examination ................................................................................................................................... 64
Practice school-assessed coursework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
AREA OF STUDY 2 HOW DO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS WORK?
3 Concepts used to model electricity 70

3.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
3.2 Electric circuits .................................................................................................................................................................................. 71
3.3 Current ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
3.4 Voltage ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 83
3.5 Energy and power in an electric circuit ...................................................................................................................................... 86
3.6 Resistance .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
3.7 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 103
4 Circuit analysis 112

4.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 112
4.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Electric circuit rules .............................................................................................................. 113
4.3 Series and parallel circuits ............................................................................................................................................................. 119
4.4 Non-ohmic devices in series and parallel ................................................................................................................................. 130
4.5 Power in circuits ................................................................................................................................................................................ 135
4.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 137
CONTENTS v
5 Using electricity and electrical safety 145
5.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 145
5.2 Household electricity and usage .................................................................................................................................................. 146
5.3 Electrical safety ................................................................................................................................................................................. 153
5.4 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 161

AREA OF STUDY 3 WHAT IS MATTER AND HOW IS IT FORMED?
6 Origins of atoms 176

6.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 176
6.2 Early developments of the Big Bang Theory ............................................................................................................................ 177
6.3 Further developments of the Big Bang Theory ........................................................................................................................ 186
6.4 Measurements of the universe ..................................................................................................................................................... 189
6.5 The formation of the first atoms ................................................................................................................................................... 195
6.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 203
7 Particles in the nucleus 207

7.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 207
7.2 The discovery of subatomic particles ......................................................................................................................................... 208
7.3 Nuclear radiation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 221
7.4 Types of nuclear radiation .............................................................................................................................................................. 227
7.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 235
8 Energy from the atom 242

8.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 242
8.2 Energy from mass ............................................................................................................................................................................. 243
8.3 Energy from the nucleus ................................................................................................................................................................. 247
8.4 Energy from accelerating charges ............................................................................................................................................... 256
8.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 261

UNIT 2 WHAT DO EXPERIMENTS REVEAL ABOUT THE PHYSICAL WORLD? 273
AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN MOTION BE DESCRIBED AND EXPLAINED?
9 Analysing motion 275

9.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 275
9.2 Describing movement ..................................................................................................................................................................... 276
9.3 Analysing motion graphically ........................................................................................................................................................ 287
9.4 Equations for constant acceleration ........................................................................................................................................... 299
9.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 305
10 Forces in action 313

10.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 313
10.2 Forces as vectors ............................................................................................................................................................................. 314
10.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion ....................................................................................................................................................... 325
10.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion ................................................................................................................................................. 327
vi CONTENTS
10.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion ...................................................................................................................................................... 337
10.6 Forces in two dimensions .............................................................................................................................................................. 342
10.7 Momentum and impulse ................................................................................................................................................................. 351
10.8 Torque .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 360
10.9 Equilibrium .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 362
10.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 368
11 Energy and motion 374

11.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 374
11.2 Impulse and momentum ................................................................................................................................................................. 375
11.3 Work and energy ............................................................................................................................................................................... 381
11.4 Energy transfers ................................................................................................................................................................................ 385
11.5 Efficiency and power ....................................................................................................................................................................... 397
11.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 402

AREA OF STUDY 2 OPTIONS: OBSERVATION OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD
12 What are stars?

13 Is there life beyond Earth’s solar system?
14 How do forces act on the human body?
15 How can AC electricity charge a DC device?
16 How do heavy things fly?
17 How do fusion and fission compare as viable nuclear energy
power sources?
18 How is radiation used to maintain human health?

19 How do particle accelerators work?
20 How can human vision be enhanced?
21 How do instruments make music?
22 How can performance in ball sports be improved?
23 How does the human body use electricity?
CONTENTS vii
AREA OF STUDY 3 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
24 Practical investigation 430

24.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 430
24.2 Key science skills in Physics ......................................................................................................................................................... 431
24.3 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Variables .................................................................................................................................. 440
24.4 Concepts specific to investigation, key terms and representations .................................................................................. 442
24.5 Scientific research methodologies and techniques................................................................................................................ 446
24.6 Health and safety guidelines ......................................................................................................................................................... 454
24.7 Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data ......................................................................................... 457
24.8 Models and theories to understand observed phenomena ................................................................................................. 469
24.9 Nature of evidence and key findings of investigations .......................................................................................................... 472
24.10 Conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation .................................................................... 474
24.11 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 485
Appendix 1: Periodic table ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 496

Appendix 2: Astronomical data ............................................................................................................................................................................ 498
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 499
Answers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 505
Index .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 542
viii CONTENTS
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE
Jacaranda Physics has been reimagined to provide students and teachers with the most comprehensive
resource on the market. This engaging and purposeful suite of resources is fully aligned to the VCE
Physics Study Design (2016–2021).
Formats
Jacaranda Physics is now available in print and a range of digital formats, including:
Print learnON eBookPLUS PDF eGuidePLUS
Printed textbook learnON is our The eBookPLUS Downloadable The eGuidePLUS includes
with free digital immersive and is an electronic PDFs available everything from the eBookPLUS
access code version of the with eBookPLUS with additional resources
inside learning platform student text designed for teachers
Fully aligned to the VCE Physics Study Design

• tailored exercise sets at the end of each sub-topic
• additional background information easily
distinguished from curriculum content
FIGURE 3.7 (a) Symbols for circuit components (b) Diagram of the simple electric circuit
(a) (b)
Connecting
wire
• practice SACs clearly linked to each

Light globe
What you will learn

+
–
Battery
outcome
apply concepts of charge (Q), electric current (I), potential difference (V), energy (E) and power (P), in scientist, introduced the concepts of positive and negative electricity. FIGURE 3.4
electric circuits kite and key electricity experiment
explore different analogies used to describe electric current and potential difference
Switch
conducted the kite and key electricity experiment during a lightning
Q E E
I= , V= , P= = VI
t Q t when he was trying to electrocute a turkey with a condenser, a device
• practice exams for each area of study. justify the use of selected meters (ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter) in circuits.
Source:
it was acceptable to see how big an animal they could electrocute.)
a Practical investigation logbook and , are included in this topic to provide opportunities to
3.2 EXERCISE
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
1. After a plastic pen is rubbed with a piece of wool it can be used to attract small pieces of paper. Describe
Resources what has happened in terms of electric charge.
2. After rubbing a balloon on your clean dry hair, the balloon should try to stick to your hair when you try to
(doc-31856) remove it. Explain why this occurs.
(doc-32178) regions called orbits or shells. 3. If you separately rub two balloons on your hair and then hold them near each other what will happen?
Key concepts approach

(doc-32179) Explain why this occurs.
4. After walking across a nylon carpet in woollen socks and then touching a metal doorknob it is possible to
FIGURE 3.5 (a) The structure of an atom (electron shell) (b) An atom showing orbits and shells
get an electric shock. Explain why this occurs.
(a) (b) 5.
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice
exam question booklet (sonr-0028). Proton she slowly moved the balloon away from the can it started to roll and follow the balloon. Describe why this
(positive) happened.
6. Imagine you are an electron. Describe your journey around the closed circuit of a torch, beginning at the
Electron
3.2 Electric circuits cloud

negative terminal of a cell.
Students can easily understand which aspect

7. A doorbell connected to a battery comprises a button at the door, the bell and wires. The bell only sounds
after the button is pushed. Why doesn’t the bell always sound?
Nucleus
Apply concepts of charge (Q), electric current (I), potential difference (V), energy (E) and power (P), in To answer practice exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every
electric circuits. Proton question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
Explore different analogies used to describe electric current and potential difference.
Neutron studyON: Practice exam questions
Electron Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.
Electron
(negative)
Neutron
(neutral)
Key Knowledge dot points highlighted at the

Electric charge (in terms of the basic structure of matter)
Electric charge
and gas. TOPIC 3 Concepts used to model electricity 75
electron.
TOPIC 3 Concepts used to model electricity 73
•
•
Concepts in each sub-topic. while for others it was a force of repulsion.
TOPIC 3 Concepts used to model electricity
Engaging resources and rich media
learning styles, including:

• videos and interactivities embedded at the point of learning
• practical investigations complete with printable logbook
• a variety of worksheets and activities
allow students to apply their knowledge
of the content.
Teacher-led videos
Videos of both sample problems and practical
investigations led by experienced teachers allow
students to better consolidate their learning.
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE ix

Inspiring students to become
independent learners
This resource, on the immersive digital platform learnON,
encourages self-driven student learning through:
• fully worked solutions for every question providing
students with immediate feedback
• progress tracked automatically in learnON allowing
students to highlight areas of strength and weakness

• topic summary, key terms and practice questions at
the end of every topic
• sample problems with fully worked solutions
set out in the THINK–WRITE format.
Prepare for exams with every relevant

past exam question since 2006! studyON
is now included in learnON and as a
printable exam revision booklet
A wealth of teacher resources

Jacaranda Physics empowers teachers to teach their
class their way with the extensive range of teacher
resources including:
• quarantined topic tests and SACs that are
easily customisable
• practical investigation
support with demonstrative Test Maker
videos, laboratory Create custom tests
information, expected results for your class from the
entire question pool —
and risk assessments including all subtopic,
• work programs topic review and past
• curriculum grids. VCAA exam questions
Visibility of student results

Detailed breakdown of student results allows
you to identify strengths and weaknesses across
various topics and sub-topics.
x ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and
individuals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.
VCE Physics Study Design content is copyright Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA),
reproduced by permission. VCE® is a registered trademark of the VCAA. The VCAA does not endorse this
product and makes no warranties regarding the correctness or accuracy of its content. To the extent
permitted by law, the VCAA excludes all liability for any loss or damage suffered or incurred as a result of
accessing, using or relying on the content. Current VCE Study Designs and related content can be accessed
directly at www.vcaa.vic.edu.au. Teachers are advised to check the VCAA Bulletin for updates.
Images
• Alamy Australia Pty Ltd: 73/© Alamy Stock Photo; 253/© blickwinkel; 73/© ClassicStock / Alamy Stock
Photo; 184/© INTERFOTO / Alamy; 357/© Javier Larrea; 160/© sciencephotos; 243/© Sueddeutsche
Zeitung Photo; 147/© Yevhen Rychko / Alamy Stock Photo; • ANSTO: 257/© ANSTO; • ATLAS
Experiment: 425/ATLAS Experiment © 2014 CERN • Bhavesh Chauhan: 450 (top middle)/© Bhavesh
Chauhan; • Creative Commons: 358/© Brady Holt; 151/© EECA; 57 (top), 151/© EECA / Commonwealth
of Australia 2019; • Creatives Commons: 259/© CK-12 Foundation - Christopher Auyeung; • Dan OKeeffe:
430/© Dan OKeeffe; • European Space Agency Comm Dep: 196/© ESA and the Planck Collaboration; •
Getty Images: 229/© Andrew Johnson; 1/© lovelyday12 • Getty Images Australia: 319 (left)/© LEMAIRE
StÃ©phane / hemis.fr; 92/© Science Source; • gmstockstudio: 56/© gmstockstudio; • Image Addict: 79/©
imageaddict.com.au; • IPCC: 55/© IPCC; • iStockphoto: 69/© Lee Chin Yong; 273/© Qiang Chen; 435/©
Stanislovas Kairys; • Jim Thalassoudis: 260/© Jim Thalassoudis; • NASA: 419/ ALMA ESO/NAOJ/NRAO
/ NASA / ESA 218/© NASA; • NASA/ public domain: 188 (top), 197/© NASA • Pixabay: 15 (b)/ Ozgur
Coskun; 421/stokpic/229 images; 466 (b)/Pixaline • Public Domain: 248, 249/© Atomic Heritage
Foundation; 5/© Public Domain; • Science Photo Library: 180 (middle)/© Ann Ronan Picture Library;
179/© Harvard College Observatory; 450 (top left)/© MARTYN F. CHILLMAID; 11 (left)/© Science
Photo Library; • Shutterstock: 15 (a)/© Juergen Faelchle; (b)/Ozgur Coskun; 81, 84, 93/© (a) Vladimir A
Veljanovski (b) Peter Pentland; 159/ Caron Badkin; 256/ Adrio Communications Ltd; 320/© Alexandr
Shevchenko; 420/ design36; 422/Everett Historical; 424/ Semnic; 426/ MJTH; 427/ Halfpoint; 428/Graham
Hunt/ProSports; 429, 433/Sergey Nivens; 450 (bottom)/© ALEXEY FILATOV; 317/© Allexxandar; 471/©
Amanda Carden; 279/© Andrey Armyagov; 418/© Ververidis Vasilis; 449 (bottom left)/© Andrey Suslov;
156 (right)/© Antonio Guillem; 37/© Aphelleon; 159, 207/© Newscom; 397/© cassiede alain; 222/©
CHEN WS; 44/© cherezoff; 434 (bottom)/© chinasong; 374/© conrado; 466 (a)/© Hodyachaya Alla;
449 (top left)/© Constantine Pankin; 282/© CP DC Press; 448 (bottom left)/© Craig Walton; 25/© D.
Pimborough; 271/© danpastia; 188 (bottom)/© David Fowler; 451 (bottom)/© desdemona72; 470 (top)/©
Designua; 389/© Diego Barbieri; 43/© dikobraziy; 443/© Dr Project; 155/© Egor_Kulinich; 224/©
endeavor; 70/© f11photo; 456/© Feng Yu; 489/© Friday24; 414/© FS Stock; 212 (left)/© general-fmv;
326 (bottom)/© Georgios Kollidas; 334/© Germanskydiver; 448 (bottom right)/© Guy J. Sagi; 275/©
hfzimages; 492/© ilkercelik; 340/© Ivan Smuk; 145/© Joel_420; 11 (right)/© kaband; 457/© Katsiuba
Volha; 449 (bottom right), 465 (bottom)/© KinoMasterskaya; 434 (top)/© Kletr; 466 (top)/© litchima;
259/© magnetix; 356 (top)/© manzrussali; 463/© marekuliasz; 361/© MARGRIT HIRSCH; 318 (top)/©
mariolav; 356 (bottom)/© maxpro; 34/© Mihancea Petru; 153/© Mike Focus; 451 (top)/© milanzeremski;
355/© Mitch Gunn; 3/© mkrol0718; 469/© Molekuul_be; 178 (top)/© Molodec; 156 (left)/© MPIX; 14/©
Nagy-Bagoly Arpad; 176/© NASA images; 470 (bottom)/© Nasky; 465 (top)/© NatalieIme;
57 (bottom)/© NavinTar; 393/© Neale Cousland; 35/© Nightman1965; 112/© Olga Kashubin; 449 (top
right)/© oTTo-supertramp; 6/© photastic; 326 (top)/© Photohunter; 174/© Phovoir; 394/© picturepartners;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi
441/© pikepicture; 462/© PixieMe; 180 (bottom)/© PlanilAstro; 6/© Polryaz; 28/© praphab
louilarpprasert; 447/© Pressmaster; 318 (bottom)/© Radu Razvan; 134/© RalphHuijgen; 256/© Ramsay;
Brent, 313/© Razor527; 178 (bottom)/© Sander van Sinttruye; 448 (middle)/© science photo; 436/©
Sergey Zaykov; 209/© ShadeDesign; 277/© Skumer; 343/© Stason4ik; 450 (middle left)/© Stefan Rotter;
242/© Thorsten Schier; 453/© Tomas Ragina; 450 (top right)/© vitfoto; 149/© vldkont; 80, 450 (middle
right)/© Volodymyr Krasyuk; 180 (top)/© Wolfgang Kloehr; 436/© zsirosistvan • United States Nuclear
Regulatory Commission: 423 • Visionlearning, Inc: 38, 48
Every effort has been made to trace the ownership of copyright material. Information that will enable the
publisher to rectify any error or omission in subsequent reprints will be welcome. In such cases, please
contact the Permissions Section of John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
UNIT 1
WHAT IDEAS EXPLAIN THE
PHYSICAL WORLD?
Ideas in physics are dynamic. As we continue
to learn and apply experimental techniques
that have been used over the centuries, our knowledge
of the physical world improves and theories evolve.
In this unit, you will be introduced to the
fundamental physics concepts of thermodynamics,
electricity and matter, and will explore how
physicists use these fundamental ideas and models in
an attempt to understand and explain the world we live
in, even those things that are beyond what we can see.
You will learn how physics examines and explores
concepts and theories that dictate the behaviour of the
smallest particles to the expanse of the universe, and
uses this understanding to create a model of our
universe.
AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME TOPICS

1. How can thermal Apply thermodynamic principles to analyse, interpret 1. Thermodynamics
effects be explained? and explain changes in thermal energy in selected principles
contexts, and describe the environmental impact of 2. Thermodynamics and
human activities with reference to thermal effects and climate science
climate science concepts.
2. How do electric Investigate and apply a basic DC circuit model 3. Concepts used to
circuits work? to simple battery-operated devices and household model electricity
electrical systems, apply mathematical models to 4. Circuit analysis
analyse circuits, and describe the safe and effective 5. Using electricity and
use of electricity by individuals and the community. electrical safety
3. What is matter and Explain the origins of atoms, the nature of subatomic 6. Origins of atoms
how is it formed? particles and how energy can be produced by atoms. 7. Particles in the nucleus
8. Energy from the atom
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2016–2021) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
AREA OF STUDY 1
HOW CAN THERMAL EFFECTS BE EXPLAINED?
1 Thermodynamic principles
1.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are available just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your digital formats, learnON and eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
1.1.1 Introduction
In this topic you will revisit your understanding of energy, utilise your knowledge of the particle theory and
apply practical skills of measuring temperature. By the end of this topic you should be able to identify and
apply the zeroth and first laws of thermodynamics to describe how the energy within a system is shared
and transferred. You will be able to use the particle theory to explain internal energy, temperature and heat
transfer. You will describe and explain internal energy as the random motion of particles in a substance.
You will test and manipulate the relationships that dictate temperature changes in a substance (specific heat
capacity) and changes of state (latent heat) and consider how these concepts are engineered to our benefit.
FIGURE 1.1 A cold day in two temperature scales. A balloon caught on a twig shrinks as the translational kinetic
energy of the air inside is transferred to the surrounding air, losing the ability to stop the air pressure pushing it in.
TOPIC 1 Thermodynamic principles 3

1.1.2 What you will learn
KEY KNOWLEDGE
After completing this topic you will be able to:
• convert temperature between degrees Celsius and kelvin
• describe the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics as two bodies in contact with each other coming to a thermal
equilibrium
• describe temperature with reference to the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules within a
system
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the First Law of Thermodynamics to simple situations:
Q = ∆U + W
• explain internal energy as the energy associated with random disordered motion of molecules
• distinguish between conduction, convection and radiation with reference to heat transfers within and
between systems
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically the energy required to:
• raise the temperature of a substance: Q = mc∆T
• change the state of a substance: Q = mL
• explain why cooling results from evaporation using a simple kinetic energy model.
PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS

Practical work is a central component of learning and assessment. Experiments and investigations, supported by
a Practical investigation logbook and Teacher-led videos, are included in this topic to provide opportunities to
undertake investigations and communicate findings.
Resources
Digital documents Key science skills–VCE Units 1–4 (doc-31856)
Key terms glossary (doc-31857)
Practical investigation logbook (doc-31853)
exam question booklet (sonr-0026).
1.2 Explaining heat using the kinetic theory

KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain internal energy as the energy associated with random disordered motion of molecules.
• Describe temperature with reference to the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules within
a system.
1.2.1 What is heat?

It may surprise you to consider that heat was not considered a form of energy until quite late in human
history. Fire was one of the four elements in ancient times and it was clear that when substances combusted,
heat was released. Thus, for centuries heat was considered a substance that could be transferred between
objects and this was the starting point for scientific thought. In 1667 Johann Joachim Becher proposed
that a substance he called phlogiston was released during combustion. Later, in 1789, the French scientist
Antoine Lavoisier published a treatise on chemistry in which he described heat as an invisible, tasteless,
4 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fourth Edition

odourless, weightless fluid that he called calorific fluid, which flowed from hot to cold objects. Although
now defunct as an explanation of heat, the measure of the calorie is still used.
In 1798 Benjamin Thompson, later to be called Count Rumford, conducted an experiment on the nature
of heat. The barrel of a cannon is made by drilling a cylindrical hole in a solid piece of metal. Rumford
observed the piece of metal and the drill became quite hot. He devised an experiment to investigate the
source of the heat and how much heat is produced. Rumford put the drill and the end of the cannon in a
wooden box filled with water. He measured the mass of water and the rate at which the temperature rose.
He showed that the amount of heat produced was not related to the amount of metal that was drilled out.
He concluded that the amount of heat produced depended only on the work done against friction. He said
that heat was in fact a form of energy, not an invisible substance that is transferred from hot objects to cold
objects. Instead a hot object had heat energy, in the same way as a moving object has kinetic energy or an
object high off the ground has gravitational potential energy.
AS A MATTER OF FACT
Count Rumford was born Benjamin Thompson in
FIGURE 1.2 Count Rumford
Massachusetts in 1753. By the age of 16 he was conducting
experiments on heat. By 1775, when the American War of
Independence began, he was already a wealthy man and of
some standing in his community. He joined the British side
of the war, becoming a senior advisor. While with the army,
he also investigated and published a paper on the force of
gunpowder.
At the end of the war, he moved to England, where he was
known as a research scientist. A few years later he moved
to Bavaria, in what is now southern Germany, and spent
11 years there. He moved in royal circles and eventually
became Bavaria’s Army Minister, tasked with reorganising
the army. As part of those duties he investigated methods
of cooking, heating and lighting. He developed a soup, now
called Rumford’s soup, as a nutritious ration for soldiers. He
also used the soup to establish soup kitchens for the poor
throughout Bavaria. For his services he was made a Count of
the Holy Roman Empire, taking the name ‘Rumford’ from his
birth place.
On return to England, his activities included:
(i) redesigning an industrial furnace, which revolutionised the production of quicklime, a component of
cement and is used for lighting (‘limelight’)
(ii) edesigning the domestic fireplace to narrow the chimney at the hearth to increase the updraught, resulting
in greater efficiency and no smoke coming back into the room
(iii) inventing thermal underwear, a kitchen range and a drip coffee pot.
With Joseph Banks and others, Rumford established the Royal Institution (RI) in London as a scientific research
establishment with a strong emphasis on public education. Initial funding came from the ‘Society for Bettering the
Conditions and Improving the Comforts of the Poor’, with which Count Rumford was centrally involved. Famous
member scientists in its early years included Humphrey Davy and Michael Faraday. Fifteen Nobel Prize winners
have worked at the RI and 10 chemical elements were discovered there.
Rumford’s ideas about heat were not adopted for a few decades. But in 1840 James Prescott Joule
conducted a series of experiments to find a quantitative link between mechanical energy and heat. In other
words, how much energy is required to increase the temperature of a mass by 1 °C?
Joule used different methods and compared the results.
• Using gravity. A falling mass spins a paddle wheel in an insulated barrel of water, raising the
temperature of the water.
• Using electricity. Mechanical work is done turning a dynamo to produce an electric current in a wire,
which heats the water.

• Compressing a gas. Mechanical work is used to compress a gas, which raises the gas’s temperature.
• Using a battery. Chemical reactions at the battery terminals produce a current, which heats the water.
• Using gravity. Measure the temperature of water at the top and bottom of a waterfall.
Joule obtained approximately identical answers for all methods.
This confirmed heat as a form of energy. To honour his achievement,
the SI unit of energy is the joule (J). The unit joule is used to
measure the:
• kinetic energy of a runner
• light energy in a beam
• chemical energy stored in a battery
• electrical energy in a circuit
• potential energy in a lift on the top floor
• heat energy when water boils.
One joule is approximately the amount of energy needed to lift a
100 gram apple through a height of 1 metre.
The usual metric prefixes make the use of the unit joule more convenient. For example:
1 kJ (kilojoule) = 103 J 1 MJ (megajoule) = 106 J 1 GJ (gigajoule) = 109 J
The chemical energy available from a bowl of breakfast cereal is usually hundreds of thousands of joules
and is more likely to be listed on the packet in kilojoules. The amount of energy needed to boil an average
kettle full of cold water is about 500 kJ.
Examples of 1 joule include:
• kinetic energy of a tennis ball moving at about 6 m s−1
• heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of dry air by 1 °C
• heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 0.24 °C
• change in gravitational potential energy when an apple falls 1 metre to
the ground
• amount of sunlight hitting a square centimetre every 10 seconds when the Sun
is directly above
• amount of sound energy entering your eardrum at a loud concert over 3 hours
• amount of electrical energy used by a plasma TV screen while on standby every 2.5 seconds
• energy released by the combustion of 18 micrograms of methane.
1.2.2 Linking energy and heat: the kinetic theory of matter
Joule showed that a measure of energy was directly related to a change in temperature. But what happens
to this energy within a material? The kinetic theory of matter enables us to explain the effect of energy on
a material.
The kinetic theory of matter, which considers all objects as assemblies of particles in motion, is an old
one, first described by Lucretius in 55 AD. The kinetic view of matter was developed over time by Hooke,
Bernoulli, Boltzmann and Maxwell.
The evidence for the existence of particles includes the following.
• Gases and liquids diffuse; that is, a combination of two gases or two liquids quickly becomes a
mixture, for example, a dye spreading in water. Even solids can diffuse; if a sheet of lead is clamped to
a sheet of gold, over time the metals merge to a depth of a few millimetres.
• The mixing of two liquids gives a final volume that is less than the sum of their original volumes.
• A solid dissolves in a liquid.

FIGURE 1.3 Iodine crystals sublimate (turn directly into a gas) when heated.
This diagram shows a gas jar As the crystals warm up, they After a long period of time,
with iodine crystals. produce a purple gas that the crystals have completely
diffuses throughout the jar. sublimated.
The kinetic theory of matter assumes that:

• all matter is made up of particles in constant, random and rapid motion
• there is space between the particles.
The energy associated with the motion of the particles in an object is called the internal energy of the
object. The particles can move and interact in many ways, so there are a number of contributions to the
internal energy.
Gases
In a gas made up of single atoms, such as helium, the atoms FIGURE 1.4 Moving single atoms have
move around, randomly colliding with each other and the translational kinetic energy.
walls of the container. So, each atom has some translational
kinetic energy (see figures 1.4 and 1.5).
However, if the gas is made up of molecules with two or
more atoms, the molecules can also stretch, contract and
spin, so these molecules also have other types of kinetic
energy called vibrational kinetic energy and rotational
kinetic energy (see figure 1.5).
Liquids
Like a gas, molecules in a liquid are free to move, but within
the confines of the surface of the liquid. There is some
attraction between molecules, which means there is some
energy stored as molecules approach each other. Stored
energy is called potential energy. It is the energy that must
be overcome for a liquid to evaporate or boil.
Solids
In a solid, atoms jiggle rather than move around. They have kinetic energy, but they also have a lot of
potential energy stored in the strong attractive force that holds the atoms together. This means that a lot of
energy is required to melt a solid. This is seen in Figure 1.6.

FIGURE 1.5 The movements of a molecule
Translational Vibrational Rotational kinetic energy

kinetic energy kinetic energy
Spinning
Bending
Moving
Stretching
FIGURE 1.6 In a solid, atoms can jiggle around an essentially fixed location.
When the internal energy of a substance increases, this means the particle movement increases. Heating
or cooling is reflected in a change in the particle movement. Heat energy will always transfer from a hotter
substance to a colder substance as the collisions of the faster moving particles transfer translational kinetic
energy to the slower moving particles.

TABLE 1.1 The internal energy of different objects
Internal energy
Movement that is not related to temperature Movement that is related to temperature
Atoms in a gas None Moving and colliding
Molecules in a gas Spinning, stretching, compressing and bending Moving and colliding
Molecules in a liquid Spinning, stretching, compressing and bending Moving and colliding
Atoms in a solid Pulling and pushing Jiggling
Energy types Other types of kinetic energy, potential energy Translational kinetic energy
1.2 EXERCISE
1. Use the particle theory to explain why you can smell what’s for dinner from the front door of your house.
2. Explain the difference between translational kinetic energy and other types of internal energy.
3. Use the particle theory to explain what happens when your cup of tea cools down over time.
4. Cling film on a warm bowl of soup placed in the fridge gets sucked down when it cools. Use the particle
theory to explain this.
5. James Joule showed that mechanical energy could be transformed into the internal energy of a substance
or object. The temperature of a nail, for example, can be raised by hitting it with a hammer. List as many
examples as you can of the use of mechanical energy to increase the temperature of a substance or object.
6. Explain in terms of the kinetic particle model why a red-hot pin dropped into a cup of water has less effect
on the water’s temperature than a red-hot nail dropped into the same cup of water.
7. Explain why energy is transferred from your body into the cold sea while swimming even though you have
less internal energy than the surrounding cold water.
To answer practice exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every
question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
studyON: Practice exam questions

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.
1.3 Measuring and converting temperature

KEY CONCEPT
• Convert temperature between degrees Celsius and kelvin.
We have learnt that heat is described as energy and that energy can be measured using the joule. We also
know that heating a substance causes the particles within that substance to move faster. This movement is
erratic and impossible to measure individually. Instead we consider the average increase in translational
kinetic energy.
1.3.1 Measuring temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of particles. The other contributions
to the internal energy do not affect the temperature. This becomes important when materials melt or boil
because the added heat must go somewhere, but the temperature does not change.

Measuring temperature is a relatively simple process. Our bodies tell us when it is hot or cold. Our
fingers warn us when we touch a hot object. However, for all that, our senses are not reliable.
Try the following at home. Place three bowls of water in front of you. Put iced water in the bowl on
the left, water hot enough for a bath in the bowl on the right and room temperature water in the one in the
middle. Place each hand in the two outer bowls, leave them there for a few minutes, then place both hands
in the middle bowl. As you would expect, your left hand tells you the water is warmer, while your right
hand tells you it is colder.
Thermometers were designed as a way to measure temperature accurately. A good thermometer needs
a material that changes in a measurable way as its temperature changes. Many materials, including water,
expand when heated, so the first thermometer, built in 1630, used water in a narrow tube with a filled bulb at
the bottom. The water rose up the tube as the bulb was warmed.
German physicist Daniel Fahrenheit replaced the water with mercury in 1724. Liquid thermometers now
use alcohol with a dye added. Fahrenheit developed a scale to measure the temperature, using the lowest
temperature he could reach, an ice and salt mixture, as zero degrees and the temperature of the human body
as 100 degrees. Fahrenheit also showed that a particular liquid will always boil at the same temperature.
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius developed another temperature scale in 1742, which is the one we use
today. Celsius used melting ice and steam from boiling water to define 0 °C and 100 °C for his scale.
A third temperature scale was proposed in 1848 by William Thomson, later to be ennobled as Lord
Kelvin. He proposed the scale based on the better understanding of heat and temperature that had developed
by that time (see page 9). This scale uses the symbol ‘K’ to stand for ‘kelvin’.
Other materials, including gases and metals, also expand with temperature and are used as thermometers.
A bimetallic strip is two lengths of different metals, usually steel and copper, joined together. The two
metals expand at different rates, so the strip bends one way as the temperature rises, or the other as it cools.
A bimetallic strip can be used as a thermometer, a thermostat or as a compensating mechanism in clocks.
THE LOWEST TEMPERATURE

In 2015, the temperature of a cloud of 100 000 rubidium atoms was reduced to 50 × 10−12 kelvin (above absolute
zero). The average speed of the atoms was less than 70 micrometres per second.
Properties that change with temperature and can

FIGURE 1.7 This thermocouple is connected to
be employed in designing a thermometer are: a voltmeter, which reads differing voltages as the
• electrical resistance of metals, which increases thermocouple changes temperature.
with temperature
• electrical voltage from a thermocouple, Joint of two different
Iron wire
which is two lengths of different metals metals

with their ends joined; if one end is heated,
a voltage is produced (see figure 1.7)
• colour change; liquid crystals change colour Copper wire
with temperature (see figure 1.8)
• colour emitted by a hot object; in steel
making, the temperature of hot steel is
measured by its colour (see figure 1.9).
Heat source

FIGURE 1.8 This liquid crystal thermometer FIGURE 1.9 This steel is nearly 1000 °C and has
indicates body temperature when the liquid recently been poured into a mould to shape it. The
crystals change colour. The thermometer is steel will continue to glow until it has cooled to
registering 37 °C. about 400 °C.
1.3.2 The Kelvin scale

The kinetic theory of matter is the origin of the Kelvin temperature scale. If temperature depends on the
movement of particles, then the slower they move, the lower the temperature. When the particles stop
moving, the temperature will be the lowest that is physically possible. This temperature was adopted as
absolute zero. But how do we measure it and what is its value?
In the early 1800s gases were a good material to work with to explore the nature of matter. An amount
of gas in a glass vessel could be heated and the variables of temperature, volume and pressure to keep the
volume fixed could be easily measured. Joseph Gay-Lussac and Jacques Charles independently investigated
how the volume of gases changed with temperature if they were kept under a constant pressure. They found
that all gases kept at constant pressure expand or contract by 1/273 of their volume at 0 °C for each Celsius
degree rise or fall in temperature.
From that result you can conclude that if you cooled the gas, and it stayed as a gas and did not liquefy,
you could cool it to a low enough temperature that its volume reduced to zero. The temperature would
be absolute zero. According to their experiments, absolute zero was −273 °C. Nowadays more accurate
experiments put the value at −273.15 °C.
In kelvin, absolute zero is 0 K. The increments in the Kelvin temperature scale are the same size as those
in the Celsius scale, so if the temperature increased by 5 °C, it also increased by 5 K.
The conversion formula between the two temperature scales is:
kelvin = Celsius + 273
T (kelvin) = T (Celsius) + 273

FIGURE 1.10 By extrapolating his trend line back, Kelvin was able to establish absolute zero at –273 °C. With
modern equipment absolute zero is now determined to be –273.15 °C.
Volume
ion
olat
rap
Ext
Celsius scale (°C)
−273 −200 −100 0 100 200 300
Temperature
Kelvin scale (K) 0 73 173 273 373 473 573
TABLE 1.2 Some temperatures on the Kelvin and Celsius scales

Event Temperature
K °C
Absolute zero 0 −273
Helium gas liquefies 4 −269
Lead becomes a superconductor 7 −266
Nitrogen gas liquefies 63 −210
Lowest recorded air temperature on the Earth’s surface (Vostok, Antarctica) 184 −89
Mercury freezes 234 −39
Water freezes 273 0
Normal human body temperature 310 37
Highest recorded air temperature on the Earth’s surface (Death Valley, USA) 330 57
Mercury boils 630 357
Iron melts 1535 1262
Surface of the Sun 5778 5505
Note: In 1968, the international General Conference on Weight and Measures decided that kelvin
temperatures do not use the ° symbol, unlike Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
What is the kelvin temperature at which ice melts?
Teacher-led video: SP1 (tlvd-0003)
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the relationship between the two T(kelvin) = T(Celsius) + 273
temperature scales.
2. Ice melts at 0 °C. Substitute 0 °C into the T(kelvin) = T(Celsius) + 273
conversion formula. = 0 + 273
= 273 K
3. State the solution. Ice melts at 273 K.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
The temperature of the universe predicted by the cosmic microwave background is 3 K. What is this
in degrees Celsius?
1.3 EXERCISE
1. Why is the Celsius scale of temperature commonly used rather than the Kelvin scale?
2. What is the main advantage of an absolute scale of temperature?
3. Estimate each of the following temperatures in kelvin:
(a) the maximum temperature in Melbourne on a hot summer’s day
(b) the minimum temperature in Melbourne on a cold, frosty winter’s morning
(c) the current room temperature
(d) the temperature of cold tap water
(e) the boiling point of water.
4. The temperature of very cold water in a small test tube is measured with a large mercury-in-glass
thermometer. The temperature measured is unexpectedly high. Suggest a reason for this.
5. Carbon dioxide sublimates, that is, goes directly from solid to gas, at −78.5 °C. What is this temperature in
kelvin?
6. The temperature of the surface of Mars was measured by the Viking lander and ranged from 256 K to 166 K.
What are the equivalent temperatures in degrees Celsius?

1.4 Transferring heat

KEY CONCEPTS
• Distinguish between conduction, convection and radiation with reference to heat transfers within and
between systems.
• Identify regions of the electromagnetic spectrum as radio, microwave, infra-red, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray
and gamma waves.
From our understanding of the particle theory and its relationship to heat we know that energy is always
transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
There are many situations in which it is necessary to control the rate at which the energy is transferred.
• Warm-blooded animals, including humans, need to maintain their body temperature in hot and cold
conditions. Cooling of the body must be reduced in cold conditions. In hot conditions, it is important
that cooling takes place to avoid an increase in body temperature.
• Keeping your home warm in winter and cool in summer can be costly, both in terms of energy
resources and money. Applying knowledge of how heat is transferred from one place to another can
help you find ways to reduce how much your house cools in winter and heats up in summer, thus
reducing your energy bills.

• The storage of many foods in cold temperatures is necessary to keep them from spoiling. In warm
climates most beverages are enjoyed more if they are cold. The transfer of heat from the warmer
surroundings needs to be kept to a minimum.
FIGURE 1.11 Reducing heat transfer to and from buildings

saves precious energy resources, and reduces gas and
electricity bills.
There are three different processes through which energy can be transferred during heating and cooling:
conduction, convection and radiation (see figure 1.12).
FIGURE 1.12 Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.
Convection Convection
Condu
ction
Conduction
Radiation
1.4.1 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance as a result of FIGURE 1.13 Conduction
collisions between neighbouring vibrating particles. The particles in is the transfer of thermal
the higher temperature region have more random kinetic energy than energy (heat) due to collisions
between neighbouring
those in the lower temperature region. As shown in figure 1.13, the more
particles.
energetic particles collide with the less energetic particles, giving up
some of their kinetic energy. This transfer of kinetic energy from particle Direction of heat transfer
to particle continues until thermal equilibrium is reached. There is no net
movement of particles during the process of conduction.
Solids are better conductors of heat than liquids and gases. In solids,
the particles are more tightly bound and closer together than in liquids
and gases. Thus, kinetic energy can be transferred more quickly. Metals
are the best conductors of heat because free electrons are able to transfer
High Low
kinetic energy more readily to other electrons and atoms. temperature temperature

Materials that are poor conductors are called insulators. Materials such as polystyrene foam, wool and
fibreglass batts are effective insulators because they contain pockets of still air. Air is a very poor conductor
of heat. If air is free to move, however, heat can be transferred by a different method — convection.
FIGURE 1.14 (a) Insulators like rock mineral wool have excellent thermal and acoustic properties.
(b) Fibreglass insulation is made from recycled glass bottles, sand and other materials.
(a) (b)
1.4.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through a substance as a result of the movement of particles between
regions of different temperatures. Convection takes place in liquids and gases where particles are free to
move around. In solids, the particles vibrate about a fixed position and convection does not generally occur,
except under specific conditions (e.g. in the extreme temperature and pressure in the Earth’s mantle).
The movement of particles during convection is called a convection current. Faster moving particles in
hot regions rise while slower moving particles in cool regions fall. The particles in the warm water near the
flame in figure 1.15 are moving faster and are further apart than those in the cooler water further from the
flame. The cooler, denser water sinks, forcing the warm, less dense water upwards. This process continues
as the warm water rises, gradually cools and eventually sinks again, replacing newly heated water.
FIGURE 1.15 Purple particles from a crystal of potassium permanganate carefully placed at the bottom of the
beaker are forced around the beaker by convection currents in the heated water.
Beaker
Small
potassium
permanganate Convection
crystal current
Water
Gauze
mat
Tripod
Bunsen Bunsen burner

burner
Heat-proof
mat

Convection currents are apparent in ovens that FIGURE 1.16 Convection currents circulate warm
do not have fans. As the air circulates, the whole air pushed out by home heating systems. The warm
oven becomes hot. However, the top part of the air rises, circulates around the room until it cools and
oven always contains the hottest, least dense air. sinks, being replaced with more warm air.
As the air cools, it sinks and is replaced by less
dense hot air for as long as the energy source at the
bottom of the oven remains on. Fans can be used
to push air around the oven, providing a more even
temperature.
Home-heating systems use convection to move
warm air around. Ducted heating vents are, where
possible, located in the floor. Without the aid of
powerful fans, the warm air rises, circulates around
the room until it cools and sinks, being replaced
with more warm air. In homes built on concrete
slabs, ducted heating vents are in the ceiling. Fans
are necessary to push the warm air downwards so
that it can circulate more efficiently.
In summer, loose fitting clothing is more
comfortable because it allows air to circulate.
Thus, heat can be transferred from your body by
convection as the warm air near your skin rises and
escapes upwards.
Heater
1.4.3 Radiation
Heat can be transferred without the presence
FIGURE 1.17 Radiant heat can be transmitted,
of particles by the process of radiation. All absorbed or reflected
objects with a temperature above absolute zero
(0 K) emit small amounts of electromagnetic Transmitted radiant heat
Transmitted
radiation. Visible light, microwaves, infra- heat Clear objects, like glass, allow
red radiation, ultraviolet radiation and light and radiant heat to pass
through them. The temperature of
X-rays are all examples of electromagnetic these objects does not increase
radiation. All electromagnetic radiation is quickly when heat reaches them by
transmitted through empty space at a speed of radiation.
3.0 × 108 m s–1 , which is most commonly

known as the speed of light. Absorbed Absorbed radiant heat
Electromagnetic radiation can be absorbed by, heat Dark-coloured objects tend to
absorb light and radiant heat. Their
reflected from or transmitted through substances.
temperatures increase quickly when
Scientists have used a wave model to explain Radiated heat reaches them by radiation.
much of the behaviour of electromagnetic waves. heat
These electromagnetic waves transfer energy,
Reflected radiant heat
and reflect and refract in ways that are similar to Shiny or light-coloured surfaces
waves on water. tend to reflect light and radiant
What distinguishes the different types of heat away. The temperature of
these objects does not change
electromagnetic radiation from each other is: quickly when heat reaches them by
• their wavelength (the distance the wave takes Reflected heat radiation.
to repeat itself)
• their frequency (the number of wavelengths
passing every second)
• the amount of energy they transfer.

These properties in turn determine their ability to be transmitted through transparent or opaque objects,
their heating effect and their effect on living tissue.
Figure 1.18 shows the electromagnetic spectrum and demonstrates that higher energy radiation
corresponds to low wavelength.
FIGURE 1.18 The electromagnetic spectrum. All objects emit some electromagnetic radiation.
Increasing frequency
Increasing energy
Radio waves
Visible light
Ultraviolet
Infra-red X-rays Gamma
TV radiation
Short- Microwaves radiation rays
and
AM wave CB FM and
radio radio radio radio radar
104 102 100 10−2 10−4 10−6 10−8 10−10 10−12

Wavelength (metres)
Increasing wavelength Decreasing wavelength
Why do hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation?

All matter is made up of atoms. At any temperature above absolute FIGURE 1.19 Electromagnetic
zero, these atoms are moving and colliding with each other. The atoms radiation from a hot body
contain positive and negative charges. The motion of the atoms and
their collisions with other atoms affect the motion of the electrons.
Because they are charged and moving around, the electrons produce
electromagnetic radiation. Electrons moving in an antenna produce a
radio signal, but in a hot object the motion is more random with a range
of speeds.
So, a hot object produces radiation across a broad range of
wavelengths. If its temperature increases, the atoms move faster and
have more frequent and more energetic collisions. These produce more
intense radiation with higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths.
1.4 EXERCISE
1. Explain with the aid of a well-labelled diagram how heat is transferred through a substance by conduction.
2. Why are liquids and gases generally poorer conductors of heat than solids?
3. Explain how convection occurs in a liquid that is being heated from below.
4. Why is it not possible for heat to be transferred through solids by convection?
5. At what speed does radiant energy move through space? What is significant about this speed?
6. When you swim in a still body of water on a hot afternoon there is a noticeable temperature difference
between the water at the surface and the deeper water.
(a) Explain why this difference occurs.
(b) If the water is rough, the difference is less noticeable. Why?
7. Standing near the concrete wall of a city building after a hot day you can instantly feel its warmth from a few
metres away.
(a) How is the energy transferred to you?
(b) What caused the building to get hot during the day?
8. Why is it not practical to drink hot coffee in an aluminium picnic cup?
9. Why do ducts in the ceiling need more powerful fans than those in the floor?


1.5 Thermal equilibrium and the laws of

thermodynamics
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics as two bodies in contact with each other coming to a
thermal equilibrium.
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically the First Law of Thermodynamics to simple situations:
Q = ∆U + W.
• Explain why cooling results from evaporation using a simple kinetic energy model.
Energy is always transferred from a region of high temperature to a region of lower temperature until both
regions reach the same temperature. When the temperature is uniform, a state of thermal equilibrium is
said to exist.
So when a hot nail is dropped into a beaker of cold water, energy will be transferred from the hot nail into
the water even though the hot nail has less total internal energy than the water. When thermal equilibrium is
reached, the temperature of both the water and the nail is the same. The particles of water and the particles
in the nail have the same amount of random translational kinetic energy. Figure 1.20 shows how the kinetic
particle model can be used to explain the direction of energy transfer in the beaker.
What is implicit in the above discussion on thermal equilibrium and internal energy, is the subtle, but
important, point made by James Clerk Maxwell that ‘All heat is of the same kind’.
FIGURE 1.20 The particles in the nail have more kinetic energy (on average) than those that make up the water.
They collide with the particles of water, losing some of their kinetic energy and increasing the kinetic energy of
individual particles of water. The temperature of the surrounding water increases.
Water
Nail
Some of the kinetic energy of the particles in the nail

is transferred to the water as the particles in the nail
High kinetic energy,
collide with particles of water.
high temperature
Low kinetic energy, Water

low temperature

FIGURE 1.21 When you swim in a cold pool, energy is transferred from your body into the water. The water
has much more total internal energy than your body because there is so much of it. However, the particles in
your body have more random translational kinetic energy that can be transferred to the particles of cold water.
Hopefully, you would not remain in the water long enough for thermal equilibrium to be reached.
Some energy is also

transferred to the air.
Water Swimmer’s body

temperature 15 °C temperature 37 °C
Energy is transferred Energy is transferred

to the water. to the water.
1.5.1 Laws of thermodynamics

Three laws of thermodynamics were progressively developed during the nineteenth century. In the
twentieth century it became apparent that the principle of thermal equilibrium could be seen as the logical
underpinning of these three laws. Consequently, the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics became accepted.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Consider three objects: A, B and C. It is the case that A is in thermal equilibrium with B,
and C is also in thermal equilibrium with B. Since ‘all heat is of the same kind’, it follows
that A is in thermal equilibrium with C.
In practice this means that all three objects, A, B and C, are at the same temperature and
the law enables the comparison of temperatures.
FIGURE 1.22 If objects are in contact, they will reach thermal equilibrium. The middle object is known to be in
thermal equilibrium with each outer object; thus, each outer object must also be in thermal equilibrium.
B in equilibrium with C
A B Therefore, A and C are in

C thermal equilibrium. If
they were brought into
A in equilibrium with B contact, there would be
no net heat transfer.

First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy is conserved and cannot be created or destroyed
(see figure 1.23). If there is an energy change in a system, all the energy must be accounted for.
The First Law of Thermodynamics says:

Change in the internal energy Heat energy added Work done
= −
of the air to the system by the system
∆U = Q − W
∆U = Q − W or Q = ∆U + W
Where:
Q is the heat energy added to the system, in joules
W is the work done by the system, in joules
∆U is the change in internal energy, in joules.
Note: The words in italics, ‘of ’, ‘to’ and ‘by’, and the minus sign are important in the equation as
Q and W can be either positive or negative.
If heat is added to the system (+Q) or work is done on the system (–W),
FIGURE 1.23 Energy
then the internal energy increases and ∆U is positive. is conserved. The heat
If heat is removed from the system (–Q) or work is done by the system energy added to the
(+W), then the internal energy decreases and ∆U is negative. system is equal to the
Consider a volume of air inside a balloon that is placed in direct sunlight. energy removed from
The air inside the balloon will get hotter and the balloon will expand slightly. the system.
The energy from the Sun heats the air inside the balloon, increasing the kinetic
energy of the air molecules. The air molecules lose some of this energy as they
repeatedly collide with the wall of the balloon, forcing it outwards.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applies to many situations: cylinders in
a car engine, hot air balloons, food consumption, pumping up a tyre and the
Qin
weather (see table 1.3). Consequently, the word ‘system’ is often used as a
generic name when discussing thermodynamics.
∆U = 0
⇒W = Qin – Qout W
Qout
TABLE 1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics as it applies to different situations
Circumstance Example Result
If a system absorbs heat Energy from sunlight Q>0
If a system releases heat When you sweat Q<0
If a system does work on the surroundings Hot balloon expands W>0
If the surroundings do work on the system Pumping up a tyre W<0

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
a. A balloon is placed in direct sunlight. The sunlight supplies 200 joules of energy to the balloon.
The air inside pushes out the balloon surface, doing 50 joules of work. By how much does the
internal energy of the air inside change?
b. A large block of ice is heated by 100 joules of energy but does not melt. What is the change in
internal energy?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the relationship ΔU = Q − W. a. ΔU = Q − W
2. Identify the variables. The system is the balloon. Q = 200 J, W = 50 J
Heat is added to the system, so Q is positive. The
system does work on the surroundings, so W is
positive.
3. Substitute into the relationship to find ΔU. ΔU = 200 – 50
= 150 J
4. State the solution. The internal energy of the air inside
the balloon has increased by 150 J.
b. 1. Recall the relationship ΔU = Q − W. b. ΔU = Q − W
2. Identify the variables. The system is the ice block. Q = 100 J, W = 0 J
Heat is added to the system, so Q is positive. No
work is done because the ice doesn’t melt.
3. Substitute into the relationship to find ΔU. ΔU = 100 – 0
= 100 J
4. State the solution. The internal energy of the ice has
increased by 100 J.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
While doing some heavy lifting, you do 2500 joules of work on the weights, while releasing 3000
joules of heat. By how much did your internal energy change?
Resources
Interactivity Thermal equilibrium (int-6390)
1.5 EXERCISE
1. It is said that thermometers indirectly measure the temperature of an object by measuring their own
temperature. Explain this statement by referring to the concept of thermal equilibrium.

2. For each of the following, calculate the values of Q, W and ∆U and indicate whether the temperature
increases, decreases or stays the same.
(a) A gas in a fixed container is heated by 500 J.
(b) A gas in a container with a flexible lid is cooled by ice with 250 J of energy extracted.
(c) A gas in a container with a plunger is squashed by a heavy mass moving down, losing 150 J of
gravitational potential energy.
(d) A stretched rubber band at room temperature with 5 J of stored energy is released.
3. A can filled with a high-pressure gas has a balloon attached over the top. What happens to the temperature
of the gas inside the can as you allow the gas to expand into the balloon?
4. A barbecue uses gas from a gas bottle as its energy source. After the barbecue has been running for a
while, ice is noticed around the top of the gas bottle. Explain the physics principles behind this observation.
5. Consider these three scenarios then complete the table, using either 0, − or +.
(a) An insulated container, such as a thermos flask, has a piston that can be moved up and down without
letting the air out. The piston is pushed down.
(b) A metal tin with a lid is heated.
(c) A metal tin with a sliding lid and a mass on top is heated.
(a) (b) (c)

Heat (+ is in)
Work (+ is out)
∆U

1.6 Specific heat capacity

KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate and analyse theoretically and practically the energy required to:
• raise the temperature of a substance: Q = mc∆T
• change the state of a substance: Q = mL.
1.6.1 Specific heat capacity

Once the temperature of materials could be accurately measured, it became apparent that, when heated,
some materials increased in temperature more quickly than others. This phenomenon is called the ‘specific
heat capacity’ of materials.
The ‘specific heat capacity’ of materials is defined as the amount of energy required to
increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of the substance by 1 °C (or K).
It takes more energy to increase the temperature of water by 1 °C than any other common substance.
Water also needs to lose more energy to decrease in temperature. In simple terms, this means that water
maintains its temperature well, cooling down and heating up more slowly than other materials.

TABLE 1.4 Specific heat capacity of some common substances
Substance Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1 )
Helium 5193
Water 4200
Human body (average) 3500
Cooking oil 2800
Ethylene glycol (used in car ‘antifreeze’) 2400
Ice 2100
Steam 2000
Fertile topsoil 1800
Neon 1030
Air 1003
Aluminium 897
Carbon dioxide 839
Desert sand 820
Glass (standard) 670
Argon 520
Iron and steel (average) 450
Zinc 387
Copper 385
Lead 129
Specific heat capacities differ because of two factors:

1. the different contributions to the internal energy by the forms of energy other than translational
kinetic energy
2. the varying mass of individual atoms and molecules.
The internal energy of single-atom gases, such as helium, neon and argon, consists of only translational
kinetic energy. So the specific heat capacities should be the same if you account for their difference in mass.
Look up the atomic weight for each gas and multiply it by each gas’s specific heat capacity and compare
your answers.
The quantity of energy, Q, transferred to or from a substance in order to change its

temperature is given as:
Q = mc∆T
Q is directly proportional to three factors:
• the mass of the substance (m)
• the change in temperature (∆T)
• the specific heat capacity of the substance (c).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
a. How much energy is needed to heat 8.0 L (about 8.0 kg) of water from a room temperature of
15 °C to 85 °C?
b. A chef pours 200 grams of cold water with a temperature of 15 °C into a hot aluminium
saucepan with a mass of 250 grams and a temperature of 120 °C. What will be the common
temperature of the water and saucepan when thermal equilibrium is reached? Assume that no
energy is transferred to or from the surroundings.
Teacher-led videos: SP3 (tlvd-0005)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the relationship Q = mcΔT. a. Q = mcΔT
2. Identify the values, using table 1.4 to m = 8.0 kg, c = 4200 J kg−1 K−1
determine the specific heat capacity and ΔT = 85 ° C − 15 ° C
calculate the temperature difference in = 70 ° C
kelvin. = 70 K (same change)
3. Substitute values into the formula and solve. Q = 8.0 × 4200 × 70
= 2 352 000
= 2.4 × 103 kJ
4. State the solution. 2.4 × 103 kJ of energy is needed to increase
the temperature of 8.0 L of water from 15 °C
to 85 °C.
b. The solution to this question relies on the following three factors.
• Energy is transferred from the saucepan into the water until both the saucepan and the
water reach the same temperature (Tf °C).
• The amount of internal energy (Qw ) gained by the water will be the same as the
amount of internal energy lost by the saucepan (Qs ).
• The internal energy gained or lost can be expressed as mcΔT. (ΔT can be expressed
in K or °C since change in temperature is the same in both units.)
1. Recall the relationship Qw = Qs . Qw = Qs

mw cw ΔTw = ms cs ΔTs
2. Identify the change in temperature of the ΔTw = Tf − 15 °C
water and saucepan. ΔTs = 120 °C − Tf
3. Substitute values into the formula and solve. 0.200 kg × 4200 J kg−1 °C−1 × (Tf − 15 °C)
= 0.250 kg × 900 J kg−1 °C−1 × (120 °C − Tf )
840Tf − 12 600 = 27 000 − 225Tf
1065Tf = 39 600
39 600
Tf =
1065
= 37.18 °C
4. State the solution (to the least number of The saucepan and the water have reached a
significant figures provided in the question). common temperature of 37 °C.

This example is a good illustration of the implications of a high specific heat capacity.
Even though there was a smaller mass of water than aluminium, the final temperature was
closer to the original water temperature than the original aluminium temperature.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
How much energy is needed to increase the temperature of your body by 1 °C?
CAUTION! CONTENTS MAY BE HOT

Eating a hot pie can be a health hazard! The temperature
of the pastry and filling of a hot pie are the same. Thermal
equilibrium has been reached. So why can you bite into
a pie that seems cool enough to eat and be burnt by
the filling?
The reason is that the filling is mostly water, while the pastry is
mostly air. When your mouth surrounds that tasty pie, energy is
transferred from the pie to your mouth. Each gram of water in the
filling releases about 4 J of energy into your mouth for every 1 °C lost
(since the specific heat of water is 4200 J kg−1 K−1 ). Each gram of
air in the pastry releases only about 1 J of energy into your mouth
for every 1 °C lost (since the specific heat of air is 1000 J kg−1 K−1 ).
Gram for gram, the filling transfers four times more energy into your
mouth than the pastry.
1.6.2 Latent heat

In order for a substance to melt or evaporate, energy must be added. During the process of melting or
evaporating, the temperature of the substance does not increase. The energy added while the state is
changing is called latent heat. The word latent is used because it means ‘hidden’. The usual evidence of
heating, a change in temperature, is not observed.
Similarly, when substances freeze or condense, energy must be released. However, during the process of
changing state, there is no decrease in temperature accompanying the loss of internal energy.
In simple terms, the energy transferred to or from a substance during melting, evaporating, freezing or
condensing is used to change the state rather than to change the temperature.
During a change of state, internal energy is gained or lost from the substance. Recall, however, that the
internal energy includes the random kinetic and potential energy of the particles in the substance. The
random translational kinetic energy of particles determines the temperature.
When a substance is being heated, the incoming energy increases the translations kinetic energy of
the particles, increasing the temperature of the substance. When the substance being heated reaches its
melting point, the incoming energy increases the potential energy of the particles rather than the random
translational kinetic energy of the particles. The temperature of the substance does not change while it is
melting. After the substance has melted completely, the incoming energy increases the kinetic energy of
the particles again. When the substance is being cooled, the internal energy lost on reaching the melting
(or freezing) point is potential energy. The temperature does not decrease until the substance has completely
solidified.
The same process occurs at the boiling point of a substance. While evaporation or condensation takes
place, the temperature of the substance does not change. The energy being gained or lost is latent heat,
‘hidden’ as changes in internal potential energy take place.

Specific latent heat of fusion
The specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a substance
from a solid to a liquid without a change in temperature. Note that the same quantity of energy is lost
without a change in temperature during the change from a liquid to a solid. The specific latent heat of fusion
of water is 334 kJ kg−1 .
Specific latent heat of vaporisation
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a
substance from a liquid to a gas without a change in temperature. Note that the same quantity of energy is
lost without a change in temperature during the change from a gas to a liquid. The specific latent heat of
vaporisation of water is 2.3 × 103 kJ kg−1 .
FIGURE 1.24 Changes of state and latent heat
Temperature Melting Temperature Evaporation Temperature

increases (no temp change) increases (no temp change) increases
Latent heat Latent heat

SOLID LIQUID GAS
of fusion of vaporisation
Temperature Freezing Temperature Condensation Temperature

decreases (no temp change) decreases (no temp change) decreases
Table 1.5 details both the specific latent heat of fusion and the specific latent heat of vaporisation of a
number of common substances.
TABLE 1.5 Specific latent heat of some common substances
Substance Specific latent heat of fusion (J kg−1 ) Specific latent heat of vaporisation (J kg−1 )
Water 3.3 × 105 2.3 × 106
Oxygen 6.9 × 103 1.1 × 105
Sodium chloride 4.9 × 105 2.9 × 106
Aluminium 2.2 × 103 1.7 × 104
Iron 2.8 × 105 6.3 × 106
The graph in figure 1.25 shows how the temperature of water

FIGURE 1.25 A heating curve for
increases as it is heated at a constant rate. During the interval BC, water being heated at a constant
the temperature is not increasing. The water is changing state. rate
The energy transferred to the water is not increasing the random
translational kinetic energy of water particles. Note that the gradient 200
D
of the section AB is considerably less than the gradient of the section
Temperature (°C)
150
CD. What difference in the properties of water and steam does this Steam
Water boiling
reflect? 100 B
C
50 Liquid water
A
0 Time

Algebraically, the quantity of energy, Q, required to change the state of a
substance without a change in temperature can be expressed as:
Q = mL
Where:
m = mass of the substance
L = specific latent heat of fusion or vaporisation.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
The graph in figure 1.25 might represent the melting of aluminium. The melting point of
aluminium is 660.3 °C.
a. How much energy must be transferred to completely melt 2.5 kilograms of aluminium?
b. What would be the temperature of the aluminium at the instant it has all melted?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Identify what type of change of state is a. Changing from solid to liquid is
occurring: fusion or vaporisation. fusion.
Q = mL
2. Identify the values and calculate the L = 2.2 × 103 J kg−1 , m = 2.5 kg
temperature difference in kelvin.
3. Substitute values into the formula and Q = 2.2 × 103 J kg−1 × 2.5 kg
solve. = 5.5 × 103 J
4. State the solution. 5.5 × 103 J of energy is needed to
completely melt 2.5 kg of aluminium.
b. 1. All of the energy supplied is being used b. The temperature just after state
to change state, thus the temperature does change is still 660.3 °C.
not rise (see flat section of graph).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Determine how much energy is absorbed to evaporate 15 grams of water.
Resources
Interactivity Changes of state (int-0222)
1.6.3 Evaporation
Your skin is not completely watertight, which allows water from the skin and tissues beneath it to
evaporate. The latent heat of vaporisation required for the water to change state from liquid to gas is
obtained from the body, reducing its temperature. Evaporation of water from the mouth and lungs

also takes place during the process of breathing. Even FIGURE 1.26 Particle A experiences forces
without sweating, the energy used to evaporate water in of attraction from the surrounding particles in
the body accounts for about 17 per cent of the total heat all directions. Particle B does not experience
transfer from the body to the environment. as many forces, so it will need less kinetic
Water evaporates even though its temperature is well energy to escape the forces of attraction and
evaporate.
below its boiling point. The temperature is dependent
on the average translational kinetic energy of the water
molecules. Those molecules with a kinetic energy greater
than average will be moving faster than the others. Some Gas
of them will be moving fast enough to break the bonds
holding them to the water and escape from the liquid B
surface. The escaping molecules obtained their additional Beaker
energy from the rest of the liquid water, thus reducing its
temperature. Liquid
A
STEAM BURNS
A burn caused by steam at 100 °C is considerably more serious
than a burn caused by the same mass of boiling water. Each kilogram of
hot steam transfers 2600 kJ of energy to your skin as it
condenses to water at 100 °C. Each kilogram of newly condensed
steam then transfers 4.2 kJ for each °C drop in temperature
as it cools to your body temperature of about 37 °C. That’s abou
t 265 kJ. The total quantity of energy transferred by each kilogram
of steam is therefore about 2865 kJ. A kilogram of boiling water would
transfer 265 kJ of energy as it cooled to your body temperature.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 1.1 The good oil on heating (doc-31854)
Investigation 1.2 Cooling (doc-31855)
Teacher-led video Investigation 1.2 Cooling (tlvd-0804)
1.6 EXERCISE
1. The same hotplate is used to heat 50 grams of ethylene glycol (used in car antifreeze) and 50 grams of
cooking oil. Both substances are heated for 2 minutes. Use the data in the table 1.4 to determine which
liquid:
(a) needs more energy to increase its temperature by 1 °C
(b) will experience the greater increase in temperature.
2. The quantity of energy needed to increase the temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the
mass, specific heat capacity and the change in temperature of the substance. If 200 kJ is used to increase
the temperature of a particular quantity of a substance, how much energy would be needed to bring:
(a) twice as much of the substance through the same change in temperature
(b) three times as much of the substance through a temperature change twice as great?

3. Use table 1.4 to answer the following questions.
(a) Why is the specific heat capacity of the human body so high?
(b) Why is the specific heat capacity of deserts so much lower than that of fertile topsoil?
(c) When heating water to boiling point in a saucepan, some of the energy transferred from the hotplate is
used to increase the temperature of the saucepan. Which would you expect to gain the most energy from
the hotplate: an aluminium, copper or steel saucepan?
(d) Make some general comments about the order of substances listed in table 1.4.
4. Use the following data to determine the quantity of energy needed to evaporate 500 grams of water without
a change in temperature.
Substance Specific latent heat of fusion (J kg−1 ) Specific latent heat of vaporisation (J kg−1 )
Water 3.3 × 105 2.3 × 106
5. The following graph shows the heating curve obtained when 500 grams of candle wax in solid form was
heated from room temperature in a beaker of boiling water.
250
D E
Temperature (°C)
200 No wax
remaining
150
100
B
50
C
A
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Quantity of energy (kJ)
(a) What is the boiling point of the candle wax?

(b) During the interval BC, there is no increase in temperature even though heating continued. What was the
energy transferred to the candle wax being used for during this interval?
(c) In which state of matter was the candle wax during the interval CD?
(d) Use the heating curve to determine the latent heat of fusion of candle wax.
(e) Which is higher: the specific heat capacity of solid candle wax or the specific heat capacity of liquid
candle wax? Explain your answer.
(f) Explain in terms of the kinetic particle model what is happening during the interval DE.
6. How much ice at 0 °C could be melted with 1 kilogram of steam at 100 °C, assuming no loss of energy to the
surroundings? Use the specific latent heat values quoted in table 1.5. The specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J kg−1 K−1 .
7. Explain the importance of keeping a lid on a simmering saucepan of water in terms of latent heat of
vaporisation.
8. How does the evaporation of water cause a reduction in the temperature of the surrounding air?


1.7 Review
1.7.1 Summary
• The kinetic particle model of matter explains heat phenomena.
• Internal energy is the energy associated with the random movement of molecules and it comes in many
forms, including translational, rotational and vibrational kinetic energy, and potential energy.
• A thermometer measures temperature, and various properties of materials can be used to make one.
• There are different temperature scales, with Celsius and kelvin being the common ones. Temperatures
in one scale can be converted to any other.
• Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules in a
substance.
• Heat energy can be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a material by collisions between adjacent particles.
• Some materials conduct heat energy well and are called conductors. Others do not and are called
insulators.
• Convection is the transfer of heat energy through a substance, usually a liquid or a gas, by the
movement of particles between regions of different temperature. Hotter material is less dense because
faster moving particles push each other further apart. If free to move, the less dense and hotter material
will rise, displacing cooler material.
• Objects at different temperatures, if placed in contact, will reach a common temperature. This process
is called thermal equilibrium and is described as the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
• The First Law of Thermodynamics states that if energy is transferred to or from a system, then the
total energy must be conserved, with any changes in the internal energy of the system given by
∆U = Q − W, where ∆U is the change in internal energy, Q is the heat added to the system and W is
the work done by the system.
• The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is the amount of energy required to increase the
temperature of 1 kilogram of the substance by 1 °C or 1 K.
• When substances of different specific heat capacities and different temperatures are mixed, the final
temperature can be determined by using the conservation of energy and the relationship Q = mc∆T for
each substance.
• The latent heat, L, of a substance is the amount of energy required to change the state from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas of 1 kilogram of the substance. For a substance of mass m kg, the energy
required is given by Q = mL.
• Evaporation of a liquid occurs because some of the faster particles have sufficient energy and speed to
break free of the surface. The removal of these particles lowers the overall average kinetic energy of
the remaining particles and consequently the temperature of the liquid.
Resources
1.7.2 Key terms
Absolute zero is the lowest temperature that is physically possible. At this temperature, particles cease to
vibrate. It is equal to 0 K or approximately −273 °C.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance as a result of collisions between neighbouring vibrating
particles.
A conductor is a material that contains charge carriers.

Convection is the transfer of heat in a fluid (a liquid or gas) as a result of the movement of particles within the
fluid.
A convection current is a movement of particles during the transfer of heat through a substance.
An electromagnetic radiation is an electromagnetic wave or radiation that includes visible light, radio waves,
gamma rays and X-rays.
First Law of Thermodynamics :
∆U = Q − W or Q = U + W
Where:
Q is the heat energy in joules
W is the work done in joules
∆U is the change in internal energy in joules.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as a result of its position relative to another
object to which it is attracted by the force of gravity.
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy from one body to another due to a temperature difference.
The internal energy of an object is the sum of all kinetic energy of the particles that make up that object.
The joule is the SI unit of work or energy. One joule is the energy expended when a force of 1 newton acts
through a distance of 1 metre.
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of objects. Like all forms of energy, kinetic energy is
a scalar quantity.
Latent heat is the heat added to a substance undergoing a change of state that does not increase the
temperature.
Radiation is heat transfer without the presence of particles.
Rotational kinetic energy is the energy due to the rotational motion of objects.
The specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a substance from a
solid to a liquid without a change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a substance
from a liquid to a gas without a change in temperature.
Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of particles.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when the temperature of two regions in contact is uniform.
Translational kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of an object from one location to another.
Vibrational kinetic energy is the energy due to the vibrational motion of objects.
Resources
Digital document Key terms glossary (doc-31857)
1.7.3 Practical work and investigations
Investigation 1.1
The good oil on heating
Aim: To show that different substances require different quantities of energy to change their temperatures by the same
amount and to show that the quantity of energy required to change the temperature of a given substance is directly
proportional to the mass of the substance
Digital document: doc-31854
Investigation 1.2
Cooling
Aim: To show that the internal energy of a substance can change without
a subsequent change in temperature and to produce a cooling curve that
illustrates the concept of latent heat.
Teacher-led video: tlvd-0804

Resources
Digital document Practical investigation logbook (doc-31853)
1.7 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
1.7 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the following is correct in relation to the kinetic theory of matter?
A. States that all matter is made up of a large number of small particles
B. Can be used to explain the process of convection and conduction
C. Is needed to explain absolute zero
D. All of the above
2. What is the internal energy of a substance?
A. The sum of all energy contained within the matter of that substance, including kinetic and potential
energy
B. The sum of all kinetic energy in a substance
C. The sum of all the translational kinetic energy in a substance
D. The average of all the translational kinetic energy in a substance
3. What is temperature a measure of?
A. The average of all energy contained within the matter of that substance, including kinetic and
potential energy
B. The sum of all kinetic energy in a substance
C. The sum of all the translational kinetic energy in a substance
D. The average of all the translational kinetic energy in a substance
4. The Kelvin scale is a temperature measure based on which of the following?
A. The temperature of the human body
B. The temperatures of when water boils and when it freezes
C. Absolute zero when all particle movement stops
D. The temperature of the North Pole at midday in summer
5. How is heat is best described?
A. When a material gets hot
B. The energy transferred as a result of temperature difference
C. The energy inside matter
D. The translational kinetic energy of an object
6. What does the First Law of Thermodynamics state?
A. The change in internal energy of a system plus the heat entering a system must equal the work done
to the surroundings.
B. The change in internal energy plus the work done to the surroundings must be equal to the heat
entering a system.
C. The work done to the surroundings plus the heat entering the system is equal to the change in
internal energy.
D. Objects at different temperatures, if placed in contact, will reach a common temperature.
7. A balloon shrinks when left outside in the cold. Which of the following is true for this scenario?
A. ∆U > 0, Q < 0 and W > 0
B. ∆U < 0, Q < 0 and W > 0
C. ∆U > 0, Q < 0 and W > 0
D. ∆U < 0, Q < 0 and W < 0

8. For two substances to reach thermal equilibrium, which of the following must they have?
A. The same internal energy
B. The same kinetic energy
C. The same translational kinetic energy
D. None of the above
9. What is the specific heat capacity a measure of?
A. How much internal energy a substance can hold
B. How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1 °C
C. How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 100 °C
D. The temperature change for 1 kilogram of a substance when its internal energy has increased
by 1 J
10. When the cooling curve of wax is examined a flat section on the graph is found. This section is due to
which of the following?
A. A pause in energy reaching the system causing no temperature change
B. The wax changing from a solid to a liquid and consuming extra energy without a temperature
change
C. A fault in the measuring equipment as this type of flat section would never occur
D. The wax changing state from liquid to solid releasing extra energy without a temperature change
1.7 Exercise 2: Short answer questions

1. Why can’t you put your hand on your own forehead to estimate your body temperature?
2. If today’s maximum temperature was 14 °C and tomorrow’s maximum temperature is expected to be
28 °C, will tomorrow be twice as hot? Explain your answer.
3. Explain with the aid of a well-labelled diagram how convection occurs in a liquid that is being heated
from below.
4. The daytime temperature of an area can decrease for several days after a major bushfire. Why does this
happen?
5. The microwave cooking instructions for frozen pies state that pies should be left to stand for two
minutes after heating. What happens to the pie while it stands?
6. Why do conventional ovens without fans have heating elements at the bottom? What is the advantage of
having an oven with a fan?
7. In the figure, two beakers are filled Blocks removed from plungers
Poorly Perfectly
with the same gas. A plunger is insulated insulated
fitted so that no gas escapes; friction
is negligible between the plunger
and the beaker walls. The block
is removed from each plunger, the Gas Gas
A B
plunger moves upward.
a. In each case, does the gas do work
or is work done on the gas? Explain
your reasoning.
b. Is there a larger transfer of thermal energy
as heat between gas A and the surroundings
or between gas B and the surroundings? Explain your reasoning in a few sentences.
c. For the expansion of gas A, how do the work and heat involved in this process affect the internal
energy of the gas? Explain your reasoning in a few sentences.
d. For the expansion of gas B, how do the work and heat involved in this process affect the internal
energy of the gas? Explain your reasoning.

8. Two insulated containers are connected by a valve. The valve is closed. One container is filled with gas,
the other is a vacuum. The valve is opened. Is there any change in temperature? Is there any change in
the internal energy? What are the values of Q and W in this situation?
9. Explain why vegetables cook faster by being steamed than boiled.
10. In hot weather, sweat evaporates from the skin.
a. Where does the energy required to evaporate the sweat come from?
b. Why do you feel cooler if there is a breeze?
c. Why is the cooling effect greatly reduced if the weather is humid rather than dry?
1.7 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
Adam says ‘A thermometer measures the average temperature between itself and the object it is
measuring’, while Katie says ‘A thermometer directly measures the temperature of the object’.
Explain why each is wrong.
The image on the right is of a heat sink. These are used to cool electrical
devices such as computers.
They are made from aluminium, usually painted black and have thin fins as
shown.
a. Discuss the design of the device with respect to your understanding of
heat transfer. 2 marks
b. Discuss the material used to manufacture a heat sink by commenting
on its thermodynamic properties. 2 marks
An 800 gram rubber hot-water bottle that has been stored at a room temperature of 15 °C is filled with
1.5 kilograms of water at a temperature of 80 °C. Before being placed in a cold bed, thermal equilibrium
between the rubber and water is reached. What is the common temperature of the rubber and water at
this time? (Assume that no energy is lost to the surroundings. The specific heat capacity of rubber is
1700 J kg−1 K−1 . The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg−1 K−1 .)
How much energy does it take to completely convert 2.0 kilograms of ice at −5.0 °C into steam at 100 °C?
Assume no energy loss to the surroundings.
Explain in terms of the kinetic particle model why you can put your hand safely in a 300 °C oven for a few
seconds, while if you touch a metal tray in the same oven your hand will be burned.
1.7 Exercise 4: studyON topic test

Test maker
Create unique tests and exams from our extensive range of questions, including practice exam questions.
Access the Assignments section in learnON to begin creating and assigning assessments to students.

AREA OF STUDY 1
HOW CAN THERMAL EFFECTS BE EXPLAINED?
2 Thermodynamics and
climate science
2.1 Overview
2.1.1 Introduction
In this topic, you will apply many of the concepts you were introduced to in topic 1 to develop a more
sophisticated understanding of the Earth’s energy systems. You will be introduced to two relationships that
enable physicists to determine the power radiated from objects given their temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann
law) and the peak wavelength re-radiated from an object given its temperature (Wien’s law). You will
consider how these relationships are used to examine the Earth’s thermal energy. By the end of this topic
you will be able to explain how atmospheric gases create the greenhouse effect. You will describe and
apply thermal equilibrium to the Earth’s flow of thermal energy. You will analyse changes in the thermal
energy of the surface of the Earth and of the Earth’s atmosphere. Finally, you will analyse the evidence for
the influence of human contributions to the enhanced greenhouse effect, including surface materials and the
balance of gases in the atmosphere.
FIGURE 2.1 Incoming radiation is reflected off ice back into space, but is absorbed by the water. Consider how
increasing air and ocean temperatures will change this scene.
TOPIC 2 Thermodynamics and climate science 35

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• describe electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun as mainly ultraviolet, visible and infrared
• calculate the peak wavelength of the re-radiated electromagnetic radiation from Earth using Wien’s
law: 𝜆max T = constant
• compare the total energy across the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by objects at different temperatures
such as the Sun
• describe power radiated by a body as being dependent on the temperature of the body according to the
Stefan–Boltzmann law, P ∝ T 4
• model the greenhouse effect as the flow and retention of thermal energy from the Sun, Earth’s surface and
Earth’s atmosphere
• explain how greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (including methane, water and carbon dioxide) absorb
and re-emit infrared radiation
• analyse changes in the thermal energy of the surface of Earth and of Earth’s atmosphere
• analyse the evidence for the influence of human activity in creating an enhanced greenhouse effect,
including affecting surface materials and the balance of gases in the atmosphere
• apply thermodynamic principles to investigate at least one issue related to the environmental impacts of
human activity with reference to the enhanced greenhouse effect
• explain how concepts of reliability, validity and uncertainty relate to the collection, interpretation and
communication of data related to thermodynamics and climate science.

Resources
Digital documents Key science skills — VCE Units 1–4 (doc-31856)

2.2 Earth’s energy systems
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun as mainly ultraviolet, visible and infrared.
• Calculate the peak wavelength of the re-radiated electromagnetic radiation from Earth using Wien’s law:
𝜆max T = constant.
• Compare the total energy across the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by objects at different
temperatures such as the Sun.
• Describe power radiated by a body as being dependent on the temperature of the body according to the
Stefan–Boltzmann law, P ∝ T 4 .
2.2.1 Energy from our Sun

You will recall that hot objects produce electromagnetic radiation across a broad range of wavelengths. The
hottest object in our environment is our sun. Nearly all of the energy available to Earth comes from the Sun,
whose energy output is 3.86 × 1026 J s−1 (3.86 × 1026 W). This is known as its luminosity. A tiny portion
of this energy hits the Earth, heating and lighting it. When we examine the light from the Sun, we see the
characteristic spectrum of light produced by hot objects, known as blackbody radiation.
FIGURE 2.2 Nearly all the energy available to Earth comes from the Sun.
Figure 2.3 shows the characteristic shape of a black body plotted against its electromagnetic (EM)
emission. Note that the highest section of the peak is in the visible section of the EM spectrum; however,
a significant amount of heat energy (infrared) is clearly illustrated, as well as a smaller but not insignificant
amount of light in the ultraviolet section.

FIGURE 2.3 The characteristic blackbody shape of the solar spectrum. The electromagnetic radiation emitted
from the Sun is mainly ultraviolet, visible and infrared.
UV visible Near-IR Medium-IR
2.0
Solar irradiance (W/m2/nm)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
200 400 700 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Wavelength (nm)
What is blackbody radiation?

During the late nineteenth century, scientists conducted investigations into how much radiation was
produced across the light spectrum and how this distribution changed with temperature. The results are
displayed in figure 2.4.
FIGURE 2.4 The variation in intensity versus wavelength produced for different hot objects. Note that not only
does the intensity peak higher as temperature increases, but the spectrum moves to the left and becomes bluer
(dotted line).
1.0 1.0
Intensity (relative scale)
6000 K
0.5 0.5
5000 K
4000 K
3000 K
0 0
0 5000 10 000 15 000 20 000
Ultraviolet Visible Infra-red

Wavelength (× 10−10 m)

In figure 2.4, the graphs for the four different temperatures are generally the same shape. Starting from
the right with long wavelengths, there is very little infrared radiation emitted. As the wavelength gets
shorter, the radiation produced increases to a maximum; finally, as the wavelength shortens even further
the amount of radiation drops quite quickly. The graphs for higher temperatures have a peak at a shorter
wavelength and a much larger area under the graph, meaning a lot more energy is emitted (intensity). This
shape is typical of blackbody radiation and all heated objects exhibit these characteristics to some degree.
Early researchers such as Jozef Stefan were keen to find patterns and relationships in the data and to
be able to explain their observations. In 1879, Stefan compared the area under the graph for different
temperatures. This area is the total energy emitted every second across all wavelengths, in other words,
the power.
He found that the power was proportional to absolute temperature to the power of 4, that is, P ∝ T 4 .
This means that if the absolute temperature of a hot object doubles from 1000 K to 2000 K, the amount
of energy emitted every second increases by 24 (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 times).
Using this relationship, Stefan was able to estimate the temperature of the surface of the Sun as 5430 °C
or 5700 K, which is very close to the value known today of 5778 K.
Ludwig Boltzmann later proved this from a theoretical standpoint, and so the P ∝ T 4 relationship is
called the Stefan–Boltzmann law.
Stefan–Boltzmann law
P ∝ T4
This relationship applies to all objects, but the constant of proportionality depends on the size of the
object and other factors. It is this property of any hot object that has enabled astronomers to determine the
surface temperatures of stars.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
a.When iron reaches about 480 °C it begins to glow with a red colour. How much more energy
is emitted by the iron at this temperature, compared to when it is at a room temperature
of 20 °C?
b. How much hotter than 20 °C would the iron need to be to emit 10 times as much energy?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Convert the temperature to kelvin. a. Temperature of hot iron:
T(kelvin) = T(Celsius) + 273
= 480 °C + 273
= 753 K
Temperature of cold iron:
T(kelvin) = T(Celsius) + 273
= 20 °C + 273
= 293 K

2. Calculate the ratio. Ratio of power (hot to cold) = ratio of temperatures
to the power of 4
( )4
Phot Thot
=
Pcold Tcold
)4
753
(
=
293
≈ 44
3. State the solution. The hot iron emits 44 times as much energy every
second as it does when it is at room temperature.
b. 1. Convert the temperature to kelvin. b. Temperature of cold iron:
T(Kelvin) = T(Celsius) + 273
= 20 °C + 273
= 293 K
2. Calculate the ratio. Ratio of power (hot to cold) = ratio of temperatures
to the power of 4
( )4
Phot Thot
=
Pcold Tcold
( )4
Thot
10 =
293
1 Thot
10 4 =
293
1
Thot = 293 × 10 4
1 1
3. Use your calculator to evaluate 10 4 , 10 4 ≈ 1.778
then use that value to calculate Thot .
Thot = 293 × 1.778 ≈ 521 K
4. Convert the temperature to Celsius. T(Celcius) = 521 K − 273
= 248 °C
5. State the solution. The iron would need to be at 248 °C to emit 10 times
the energy every second it does at 20 °C.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
The Sun has a surface temperature of 5778 K and radiates energy at a rate of 3.846 × 1026 W. How
much energy would a star of similar size radiate if its surface temperature was 8000 K?
In 1893, Wilhelm Wien (pronounced Veen) was able to show that as the temperature increased, the
wavelength of maximum intensity of energy emitted decreased, and indeed the two quantities were
inversely proportional. That is, the wavelength is proportional to the inverse of the temperature. This can
be seen in figure 2.5b.

FIGURE 2.5 The wavelength is proportional to the inverse of the temperature. These graphs illustrate that as the
temperature increased, the wavelength of maximum intensity of energy emitted decreased.
(b)
(a)
λmax (m)
λmax (m)
0 1
0
Temperature (Kelvin) Temperature
Wien’s law can be written as:

𝜆max T = constant
The value of this constant is 2.90 × 10−3 mK (metre-kelvin).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
a. At what wavelength is the peak intensity of the light coming from a star whose surface
temperature is 11 000 K (about twice as hot as the Sun)?
b. In what section of the spectrum is this wavelength?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State Wien’s law, and rearrange the a. 𝜆max T = constant
equation to make 𝜆max the subject. constant
𝜆max =
T
2. Substitute the known values into the Constant = 2.90 × 10−3 mK, T = 11 000 K
equation to find 𝜆max .
constant
𝜆max =
T
2.90 × 10−3 mK
=
11 000 K
= 2.64 × 10−7 m
3. State the solution. The light coming from a star whose surface
temperature is 11 000 K has a peak intensity at a
wavelength of 2.64 × 10−7 m.
b. 1. Refer to figure 2.4. b. 264 nm is beyond the violet end of the visible
spectrum, so it is in the ultraviolet section of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Determine the surface temperature of a star that emits light at a maximum intensity of 450 nm.
2.2.2 Heat from within

Although the sun is our primary source of
FIGURE 2.6 New crust is formed at a ridge and returns to
energy on Earth, our secondary source of the mantle at a trench.
energy comes from within the Earth. The Ridge
heat energy within the Earth comes from Lithosphere
the radioactive decay of elements such Trench
as uranium. This heat energy is not evenly Asth

Trench
eno
distributed and hot spots occur under the sp
he
mantle. Mantle
re
Energy transfer by convection is common

in gases and liquids, but it can also occur in 700 km
solids under the right conditions. The high
temperatures, about 2000 °C, and pressures in Outer core
the Earth’s mantle are enough to make solid
rock move, only very slowly of course. The
hot lighter rock at these points slowly rises,
Inner
while denser rock at colder spots slowly sinks. core
This sets up a convection cell in the Earth’s
mantle with the surface crust moving horizontally across the Earth. The speed of the rock movement is a
few centimetres per year.
The molten rock wells up at mid-ocean ridges and moves out. The rock eventually meets the edge
of a continental plate and cools further, becoming denser, then sinks back towards the mantle in a deep
ocean trench.
2.2.3 Energy in balance

Every object attempts to achieve thermal
FIGURE 2.7 Achieving thermal equilibrium is a balance
equilibrium — that is, a balance between between energy absorbed and energy emitted.
energy absorbed and energy emitted. Imagine
a steel ball placed in direct sunlight as shown
in figure 2.7.
When light energy heats and warms an
object, like a steel ball, its particles start to Energy out
get more excited and its translational kinetic from thermal
radiation
energy starts to increase. As a result, the steel Energy in
ball emits thermal radiant energy (usually in from sunlight
the infrared). The absorbed energy increases
the temperature of the ball; the increased
temperature means that the ball will radiate
more thermal energy. If the amount of energy
radiated is less than the amount absorbed, Steel ball
the temperature of the ball will continue to
increase, leading to more energy being
emitted, until a temperature is reached where
energy in and energy out balance.

Similarly, if a cloud moves in front of the Sun, the energy absorbed by the ball would suddenly decrease
to less than the amount of energy being emitted. The temperature of the ball would drop and continue to fall
until the amount of energy emitted matched the energy absorbed and a new equilibrium was reached.
The Earth as viewed from space is like the steel ball. The energy falling on the Earth from the Sun is
fairly constant. At the equator, an average of about 684 joules of energy from the Sun hits each square metre
of the Earth’s surface every second; that is, 684 W m–2 , where 1 watt is a unit of power or the rate of energy
delivery and equals 1 joule per second. This value varies from day to day by as much as 2 W m–2 , as well as
having an approximate 11-year cycle of a similar magnitude.
With the Stefan–Boltzmann relationship, P ∝ T 4 , it is possible to use the amount of energy the Earth
radiates into space to calculate the temperature of the Earth as observed from space.
MILANKOVITCH CYCLES
While a prisoner of war in World War I, Milutin Milankovic postulated several types of changes in the Earth’s
movement around the Sun that could affect the amount of solar radiation the Earth receives and its distribution.
These changes can affect climate on a time span of many thousands of years and possibly explain the
occurrence of ice ages. Some of the types of changes include:
• variation in the elliptical shape of the Earth’s orbit (eccentricity) with a cycle time of about 413 000 years
• precession of the Earth’s axis of rotation; like any spinning top, the axis itself rotates, once every
26 000 years
• the tilt of the axis (obliquity), which ranges from 22° to 24.5° every 41 000 years.
FIGURE 2.8 The variation in solar radiation that the Earth is exposed to has changed the climate
over tens and hundreds of thousands of years. These variations explain the ice ages the Earth
has experienced in its past but do not explain the current global warming.
Obliquity/tilt Precession
22.1°– 24.5°
Eccentricity
431 000 years 41 000 years 26 000 years
All these changes are due to gravitational interactions in the solar system between the Earth, the Sun and other
planets. It is thought that these factors may explain the long-term cooling trend the Earth has been in over the
last 6000 years. From the slowness with which these changes occur, none can explain the unprecedented global
warming in recent decades.
2.2.4 How much energy does the Earth get from the Sun?
The Sun is directly overhead the equator at midday on the equinox. At this place and time, the solar
radiation is about 1368 W m–2 . But because the Earth turns, producing night and day, this value has to be
halved to 884 W m–2 . Also, the Earth is curved with the North and South Poles receiving much less light
than the equator over a full year. This requires the number to be halved again. So the average solar radiation
across the Earth is 342 W m–2 as shown in figure 2.9. About 100 W m–2 of this radiation is reflected straight
back into space by the white surfaces of clouds and ice sheets. This leaves 242 W m–2 to heat up the Earth.

FIGURE 2.9 At the Earth’s equator at midday, the light intensity from the Sun is 1368 W m–2 . The average over
night and day and from pole to pole is 342 W m–2 .
Whole Earth average 342 W m−2

Earth
North Pole
1368 W m−2 at
equator at midday
Equator
South Pole
684 W m−2 at
equator average
2.2 EXERCISE
1. A 100 W light globe has a tungsten filament with a temperature of 2775 K when switched on.
(a) How much radiation does the filament emit at 20 °C?
(b) The voltage on the light globe is reduced to increase the lifetime of the filament. The temperature of the
filament is now 2000 K. What is the power saving?
(c) The voltage is now increased so that the power output is 200 W. What is the new filament temperature
in kelvin?
2. (a) A piece of iron has a yellow glow when it reaches 1150 °C. How much more energy is emitted every
second at this temperature compared to when the iron glows red at 480 °C?
(b) At what temperature in degrees Celsius would the iron give off 10 times as much energy as it does at
480 °C?
3. What is the wavelength of the light with the peak intensity from our solar system’s closest neighbouring star,
Proxima Centauri, which has an average surface temperature of 3042 K?
4. Our Sun gives off most of its light in the ‘yellow’ portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Its 𝜆max is 510 nm.
Calculate the average surface temperature of the Sun.
5. The Earth’s surface has an average temperature of 288 K. What is the wavelength of maximum emission
from the Earth’s surface?
6. The human body has a surface temperature of about 37 °C.
(a) What is the wavelength at which the human body emits the most radiation?
(b) In what part of the spectrum is this wavelength?
7. Suppose the surface temperature of the Sun was about 12 000 K, rather than about 6000 K.
(a) How much more thermal radiation would the Sun emit?
(b) What would happen to the Sun’s wavelength of peak emission?


2.3 The enhanced greenhouse effect
KEY CONCEPTS
• Model the greenhouse effect as the flow and retention of thermal energy from the Sun, Earth’s surface and
Earth’s atmosphere.
• Explain how greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (including methane, water and carbon dioxide) absorb
and re-emit infrared radiation.
• Analyse changes in the thermal energy of the surface of Earth and of Earth’s atmosphere.
The Stefan–Boltzmann relationship, P ∝ T 4 , enables the absolute temperature of an object to be determined

if you know how much energy it is radiating. For the 242 W m–2 that the Earth radiates, this gives a
temperature of 255.6 K, that is, –18 °C. This seems incorrect; the Earth is not that cold! What causes the
difference between this calculated temperature (which is the temperature of the Earth observed from space)
and the temperature we observe at the surface? The explanation is that we ignored the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
2.3.1 The natural greenhouse effect

The average global surface air temperature since the last ice age has been about +15 °C. This means that
the greenhouse gases of water vapour (H2 O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and others have been a blanket that has
provided an extra 33 °C of warmth.
FIGURE 2.10 The necessary temperature (–18 °C) for the Earth to radiate 242 W m–2 actually occurs at an altitude
of about 5 kilometres above the surface. So, the Earth’s surface is warmed by a 5-kilometre thick blanket!
Upper atmosphere: –18 °C
Greenhouse blanket of H2O and CO2
Surface air temperature: 15 °C
Earth
How do water vapour and carbon dioxide act as a blanket to trap heat?
If you shine a broad spectrum of light through a gas, some colours will be absorbed. The colours absorbed
are specific to the substance, which means each substance produces its own unique pattern of absorption
bands. These absorption bands are like fingerprints and can be used to identify molecules. The light
in the absorption band has been absorbed by the molecule and then subsequently re-emitted, but in a
random direction (see figure 2.13). This means the spectrum of light from the source will have gaps where
absorption has occurred. The light from the other parts of the spectrum passes through the gas without a
change in direction.
Ultraviolet light has more energy than visible light, which has more energy than infrared, but none of
them are energetic enough to break up molecules. These three types of radiation have only enough energy

to stretch, twist and spin molecules. Molecules with two atoms such as nitrogen (N2 ) and oxygen (O2 ) have
very strong bonds. When they absorb ultraviolet light, their bonds stretch. The energy of visible light and
infrared radiation is too low to affect such molecules. This means the two gases are transparent to visible
light and infra-red.
H2 O and CO2 have three atoms in each molecule, so they are more flexible than N2 and O2 . These
molecules can bend, whereas atoms with only two molecules cannot. When H2 O and CO2 absorb infrared
light, their bonds stretch and bend. Other molecules with more than two atoms, such as methane (CH4 ),
absorb infrared radiation in the same way.
Figure 2.11 shows the different ways water vapour molecules bend and stretch and figure 2.12 shows the
different ways carbon dioxide molecules bend and stretch.
FIGURE 2.11 The water molecule has three different ways of stretching or bending, as well as oscillations about
three axes.
Stretch Stretch Bend
Oscillations
x y z
FIGURE 2.12 The carbon dioxide molecule has three different ways of stretching.
Stretch Stretch Bend
The oxygen atoms at the ends of the bonds in carbon dioxide are heavier than the hydrogen atoms at
the ends of the bonds in water, so the bonds in the two molecules stretch and bend differently. This means
each molecule will absorb different parts of the infra-red spectrum. Consequently, water vapour and carbon
dioxide contribute independently to the greenhouse effect.
Once a gas molecule has absorbed infra-red radiation coming from the Earth’s surface, it re-emits
the radiation but, importantly, in a random direction (see figure 2.13). So, for the gas as a whole, some
radiation goes back down to the Earth to increase its temperature and some is directed towards the top of
the atmosphere and out into space. However, other molecules further up in the atmosphere can absorb this
radiation and re-emit more back to the Earth. The overall effect is that more than half the radiation emitted
by the gas comes back to the Earth’s surface.

FIGURE 2.13 Infra-red radiation from the Earth’s surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-emitted in
all directions.
Space
Reflected
light Solar
radiation
O2 N2 CO2 N2
N2
Atmosphere N2 O2 N2 N2
CH4
O2 N2 N2 H2O O2
O2 H2O
O2
O2 ouse N2
Greenh
N2 CO2 gases N2
O2 N2 O2 N2 CH4 O2 O2
N2 N2 O2 N2
O2 CH4 H2O
O2 CO2
N2
O2
O2 N2 Infra-red N2
N2 O2 N2
O2
Earth Heated by absorbed

solar radiation
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), agriculture and land
clearing, are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This increase is
sometimes called the enhanced greenhouse effect (see figure 2.14).
FIGURE 2.14 Comparison of the greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect Enhanced greenhouse effect
Sun
Sun Sun
Sun
Earth Earth
Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere means that more of the wavelengths that
carbon dioxide absorbs will be re-emitted back to Earth, increasing the temperature of the Earth.

Figure 2.15 is the same solar spectrum as figure 2.3 but also shows the:
• spread of wavelengths radiated by the Sun at 6000 K (these are the wavelengths in sunlight)
• spread of wavelengths received on the surface of the Earth, demonstrating the impact of the
atmosphere on the light we receive from the Sun, and the ‘holes’ in the spectrum because of
greenhouse gas absorption
• absorption spectrum for water vapour
• absorption spectrum for carbon dioxide.
FIGURE 2.15 Characteristic blackbody shape showing the irradiance at sea level and thus the effect of the
atmosphere. Note the ‘holes’ at particular frequencies due to absorption from atmospheric gases.
UV visible Near-IR Medium-IR
2.0
Energy at the top of
the atmosphere
Solar irradiance (W/m2/nm)
1.5 Energy at sea level
1.0 Absorbed
by H2O vapor
0.5 Absorbed
by CO2
0.0
200 400 700 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Wavelength (nm)
It is worth clarifying the vertical scale on the absorption spectra. The spectra show that for some
wavelengths 100% of the radiation is absorbed. This means that in a container holding only that gas, no
radiation of that wavelength would pass through without interacting with a molecule. However, in the
atmosphere with a mixture of gases, and with CO2 , H2 O and CH4 at low concentrations, much of the
radiation with these wavelengths has a good chance of passing through without ever hitting one of these
molecules. The gases CO2 , H2 O and CH4 make up a very small proportion of the atmosphere, so the infra-
red radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface has a good chance of reaching outer space without being
absorbed. However, with increased emissions of CO2 and CH4 , interactions are more likely to occur.
2.3.2 Fossil fuels’ fingerprints

Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes of
an element have identical chemical behaviour because they have the same number of electrons. However,
because different isotopes have different masses, their reactions may proceed at different speeds. Heavier
isotopes generally react slower.
For example, carbon has two main isotopes:
1. carbon-12 with six neutrons
2. carbon-13 with seven neutrons.
The process of photosynthesis in plants turns carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. This reaction
occurs more quickly with carbon-12 than it does with carbon-13. This means the proportion of carbon-13 in
the plant is less than what was in the atmosphere at the time the plant was growing.

Over millions of years, dead plants are turned into fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas. When
these fossil fuels are burnt, the carbon, which has relatively little carbon-13, is released back into the
atmosphere. Tree rings and ice cores can be used to determine the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 of the
Earth’s atmosphere going back thousands of years. These can then be compared to the current atmosphere.
The data show the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 is much lower now than in the past. The ratio started
to decline about 1850, around the time fossil fuel use began to increase. The low amount of carbon-13 in
our atmosphere is evidence that the increased CO2 is produced by humans using fossil fuels.
2.3.3 The Earth’s energy budget

The Earth’s energy budget is an accounting of the incoming energy from the Sun, where it goes in the
atmosphere and at the surface, and how the outgoing energy leaves the Earth.
Note: This is called an energy budget, even though the numbers are measured in watts per square metre,
which is actually the amount of energy passing through an area of one square metre every second.
Figure 2.16 shows all the different paths energy takes from arriving at the Earth, mainly as visible light,
to being emitted as longwave infrared radiation or reflected straight back into space.
FIGURE 2.16 The Earth’s energy budget from the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Reflected solar Incoming 235 Outgoing

107
radiation 342 solar longwave
107 W m−2 radiation radiation
342 W m−2 235 W m−2
Reflected by clouds,
aerosol and
atmospheric Emitted by
40
gases atmosphere
165 Atmospheric
77
30 window
Emitted by clouds
Absorbed by Greenhouse
atmosphere gases
67
Latent
24 78 heat
Reflected by 350 40 324

surface Back
30 radiation
390
168 24 78 Surface
Absorbed by Thermals Evapo- radiation 324
surface transpiration Absorbed by surface
The numbers in figure 2.16 can be used to check the energy balance between energy coming in and
energy going out — not only of the whole Earth, but also of just the atmosphere or just the Earth’s surface.
In each case, the energy coming in should equal the energy going out (see table 2.1).
TABLE 2.1 The energy balance between energy coming in and energy going out
For the Earth as a whole For the Earth’s surface
Incoming energy = 342 W m−2 Incoming energy = 168 + 324 W m−2

Outgoing energy = 77 + 30 + 165 + 30 + 40 = 492 W m−2
= 342 W m−2 Outgoing energy = 24 + 78 + 350 + 40
= incoming energy = 492 W m−2
= incoming energy

Table 2.2 provides a description and the contribution to the energy budget of most of the terms in
figure 2.16.
TABLE 2.2 Energy budget of the Earth by energy category
Amount
Energy category (W m–2 ) Description
Incoming solar radiation 342 Visible light with some infra-red and ultraviolet from the Sun
Outgoing longwave radiation 235 Infra-red radiation from many sources heading out to space
Reflected solar radiation 107 Visible light from two sources heading out to space
(30 + 77 = 107)
Reflected by clouds etc. 77 Visible light reflected by clouds, aerosol and atmospheric gases
Atmosphere window 40 Infra-red radiation passing through the atmosphere because it

is in the part of the spectrum that is not absorbed by the main
greenhouse gases
Emitted by clouds 30 Infra-red radiation from clouds heading out to space
Latent heat 78 Energy used or released when there is a change of state
Back radiation 324 Infra-red radiation emitted downwards by greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
Absorbed by surface 492 Visible light, infra-red and ultraviolet radiation from two sources
absorbed by the Earth’s surface (168 + 324 = 492)
Thermals 24 Rising currents of hot air
Evapotranspiration 78 Moisture in plants released as water vapour
Surface radiation 390 Infra-red radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface into the
atmosphere
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Using table 2.2, show that conservation of energy holds for the Earth system.
THINK WRITE
1. Use table 2.2 and determine Total incoming solar radiation = 342 W m−2
total energy in.
2. Use table 2.2 and determine Total outgoing energy = Outgoing longwave radiation +
total energy out. Reflected solar radiation
= 235 + 107
= 342 W m−2
3. Energy conservation holds if Energy in = 342 W m−2 = energy out
energy in = energy out.
4. State the solution. As the energy into the Earth system is equal to the energy
out, conservation of energy holds for the Earth system.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Using figure 2.16, find the missing amounts in the following table.
Energy category Amount (W m–2 ) Description
Reflected by surface ? Visible light reflected by snow, land and sea ice
Absorbed by Incoming radiation that is absorbed by gases in the
atmosphere ? atmosphere
2.3.4 Feedback
In any complicated system with many interacting components, such as the Earth’s climate, sometimes
one part changes a second part, and a change in the second part can then change the first part. This is
called feedback. A common audio example of feedback is when a person using a microphone walks in
front of a loudspeaker. The microphone picks up the signal from the speaker, which is then amplified
and fed back into the speaker, which is again picked up by the microphone, and so on, producing a loud
high-pitched noise. This is called positive feedback. Negative feedback is also possible; for example, a
‘governor’ or control device is used in engines, where excess speed is used to reduce the input to keep the
speed constant.
The climate has examples of both positive and negative feedback, seen in table 2.3.
TABLE 2.3 Positive and negative feedback in the climate
Positive feedback Negative feedback
Evaporation: Increasing sea temperatures leads to Thermal radiation: Increasing surface temperature
more evaporation of water, a greenhouse gas, which emits more infra-red radiation, which cools the Earth.
increases the temperature of the air and sea.
The risk of positive feedback is that there is a TABLE 2.4 Albedo of different materials
‘tipping point’ beyond which the system can become
unstoppable, as in the loudspeaker example above. Material Albedo
Another example of positive feedback in the Water 0.08
Earth’s climate is the physical quantity ‘albedo’.
Albedo is a measure of the proportion of incoming Sea ice 0.5–0.7
radiation that is reflected without being absorbed. It is Fresh snow 0.8–0.9
usually expressed as a number between 0 and 1, with
1 being a perfect reflector and 0 a perfect absorber. Clouds 0.4–0.8
The significance of albedo for the climate is the Forest 0.1
role it plays in determining the amount of sea ice in
the Arctic. Sea ice is very reflective but the water Desert 0.3
it is floating in is not. Increased air temperature Green grass 0.25
leads to more sea ice melting, which means that
more of the incoming radiation hits water rather than ice and is absorbed. This increased energy absorption
then heats up the atmosphere, which leads to more sea ice melting, and so the feedback loop continues.

FIGURE 2.17 The extent of Arctic sea ice in September each year. The solid line shows the average of climate
model predictions, the shaded area is the spread of the predictions from the different models.
Arctic
September sea ice extent: observations and model runs
10.0
Average of climate models
8.0
Sea ice extent (106 Km2)
6.0
Observations
4.0
2.0
0.0
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Year
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 2.1 Examining the sun’s spectrum (doc-31859)
Investigation 2.2 The colour of temperature (doc-31860)
Teacher-led video Investigation 2.2 The colour of temperature (tlvd-0806)
Video eLesson Albedo (eles-2515)
2.3 EXERCISE
1. Why doesn’t all of the radiation from the Sun that enters the Earth’s atmosphere reach the surface?
2. Why is the enhanced greenhouse effect a threat to life on Earth?
3. Is the majority of the heating of the Earth’s atmosphere due to the transfer of radiant energy from the Sun or
from the Earth’s surface?
4. Identify the properties of water that cause the variation in climate over the Earth’s surface.
5. The following figure shows the radiance of the Sun (orange, left-hand scale) and the Earth (red, right-hand
scale) and the absorption spectra for water vapour (H2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
Visible
UV Infra-red
0.4 0.7

(a) Determine the range of wavelengths emitted by the Earth that are absorbed by:
i. carbon dioxide
ii. water vapour.
(b) Which wavelengths emitted by the Earth are absorbed by carbon dioxide and not by water vapour?
8
2000
6
Radiance
Radiance
4
1000
6000 K 255 K
(Left-hand scale) (Right-hand scale)
2
0
100
Water vapour
Absorption (%)
80
60
40
20
0
100
Carbon dioxide
Absorption (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100
Wavelength ( μm)
6. (a) Which carbon dioxide molecule would move faster in the atmosphere: a lighter one with a carbon-12
atom or a heavier one with a carbon-13 atom?
(b) Which molecule do you think is more likely to dissolve in the ocean? Give a reason.
7. Using figure 2.16 in section 2.3.3, calculate the total incoming energy and total outgoing energy for the
atmosphere and show that each equals 519 W m–2 .
8. (a) Estimate the albedo of:
i. the asphalt road surface
ii. crops
iii. the roof of your house.
(b) Indicate whether each of the following is an example of positive or negative feedback. Explain your
reasons.
i. The release of methane from melting permafrost
ii. Effect of clouds


2.4 Climate models
KEY CONCEPT
• Analyse the evidence for the influence of human activity in creating an enhanced greenhouse effect,
including affecting surface materials and the balance of gases in the atmosphere.
2.4.1 Scientific principles that underlie climate

The scientific principles that underlie climate have been understood since the nineteenth century. They
include:
• Newton’s laws of motion that explain the movement of gases and liquids, such as the existence of
high- and low-pressure regions, the formation of cyclones, the flow of ocean currents
• thermodynamics principles that explain heat transfer within the atmosphere, and between the
atmosphere, the oceans and the land
• gas laws and solubility in liquids from chemistry that explain the behaviour of gases within the
atmosphere and their interactions with the oceans.
These principles are known precisely with mathematical relationships, some of which you will come
across in the VCE Physics and VCE Chemistry courses. The development of the computer meant these
principles and their mathematical relationships could be applied to the biggest problem on Earth, the Earth
itself.
A climate model is an attempt to apply these relationships to the atmosphere of the whole Earth as well
as the surface features of land, ice and sea. The model attempts to calculate aspects of the climate that
are important to humans, such as rainfall and humidity, sea level rise, ocean acidity, wind strength and, of
course, air temperature.
Climate models are also able to calculate future trends in these aspects of climate and then investigate the
effect on these trends of changes such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions or aerosol use.
2.4.2 How to know if a climate model is accurate?

A climate model starts as hundreds of mathematical equations that describe all the physical and chemical
interactions within the atmosphere, and between the atmosphere, the land, sea and ice. These equations are
applied to a model of the Earth’s atmosphere as it was at an earlier time, say 1900, to calculate the expected
climate conditions for the next 100 years. These calculations are then compared with the actual climate
conditions to see how close the climate model comes to reality.
If the model is out, then it is back to the drawing board to redesign the model. If the model is accurate,
it can be used to calculate the future climate. Different countries and scientific organisations each produce
their own climate models. The basic scientific principles are the same, but the models vary in their subtlety
and complexity, and the available computing power.
The solid black line in each graph in figure 2.18 is the global average surface air temperature from 1900
until 2000. The models were run twice.
1. The first run assumed the carbon dioxide concentration stayed constant at its value in 1900. This
produced the blue graph in figure 2.18a. The solid blue line is the average of all the different models.
2. The second run included the actual carbon dioxide concentration over the century. This produced the
yellow graph in figure 2.18b. The solid red line is the average of all the different models.
The red line in figure 2.18b is a close fit to the actual observed temperature change. It is apparent from
comparing the two graphs that increased carbon dioxide concentration has led to an increase in the global
temperature.

FIGURE 2.18 Model comparisons against actual temperature from 1900 to 2000
(a) (b)
Natural changes only Natural changes and greenhouse gas emissions
1.0 1.0
Temperature difference from 1900 (°C)
Temperature difference from 1900 (°C)

Observations Observations
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
Models Models
−0.5 −0.5
Pinatubo Pinatubo
Santa Maria Agung El Chichon Santa Maria Agung El Chichon
−1.0 −1.0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year Year
Source: IPCC
The close match of figure 2.18b with the observations validates the design of the climate models and
gives credence to the predictions for the decades and centuries ahead. The models can also be used to
investigate how long the Earth’s atmosphere would take to respond to a significant reduction in carbon
dioxide emissions.
With this information, governments can act together to bring about change. The models not only produce
a global average but also specific information for each region of the Earth, so local responses to climate
change can be planned.
Climate models can be used to investigate the long-term effects of international agreements on
controlling greenhouse emissions on surface air temperature, sea level rise and rainfall.
2.4.3 Investigating a simple climate model

The energy budget shown in table 2.2, in section 2.3.3, has been converted into a rudimentary spreadsheet
model of the climate, which you can use to investigate the effect of future scenarios such as:
• a decrease in sea ice, leading to a reduction in the amount of radiation reflected straight back
into space
• increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, leading to a smaller proportion of infra-red
radiation from the atmosphere being emitted into space and more being emitted back to Earth.
Resources
Digital document A simple climate change model (doc-16168)
2.4 EXERCISE
Use figure 2.18 in section 2.4.2 to answer questions 1–5.
1. Pinatubo, El Chichon, Agung and Santa Maria are all volcanic eruptions.
(a) What was the effect of the eruptions on the average global surface air temperature?
(b) Suggest a mechanism for this effect.

2. There are some stretches of a number of years where the models and the actual temperature data differ
significantly.
(a) Identify those stretches of years.
(b) Thinking of the history of each of those years, is there a possibility that the collection of temperature data
to obtain a global average may have been unreliable?
3. Looking at the two graphs, when do you think the increased carbon dioxide concentrations started to affect
the global average surface air temperature?
4. The Earth’s surface is made up of solid rock, liquid oceans and a gaseous atmosphere.
(a) Which do you think would be better to use to measure the temperature of the Earth’s surface?
(b) Why do you think the air temperature is used?
5. Although the IPCC graphs show that long-term global warming is occurring, the temperature increase is not
steady. What factors make the increase so erratic?

2.5 Investigating issues related to thermodynamics

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply thermodynamic principles to investigate at least one issue related to the environmental impacts of
human activity with reference to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
• Explain how concepts of reliability, validity and uncertainty relate to the collection, interpretation and
communication of data related to thermodynamics and climate science.
2.5.1 Issues related to thermodynamics

You have studied many aspects of thermodynamics in this
FIGURE 2.19 Applying thermodynamic
and the previous topic that affect our lives in many ways, principles is vital when designing a house.
including:
• storing food
• designing our homes, as well as heating and
cooling them
• keeping our bodies at an even temperature
• selecting energy sources for our economy
• most importantly, understanding and addressing
climate change.
• It is therefore appropriate that you explore an issue
in some depth, to identify the thermodynamic
principles in use and to evaluate relevant public
policy and social commentary for their scientific
accuracy.

ISSUES RELATED TO THERMODYNAMICS
Some possible topics for you to research are listed here.
• Compare domestic heating and cooling technologies. Are the
brochures and advertising physically plausible?
• Investigate the design of energy efficient houses. How do building
materials differ? Are star ratings reliable? Should design features such
as double glazing and orientation in relation to the Sun be
mandatory?
• Compare appliances by their technology, efficiency and emissions.
Are the energy ratings useful?
• Research solar thermal technology. Is generating electricity by solar
thermal technology a feasible alternative for Australia?
• Investigate geo-engineering solutions to tackle climate change. Are any
of them feasible?
• Examine the treatments for hypothermia (body core temperature < 35 °C)
and hyperthermia (body core temperature > 38 °C). How have they
changed over time and how do they work?
• Compare different technologies for food preparation, for example, microwave oven versus convection oven,
as well as different fuel options.
These broad topics may need to be narrowed down to focus on a specific aspect if the task is to be
manageable.
2.5.2 Evaluating resources

When collecting information from the internet or elsewhere, it is important to determine how reliable and
accurate the information is. Each item should be evaluated to see how useful it will be.
Some aspects worth considering are as follows.
Reliability
• Relevance. Is the information central to your purpose?
• Up to date. When was the information produced? Has it been superseded by new information?
• Expertise. Is the information produced by someone with appropriate qualifications? Do they know
what they are talking about?
• Source. Where did the author obtain their information?
• Audience. Who is the intended audience and is the resource suited to your purpose?
• Bias. Is there evidence of overstatement, selective quoting or other tricks designed to mislead?

Validity
• Accuracy. Are physics concepts correctly used?
• Argument. Is the argument logically sound and strong? Are deceptive strategies used, for example,
oversimplification or false selections?
• Analysis. Are physics relationships applied correctly?
Uncertainty
• Graphs. Are the graphs misleading?
• Data. Do the data lack precision? Are only selected data used?
2.5 EXERCISE
1. Apply thermodynamic principles to investigate at least one issue related to the environmental impacts of
human activity with reference to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

2.6 Review
2.6.1 Summary
• The graph of the energy contribution of different wavelengths of emitted radiation has a characteristic
shape.
• For a given temperature, there is a specific wavelength at which the most energy is emitted. Its symbol
is 𝜆max .
• The graph of the energy contribution of different wavelengths for a higher temperature has a lower
𝜆max and a larger area under the graph.
• 𝜆max is inversely proportional to the temperature measured in kelvin (𝜆max T = constant).
• The amount of energy emitted per second is called power.
• The area under the graph of energy contribution against wavelength is a measure of power.
• The area under the graph is proportional to the kelvin temperature raised to the power of 4. This can be
expressed as P ∝ T 4 .
• The Earth on average, over the day and across the globe, receives about 342 joules of energy every
second in each square metre.
• About 100 J of the energy the Earth receives is reflected back into space by ice, snow and clouds.
• Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the surface temperature of the Earth would be –18 °C.
• Most of the radiation emitted by the Earth is infrared radiation.
• The main greenhouse gases are water vapour (H2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ), with methane (CH4 )
making a small contribution along with other molecules with more than two atoms.
• The relative flexibility of the greenhouse gas molecules allows them to absorb the infrared radiation
emitted by the Earth’s surface. After absorbing the infrared radiation, the greenhouse gases re-emit it
in all directions; some upwards out into space, but most back down to the Earth to heat the surface.
• Some of the wavelengths absorbed by the greenhouse gases are common to each, but each particular
gas absorbs some wavelengths that are unique to that gas.

• The energy that comes to the Earth from the Sun is balanced by the energy the Earth radiates back
•
into space.
The energy from the Sun is absorbed by the atmosphere, the land surface and the oceans. Some of this
energy returns to the Earth’s surface after being emitted by the greenhouse gases and increases the
•
surface temperature.
Feedback mechanisms are processes in complex systems where the output from the system can affect
an input to the system. The feedback can be either positive or negative. Both types occur in the Earth’s
•
atmosphere.
The albedo of a surface is the proportion of incoming radiation that is reflected with no change in
•
wavelength.
Climate models are based on the scientific principles of motion, thermodynamics and the chemistry of
•
gases and liquids.
•
Climate model calculations are very consistent with the historical record.
Climate model calculations show that the increase in global average surface air temperature in recent
decades is explained by the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.
Resources
2.6.2 Key terms
Absorption bands are the range of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum that are absorbed by
atmospheric gases.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of an object taken in the scale using absolute zero.
Albedo is the proportion of solar radiation reflected by a surface.
A black body is an object that absorbs all radiation that falls on it.
Blackbody radiation is the characteristic radiation emitted by a black body when heated.
Eccentricity is a measure of how elliptical an object’s orbit is.
Enhanced greenhouse effect is the greenhouse effect due to human civilization which is greater than that
caused by natural forces alone.
Feedback is when a system’s input is fed by its previous output.
Isotopes are atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Luminosity is the amount of radiated electromagnetic energy emitted by a light-emitting or luminous object.
Negative feedback occurs when the response to the feedback is in the opposite direction to the input.
Obliquity is a measure of the angle tilt of a planet against its plane of orbit.
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction that takes place in the chloroplasts of a plant cell consuming carbon
dioxide and releasing oxygen.
Positive feedback occurs when the response to the feedback is in the same direction to the input.
Precession is a change in direction of the rotational axis of a spinning object.
Radioactive decay is the process in which unstable isotopes spontaneous decomposes into a stable daughter
isotope through the emission of radiation.
Resources

Investigation 2.1
Examining the sun’s spectrum
Aim: To show the different parts of the Sun’s visible spectrum and to compare this to the other sections of the
electromagnetic spectrum the Sun emits
Investigation 2.2
The colour of temperature
Aim: To show that different colours have different thermal effects and to
consider the implications of this for our planet
Resources
2.6 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question

( )
P1
1. What would be the ratio of power for two stars of the same diameter if star 1 had half the
surface temperature of star 2? P2
1
A.
2
1
B.
4
1
C.
8
1
D.
16
2. In relation to figure 2.4, which statement is true?
A. The star at 3000 K would appear ‘bluer’ than the star at 6000 K because its peak is closer to the blue
end of the visible spectrum.
B. The star at 6000 K would appear ‘bluer’ than the star at 3000 K because its peak is closer to the blue
C. The star at 6000 K would appear ‘redder’ than the star at 3000 K because its peak is closer to the red
D. Star colour cannot be determined by temperature.

3. Which of the following is not a feature that influences climate change on Earth?
A. The seasons
B. The properties of water
C. The tilt of Earth’s axis
D. The geological features (land mass and oceans)
4. What is the major cause of the greenhouse effect?
A. Gases in the ozone layer absorb heat from the Earth’s surface.
B. Gases in the ozone layer absorb heat from the Sun.
C. Gases in the atmosphere absorb heat from the Earth’s surface.
D. Gases in the atmosphere absorb heat from the Sun.
5. The enhanced greenhouse effect is best described as which of the following?
A. The change to the natural greenhouse effect brought about by variations in solar radiation
B. The change to the natural greenhouse effect brought about by changing levels of gases in the
atmosphere due to human activities
C. The change to the natural greenhouse effect brought about by changing levels of gases in the
atmosphere due to variation in the plant growth
D. The change to the natural greenhouse effect brought about by changes in the Earth’s orbit and
inclination
6. Which of the following statements is true?
A. All bodies with temperatures higher than absolute zero emit radiation.
B. The higher the temperature of the object, the higher the frequency of electromagnetic radiation
it emits.
C. The atmosphere and the surface of the Earth show a temperature range between 200 K and 300 K.
D. All of the above
7. What would happen if the Earth did not emit infrared radiation?
A. It would have no effect on the Earth’s climate.
B. The Earth would be slightly warmer.
C. The Earth would be too hot to support life.
D. The Earth would emit visible light instead.
8. On a warm sunny day, the Sun’s radiation melts very little snow on the slopes of an alpine ski resort.
Why?
A. Snow, being a solid, is not affected by radiant heat.
B. The snow particles are unable to transfer the translational kinetic energy and so cannot warm up.
C. Snow is a type of water and due to its high latent heat capacity does not melt easily.
D. The white snow reflects up to 90% of the radiant energy of the Sun.
9. Electromagnetic (EM) radiation from the Sun is primarily in the visible light range on the EM
spectrum. EM radiation from the Earth is primarily in which portion of the EM spectrum?
A. Infrared
B. Visible
C. Microwave
D. Ultraviolet
10. Molecules such as water (H2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) absorb infrared radiation much better than
oxygen (O2 ) or nitrogen (O2 ) molecules. Why is this?
A. They are more flexible.
B. They are less flexible.
C. They are cooler.
D. They are hotter.

1. a. The Sun gives out energy at a rate of 4.0 × 1026 W and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. Antares,
a similar sized star to the Sun, has a surface temperature of 3700 K. At what rate does Antares release
energy?
b. What colour would you expect Antares to be in comparison to our sun?
2. Soil temperature over a small area is found to be 40.0 °C during the day and is measured to lose energy
at a rate of 479 W. At night the rate of energy loss is 330 W. What temperature is the soil at night?
3. a. A violet star has a spectrum with a peak intensity at a wavelength of 4.00 × 10−7 m. Determine the
temperature at the surface of this star.
b. A red star has a spectrum with a peak intensity at a wavelength of 7.00 × 10−7 m. Determine the
temperature at the surface of this star.
4. Two stars have identical diameters. One has a temperature of 5800 K; the other has a temperature of
2900 K. What are the colours of these stars? Which is brighter and by how much?
5. Why does water take much longer to increase in temperature due to exposure to sunlight than the same
mass of soil in an identical container?
6. Use the Earth’s energy budget illustrated in figure 2.16 to show that the total amount of energy entering
the atmosphere is equal to the total amount of energy leaving it.
7. It has been falsely argued that since the bulk of the greenhouse effect is caused by water, the other
greenhouse gases are insignificant. Use the absorption spectra of CO2 to show that this is not the case.
8. What are the similarities and differences between the energy from the Sun that is absorbed by the Earth
and the energy the Earth radiates into space?
9. Estimate the quantity of radiant energy that would fall on your body (with an approximate height of
1.5 m and a width of 0.50 m) if you were to lie in the afternoon sun on the beach for 30 minutes. Assume
that each square metre is receiving radiant energy at the rate of 1200 W. Explain any additional
assumptions that you have made in making your estimate.

The following graph shows how 𝜆max (the wavelength of the peak of the radiation spectrum) for a range of
stars varies with their surface temperatures.
0.6
0.4
λmax (μm)
0.2
0
0 5000 10 000 15 000 20 000
Temperature (K)
a. Use values from the graph to confirm Wien’s law. 3 marks

b. Estimate the surface temperature of a star whose intensity peaks at a wavelength of:
i. 0.4 𝜇m 1 mark
ii. 0.27 𝜇m. 1 mark

c. Estimate the peak wavelength for a star with a surface temperature of:
i. 15 000 K 1 mark
ii. 5550 K. 1 mark
The specific heat capacity of water is over 4 times that of sand.
a. What effect does this have on the heating and cooling of water and sand? 1 mark
b. Explain why, on a hot day, sand is too hot to stand on in bare feet while the water in the sea can be too
cold for some people. 2 marks
c. Why is the temperature of the sand of an inland desert almost always greater than that of the sand on a
beach at the same latitude? 2 marks
When the Sun is directly overhead, each square metre of the Earth’s surface receives 1368 J of radiant
energy each second. On a typical winter’s weekday, Victoria consumes about 4500 MW of electrical energy.
What area of solar collectors (of 15% efficiency) would be needed to provide energy at the same rate
while the Sun is directly overhead?
In the tropical regions of the Earth, more radiant energy is received from space than is lost. At the poles,
more radiant energy is lost than is received. This would suggest that average temperatures in the tropics
should be continually increasing while the average temperatures at the poles should be continually
decreasing.
Explain why this doesn’t happen.
The following table compares the specific heat capacities as well as reflection and absorption properties of
water and dry sand. The density of water is 1000 kg m−3 while the density of dry sand is 2400 kg m−3 .
Property Water Dry sand

−1 −1
Specific heat capacity (J kg K ) 4200 820
Reflectivity (%) 3 15
Depth to which 50% of the radiant energy is absorbed 11 m 1 mm
When the Sun is directly overhead, each square metre of the Earth’s surface receives radiant energy at
the rate of 1368 W. Assuming all of the energy that is not reflected is absorbed, what average temperature
increase would be expected during a period of 1 hour in:
a. water to a depth of 11 m 3 marks
b. sand to a depth of 1 mm? 3 marks

Test maker
Access the assignments section in learnON to begin creating and assigning assessments to students.

UNIT 1 | AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW
AREA OF STUDY 1
How can thermal effects be explained?
OUTCOME 1
Apply thermodynamic principles to analyse, interpret and explain changes in thermal energy in selected contexts and
describe the environmental impact of human activities with reference to thermal effects and climate science concepts.
PRACTICE EXAMINATION
STRUCTURE OF PRACTICE EXAMINATION
Section Number of questions Number of marks
A 20 20
B 6 20
Total 40
Duration: 50 minutes
•
Information:
•
This practice examination consists of two parts. You must answer all question sections.
•
Pens, pencils, highlighters, erasers, rulers and a scientific calculator are permitted.
You may use the VCAA Physics formula sheet for this task.
Resources
Weblink VCAA Physics formula sheet
Additional practice examination information
4.2 × 103 J kg–1 K–1

0.92 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
Specific heat capacities Water
Aluminium
Specific latent heat of fusion Water 3.3 × 105 J kg–1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation Water 2.3 × 106 J kg–1
SECTION A — Multiple choice questions

All correct answers are worth 1 mark each; an incorrect answer is worth 0.
1. The average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules are given by which of the following?
A. Their temperature
B. The heat input into them
C. Their work output
D. The heat output from them

2. The freezing point of water could be represented by which of the following?
A. 0 K
B. 0 °F
C. 273.15 °C
D. 273.15 K
3. A system consisting of a rubber balloon and the air inside has experienced an increase in its internal energy.
Which of the following could be assumed?
A. Heat input into the system is less than the work done by the system.
B. Heat output from the system is greater than the work done on the system.
C. Heat input into the system is greater than the work done by the system.
D. Heat output from the system is greater than the work done by the system.
4. Two bodies, X and Y, are in thermal equilibrium with each other. One of the bodies, X, is brought into contact
with a third body, Z, and they are found to also be in thermal equilibrium. Which of the following statements
is correct?
A. X and Z must have the same mass as they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
B. Y and Z must have the same specific heat capacity because they would be in thermal equilibrium.
C. Y and Z would have the same temperature because they would be in thermal equilibrium.
D. There is insufficient information about specific heat capacities to make any correct conclusion.
5. Which of the following is correct when comparing particles in a gas with those in a liquid?
A. They are closer together and more energetic in a gas.
B. They are further apart and less energetic in a gas.
C. They are closer together and less energetic in a liquid.
D. They are further apart and more energetic in a liquid.
6. Water and aluminium, each with a mass of 1 kilogram, are placed in their own insulated containers. Initially,
they are both at the same temperature and are each heated by 1 kJ. Assuming the heat is evenly distributed
across each mass, which of the following statement is correct about their final temperatures?
A. The final temperatures of both water and aluminium are the same.
B. The final temperature of the water is lower than that of the aluminium.
C. The final temperature of the water is higher than that of the aluminium.
D. There is insufficient information to conclude about their final aluminium.
7. The latent heat of fusion, denoted by the symbol L, is the amount of energy required to transform the state of
1 kilogram of substance from solid to liquid, and vice versa. Which of the following could be used as a
unit for L?
A. J–1 kg
B. J kg
C. J m–3
D. J kg–1
8. Meena would like to raise the temperature of a 2.2 kilogram bar of aluminium from 22 °C to 44 °C. What is the
amount of energy, in kJ, required to achieve this (assuming 100% efficiency)?
A. 4.45 kJ
B. 8.90 kJ
C. 44.5 kJ
D. 89.0 kJ
9. An electric kettle supplies 67 kJ of thermal energy to 750 mL of water at an initial temperature of 18 °C.
Determine the final temperature of the water assuming that all the thermal energy is transferred into the water.
A. 21.3 °C
B. 34 °C
C. 37.3 °C
D. 39.3 °C
UNIT 1 Area of Study 1 Review 65

10. How much energy, in MJ, is liberated when 1.3 kilograms of steam condenses into water at 100 °C?
A. 0.43 MJ
B. 2.3 MJ
C. 3 MJ
D. 4.3 MJ
11. At the Mawson Antarctic Research station, an electric heater supplies 37 GJ of energy to melt ice to produce
water for consumption by the scientists there. How much water, in kg, at 0 °C would be produced by this
A. 1.12 × 104 kg
amount of energy?
B. 1.12 × 105 kg
C. 1.12 × 106 kg
D. 1.12 × 107 kg
12. An electric hotplate with a temperature of 750 K emits 1200 W of thermal energy. What is the expected power
emitted if the filament temperature is doubled to 1500 K?
A. 12 000 W
B. 19 200 W
C. 24 000 W
D. 29 200 W
13. Thermite is a reaction between aluminium powder and iron oxide, which generates temperatures of about
A. 1.32 × 10−5 m
2200 °C. What is the wavelength of the radiation emitted by thermite?
B. 1.17 × 10−5 m
C. 1.32 × 10−6 m
D. 1.17 × 10−6 m
14. A pyrometer is a device that senses temperature from the radiation emitted from a surface. One such device
detected a peak radiation of 6.5 μm from an object. What is the surface temperature of the object?
A. 173 °C
B. 273 °C
C. 346 °C
D. 446 °C
15. Which grid energy supply does not contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect?
A. Coal powered electric generator
B. Natural gas powered electric generator
C. Nuclear powered electric generator
D. Diesel powered electric generator
16. Which group of atmospheric gases contain only greenhouse gases?
A. Carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, argon
B. Oxygen, nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide
C. Nitrous oxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon
D. Methane, water vapour, carbon dioxide, neon
17. Albedo, which refers to the reflection of solar radiation, plays an important role in the Earth’s climatic system.
Which of the following has the lowest albedo?
A. Clouds
B. Sea surface
C. Polar ice caps
D. Snow-capped mountains

18. Which of the following is an example of a positive feedback mechanism that enhances the effect of global
warming on climate change?
A. Rising ocean temperatures increase evaporation, which condenses into clouds to reflect the incoming
solar radiation.
B. Rising ocean temperatures increase evaporation, which increases the amount of water vapour, a
greenhouse gas.
C. Rising ocean temperatures disrupts the natural flow of ocean currents to transfer heat from the tropical
regions to the polar regions, resulting in a new ice age.
D. Rising ocean temperatures increase evaporation, which creates a humid greenhouse-like condition, which
absorbs even more solar radiation.
19. What is the mechanism for heat transfer in convection?
A. Vibrational transfer of kinetic energy
B. Emission of electromagnetic radiation
C. More energetic particles colliding with less energetic particles
D. Movement of fluid due to differences in buoyancy
20. Greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) absorb infrared radiation emitted from
the surface of the Earth, unlike gases such as oxygen (O2 ) or nitrogen (N2 ). What is this absorption of infrared
radiation due to?
A. These compounds contain a carbon atom, hence the term ‘carbon pollution’.
B. Molecules with three or more atoms bend and stretch, and can better absorb infrared radiation.
C. There is a higher number of atoms in those molecules.
D. Compounds absorb infra-red radiation better than pure elements such as oxygen or nitrogen.
SECTION B — Short answer questions

A small piece of beef and a small piece of chicken are placed in an oven, each with a meat thermometer stuck into
it to measure the temperature at its centre. After 30 minutes in the oven the thermometer in the chicken indicated
the temperature to be 100 °C. After a further 30 minutes, the thermometer on the beef indicated the temperature at
its centre to also be 100 °C. They remained in the oven to cook for a further 60 minutes. During this period, the
thermometers steadily indicated 100 °C.
a. The piece of beef and the piece of chicken could be said to be at thermal equilibrium after this time. By
referring to the kinetic theory of matter, explain what is meant by ‘thermal equilibrium’. 2 marks
b. Discuss why it may be possible to estimate the temperature of the air in the oven near these two masses of
meat, even if the oven does not have a thermometer. Hence, give an estimate of the temperature of the air in
the oven near these two masses of meat. 3 marks
Sue and Mel are preparing for a science fair at their school. They inflated a giant rubber balloon with air and
attached it to a window where it was exposed to sunlight. After an hour, Sue noticed that the balloon was bigger.
She said to Mel, ‘The internal energy of the air in the balloon is lower than when we attached it to a window. This is
because the air inside has done work to expand the balloon’.
a. Mel disagreed with Sue. What explanation might Mel give to show that Sue is incorrect? 2 marks
b. What would be necessary for the internal energy of the air in the balloon to remain the same? 1 mark
Anton is carrying out an experiment to determine the quantity of aluminium rivets with an initial temperature of
23 °C required to cool 250 grams of boiling water at 100 °C inside an insulated container. Assuming the experiment
was carried out with negligible heat loss, both the aluminium rivets and the water will reach thermal equilibrium
at 90 °C.

a. Calculate the magnitude of heat lost by the water to the aluminium as it cools from 100 °C to the equilibrium
temperature of 90 °C. 2 marks
b. The amount of heat lost by the water is the heat gained by the aluminium. Determine the mass of aluminium
rivets as it warmed up from the initial temperature of 23 °C to the equilibrium temperature of 90 °C. 2 marks
Kym and Shan are observing light emitted from different light-emitting diodes (LED). One of the LED emitted light
at twice the electromagnetic radiation frequency of another LED. Kym said ‘According to Wien’s Law, if the
electromagnetic radiation frequency of one LED is twice that of the other, it would also be at twice the absolute
temperature of the other’.
Shan disagrees. What explanation might Shan offer to show that Kym is incorrect. 2 marks
Habib’s electric barbeque radiates 2250 W of energy when the heating element is at a temperature of 850 °C. What
is the expected power output when the heating element is at a temperature of 900 °C? 2 marks
The following diagram shows a part of the Earth’s energy budget, which is balanced. All numerical values are
in W m–2 .
Thermal radiation
Sun into space
Directly radiated
from Earth’s surface
D C
235
Solar Non-greenhouse
radiation gas absorption
Energy
absorbed
in the 102
by Earth
atmosphere
67
Greenhouse
gas absorption
350
492
A B
Earth’s land and ocean surface
a. Considering the total incoming solar radiation and the amount absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere, how much
is absorbed by the Earth’s land and ocean surface (box A)? 1 mark
b. Considering that the energy budget is balanced, how much energy is re-radiated downward back to the Earth’s
land and ocean surface from the atmosphere (box B)? 1 mark
c. How much outgoing radiation from the Earth’s land and ocean surface is directly radiated into outer space
(box C)? 1 mark
d. How much thermal radiation from the Earth’s atmosphere goes into outer space (box D)? 1 mark

PRACTICE SCHOOL-ASSESSED COURSEWORK
ASSESSMENT TASK — A REPORT ON A SELECTED SCIENTIFIC PHENOMENON

In this task, you will be required to report on the phenomenon
of the greenhouse effect, linking this to thermodynamic
principles.
• This practice SAC requires you to write a report; a structure
set of questions is supplied to assist you to write your report.
• You may use the VCAA Physics formula sheet and a scientific
calculator for this task.
• You may conduct research before commencing your write-up
to assist you in this task.
Total time: 50 minutes (5 minutes reading, 45 minutes writing)
Total marks: 30 marks
A WORLDWIDE CRISIS — THE IMPACT OF THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Humans have a dramatic impact on the environment and unfortunately it is often a detrimental one. From
deforestation to pollution, the environment is being continually affected, creating huge scientific and ecological
problems.
Since the Industrial Revolution, human impact on increasing greenhouse gases has been particularly evident,
and has lead to global warming and damage to ecosystems around the world. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef
has been significantly affected by coral bleaching caused by this global warming.
Write a report with reference to the following concepts. You should use subheadings to clearly frame your
response.
1. Identify and describe the types of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun.
2. Explain the roles of conduction, convection and radiation in moving heat around in Earth’s mantle and
surface and the Earth’s atmosphere. Identify which of these is most important in contributing to the
greenhouse effect.
3. Provide background information on the greenhouse effect, with a clear link to global warming using
thermodynamic principles.
4. Explain how greenhouse gases absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, and describe why different greenhouse
gases are involved.
5. Clearly describe the evidence of the effect of human activity in creating an enhanced greenhouse effect.
6. Describe how you would collect evidence on the enhanced greenhouse effect, explaining how you can
ensure reliability and validity while minimising uncertainty.
7. Apply thermodynamic principles to investigate one of the following issues (using evidence and data) related
to the impacts of human activity on the enhanced greenhouse effect. In your response, you need to show a
clear link to theory and describe how it may have an impact on the greenhouse effect. You should also
suggest solutions that can help minimise the enhanced greenhouse effect for your given issue.
• Proportion of national energy use due to heating and cooling of homes
• Comparison of the operation and efficiencies of domestic heating and cooling systems: heat
pumps, resistive heaters, reverse-cycle air conditioners, evaporative coolers, solar hot water
systems and/or electrical resistive hot water systems
• Possibility of homes being built that do not require any active heating or cooling at all
• Use of thermal imaging and infra-red thermography in locating heating losses in buildings and/or
system malfunctions; cost savings implications
• Determination of the energy ratings of home appliances and fittings: insulation, double glazing,
window size, light bulbs, and/or electrical gadgets, appliances or machines
• Cooking alternatives: appliance options (microwave, convection, induction), fuel options (gas,
electricity, solar, fossil fuel)
• Automobile efficiencies: fuel options (diesel petrol, LPG and electric), air delivery options (naturally
aspirated, supercharged and turbocharged) and fuel delivery options (common rail, direct injection
and fuel injection)
Resources
Digital document School-assessed coursework (doc-32273)

AREA OF STUDY 2
HOW DO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS WORK?
3 Concepts used to
model electricity
3.1 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
What would your world be like without
FIGURE 3.1 Electricity is an integral part of modern life. Consider
electricity? Would your mobile phone how the processes of transfer and transformation of energy occur
work or would you be able find your in electric circuits.
way around your house on a dark
night? The transfer of electrical energy
into other forms of energy helps us
in many ways. The electricity that is
transferred to heat in order to warm us
on cold nights or the electricity that is
transferred to move an electric bicycle is
current electricity that has been created
by the movement of electric charge.
Not all electric charge moves or
flows. Static electricity can be created
by the removal of electrons from
a material. The discharge of static
electricity, as occurs during a lightning
storm, can be dramatic and sometimes
dangerous.
In an electric circuit, electric charges move in an organised way. A battery or other energy source
separate electric charge and cause a current to flow. In a simple circuit connected to a battery, the overall
movement of the electric charges is in one direction. Electric charges move in some materials better than
others, particularly in metals that are used as conductors.
You should already be able to recognise and connect simple circuits such as those containing batteries
and globes. At the end of this topic you should be able to describe the concepts of electric charge and the
effects of current and voltage in the transformation of electrical energy into other forms of energy.

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• apply concepts of charge (Q), electric current (I), potential difference (V), energy (E) and power (P), in
electric circuits
• explore different analogies used to describe electric current and potential difference
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically electric circuits using the relationships:
Q E E
I= , V= , P= = VI
t Q t
• justify the use of selected meters (ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter) in circuits
• model resistance in series and parallel circuits using
– current versus potential difference (I–V) graphs
– resistance as the potential difference to current ratio, including R = constant for ohmic devices.

Resources
3.2 Electric circuits

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply concepts of charge (Q), electric current (I), potential difference (V), energy (E) and power (P), in
electric circuits.
• Explore different analogies used to describe electric current and potential difference.
3.2.1 Fundamentals of electricity

Electric charge (in terms of the basic structure of matter)
Electric charge is a basic property of matter. Matter is all the substance that surrounds us — solid, liquid
and gas.
You have probably experienced that small electric shock that happens when you touch a metal rail after
walking across carpet. This type of phenomenon has been observed for thousands of years. Objects such
as glass, gemstones, tree resin and amber can become ‘electrified’ by friction when they are rubbed with
materials such as animal fur and fabrics to produce a spark. Indeed, the words ‘electric’ and ‘electricity’
are derived from the Greek word for amber, electron.

Experiments in the early 1700s showed that:
• both the object and the material became ‘electrified’ or ‘charged’
• when charged objects were brought near each other, for some objects there was a force of attraction,
while for others it was a force of repulsion.
FIGURE 3.2 (a) Two positively charged objects repel each other. (b) Oppositely charged objects attract each other.
(a) (b)
It was quickly observed that like-charged objects repelled each other while unlike-charged objects
attracted each other. Charged objects exert a force on each other. The force between two stationary charged
objects is called an electrostatic force.
The direction of the electrostatic forces between electric charges act such that:
• two positive charges repel one another
• two negative charges repel one another
• a positive charge and a negative charge attract one another.
This is summarised as: like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
Note: Neutral objects carry an equal amount of positive and negative charge and do not attract or repel
other neutral objects.
Electrostatic forces can be observed in the production of static electricity, in which electric charges
become imbalanced. When a neutrally charged glass rod is rubbed with a neutrally charged silk cloth,
electrons are transferred from the rod to the cloth. As shown in figure 3.3, the rod therefore becomes more
positively charged (from losing electrons) and the cloth becomes more negatively charged. Therefore, they
become attracted to one another as they have unlike charges. Experiments like these demonstrate that
electric charge can be moved, while being neither created nor destroyed. Electric charge is conserved.
FIGURE 3.3 Electric charge is conserved.
Glass rod Positively charged glass rod

+ + − − + +
− −
+ − + −
+ +
− −
Silk cloth Negatively charged silk cloth

Possible explanations for these observations abounded but further experiments could not determine the
correct theory. In the mid-1700s Benjamin Franklin suggested that positively charged fluid was transferred
from the silk to the glass leaving the silk negative and the glass positive. Although a negatively charged
fluid was equally plausible, Franklin’s status as an eminent scientist ensured that the existence of a positive
fluid was accepted. All developments in electrical engineering for the next 150 years were based on this
convention. By 1897, when J.J. Thomson demonstrated that the negatively charged electron was responsible
for electricity, it was too late to change the convention and all the associated labelling of meters.
THE RESEARCH OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

Benjamin Franklin (1706–90), a US political leader, inventor and
scientist, introduced the concepts of positive and negative electricity. FIGURE 3.4 Benjamin Franklin’s
His research on lightning, including discharges obtained with a kite, kite and key electricity experiment
helped to establish its electrical nature. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin
conducted the kite and key electricity experiment during a lightning
storm (see figure 3.4). He advocated the use of lightning rods as
protective devices for buildings. Franklin was almost killed one day
when he was trying to electrocute a turkey with a condenser, a device
used to store charge. (Members of genteel society at the time thought
it was acceptable to see how big an animal they could electrocute.)
All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms in turn are made up of smaller particles called protons, neutrons
and electrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus while the electrons move in well-defined
regions called orbits or shells.
FIGURE 3.5 (a) The structure of an atom (electron shell) (b) An atom showing orbits and shells
(a) (b)
Proton
(positive)
Electron
cloud
Nucleus
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Electron
(negative)
Neutron
(neutral)
Protons and electrons possess a characteristic known as electric charge; because of their electric charge,
these particles exert electric force on each other. Protons carry a positive charge and electrons carry a
negative charge. The positive charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the negative charge on an
electron, meaning that the negative and positive charges neutralise each other. Neutrons have no electric
charge; that is, they are uncharged or neutral.

Conductors and insulators
Some materials are made up of atoms which are fixed together in such a way that all their electrons are
bound tightly to the nucleus and are not free to travel through the material. Such substances are termed
electric insulators. An insulator is a material that contains no charge carriers. If an insulator is given
an electrostatic charge at a particular area on the insulator, the charge will remain at that area. Common
examples of insulators include dry air, glass, plastics, rubber and ceramics.
A conductor is a material that contains charge carriers; that is, charged particles can move and travel
freely through the material. Examples include:
• metals — materials whose outer electrons are so loosely bound to the nucleus that they are effectively
free to move easily through the material. Usually this movement is random but when the free electrons
are forced to flow in one direction, a current can be created
• salt solutions, whose charged particles, such as ions, are free to move through the solution.
Note: Pure water is not a conductor as it does not contain any ions.
Another important group of materials are semiconductors, which allow electrons to move freely under
certain conditions. Silicon is commonly used in the construction of semiconducting photovoltaic cells.
When the Sun shines on these cells in solar panels they generate electricity.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 3.1 The Van de Graaff generator (doc-31918)
3.2.2 Electric circuits

An electric circuit is a closed loop of moving electric charge.
For a circuit to be useful, it must contain a load. A load is a device where electrical energy is converted
into other forms of energy to perform a task such as heating something, or providing light, sound or
mechanical energy from a motor. This happens in devices such as toasters, speakers, lamps and motors. A
load is anything that is doing a job.
To convert electrical energy into other forms of energy, loads resist the flow of current through them. This
transforms some or all the potential energy stored in the current.
A simple circuit can be made up of:
• a source of energy, such as a battery
• conductors, such as wires
• some kind of load, where energy is transformed from electrical energy into other forms such as heat,
sound, light and movement by devices
• a switch that stops or allows the flow of electricity in the circuit.
In figure 3.6, note:
• For the globe to light up there must be a complete
FIGURE 3.6 A simple electric circuit
conducting path between the terminals of the
battery. The switch must be closed.
• The battery is necessary for a current to flow
around the circuit. The ability of the battery to
cause a current to flow is often referred to as
its voltage.
• The battery has two terminals, marked positive
and negative.
• The light globe resists the flow of the current. As a result of this resistance, the current causes the light
globe to heat up to such an extent that it gives off light.
• The wires connecting the light globe to the battery do not heat up.

The symbols shown in figure 3.7a are used when representing electric circuits in diagrams. Therefore, the
circuit shown in figure 3.6 can be represented more simply as shown in figure 3.7b.
FIGURE 3.7 (a) Symbols for circuit components (b) Diagram of the simple electric circuit
(a) (b)
Connecting
wire
Light globe
+
–
Battery
Switch
3.2 EXERCISE
1. After a plastic pen is rubbed with a piece of wool it can be used to attract small pieces of paper. Describe
what has happened in terms of electric charge.
2. After rubbing a balloon on your clean dry hair, the balloon should try to stick to your hair when you try to
remove it. Explain why this occurs.
3. If you separately rub two balloons on your hair and then hold them near each other what will happen?
Explain why this occurs.
4. After walking across a nylon carpet in woollen socks and then touching a metal doorknob it is possible to
get an electric shock. Explain why this occurs.
5. After rubbing a balloon in her hair, Chris brought it very close to an aluminium can lying on a flat table. When
she slowly moved the balloon away from the can it started to roll and follow the balloon. Describe why this
happened.
6. Imagine you are an electron. Describe your journey around the closed circuit of a torch, beginning at the
negative terminal of a cell.
7. A doorbell connected to a battery comprises a button at the door, the bell and wires. The bell only sounds
after the button is pushed. Why doesn’t the bell always sound?


3.3 Current
KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply concepts of charge (Q), electric current (I), potential difference (V), energy (E) and power (P) in
electric circuits.
• Justify the use of selected meters (ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter) in circuits.
• Explore different analogies used to describe electric current and potential difference.
3.3.1 Defining current

Electric current is the movement of charged particles from one place to another, and is measured as the
rate of flow of charge. The charged particles may be electrons in a metal conductor or ions in a salt solution.
Charged particles that move in a conductor can also be referred to as charge carriers.
There are many examples of electric currents. Lightning strikes are examples of large currents. Nerve
impulses that control muscle movement are examples of small currents. Charge flows in household and
automotive electrical devices such as light globes and heaters. Both positive and negative charges flow
in cells, in batteries and in the ionised gases of fluorescent lights. The solar wind is an enormous flow of
protons, electrons and ions being blasted away from the Sun.
Not all moving charges constitute a current. There must be a net movement of charge in one direction for
a current to exist. In a piece of metal conductor, electrons are constantly moving in random directions. Until
there is a net movement of charge in one direction, as happens when a metal wire is connected in a closed
circuit with a power source (such as a battery) and a load (such as a light bulb), there is no current. As water
flows down a river there are millions of coulombs of charge moving with the water molecules, but there is
no electrical current in this case because equal numbers of positive and negative charge are moving in the
same direction.
For there to be a current in a circuit there must be a complete conducting pathway around the circuit and
a device to make the charged particles move. When the switch in the circuit is open, the pathway is broken
and the current stops almost immediately.
Electric current is a measure of the rate of flow of

charge around a circuit. It can be expressed as:
Q
I=
t
Where:
I is the current, in amperes
Q is the quantity of charge flowing past a point in the
circuit, in coulombs
t is the time interval, in seconds.
The unit of current is the ampere (A). It is named in honour of the French physicist André-Marie
Ampère (1775–1836). One ampere is the current in a conductor when 1 coulomb of charge passes a point
in the conductor every second.
The unit for charge is the coulomb (C), named after the French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
(1736–1806). One coulomb of charge is equal to the amount of charge carried by 6.24 × 1018 electrons. The
charge carried by a single electron is equal to −1.602 × 10−19 C.
The −1.602 × 10−19 charge possessed by an electron is the smallest free charge possible. All other
charges are whole-number multiples of this value. This so-called elementary charge is equal in magnitude
to the charge of a proton. The charge of an electron is negative, whereas the charge of a proton is positive.

SMALL CHARGES AND QUARKS
Charges smaller than that carried by the electron are understood to exist, but they are not free to move as a
current. Particles such as neutrons and protons are composed of quarks, with one-third of the charge of an
electron, but these are never found alone.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
What is the current in a conductor if 10 coulombs of charge pass a point in 5.0 seconds?
THINK WRITE
1. Current is the rate at which charge, Q flows in the Q = 10 C, t = 5.0 s
circuit. Give values for Q and t.
Q
2. Substitute values for Q and t into the formula I=
Q t
I= . 10 C
t =
5.0 s
3. Current is measured in ampere (A), where: I = 2.0 C s−1
1 A = 1 C s−1 . I = 2.0 A
4. State the solution. The current in the conductor is 2.0 A.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
What is the current passing through a conductor if 15 coulombs of charge pass a point in 3.0 seconds?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
How much charge passes through a load if a current of 3.0 A flows for 5 minutes and 20 seconds?
THINK WRITE
Q
1. To find the charge, Q, passing through the circuit I=
Q t
transpose the formula I = making Q the subject. Q = It
t
2. Give values for I and t. I = 3.0 A, t = 5 × 60 + 20 = 320 s
Note: Be sure to convert the time to seconds.
3. Substitute values for I and t into the formula. Q = It
= 3.0 A × 320 s
Q = 960 C
4. Convert to scientific notation, to 2 significant Q = 9.6 × 102 C
figures.
5. State the solution. 9.6 × 102 C charge passes through the
load.
(Note: As the solution is quite small
in magnitude, leaving the solution as
960 C instead of in scientific notation
is acceptable).

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
For how long must a current of 2.5 amperes flow to make 7.5 coulombs of charge pass a point in
a circuit?
In real circuits, currents of the order of 10−3 A are common. To describe these currents, the milliampere
(mA) is used. One milliampere is equal to 1 × 10−3 amperes.
To convert from amperes to milliamperes, multiply by 1000 or by 103 . To convert from milliamperes to
amperes, divide by 1000 or multiply by 10−3 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Convert 450 mA to amperes.
THINK WRITE
450 mA
1. To convert mA to A divide by 1000 (or multiply = 0.450 A
by 10–3 ). 1000
2. State the solution. 450 mA is equal to 0.450 A.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Convert 280 mA to amperes.
3.3.2 Describing current direction

When the battery was invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800, it was accepted that electric current was the
movement of positive charge. It was assumed that positive charges left the positive terminal of the battery
and travelled through a conductor to the negative terminal. This is called conventional current.
In reality, the charge carriers in a metal conductor are electrons moving from the negative terminal
towards the positive terminal of the battery. The effect is essentially the same as positive charges moving
in the opposite direction. When dealing with the mechanisms for the movement of electrons, the term
‘electron current’ is used.
FIGURE 3.8 Conventional current direction FIGURE 3.9 Electron current direction
+ +
− −

Direct current (DC) refers to circuits where the net flow of charge is in one direction only. The current
provided by a battery is direct current, which usually flows at a steady rate.
Alternating current (AC) refers to circuits where the charge carriers change direction periodically,
moving backwards and forwards. The electricity obtained from household power points is alternating
current.
FIGURE 3.10 Electron current direction: (a) direct current and (b) alternating current
(a) Direct current (b) Alternating current

(DC) (AC)
I I
Battery Resistor Battery Resistor
I I
3.3.3 Measuring electric current

Electric current is measured with a device called an ammeter. This must
FIGURE 3.11 The circuit
be placed directly in the circuit so that all the charges being measured pass diagram symbol for an
through it. This is known as placing the ammeter in series with the circuit. ammeter
Ammeters are designed so they do not significantly affect the size
of the current in the circuit, their resistance to the flow of current being
A
negligible.
FIGURE 3.12 A needle-deflection ammeter FIGURE 3.13 A ammeter in series
Ammeter
+ − DC load
A
+
DC
source
−
Whereas some school laboratories might use needle-deflection meters, most now use digital multimeters.
Digital meters can measure voltage drop and resistance as well as current. Each quantity has a few settings
to allow measurement of a large range of values. Labels on multimeters may vary but those given below are
most common.
FIGURE 3.14 A digital multimeter, FIGURE 3.15 Measuring current and voltage drop
which can measure current, voltage
drop and resistance Ammeter
Battery Resistor V Voltmeter
If you are using digital multimeter, the following instructions generally apply.
• The black or common socket, labelled ‘COM’, is connected to the part of the circuit that is closer to
the black or negative terminal of the power supply.
• The red socket, labelled ‘VΩmA’, is used for measuring small currents and is connected to the part of
the circuit that is closer to the red or positive terminal of the power supply.
• The red socket, labelled ‘10A MAX’ or similar, is used for measuring large currents — see warning
below.
• The dial has a few settings, first choose the setting for current, labelled ‘A’, with the largest value. If
you want more accuracy in your measurement, turn the dial to a smaller setting.
• If the display shows just the digit ‘1’, the current you are trying to measure exceeds the range of that
setting and you need to go to a higher setting.
WARNING: While for most quantities, multimeters are quite tolerant of values beyond a chosen
setting, care must be taken when measuring current. Multimeters have a fuse that can blow if the
current exceeds the rated value. For this reason, they have two red sockets. One socket is exclusively
for use when measuring currents in the range 200 mA to 10 A. This is labelled ‘10A MAX’. (Some
multimeters may be able to measure up to 20 A.) The other red socket is for currents less than
200 mA as well as the other quantities of voltage and resistance.
3.3.4 Modelling an electric circuit

One way to understand something we can’t see is to use a model. A good scientific model uses objects and
phenomena that we can see and understand or have experienced to explain things that we cannot see.
The hydraulic model of current

Most circuits have metal conductors, which means that the charge carriers will be electrons.
Metal conductors can be considered to be a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms that have one
or more of their electrons loosely bound. These electrons are so loosely bound that they tend to drift
easily among the atoms. Metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity because of the ease with
which these electrons are able to move, transferring energy as they go. Diagrammatically, the atoms are
represented as positive ions (atoms that have lost an electron and have a net positive charge) in a ‘sea’ of
free electrons.
When the ends of a conductor are connected to a battery, the free electrons drift towards the positive
terminal. The electrons are attracted by the positive terminal and indeed accelerate, but constantly bump
into atoms so on average they just drift along (see figure 3.16).
The flow of electrons through a metallic conductor can also be modelled by the flow of water through a
pipe (see figure 3.17).

FIGURE 3.16 The motion of free electrons FIGURE 3.17 The hydraulic model for current flow.
through a metal. Note: Only two of the free One cupful of water in one end of the pipe means one
electrons have been shown. cupful out the other end.
− + + + + + + + +
− + + + + + + + +
− +
+ + + + + + +
−
+ + + + + + +
− +
+ + + + + + +
− − +
− + + + + + + + +
Electrons cannot be destroyed, nor, in a closed circuit, can they build up at a point. Therefore, if electrons
are forced into one end of a conductor, an equal number will be forced out the other end. This is rather like
pouring a cupful of water into one end of a full pipe. It forces a cupful of water to come out the other end.
Note that when water is put in one end of a pipe it is not the same water that comes out the other end,
because the pipe was already full of water.
Other models are sometimes used. For example, the bicycle chain model. In this model the chain
represents the circuit and the links in the chain represent electrons. When the pedals are turned the chain
moves and energy is transferred to the rear of the bicycle to move the rear wheel. The moving chain
represents the movement of electrons around the circuit. Note that the transformation of energy from the
pedals to the rear wheel is virtually instantaneous. The energy transfer from the pedals does not depend on
particular chain links travelling from the pedals to the wheel. Similarly, the energy transfer in an electric
circuit does not depend on particular electrons travelling to the load. Overall the transfer of electrical energy
is faster than the movement of electrons in the conducting wires.
Resources
Interactivity The hydraulic model of current (int-0053)
Video eLesson The hydraulic model of current (eles-0029)
Weblink Calculating an electron’s drift velocity
3.3.5 How rapidly do electrons travel through a conductor?

The speed of electrons through the conductor depends on the cross-sectional area of the conductor, the
number of electrons that are free to move, the electron charge and the size of the current.
For example, if a current of 10 A passes through a copper wire of cross-sectional area 1 mm2 , the
electron speed is 0.16 mm s−1 or 1.6 × 10−4 m s−1 . This speed is known as the drift velocity (since the
electrons are drifting through the wire), and is quite small.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
How long will it take an electron to travel from a car’s battery to a rear light globe if it has a drift
velocity of 1.0 × 10−4 m s−1 and there is 2.5 metres of metal to pass through? (Electrons travel
from the negative terminal of the battery through the car body towards the circuit elements.)

THINK WRITE
d
1. The drift velocity, v, equals the distance travelled, v=
d, divided by the time taken to travel the distance, t. t
d
2. Transpose v = to make t the subject. vt = d
t d
t=
v
3. Substitute the known values into the formula and v = 1.0 × 10−4 m s−1 , d = 2.5 m
solve for t. d
t=
v
2.5 m
=
1.0 × 10−4 m s−1
= 2.5 × 104 s
4. State the solution. It would take 25 000 seconds, which
is more than 7 hours.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
How long will it take an electron to travel to a headset from a console if it has a drift velocity of
7.4 × 10−5 m s−1 and there is 1.2 metres of copper wire to pass through?
3.3 EXERCISE
1. State the difference between conventional current and electron current.
2. What is the difference between direct current and alternating current?
3. A steady direct current of 2.5 A flows in a wire connected to a battery for 15 seconds. How much charge
enters or leaves the battery in this time?
4. Convert 45 mA to amperes.
5. Convert 2.3 × 10−4 A to milliamperes.
6. Convert 450 𝜇A to amperes (1𝜇A = 1 × 10−6 A).
7. Is current used up in a light globe? Explain your answer.
8. A car light globe has a current of 3.5 A flowing through it. How much charge passes through it in
20 minutes?
9. What is the current flowing through an extension cord if 15 C of charge passes through it in 50 seconds?
10. The drift velocity is directly proportional to the current in the conductor. If electrons have a drift velocity of
1.6 × 10−4 ms−1 for a current of 10 A in a certain conductor, what would be their velocity if the current
was 5.0 A?


3.4 Voltage
KEY CONCEPTS
electric circuits.
• Justify the use of selected meters (ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter) in circuits.
A battery is a source of energy that enables electrons to move around a circuit. Inside the battery a chemical
reaction separates electrons, leaving one terminal short of electrons and therefore with an excess of positive
charge. The other battery terminal has an excess of electrons and so is the negative terminal.
Batteries are rated by their voltage (V). This is a measure of the amount of energy the battery gives to
the separated charges. Energy (E) is measured in joules; charge (Q) is measured in coulombs. So a 9-volt
battery gives 9 joules of energy to each coulomb of charge.
Voltage is the energy provided to each coloumb of

charge:
E
V= or E = VQ
Q
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
a. How much energy does a 1.5 V battery give to 0.50 coulombs of charge?
b. The charge on an electron is 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs. How much energy does each electron have
as it leaves a 1.5 V battery?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The energy is given by E = VQ. a. E = VQ
2. Substitute the known values into the formula and V = 1.5 V, Q = 0.50 C
solve for E. E = 1.5 × 0.50
= 0.75 J
3. State the solution. The battery would give 0.75 joules of
energy to 0.50 coloumbs of charge.
b. 1. The energy is given by E = VQ. b. E = VQ
2. Substitute the known values into the formula and V = 1.5 V, Q = 1.6 × 10−19
solve for E. E = 1.5 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 2.4 × 10−19 J
3. State the solution. Each electron would have 2.4 × 10−19
joules of energy.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A mobile phone battery has a voltage of 3.7 V. During its lifetime, 4000 coulomb of charge leave the
battery. How much energy did the battery originally hold?

Note: In many technologies, such as X-ray machines and particle accelerators, the energy of electrons
needs to be determined. The number 1.6 × 10−19 joules is inconvenient, so another energy unit is used. It
is called the ‘electron volt’, abbreviated eV, where 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 joules.
The electrons at the negative terminal of a battery are attracted to the positive terminal, but the chemical
reaction keeps them apart. The only way for the electrons to get to the positive terminal is through a closed
circuit. The energy the electrons gain from the chemical reaction is transferred in the closed circuit as the
electrons go through devices such as light globes, toasters and motors.
Once back at the positive terminal, the chemical reaction in the battery transfers the electrons across to
the negative terminal, and then the electrons move around the circuit again.
3.4.1 The conventional point of view

Looking from the perspective of conventional current — that is,
FIGURE 3.18 The circuit symbol
positive charge carriers — the current would go in the opposite for a battery showing direction of
direction, as seen in figure 3.18. conventional current
In the circuit in figure 3.19a, positive charges at A, the positive
terminal, would leave with energy, travel anticlockwise and arrive + –
at F with no energy.
At the positive terminal, A, a coulomb of charge has 9 J of
energy; its voltage is 9 V. The wire, AB, from the battery to the
globe is a good conductor, so no energy is lost between A and B
I
and the coulomb of charge still has 9 J of energy. In the globe, as the current goes from B to C, the coulomb
of charge loses 3 J of energy and now has 6 J of energy left at C. The conducting wire from C to D has no
effect, so the coulomb of charge arrives at the motor, DE, with 6 J of energy. This energy is used up in the
motor so that at E the coulomb of charge has 0 J of energy. The charge then moves on to F, the negative
terminal, where the battery re-energises the charge to go around again.
The graph in figure 3.19b shows the energy held by 1 C of charge — that is, the voltage — as the charge
moves around the circuit from A to F.
FIGURE 3.19 Voltage around a simple circuit
(a) 9V (b)
A F
energy per coulomb
9
charge (J C –1)
Voltage (V) or
6
Current
Globe Motor 0
B C D E A B C D E F A
Voltage is also called the electric potential. Using the hydraulic model, at A the charge is like water in a
high dam with gravitational potential energy that can be released when the dam opens. The charge at A has
an electric potential of 9 V or 9 J for every coulomb, which can be released when the switch is closed.
3.4.2 Measuring potential difference or voltage drop

The difference in voltage between any two points in the circuit can be measured with a voltmeter. This
is called the potential difference, or voltage drop. The voltmeter must be connected across a part of the
circuit in parallel. If the voltmeter was connected to points A and B in the circuit in figure 3.19, it would
display zero, as there is no difference in the potential or voltage between those two points because charges
do not use any energy moving between A and B. If instead it was connected across the globe at BC, it

would show a voltage drop of 3 V (9 − 6 = 3 V). This means that in the globe 3 joules of electrical energy
are given up by each coulomb of charge and transformed by the globe into light and heat.
Voltmeters are designed so that they do not significantly affect the
FIGURE 3.20 The circuit
size of the current passing through the circuit element. For this reason, diagram symbol for a voltmeter
the resistance of the circuit elements involved. Resistance will be
discussed later in this topic. The circuit diagram symbol for a
voltmeter is shown in figure 3.20.
As discussed in section 3.3.3, most school
V
laboratories now use digital multimeters, which
FIGURE 3.21 To measure the current through the
can generally measure both AC and DC voltages
resistor, an ammeter is connected in series. To measure
(see figure 3.21). To measure DC voltages, use the voltage drop across the resistor, the voltmeter is
one of the settings near the ‘V’ with a bar beside it. connected in parallel.
• The black or common socket, labelled
‘COM’, is connected to the part of the circuit Ammeter
that is closer to the black or negative A

terminal of the power supply.
• The red socket, labelled ‘VΩmA’, is used
for measuring voltages and is connected Resistor V Voltmeter
Battery
to the part of the circuit closer to the red or
positive terminal of the power supply.
• The other red socket, labelled ‘10A MAX’ is
for large currents only.
• The dial has a range of settings; when first connecting the multimeter, choose the setting with the
largest value. If you want more accuracy in your measurement, turn the dial to a smaller setting.
• If the display shows only the digit ‘1’, the voltage you are trying to measure exceeds the range of that
setting and you need to go to a higher setting.
3.4 EXERCISE
1. What is the voltage supplied by a battery that gives 1.05 J of energy to 0.70 C of charge which passes
through it?
2. Complete the following table by filling in the missing values.
Potential difference Energy Charge

32 J 9.6 C
4.0 J 670 mC
9.0 V 3.5 C
12 V 85 mC
4.5 V 12 J
240 V 7.5 kJ
3. How much electrical potential energy will 5.7 𝜇C of charge transfer if it passes through a voltage drop
of 6.0 V?
4. A 6.0 V source supplies 3.6 × 10−4 J of energy to a quantity of charge. Determine the quantity of charge in
coulombs and microcoulombs.


3.5 Energy and power in an electric circuit

KEY CONCEPTS
electric circuits.
Q E
• Investigate and analyse theoretically and practically electric circuits using the relationships: I = , V = ,
t Q
E
P = = VI.
t
3.5.1 Energy transformed by a circuit

Electric circuits transform electrical energy into other forms of energy. Since the potential difference is
a measure of the loss in electrical potential energy by each coulomb of charge, the amount of energy (E)
transformed by a charge (Q) passing through a load can be expressed as:
E = QV
E
since V = , where V is the potential difference across the load.
Q
The amount of charge passing through a load in a time interval t can be expressed as:
Q = It
E = Vlt
Where:
E is the energy transferred, in joules
V is the potential difference, in volts
I is the current, in amperes
t is the time, in seconds.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
What is the potential difference across a heater element if 3.6 × 104 J of heat energy is produced
when a current of 5.0 A flows for 30 seconds?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula that calculates the amount of E = VIt
energy produced.
E
2. Transpose the formula to make the potential V=
difference, V, the subject. It
3. Substitute the known values into the formula E = 3.6 × 104 J, I = 5.0 A, t = 30 s
and solve.
3.6 × 104 J
V=
5.0 A × 30 s
36 000
=
150
= 240 V
4. State the solution. The potential difference is 240 V.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
What is the potential difference across a light globe if 1.44 × 103 J of heat is produced when a current
of 2.0 A flows for 1 minute?
3.5.2 Power delivered by a circuit

In practice, it is the rate at which energy is transformed in an electrical load that determines its effect. The
brightness of an incandescent light globe is determined by the rate at which electrical potential energy is
transformed into the internal energy of the filament.
Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another.
Power is equal to the amount of energy transformed per second, or the amount of energy transformed
divided by the time it took to do it.
Power can be expressed as:

E
P=
t
Where:
P is the power delivered, in watts (W)
E is the amount of energy transformed, in joules
t is the time interval, in seconds.
1 watt = 1 joule per second = 1 J s−1

E
By substituting the formula for energy, E = VIt, into the formula for power, P = , we find that:
t
VIt
P=
t
⟹ P = VI
This is a particularly useful formula because the potential difference V and electric current I can be easily
measured in a circuit.
In real circuits, large power measurements are common. It is sometimes useful to use the unit kilowatt,
where 1 kilowatt = 1 × 103 watts.
When converting from watts to kilowatts, divide by 1000.
When converting from kilowatts to watts, multiply by 1000.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
What is the power rating of an electric heater if a current of 5.0 A flows through it when there is
a voltage drop of 240 V across the heating element?
THINK WRITE
1. Use the formula for power, P = VI. P = VI
2. Substitute the known values into the formula and solve V = 240 V, I = 5.0 A
for P. P = VI
P = 240 V × 5.0 A
= 1200 W
3. Remembering that 1 kW = 1000 watts, convert to kW by P = 1.2 kW
dividing the number of watts by 1000.
4. State the solution. The power rating is 1.2 kW.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
What is the power rating of a CD player if it draws a current of 100 mA and is powered by four 1.5 V
cells in series?

Transposing formulae
You can use the following triangles to assist transposing formulae P = VI, Q = It and
E = QV.
Power formula triangle Variants of the power formula triangle
P Q E
V × I I × t Q × V
For example, if you wish to transpose the formula P = VI to make I the subject, cover the
pronumeral you want to be the subject, in this case I. What is visible in the triangle shows
what that pronumeral equals. In this example:
P
I=
V
This method can also be used for any formula of the form x = yz.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
How much energy is supplied by a mobile phone battery rated 3.7 V and 1200 mAh?
Note: ‘mAh’ stands for milliamp hours, which means that the battery would last for one hour
supplying a current of 1200 mA or two hours at 600 mA.
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula, E = VIt, and state the known E = VIt
values. V = 3.7 V, I = 1200 mA, t = 1 hour
1200
2. Convert the current from mA to amperes by I = 1200 mA = A = 1.2 A
dividing by 1000. Convert the time to seconds. 1000
t = 60 × 60 = 3600 s
3. Substitute the known values and solve for E. E = 3.7 V × 1.2 A × 3600 s
= 16 000 J
4. Convert the number of joules to kJ by dividing E = 16 kJ
by 1000.
5. State the solution. There are 16 kJ of energy supplied.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A 3.7 V mobile phone battery has an energy capacity of 14 000 joules. In a talk mode test, the battery
lasted for 6 hours. What was the average current?
ELECTRON VOLT
In many technologies, such as X-ray machines and particle accelerators, the energy of electrons needs to be
determined. The number 1.6 × 10−19 joules is inconvenient, so another energy unit is used. It is the called the
‘electron volt’, abbreviated eV, where 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 joules.

Resources
Digital document Investigation 3.2 Energy transferred by an electric current (doc-31862)
Teacher-led video Investigation 3.2 Energy transferred by an electric current (tlvd-0807)
3.5.3 Providing energy for the circuit

The purpose of ‘plug-in’ power supplies, batteries or cells is to provide energy for the circuit. Such devices
are said to provide an electromotive force, or emf. The term electromotive force is misleading since it does
not refer to a ‘force’, measured in newtons. It is a measure of the energy supplied to the circuit for each
coulomb of charge passing through the power supply. The circuit symbol for emf is 𝜀.
The unit of emf is the volt (V) because it is a measure of energy per coulomb. A power supply has an emf
of X volts if it provides the circuit with X joules of energy for every coulomb of charge passing through the
power supply.
The rate at which an emf source supplies energy to a circuit is the product of the emf and current. The
amount of energy (E) supplied to the charge passing through the power supply is equal to the amount of
energy given to each coulomb, or emf (𝜀), multiplied by the amount of charge (Q) passing through the
power supply:
E = 𝜀Q
This can be rewritten as:
E = 𝜀It
since Q = It and t is the time interval during which energy is transferred.

The power delivered to the charge passing through the power supply can therefore be expressed as:
E
P=
t
⇒ P = 𝜀I
This is the formula used to determine the rate at which a source of emf supplies energy to a circuit.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
A 12 V car battery has a current of 2.5 A passing through it. At what rate is it supplying energy
to the car’s circuits?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula, P = VI, and state the known P = VI
values. V = 12 V, I = 2.5 A
2. As the energy supplied to the circuit equals the emf P = VI

of the battery, substitute the known values for V = 12 × 2.5
and I into the formula P = VI and solve. = 30 W
3. State the solution. The battery is supplying 30 W.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
At what rate is energy being supplied to a 3.0 V light when it is drawing a current of 4.0 A?
3.5 EXERCISE
1. Calculate the current drawn by:
(a) a 60 W light globe connected to a 240 V source
(b) a 40 W globe with a voltage drop of 12 V across it
(c) a 6.0 V, 6.3 W globe when operating normally
(d) a 1200 W, 240 V toaster when operating normally.
2. The element of a heater has a voltage drop of 240 V across it.
(a) In terms of energy what does this mean?
(b) How much energy is transformed into thermal energy in the element if 25 C of charge flow
through it?
3. A rear window demister circuit draws 2.0 A of current from a 12 V battery for 30 minutes.
(a) How much energy is transformed by the rear window?
(b) What is the power rating of the car demister?
4. How long will it take a 600 W microwave oven to transform 5.4 × 104 J of energy?
5. What is the power rating of an electric radiator if it draws a current of 10 A when connected to a 240 V AC
household circuit?
6. An electric jug is connected to a 240 V supply and draws a current of 3.3 A. How long would it take to
transfer 3.2 × 104 J of energy to its contents?
7. What is the emf of a battery that provides 9.0 J of energy to 6.0 C of charge?

3.6 Resistance
KEY CONCEPT
• Model resistance in series and parallel circuits using
— current versus potential difference (I–V) graphs
— resistance as the potential difference to current ratio, including R = constant for ohmic devices.
The resistance of a material or device is a measure of how difficult it is for a current to pass through it.
The higher the value of resistance, the harder it is for the current to pass through the material or device.
The resistance, R, of a substance is defined as the ratio of the voltage drop, V, across it to
the current, I, flowing through it.
V
R=
I

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (symbol Ω). One ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which a
current of 1 ampere results from the application of a constant voltage drop of 1 volt across its ends.
1 Ω = 1 V A−1
The ohm is named in honour of Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist who investigated
the effects of different materials in electric circuits.
Resistance is a material property and it is temperature dependent. In general, the resistance of a metal
conductor increases with temperature. Usually, the increases will not be significant over small temperature
ranges and most problems in this text ignore any temperature and resistance changes that might occur.
One example of the effect of a change in temperature on resistance can be seen in the tungsten filament
of an ordinary light globe.
When operating normally, the filament reaches a temperature of 2500 °C. The globe is filled with inert
gases to prevent the filament from burning or oxidising. Tungsten is used because it has a high melting
point. The filament is coiled to increase the length and it has a very small cross-sectional area so that the
resistance of the filament is increased. As the temperature of the filament increases, its resistance increases
due to an increase in tungsten’s resistivity.
FIGURE 3.22 Georg Simon Ohm FIGURE 3.23 A 240-volt, 60-watt

globe
Argon and nitrogen

(at low pressure)
Glass bulb
Fuse
Tungsten
filament
Electrical contacts
THE LIE DETECTOR

The lie detector, or polygraph, is a meter that measures the resistance of skin. The resistance of skin is greatly
reduced by the presence of moisture. When people are under stress, as they may be when telling lies, they sweat
more. The subsequent change in resistance is detected by the polygraph and is regarded as an indication that
the person may be telling a lie.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 3.3 The current-versus-voltage characteristics of a light globe (doc-31863)
Investigation 3.4 Dependence of resistance on length of resistance wire (doc-31864)

3.6.1 Resistors
In many electrical devices, resistors are used to control the current flowing through, and the voltage
drop across, parts of the circuits. Resistors have constant resistances ranging from less than 1 ohm to
millions of ohms. There are three main types of resistors. ‘Composition’ resistors are usually made of the
semiconductor carbon. Wire-wound resistors consist of a coil of fine wire made of a resistance alloy such
as nichrome. The third type is the metal film resistor, which consists of a glass or pottery tube coated with a
thin film of metal. A laser trims the resistor to its correct value.
FIGURE 3.24 (a) Carbon or ‘composition’ resistors (b) Wire-wound resistor (c) Metal film resistor
(a) (b)
(c)
Laser-cut grooves
(to adjust resistance) Glass or pottery tube
Wire conductor
Coloured bands Metal film Cap
Some large resistors have their resistance printed on them. Others have a colour code to indicate their
resistance, as shown in figure 3.25 and table 3.1. The resistor has four coloured bands on it. The first two
bands represent the first two digits in the value of resistance. The third band represents the power of ten by
which the two digits are multiplied. The fourth band is the manufacturing tolerance.
FIGURE 3.25 A resistor, showing the coloured bands
Tolerance Conductor
First digit Power of

ten multiplier
Second digit

TABLE 3.1 The resistor colour code
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100 or 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102 ±2%
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 ±5%

−2
Silver 10 ±10%
No colour ±20%
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
What is the resistance of the following resistors if their coloured bands are:
a. red, violet, orange and gold
b. brown, black, red and silver?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Remember when holding a resistor to read its a. Tolerance Conductor
value, keep the gold or silver band on the right
and read the colours from the left.

ten multiplier
Second digit
2. Using table 3.1, establish the first two digits. Red = 2
Violet = 7
Hence, the first two digits are 27.
3. Using table 3.1, establish the multiplier. The third band is orange, which means
multiply the first two digits by 103 .
The resistance is: 27 × 103 = 27 000 Ω
= 27 kΩ.
4. Using table 3.1, establish the tolerance. The fourth band is gold, which means
there is a tolerance of 5%.
5% × 27 000 Ω = 1350 Ω
5. State the solution. The true value is 27 × 103 kΩ ±1350 Ω.

b. 1. Remember when holding a resistor to read its b. Tolerance Conductor
value, keep the gold or silver band on the right
and read the colours from the left.

Second digit ten multiplier
2. Using table 3.1, establish the first two digits. Brown = 1

Black = 0
Hence, the first two digits are 10.
3. Using table 3.1, establish the multiplier. The third band is red, which means
multiply the first two digits by 102 . The
resistance is: 10 × 102 = 1000 Ω
= 1 kΩ
4. Using table 3.1, establish the tolerance. The fourth band is silver, which means
there is a tolerance of 10%.
10% × 1000 Ω = 100 Ω
5. State the solution. The true value is 1.0 × 103 Ω ±100 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
What are the resistances and tolerances of resistors with the colour codes:
a. orange, white, black, gold
b. green, blue, orange, silver
c. violet, green, yellow, gold?
Resources
eLesson Resistance (eles-2516)
Interactivity Picking the right resistor (int-6391)
3.6.2 Ohm’s Law

Georg Ohm established experimentally that the current I in FIGURE 3.26 Graphs of voltage versus
a metal wire is proportional to the voltage drop V applied current for two different metal wires
to its ends.
When he plotted his results on a graph of V versus I, he V
Metal A
obtained a straight line.
I∝V
Metal B
0 I

The equation of the line shown in figure 3.26 is known as Ohm’s Law and can be written:
V = IR
where R is numerically equal to the constant gradient of the line. This is known as the
resistance of the metal conductor to the flow of current through it. Remember that the SI
unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
You can use the triangle method for Ohm’s Law.
I × R
Convert the quantity/pronumeral you want to be the subject, for example, R. What is
visible in the triangle shows what the pronumeral equals.
The resistance, R, can also be expressed as:
V
R=
I
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
A transistor radio uses a 6.0 V battery and draws a current of 300 mA. What is the resistance of
the radio?
THINK WRITE
1. From Ohm’s Law the resistance, R, can be found. V = IR
V
R=
I
300 mA
2. State the known values and convert the current into V = 6.0 V, I = = 0.300 A
amperes by dividing by 1000. 1000
6.0 V
3. Substitute the values for V and I and solve to R=
find R. 0.300 A
= 20 Ω
4. State the solution. The resistance of the radio is 20 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
A 240 V kitchen appliance draws a current of 6.0 A. What is its resistance?
Resources
Weblink Ohm’s Law app

3.6.3 Ohmic and non-ohmic devices
An ohmic device is one for which, under constant physical conditions such as temperature, the resistance is
constant for all currents that pass through it.
A non-ohmic device is one for which the resistance is different for different currents passing through it.
The graph in figure 3.26 has voltage on the y-axis and current on the x-axis. The graph is drawn this
way so that the gradient of lines for the metals A and B gave the resistance of each. However, accepted
convention graphs the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis. So in
1
the graph in figure 3.27a the gradient equals .
R
FIGURE 3.27 The current-versus-voltage graphs for (a) an ohmic resistor and (b) a diode, which is a non-ohmic
device
(a) I (b)
1
( )
I= R V
0
V V
Resources
Digital document Investigation 3.5 Ohmic and non-ohmic devices (doc-31865)
Teacher-led video Investigation 3.5 Ohmic and non-ohmic devices (tlvd-0810)
Non-ohmic devices
Many non-ohmic devices are made from elements that are semiconductors. They
FIGURE 3.28
are not insulators as they conduct electricity, though not as well as metals. Common Circuit symbol
semiconductor elements are silicon and germanium, which are in Group 14 of the for a diode
periodic table. Many new semiconductor devices are compounds of Group 13 and
Group 15 elements such as gallium arsenide.
A diode is formed by joining two differently doped materials together. A diode
allows current to flow through it in only one direction. This effect can be seen in the current–voltage graph
for a diode in figure 3.29b, where a small positive voltage produces a current, while a large negative or
reverse voltage produces negligible current.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are diodes that give off light when they conduct. They are usually made
from gallium arsenide. Gallium nitride is used in blue LEDs.
Thermistors are made from a mixture of semiconductors so they can conduct electricity in both
directions. They differ from metal conductors, whose resistance increases with temperature, as an increase
in a thermistor’s temperature increases the number of electrons available to move and the resistance
decreases.

FIGURE 3.29 (a) Circuit symbol for a thermistor (b) Resistance-versus-temperature graph for a thermistor
(a) (b)
Resistance (kΩ)
1
0
20 40 60
Temperature (°C)
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are like thermistors, except they respond to light. The resistance
of an LDR decreases as the intensity of light shining on it increases. The axes in the graph for an LDR in
figure 3.30 have different scales to the other graphs. As you move from the origin, each number is 10 times
the previous one. This enables more data to fit in a small space.
FIGURE 3.30 (a) Circuit symbols for an LDR (b) Graph of resistance-versus-light intensity for an LDR, on a
logarithmic scale
(a) (b)
10 000
LDR resistance (Ω)
1000
or
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Illumination (lux)
Note: A logarithmic scale is a non-linear scale and is commonly used as an effective way of displaying
data that cover a large range of values on one graph. By plotting the log of resistance and the log of
illumination, we are able to graphically plot two parameters.
3.6.4 Heating effects of currents

Whenever a current passes through a conductor, thermal energy is produced. This is due to the fact that
the mobile charged particles — for example, electrons — make repeated collisions with the atoms of the
conductor, causing them to vibrate more and producing an increase in the temperature of the material.
This temperature increase is not related to the direction of the current. A current in a conductor always
generates thermal energy, regardless of which direction the current flows. Examples of devices that make
use of this energy include radiators, electric kettles, toasters, stoves, incandescent lamps and fuses.

NICHROME
Nichrome is a heat-resistant alloy used in electrical heating elements. Its composition is variable, but is usually
around 62% nickel, 15% chromium and 23% iron.
3.6.5 Power and resistance

Recall that the rate at which energy is dissipated by any part of an electric circuit can be
expressed as:
P = VI
Where:
P is the power
I is the current
V is the voltage drop.
V
This relationship can be used, along with the definition of resistance, R = , to deduce two different
I
formulae describing the relationship between power and resistance:
V V
R= , V = IR, I =
I R
Substituting V = IR into the formula P = VI:

P = VI
= (IR) I
Thus:
P = I2 R [1]
V
Substituting I = into the formula P = VI:
R P = VI( )
V
P=V
R
Thus:
V2
P= [2]
R
You now have three different ways of determining the rate at which energy is transferred as
charge flows through a voltage drop in an electric circuit:
V2
P = VI P = I2 R P=
R
In addition, the quantity of energy transferred, E, can be determined using:

V2 t
E = VIt = I2 Rt =
R
These formulae indicate that in conducting wires with low resistance, very little energy is dissipated. If
the resistance, R, is small and the voltage drop, V, is small, the rate of energy transfer is also small.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
A portable radio has a total resistance of 18 Ω and uses a 6.0 V battery consisting of four 1.5 V
cells in series. At what rate does the radio transform electrical energy?
THINK WRITE
V2
1. Recall that power is the rate of energy use and use P=
the formula containing the variables P, V and R. R
2. Substitute the known values into the formula and V = 6.0 V, R = 18 Ω
solve for P.
V2
P=
R
(6.0 V)2
P=
18 Ω
= 2.0 W
3. State the solution. The radio transforms energy at 2.0 W.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
What is the power rating of an electric jug if it has a resistance of 48 Ω when hot and is connected to
a 240 V supply?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
A pop-up toaster is labelled ‘240 V, 800 W’.
a. What is the normal operating current of the toaster?
b. What is the total resistance of the toaster while it is operating?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The three variables P, V and I are given in the a. P = VI
formula for power.
P
2. Transpose the formula to make I the subject. I=
V
3. Substitute the known values into the formula and V = 240 V, P = 800 W
solve for I. 800 W
I=
240 V
= 3.33 A
4. State the solution. The normal operating current 3.33 A.
V2
b. 1. The three variables P, V and R are given in the b. P =
formula for power. R
V2
2. Transpose the formula to make R the subject. R=
P

3. Substitute the known values into the formula and V = 240 V, P = 800 W
solve for R. (240 V)2
R=
800 W
= 72 Ω
4. State the solution. The resistance is 72 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
A microwave oven is labelled ‘240 V, 600 W’.
a. What is the normal operating current of the microwave oven?
b. What is the total resistance of the microwave oven when it is operating?
3.6 EXERCISE
1. How much energy is provided by a 6 V battery if a current of 3 A passes through it for 1 minute?
2. Complete the following table by filling in the missing values.
Potential Current Resistance

difference
8.0 A 4.0 Ω
22 mA 2.2 kΩ
12 V 6.0 Ω
240 V 8.0 × 104 Ω
9.0 V 6.0 A
1.5 V 45 mA
3. What are the resistances and tolerances of resistors with the colour codes:
(a) blue, brown, orange, gold
(b) yellow, white, green, silver
(c) brown, red, red, gold?
4. The following graph shows the current-versus-voltage characteristic for an electronic device.
80
Current (mA)
60
40
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Voltage drop across diode (V)
(a) Is this device ohmic or non-ohmic? Justify your answer.

(b) What is the current through the device when the voltage drop across it is 0.5 V?
(c) What is the resistance of the device when the voltage drop across it is 0.5 V?
(d) Estimate the voltage drop across the device and its resistance, when it draws a current of 20 mA.

5. At what rate is thermal energy being transferred to a wire if it has a resistance of 5 Ω and carries a current of
0.30 A?
6. Calculate the resistance of the following globes if their ratings are:
(a) 240 V, 60 W (b) 6.0 V, 6.3 W (c) 12 V, 40 W.
7. What is the power rating of an electric jug if it has a resistance of 48 Ω when hot and is connected to a
240 V supply?
8. A thermistor has the characteristic curve shown in the following graph.
Resistance (kΩ)
6
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)
(a) What is the resistance of the thermistor at the following temperatures?

i. 20 °C ii. 80 °C
(b) What is the temperature when the thermistor has the following resistances?
i. 4 kΩ ii. 1.5 kΩ
9. A temperature sensing system in an oven uses a thermistor with the characteristics shown in the following
graph, on a logarithmic scale.
100 000
10 000
Resistance (Ω)
1000
100
10
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)
(a) What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature in the oven is 100 °C?
(b) What is the temperature in the oven when the resistance of the thermistor is 400 Ω?

3.7 Review
3.7.1 Summary
• An electric circuit is a complete conducting path containing an energy supply and a load.
Q
• Current, I, is the rate of flow of charge, where I =
t
• Direct current always flows in one direction. Alternating current periodically reverses its direction in
a circuit.
• Conventional current is defined as flowing from the positive to the negative terminal of a supply, even
though the charge is usually carried by electrons travelling in the opposite direction.
• Electric current is measured with an ammeter.
• The potential difference across part of an electric circuit is a measure of the electrical potential energy
lost by charge carriers. This can be expressed as:
E
V=
Q
• Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

• The electromotive force (emf) of a power supply is a measure of the amount of energy supplied to the
circuit for each coulomb of charge passing through that supply.
• Resistance is the opposition provided by a substance to the flow of current through it.
• Ohm’s Law states the current flowing in a metal wire varies directly with the voltage drop across the
conductor and inversely with the resistance of the conductor. The graph of voltage drop versus current
at a constant temperature is a straight line for an ohmic device.
• The amount of energy transformed in a device during a given time interval can be calculated using the
equation E = VIt.
• Power is the rate at which work is done, or at which energy is transformed from one form into another.
• The power delivered to a device in an electric circuit can be calculated using the equation:
V2
P = VI = I2 R =
R
• Non-ohmic devices such as LDRs, LEDs, diodes and thermistors do not obey Ohm’s Law; their
resistance is not constant.
Resources

3.7.2 Key terms
Alternating current (AC) refers to circuits where the charge carriers move backwards and forwards periodically.
An ammeter is a device used to measure current.
The ampere is the unit of current.
A charge carrier is a charged particle moving in a conductor.
A conductor is a material that contains charge carriers; that is, charged particles can move and travel freely
through the material.
Conventional current is defined as the movement of positive charges from the positive terminal of a cell through
the conductor to the negative terminal.
The coulomb is the unit of electric charge.
A diode is a device that allows current to pass through it in one direction only.
Direct current (DC) refers to circuits where the net flow of charge is in one direction only.
Electric charge is a basic property of matter. It occurs in two states: positive (+) charge and negative (−) charge.
Electric current is the movement of charged particles from one place to another.
In an electric insulator the electrons are bound tightly to the nucleus and are not free to travel through the
material.
Electromotive force (emf) is a measure of the energy supplied to a circuit for each coulomb of charge passing
through the power supply.
Electron current is the term used when dealing with the mechanisms for the movement of electrons.
An electrostatic force is the force between two stationary charged objects.
An ion is a charged particle.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a device that has a resistance which varies with the amount of light falling
on it.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a small semiconductor diode that emits light when a current passes through it.
A load is a device where electrical energy is converted into other forms to perform tasks such as heating or
lighting.
A model is a representation of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes; can be a physical model, mathematical
model or conceptual model.
A neutral object carries an equal amount of positive and negative charge.
The potential difference, or voltage drop, is the amount of electrical potential energy, in joules, lost by each
coulomb of charge in a given part of a circuit.
The resistance, R, of a substance is defined as the ratio of voltage drop, V, across it to the current, I, flowing
through it.
A resistor is used to control the current flowing through, and the voltage drop across, parts of a circuit.
A switch stops or allows the flow of electricity through a circuit.
A thermistor is a device that has a resistance which changes with a change in temperature.
A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference.
Resources

Investigation 3.1
The Van de Graaff generator
Aim: To investigate electrostatic charge
Investigation 3.2
Energy transferred by an electric current
Aim: To calculate how much energy is transformed from electrical potential
energy into the internal energy of a load
Teacher-led video tlvd-0807
Investigation 3.3
The current-versus-voltage characteristics of a light globe
Aim: To design and construct a circuit that will enable you to find the current
through the globe for a suitable range of voltages
Investigation 3.4
Dependence of resistance on length of resistance wire
Aim: To investigate how the resistance of a resistance wire varies with length
Investigation 3.5
Ohmic and non-ohmic devices
Aim: To explore the resistance properties of a resistor and a light globe
Teacher-led video tlvd-0810
Resources

3.7 Exercises

1. Which best describes the transfer of electrical energy in a circuit?
A. Electric charge is moved in the direction of the current.
B. Free electrons pass all the way through the circuit to the load.
C. Free electrons dissipate their energy.
D. The battery pushes positive charges through the circuit.
2. Electron charge was removed from an object. Which of the following could represent the amount of
charge removed?
A. 1.5 × 10−19 C
B. 3.0 × 10−19 C
C. 4.8 × 10−19 C
D. 5.4 × 10−19 C
3. For 25 seconds a battery supplies a constant current of 5.0 A to a circuit. What best represents the
amount of charge leaving the battery?
A. 0 C
B. 0.20 C
C. 5.0 C
D. 125 C
4. In the circuit shown which best describes the current passing through the ammeter?
24 W
A
12 V
Zero, the current is used up in the 24 W load.

A.
The current is 2 A.
B.
C. Zero, the switch is open.
D. The current is non-constant.
5. The current and voltage for an object in a circuit was collected and plotted on a graph.
4
Voltage (V)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Current (A)

What is the resistance of this object?
A. 0.60 Ω
B. 0.67 Ω
C. 1.50 Ω
D. 1.70 Ω
6. Each electron is given 1.44 × 10−18 joules of energy by a battery. What is the elecromotive force
provided by the battery?
A. 1.5 V
B. 3.0 V
C. 9.0 V
D. 11 V
7. A 240 V rice cooker draws a current of 1.25 A. How much energy is provided to the cooker in
1 minute?
A. 19.2 J
B. 300 J
C. 3.6 kJ
D. 18 kJ
8. At what rate is a 7.2 V battery supplying energy to a tablet device when it is drawing a current of
1200 mA?
A. 6.0 J
B. 6.0 W
C. 8.6 J
D. 8.6 W
9. When a 240 V microwave rated at 1200 W is operating what is the current?
A. 5.0 mA
B. 6.0 mA
C. 5.0 A
D. 48.0 A
10. For the microwave described in question 9 what is the total resistance when operating?
A. 5 Ω
B. 6 Ω
C. 20 Ω
D. 48 Ω

1. During a storm a lightning bolt discharges 3 million kJ of energy to Earth in 0.75 ms. The discharge
involves the movement of 15 C of charge. What is the potential difference between the lightning source
and Earth?
2. Consider a 3.0 V battery.
a. How much energy does it supply to:
i. one electron
ii. one coulomb of charge?
b. The battery is used in a mobile telephone. A 1-minute conversation uses the energy transferred by
0.04 C of charge. At what rate is energy being transferred to the telephone?
3. An electric kettle operating off a 240 V power supply uses 2.7 kW when boiling water.
a. What is the current in the kettle?
b. When the kettle is on for 2.5 minutes how much energy does it use?
4. a. What is the voltage drop across a 44 Ω resistor carrying a current of 2.5 A?
b. What would be the effect of connecting the same resistor to a larger power supply?

5. A children’s toy comprises a 9 V battery, a switch and an electric motor in a simple circuit as shown in
the following figure. The motor is labelled ‘9 V, 25 mA’.
A F
Motor
B C
When the switch is closed:

a. What is the maximum rate at which the battery can supply energy to the motor?
b. By copying the axes shown, sketch a graph showing the energy held by a coulomb of charge as it
moves around the circuit from A to F, then returning to A.
Voltage (V) or energy per
9
coulomb charge
0
A B C D E F A
c. By copying the axes shown, complete the graph for current around the circuit.
40
Current (A)
30
20
10
0
A B C D E F A
What is the resistance of the motor when operating at its maximum capacity?
d.
6. A handheld fan is powered by two 1.5 V batteries. When tested at room temperature 15 C of charge
flowed through it every minute.
a. What was the current in the device?
b. What is the resistance of the device?
c. At what rate is the device using energy?
7. A circuit comprises a 1.2 kW heating element, a switch and a voltage source.
a. Draw a circuit diagram demonstrating how to measure both the voltage across the heater and the
current flowing through it?
b. If the voltage supplied is 240 V, what is the current passing through the heater?

8. The voltage supplied to a tungsten globe is varied. The current and the potential difference across the
lamp are measured and the results plotted in the following graph.
0.4
Current (A)
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Voltage (V)
Calculate the resistance of the globe when the current is 0.2 A.

a.
Would you describe the globe as ohmic or non-ohmic? Justify your answer.
b.
9. The following graph shows the current versus voltage relationship
for a non-ohmic device. 60
a. What is a non-ohmic device?
50
b. What is the current through the device when the voltage
Current (mA)
drop across it is 0.3 V? 40
c. What is the resistance of this device when the voltage
30
drop across it is 0.3 V?
10. a. What is the resistance of an 800 W toaster when a 20
current of 3.3 A is flowing? 10
b. If it takes 40 seconds to brown the toast, how much
energy is used? 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Voltage (V)

To model the energy supply, current and load in an electrical circuit a teacher and students stand in a circle
loosely holding a loop of rope. The teacher models the energy supply by pulling the rope around while the
students act as conductors by allowing the rope to readily move through their hands. One student, Luke, is
asked to represent a globe in the circuit by making it more difficult for the rope to slide through his hands.
An observer suggests that in an electric circuit the electrons must make their way to the globe before it
lights up and that Luke must wait until the rope has travelled all the way from the teacher before he feels
the pull on the rope. In terms of both the model and how electricity behaves in a circuit explain whether you
agree or disagree with the observer.

Use the following circuit diagram to answer the questions.
24 V
72 W
a. Draw an arrow to show the direction of the electron current. 1 mark

b. Show where you would connect an ammeter to measure the current flowing through the globe. 1 mark
c. Calculate the current flowing in the circuit. 1 mark
d. When the switch is closed what is the voltage drop across it? 1 mark
e. Show where you would connect a voltmeter to confirm your prediction of the voltage drop across the
switch. 1 mark
f. Explain what happens when the switch is opened. 1 mark
An unknown electrical component is labelled ‘3.0 V, 2.4 W DC ONLY’.
4.0
Voltage (V)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0 0.5 1.0
Current (A)
a. Describe what DC ONLY means. 1 mark

b. What is the maximum current that the component can safely tolerate? 1 mark
c. A student places another component in a simple circuit to measure its voltage current characteristics,
recording the results as shown in the following graph. Calculate the resistance when the current
is 600 mA. 1 mark
An electric drill has a rechargeable 18 V battery that can store up to 6 MJ. When fully discharged it takes
the battery 8 hours to fully recharge.
a. Calculate the total charge needed to fully charge the battery. 1 mark
b. Calculate the average current drawn when charging the battery. 1 mark

The following graph shows the current-versus-voltage characteristic for an electronic device.
20
Current (mA)
10
0 0.5 1.0
Voltage (V)
a. Is this device ohmic or non-ohmic? Justify your answer. 1 mark

b. What is the current through the device when the voltage drop across it is 0.5 V? 1 mark
c. What is the resistance of the device when the voltage drop across it is 0.5 V? 1 mark
d. Estimate the rate at which energy is being used when the voltage drop across it is 0.5 V. 1 mark

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
4 Circuit analysis
4.1 Overview
4.1.1 Introduction
In topic 3, an electric circuit was described as a number of electrical conductors connected to form a
conducting path. A circuit can contain one or more sources of emf (electromotive force) to provide energy
to the circuit.
If the conductors form a continuous closed path through which a current can circulate, the circuit is said
to be a closed circuit, as shown in figure 4.1. If there is a break in the path so that charge cannot flow, for
example at a switch, the circuit is said to be an open circuit.
In many simple electric circuits, electrical energy is used for heating one or more loads. The temperature
increase in a load occurs because the charge carriers make repeated collisions with the atoms in the load.
This increases the internal energy of the load and its temperature rises. The electrical energy transformed in
the load originally came from some source of emf, for example a battery, laboratory power pack or power
point in the home. Examples of this type of circuit include a torch (where the conductor in the filament
gets so hot that it emits light), a toaster plugged into a power point and a car demister circuit. The current
flowing in these circuits depends on the resistance of the loads. The torch globe, the heating element in the
toaster and other loads make it difficult for a current to flow. In this topic you will look at what happens in
different types of electric circuits and in the devices within these circuits.
FIGURE 4.1 Decorative lights that are connected in series, such as those on the
Melbourne Star Observation Wheel, can contain shunts which allow the circuit to remain
closed if the filament breaks.

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• model resistance in series and parallel circuits using
• resistance as the potential difference to current ratio, including R = constant for ohmic devices
• equivalent effective resistance in arrangements in
– series: RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
1 1 1 1
– parallel: = + + ... +
RT R1 R2 Rn
• calculate and analyse the effective resistance of circuits comprising parallel and series resistance and
voltage dividers
• compare power transfers in series and parallel circuits.
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically concepts of current, resistance, potential difference
(voltage drop) and power to the operation of electronic circuits comprising resistors, light bulbs, diodes,
thermistors, light dependent resistors (LDRs), light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and potentiometers (quantitative
V
analysis restricted to use of I = and P = VI)
R
• investigate practically the operation of simple circuits containing resistors, variable resistors, diodes and
other non-ohmic devices
• describe energy transfers and transformations with reference to transducers.

Resources
4.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Electric

circuit rules
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
• The sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal in magnitude to the sum of the currents flowing out
of that junction: Iin = Iout
• In any closed loop of an electrical circuit, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the sum of the emfs in
that loop.
TOPIC 4 Circuit analysis 113

4.2.1 Circuit diagrams
A circuit diagram shows schematically the devices used in constructing
FIGURE 4.2 A circuit diagram
an electrical circuit. Table 4.1 shows the symbols commonly used
in drawing circuits. Figure 4.2 is a diagram of a circuit comprising a
battery, switch and resistor.
TABLE 4.1 Symbols used in circuit diagrams
Circuit component Symbol Circuit component Symbol
Connection between Resistor with sliding

conductors contact to give a
variable resistance
Terminal Semiconductor
or
diode*
Conductors not or Single pole switch

connected* (open)
Conductors or Button switch (open)

connected*
Earth* Voltmeter
or V
Battery Ammeter
A
Variable power Incandescent lamp*

or or
supply*
Resistor Light-dependent
resistor (LDR)
or
Variable resistor* Thermistor

or (heat-dependent
resistor)
*The first of the two alternative symbols is used in this book.
4.2.2 Circuit rules

Accounting for electrons
Electric charge is conserved. At any point in a conductor, the amount of charge (usually electrons) flowing
into that point must equal the amount of charge flowing out of that point. Electrons do not build up at a
point in a conductor, nor will they magically disappear. You don’t get traffic jams in electric circuits.
In figure 4.3, Ia + Ic = Ib + Id + Ie .

“c04CircuitAnalysis_print” — 2019/10/17 — 20:38 — page 115 — #4
FIGURE 4.3 Five wires soldered at a junction
Ib
Ia
Ie
Ic
Id
The sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal in magnitude to the sum of the
currents flowing out of that junction:
Iin = Iout
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the unknown current in the
following figure, showing currents meeting at a junction. 1.0 A
2.5 A
1.3 A
4.0 A
1.0 A + 4.0 A = 5.0 A

THINK WRITE
1. From the diagram, calculate the total currents
2.5 A + 1.3 A = 3.8 A

flowing into the junction.
2. From the diagram, calculate the total currents
3. Recall that Iin = Iout . The unknown values must be Iin = Iout
flowing out of the junction.
5.0 A = 3.8 A + x
x = 5.0 A − 3.8 A
a flow out of the junction. Solve for the unknown
= 1.2 A
current out of the junction.
4. State the solution. The unknown current flowing out of the

junction is 1.2 A.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Find the unknown current at the junction in the following figure. State the 3.0 A
1.5 A
direction of the current in each case.
Ia
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Find the values of currents a, b, c, d, e and f as marked in the following figure.
f
E
6.5 mA e
d D C 2.1 mA
c
b
B
A
7.9 mA a
15.3 mA
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula Iin = Iout . Iin = Iout
2. Determine the current at each junction. 15.3 mA = 7.9 mA + a
a = 15.3 mA − 7.9 mA
a = 7.4 mA
7.9 mA + 7.4 mA = b
b = 15.3 mA
15.3 mA = c + 2.1 mA
c = 15.3 mA − 2.1 mA
c = 13.2 mA
13.2 mA = d + 6.5 mA
d = 13.2 mA − 6.5 mA
d = 6.7 mA
2.1 mA = e
e = 2.1 mA
d + 6.5 mA + e = f
f = 6.7 mA + 6.5 mA + 2.1 mA
f = 15.3 mA
3. State the solution. The values of the currents are:
a = 7.4 mA, b = 15.3 mA, c = 13.2 mA,
d = 6.7 mA, e = 2.1 mA, f = 15.3 mA.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Find the values of currents a and b as marked in the following figure.
11.1 A
3.0 A b 5.7 A
B
4.2.3 Conservation of electrical energy

Around a circuit electrical energy must be conserved.
In any closed loop of a circuit, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the sum of the
emfs in that loop.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Calculate the unknown voltage drop Vbc in the following figure.
a
Vab = 5.2 V
V = 9.0 V
b
Vbc
THINK WRITE
1. This circuit is a closed loop and the sum of the V = the sum of the voltage drops
voltage drops within it must equal the voltage V = 9.0 V
supplied by the battery. 9.0 V = Vab + Vbc
= 5.2 V + Vbc
Vbc = 3.8 V
2. State the solution. The unknown voltage drop is 3.8 V.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Calculate the unknown voltage drop Vab in the following figure.
4.8 V
V
12 V
Vab
4.2 EXERCISE
1. Explain what is meant by the following terms, as they relate to electric circuits.
(a) Junction
(b) Current
(c) Voltage drop
(d) Conductor
2. Find the missing currents in the following figures. State the direction of the current in each case.
(a) (b)
2.9 A
Ib 7.3 A
1.3 A 3.7 A
2.8 A Ic 4.2 A
3. Calculate the voltages Vcd and Vef in the following figure.
24V f
d
Vef Vcd
c
e
b
Vab = 8V

4.3 Series and parallel circuits
KEY CONCEPTS
• Model resistance in series and parallel circuits using:
• resistance as the potential difference to current ratio, including R = constant for ohmic devices
• equivalent effective resistance in arrangements in
– series: RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
1 1 1 1
– parallel: = + + ... +
RT R1 R2 Rn
• calculate and analyse the effective resistance of circuits comprising parallel and series resistance and
voltage dividers.
There are two ways in which circuit elements can be connected: in series and in parallel.
When devices are connected in series, they are joined together one after the other. There is only one path
for the current to take.
When devices are connected in parallel, they are joined together so that there is more than one path for
the current to flow through.
Many devices can be connected in series and parallel. These include resistors and cells.
4.3.1 Resistors in series

When a number of resistors are placed in series, some basic
FIGURE 4.4 Resistors connected in series
rules can be derived.
There is only one path for the current to flow through. R1 R2 R3
Therefore, in figure 4.4, the current in R1 equals the current
in R2 and in R3 . I1 refers to the current in R1 ; I2 to the I
current in R2, and so on. Similarly, V1 is the voltage drop
across R1 ; V2 is the voltage drop across R2 , and so on.
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Since V = IR:
V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
The total voltage drop, VT , across resistors in series is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across each
individual resistor.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
⇒ VT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
⇒ VT = I(R1 + R2 + R3 )
Since VT = IRT (where RT is the effective resistance of all three resistors), the effective resistance
offered by resistors in series is found by obtaining the sum of the individual resistances:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
This means that the effective resistance of a circuit is increased by adding an extra resistor in series with
the others. The resistance of a series circuit is greater than that for any individual resistor.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Find the effective resistance of a circuit comprising three resistors, having resistance values of
15 Ω, 25 Ω and 34 Ω, connected in series.
THINK WRITE
i
1. When connected in series the effective resistance RT = ∑ Ri
of the circuit is equal to the sum of the individual 1
resistors.
2. Substitute the resistance values. RT = 15 Ω + 25 Ω + 34 Ω
3. Calculate the effective resistance. RT = 74 Ω
4. State the solution. The effective resistance of circuit is 74 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Find the effective resistance of a circuit comprising three resistors, having resistance values of 1.2 kΩ,
5.6 kΩ and 7.1 kΩ.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
a
In the series circuit in the figure on the right, the
emf of the power supply is 100 V; the current at point R1
a, Ia , equals 1 A; and the value of R2 is 60 Ω. Find the: b
a. current at point b
b. voltage drop across R2
ε R2
c. voltage drop across R1
d. value of R1 .
THINK WRITE
a. The current is the same at all points along the series a. Ib = 1A
circuit. Therefore, the current at point b, Ib , is 1 A.
b. Substitute known values in the equation for the b. V2 = IR2
voltage drop across the resistor, V2 = IR2 . = 1 A × 60 Ω
= 60 V
c. This is a series circuit so the voltage of the battery c. 𝜀 = V1 + V2
equals the sum of the voltage drops around the 100 V = V1 + 60 V
circuit. So 𝜀 = V1 + V2 . V1 = 40 V
d. The resistance can be found using the relationship d. V1 = IR1
V1 = IR1 and making R the subject. 40 V = 1 A × R1
R1 = 40 Ω

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5 0.6 A
R1
A 24 V battery supplies the energy to two objects a
connected in a series circuit as shown in the figure on
the right.
The current at point a, Ia , is 0.6 A and the value of the
24 V b
known resistor is 15 Ω. Find the:
a. current at point b
b. voltage drop across the known resistor
c. voltage drop across the unknown resistor, R1
c
d. value of R1 . 15 Ω
4.3.2 Resistors in parallel

In a parallel branch of a circuit, there is more than one path for the current to flow through.
The total current flowing into the parallel section of a circuit equals the sum of the individual currents
flowing through each resistor.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
As can be seen in figure 4.5, the left-hand sides of all the resistors are connected to point A, so they
are all at the same voltage. This means that all charges on that side of the resistors have the same amount
of electrical potential energy. Similarly, the right-hand sides of the resistors are connected to point B,
therefore, they also are at the same voltage. This means that each resistor in a parallel section of a circuit
has the same voltage drop across it.
VT = V1 = V2 = V3
FIGURE 4.5 A parallel branch of a circuit
I1 R1
A B
IT R2 IT
I2
I3 R3
In a parallel section of a circuit, the total current equals the sum of the individual currents and the voltage
drops across each resistor are the same. It is possible to derive an expression for the effective resistance, RT ,
of a parallel section of a circuit.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V V
⇒ = + +
RT R1 R2 R3
V
(since I = for each resistor and the whole section of the circuit)
R

Dividing both sides of the expression for the effective resistance by V gives:
⇒ = + +
1 1 1 1
RT R1 R2 R3
This means that the reciprocal of the effective resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
The effective resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance. The more resistors there are added
in parallel, the more paths there are for the current to flow through, and the easier it is for the current to flow
through the parallel section.
Modelling resistors in parallel
One way to help understand this concept is to use the hydraulic model. Current is represented by water
flowing in a pipe. Resistors are represented as thin pipes. The thinner the pipe, the greater the resistance;
therefore, less water can flow in the circuit. A conductor is represented by a large pipe through which water
flows easily. The source of emf is represented by a pump that supplies energy to the circuit.
If there is only one thin pipe, as in figure 4.6a, it limits the flow of water. Adding another thin pipe beside
the first, as in figure 4.6b, allows more water to flow. The total resistance offered by the two thin pipes in
parallel is less than that offered by an individual thin pipe.
FIGURE 4.6 The hydraulic model for resistors in parallel showing (a) a circuit with one ‘resistor’ and (b) a second
‘resistor’ added in parallel, which allows more current to flow and reduces the effective resistance
(a) (b)
Pump Pump
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Exploring resistors in parallel with a spreadsheet (doc-0047)
Weblinks DC circuit water analogy
Simple electric circuits
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
What is the effective resistance of three resistors connected in parallel if they have resistance
values of 5.0 Ω, 10 Ω and 20 Ω?
= + +
THINK WRITE
RT 5.0 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω
1 1 1 1
1. The three resistors are connected in parallel, so
substitute the known values in:
= + +
1 1 1 1
RT R1 R2 R3

1 4 2 1
2. Solve for RT . ⇒ = + +
RT 20 Ω 20 Ω 20 Ω
1 7
⇒ =
RT 20 Ω
20 Ω
⇒ RT = = 2.9 Ω
7
3. State the solution. The effective resistance of the three
resistors connected in parallel is 2.9 Ω.
Note: The effective resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel is always less than
the value of the smallest resistor used. Adding resistors in parallel increases the number of
paths for current to flow through, so more current can flow and the resistance is reduced.
R
If there are n resistors of equal value, R, the effective resistance, RT , will be RT = .
n
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Four resistors having values of 5 Ω, 5 Ω, 15 Ω and 20 Ω are connected in parallel. Calculate their
effective resistance.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Consider the parallel circuit shown in the following figure. V=9V
The emf of the power supply is 9.0 V, R2 has a resistance of
10 Ω and the current flowing through the power supply is 1.35 A. Find:
a. the voltage drop across R1 and R2 IT = 1.35 A
b. I2 , the current flowing through R2 I1
c. I1 , the current flowing through R1
R1
d. the resistance of R1 I2
e. the effective resistance of the circuit.
R2 = 10 Ω
THINK WRITE
a. 1. For a parallel circuit, V1 = V2. a. V1 = V2 = 9 V
2. State the solution. The voltage drop across R1 and R2 is 9 V.
V
b. 1. Find the current in the resistor using the b. I2 =
relationship V = IR and making I the subject. R2
9V
⇒ I2 = = 0.90 A
10 Ω
State the solution.
2. I2 , the current flowing through R2 , is 0.90 A.
c. 1. Recall the formula for the current leaving the c. IT = I1 + I2
battery.
2. Make I1 the subject and substitute the known I1 = IT − I2
values. = 1.35 A − 0.90 A
= 0.45 A

3. State the solution. I1 , the current flowing through R1 , is 0.45 A.
V
d. 1. Find the resistance by transposing the formula d. R1 =
V = IR to make R the subject. I1
9V
⇒ R1 =
0.45 A
R1 = 20 Ω
2. State the solution. The resistance of R1 is 20 Ω.
1 1 1
e. 1. The resistors are in parallel. e. = +
RT R1 R2
1 1 1
2. Substitute the known values. ⇒ = +
RT 10 Ω 20 Ω
1 3
⇒ =
RT 20 Ω
20 Ω
3. RT is the reciprocal. ⇒ RT =
3
= 6.7 Ω
4. State the solution. The effective resistance of the circuit is 6.7 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7 24 V
Consider the parallel circuit shown in the figure on the right.

The emf of the power supply is 24 V and the heater R1 0.8 A
has a resistance of 40 Ω. When the switch is closed the
current flowing is 0.8 A. Find:
a. the voltage drop across R1 and R2
b. I1 , the current flowing through R1 I1
c. I2 , the current flowing through R2 R1 = 40 Ω
d. the resistance of R2
e. the effective resistance of the circuit.
R2
I2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
Find the effective resistance when a 10.0 Ω resistor is placed in parallel with a 10.0 kΩ resistor.
THINK WRITE
1 1 1
1. The two resistors are connected in parallel, so = +
substitute the known values in: RT R1 R2
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
RT R1 R2 10.0 Ω 10 000 Ω

1000 1
= +
10 000 Ω 10 000 Ω
1001
=
10 000 Ω
10 000 Ω
2. The reciprocal gives the value of the resistance. RT =
1001
= 9.99 Ω
3. State the solution. The effective resistance is 9.99 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Find the effective resistance when a 1.2 kΩ resistor is placed in parallel with a 4.8 kΩ resistor.
Note: Adding a large resistance in parallel with a small resistance slightly reduces the effective resistance
of that part of a circuit.
Parallel circuits are used extensively. Australian households are wired in parallel with an AC voltage of
230 V. This is equivalent to a DC voltage of 230 V, and all the formulae that have been presented so far can
be used for analysing AC circuits.
The advantage of having parallel circuits is that all appliances have the same voltage across them and
the appliances can be switched on independently. If appliances were connected in series, they would all be
on or off at the same time; and they would share the voltage between them, so no appliance would receive
the full voltage. This would present problems when designing the devices, as it would not be known what
voltage to allow for.
Car lights, front and rear, are wired in parallel for the same reason. If one lamp ‘blows’, the other lamps
will continue functioning normally.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 4.1 Series circuits (doc-31866)
Investigation 4.2 Parallel circuits (doc-31867)
4.3.3 Short circuits

A short circuit occurs in a circuit when a conductor of negligible resistance is placed in parallel with a
circuit element. This element may be a resistor or a globe. The result of a short circuit is that virtually all
the current flows through the conductor and practically none flows through the circuit element. Because
there is effectively no voltage drop across the wire, there is also no voltage drop across the circuit element
and no current flows through it. Think of what would happen in the hydraulic model if a conducting pipe
were placed beside a thin pipe. This situation is represented in both ways in figure 4.7.
In this case, the current through the power supply passes through R1 , but then flows through the short
circuit, effectively avoiding R2 and R3 .

FIGURE 4.7 (a) Circuit diagram showing a short circuit (b) Hydraulic model of a short circuit
(a) R1 (b)
R1
R2
R2
Short
Pump circuit
R3
R3
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The following figure shows a 10 kΩ resistor that has been short circuited with a conductor of 0 Ω
resistance. Calculate the effective resistance of this arrangement.
R1 = 0 R2 = 10 kΩ
= +
THINK WRITE
1 1 1
1. The two resistors are connected in parallel, so
RT R1 R2
= + = +
substitute the known values in:
0 Ω 10 000 Ω
1 1 1 1 1
=∞
RT R1 R2
⇒ RT = 0 Ω
The effective resistance is 0 Ω.
2. The reciprocal gives the value of the resistance.
3. State the solution.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
500 Ω resistor.
Find the effective resistance when a 1.2 kΩ resistor is placed in parallel with a 4.8 kΩ resistor and a

4.3.4 The voltage divider
The voltage divider is an example of resistors in series. It is used to divide or reduce a voltage to a value
needed for a part of the circuit. A voltage divider is used in many control circuits, for example, turning on
the heating in a house when the temperature drops.
The voltage divider has an input voltage, Vin , and an output voltage, Vout .
A general voltage divider is shown in figure 4.8.
FIGURE 4.8 A general voltage
The current, I, flowing through R1 and R2 is the same since R1 and divider
R2 are in series.
Vin = I (R1 + R2 )
R1
Vin
⇒I=
R1 + R2
Vin
Vout = IR2
R2 Vout
Vin
⇒ Vout = × R2
R1 + R2
This can be rewritten as:

[ ]
R2
Vout = Vin
R1 + R2
More generally:
[ ]
resistance across which V out is taken R
V out = V in = out V in
sum of all resistances Rtotal
If R1 and R2 are equal in value, the voltage will be divided equally across both resistors. If R1 is much
greater than R2 , then most of the voltage drop will be across R1 .
Resources
Digital document Investigation 4.3 Determining emf and internal resistance (doc-31868)
Teacher-led video Investigation 4.3 Determining emf and internal resistance (tlvd-0813)
Interactivity Voltage dividers (int-6392)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the value of the unknown resistor in the voltage divider shown in the following figure, if
the output voltage is required to be 4.0 V.

6.0 V
R1 = 2.2 kΩ
R2
Vout
0V
THINK WRITE
R2 Vin
1. Substitute known values in the formula, Vout =
RV R1 + R2
Vout = 2 in for a two resistor voltage divider. 6.0 V × R2
R1 + R2 ⇒ 4.0 V =
2.2 kΩ + R2
8.8 kΩV + 4.0 VR2 = 6.0 VR2
2. Solve by making R2 the subject. 2.0 V R2 = 8.8 kΩ V
R2 = 4.4 kΩ
3. State the solution. The value of the unknown resistor in
the voltage divider is 4.4 kΩ.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the value of the unknown resistor in the voltage divider in sample problem 10 if the output
voltage is to be 1.5 V.
4.3 EXERCISE
1. Find the effective resistance of the following sets of resistors if they are connected in series.
(a) 2.7 Ω, 9.8 Ω
(b) 12 Ω, 20 Ω, 30 Ω
(c) 1.2 kΩ, 3.2 kΩ, 11 kΩ
2. Find the voltage at the points a, b, c and d in the following figure, given that Vbc is 5.0 V.
a
c
V = 9.0 V

3. Find the unknown quantities in the series circuit shown in the following figure.
Ia
R1 = 4.0 Ω
V = 6.0 V V1
R2 V2
1.0 A
4. Find the effective resistance when the following resistors are connected in parallel.
(a) 30 Ω, 20 Ω
(b) 5.0 Ω, 10 Ω, 30 Ω
(c) 15 Ω, 60 Ω, 60 Ω
5. Two 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals of a 15 V battery.
(a) What is the effective resistance of the circuit?
(b) What current flows in the circuit?
(c) What is the current through each resistor?
6. Three resistors of 60 Ω, 30 Ω and 20 Ω are connected in parallel across a 90 V power source as shown in
the following figure.
ε = 90 V 60 Ω 30 Ω 20 Ω
(a) Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit.

(b) Find the current flowing through the source.
(c) What is the current flowing through each resistor?
7. Find the unknown quantities in the parallel circuit shown in the following figure.
Ia
I1 I2
V1 R1 = V2
V = 6.0 V R
6.0 Ω 2
1.5 A
8. Three resistors, having resistance values of 6 Ω, 18 Ω and 9 Ω, are connected in parallel across a 36 V
power supply.
(a) What current flows through each resistor?
(b) What total current flows in the circuit?
(c) What is the effective resistance of the circuit?
9. The following figure shows an arrangement of switches and globes connected to a source of emf.
G2 S3 S4
S2
S1 G3
G1

Which globes would light up if the following sets of switches are closed?
(a) Switch S2 only
(b) Switch S3 only
(c) Switch S4 only
10. (a) Find the output voltage for the voltage divider shown in circuit (a).
(b) What is the output voltage of circuit (b) if a load of resistance 4.4 kΩ is connected across the output
terminals of the voltage divider?
(a) (b)
R1 = 2.2 kΩ R1 = 2.2 kΩ
Vin = 6.0 V Vin = 9.0 V
Vout Vout
R2 = 2.2 kΩ R2 = 4.4 kΩ
4.4 Non-ohmic devices in series and parallel

KEY CONCEPTS
• Calculate and analyse the effective resistance of circuits comprising parallel and series resistance and
voltage dividers.
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically concepts of current, resistance, potential difference
(voltage drop) and power to the operation of electronic circuits comprising resistors, light bulbs, diodes,
thermistors, light dependent resistors (LDRs), light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and potentiometers (quantitative
V
analysis restricted to use of I = and P = VI).
R
• Investigate practically the operation of simple circuits containing resistors, variable resistors, diodes and
other non-ohmic devices.
• Describe energy transfers and transformations with reference to transducers.
4.4.1 Non-ohmic devices

Non-ohmic devices do not obey Ohm’s Law. Their current-versus-voltage characteristics can be presented
graphically.
V
The value of is not constant for non-ohmic devices.
I
The rules for series and parallel circuits still apply when analysing circuits containing non-ohmic devices,
such as light bulbs, diodes, thermistors, light dependent resistors (LDRs) and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Devices in series have the same current and share the voltage. Devices in parallel have the same voltage
and the current is shared between them. The actual values of the voltage or current are obtained from the
current-versus-voltage (V–I) graphs for the devices.

FIGURE 4.9 Current-versus-voltage characteristic for a silicon diode
80
60
Current (mA)
40
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Voltage drop across diode
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
The following figure shows the current-versus-voltage graph
5
for two electrical devices. X
Current (A)
4
If X and Y are in parallel and the current through X is 2 A, Y
3
calculate:
a. the voltage across Y 2
b. the current through Y. 1

0
5 10 15 20 25
Voltage drop (V)
THINK WRITE
a. As X and Y are in parallel, the voltage a. When the current through X is 2 A, the voltage is
across X equals the voltage across Y. Use 10 V, so the voltage across Y is also 10 V.
the graph to find the values.
b. Again use the graph. b. When the voltage across Y is 10 V, the current
through Y is seen to be 3 A.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
The following figures show two electrical devices, A and B, connected in a simple circuit and the
current-versus-voltage graph for A and B.
A
100
80
I (mA)
A B 60
40
20
B
0
2 4 6 8 10
V
When the current through A is 80 mA, calculate:

a. the voltage across B
b. the current through B.
4.4.2 Transducers and sensors

Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another. They can be affected by, or can
affect, the environment. The word transducer comes from the Latin for ‘to lead across’. Table 4.2 lists a
range of transducers and their energy conversions.
TABLE 4.2 Examples of transducers
Transducer Energy conversion

From To
Solar cell Light Electrical
Loudspeaker Electrical Sound
Microphone Sound Electrical
LED Electrical Light
Antenna Electromagnetic Electrical
Thermocouple Heat energy (temp. difference) Electrical
Peltier cooler Electrical Heat energy (temp. difference)
Piezoelectric gas lighter* Stored mechanical energy due to pressure Electrical
*The piezoelectric effect is also used in strain gauges to measure the stress in construction materials and in the accelerometers found
in video game controllers and guidance systems.
Sensors are a subset of transducers where the energy conversion is to electrical, that is, to a variation
in voltage. Some sensors generate the voltage directly, for example, piezoelectric devices. Other sensors
whose resistance changes, such as LDRs and thermistors, use a voltage divider circuit.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
The resistance of a thermistor changes with temperature as shown in the following graph. In the
voltage divider circuit shown, the thermistor is one of the two resistors; the other is a resistor
with a fixed resistance value.
9.0 V
Resistance (kΩ)
2
R
1
Voltage
sensitive switch
0 0V
20 40 60
Temperature (°C)
As the temperature drops, the resistance of the thermistor increases. As the thermistor’s
resistance increases, its share of the voltage from the power supply also increases, while that of
the fixed value resistor will decrease.
A voltage sensitive switch is placed across the thermistor. It is built to turn on a heater when
the voltage across the thermistor is greater than 6 V. Your task as the circuit designer is to
determine the resistance value required for the fixed-value resistor to turn on the heater at 19 °C.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the resistance of the thermistor at From the graph, at 19 °C the thermistor has a
19 °C using the graph. resistance
[ of 1.5 ]kΩ (1500 Ω).
R2
2. Substitute the resistance into the voltage Vout = Vin
divider equation. R1 + R2
1.5 kΩ
[ ]
6V = × 9V
R + 1.5 kΩ
3. Solve for R. 6 × (R + 1500) = 1500 × 9
6R + 9000 = 13 500
6R = 4500
R = 750 Ω
4. State the solution. The resistance required for the fixed-value
resistor to turn on the heater at 19 °C is 750 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
The resistance-versus-temperature characteristics of a 3
thermistor are shown in the following graph. The thermistor
R (kΩ)
is connected in parallel with a fixed resistor similar to that 2

shown in the circuit in sample problem 12.
The switch across the thermistor is designed to turn on a
1
warning light when the voltage across the thermistor is 4 V or
greater. Determine the resistance value required for the fixed
value resistor to turn on the warning light at 20 °C. 0
10 20 30 40 50
T (°C)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
To reduce the heating bill from the heater in sample problem 12, it is decided that the heater
should be turned on when the temperature is below 18 °C. Should the value of the fixed-value
resistor be increased or decreased? Explain.
THINK WRITE
The voltage to turn on the switch will still be 6 V, so the The resistance must be increased.
voltage across the two resistors will be unchanged. The
ratio of their resistance values will therefore also be the
same. From the graph in sample problem 12 it can be
seen that at 18 °C the thermistor’s resistance will be
greater than it was at 19 °C. So to keep the ratio the
same, R must increase.
This can also be explained using current. As the
resistance of the thermistor is higher at the lower
temperature, there will be less current through both
resistors. As the voltage drop across R is to remain the
same, its resistance will need to be greater (V = IR).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
The thermistor and voltage sensitive switch from sample problem 12 are to be used for a cooling
system. The cooling system is to turn on when the temperature is greater than 24 °C. To which
resistor, the thermistor or the fixed resistor, should the voltage sensitive switch be connected so that
the voltage is greater than 6 V for temperatures greater than 24 °C? Explain. What should be the
value of the fixed resistor?
4.4.3 Potentiometers
A potentiometer, called a ‘pot’ for short,
FIGURE 4.10 (a) The symbol for a potentiometer
is a variable voltage divider. It consists of (b) A potentiometer
a fixed resistor, usually a length of wire,
with a contact that can slide up and down, (a) (b)
varying the amount of resistance in each
arm of the voltage divider.
Potentiometers are commonly used as
controls in radio equipment, either as a slide
control or in a rotary form. They are also
the basis of joysticks in game controls.

4.4 EXERCISE
1. The voltage-versus-current characteristic graph for a non-ohmic device
160
is shown on the right.
140
(a) What is the device’s current when the voltage drop across
Voltage (V)
120
it is 100 V? 100
(b) What is the voltage drop across the device when the current 80
through it is 16 mA? 60
(c) What is the resistance of the device when it carries a current 40
of 16 mA? 20
2. The device described in question 1 is placed in series with a 5.0 kΩ
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
resistor and a voltage drop is applied across the combination. This Current (mA)
arrangement is shown in the following figure.
The current in the resistor is measured to be 6.0 mA. Non-ohmic
(a) What is the voltage drop across the resistor? device R = 5.0 kΩ
(b) What is the current in the device? A
(c) What is the voltage drop across the device?
I = 6.0 mA
(d) What is the total voltage drop across the device and the resistor?
3. The device described in question 1 is now placed in parallel with a Non-ohmic device
5.0 kΩ resistor and a new voltage is applied across the combination.
This arrangement is shown in the figure on the right.
The current in the resistor is measured to be 20 mA.
(a) Calculate the voltage drop across the resistor.
(b) What is the voltage drop across the device?
(c) What is the current in the device?
(d) What is the total current in the circuit? IR = 20 mA
R = 5.0 kΩ
4.5 Power in circuits

KEY CONCEPT
• Compare power transfers in series and parallel circuits.
Recall that the power being used in a circuit element is the product of the voltage drop across it and
the current through it: P = VI. The total power being provided to a circuit is the sum of the power being
used in, or ‘dissipated by’, the individual elements in that circuit. It does not matter if the elements are
connected in series or in parallel.
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 = . . .

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14
A household electrical circuit is wired in parallel. Find the total current flowing in the circuit if
the following appliances are being used: a 600 W microwave oven, a 450 W toaster and a 1000 W
electric kettle. Household circuits provide a voltage drop of 230 V across each appliance.
THINK WRITE
1. The total power being used in the circuit is the sum PT = 600 + 450 + 1000 = 2050 W
of the power used in each component.
PT
2. Transpose the formula P = IV to make I the IT =
subject, then substitute the known values. V
2050 W
=
230 V
= 8.91 A
3. State the solution. The total current flowing in the circuit
is 8.91 A.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 14
A household electrical circuit is wired in parallel. Find the total current flowing through a household
circuit when the following devices are being used: a 400 W computer, a 200 W blender, a 500 W
television and a 60 W lamp.
4.5 EXERCISE
1. Three resistors of value 25 Ω, 15 Ω and 10 Ω are connected in series to a 10 V power supply.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit.
(b) What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
(c) At what rate is energy being transformed in each resistor?
(d) What is the total power rating of the circuit?
2. The three resistors in question 1 are connected in parallel.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit.
(b) What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
(c) At what rate is energy being transformed in each resistor?
(d) What is the total power rating of the circuit?
3. Design a dimmer switch circuit for a light. Does the circuit consume more power when the light is bright or
dull? Justify your answer.

4.6 Review
4.6.1 Summary
• An electric circuit is a closed conducting path containing a source of emf.
• In a series circuit the components are placed one after the other. There is only one path for the charge
carriers to flow through.
• In a series circuit the current is the same at all points; the sum of the potential drops is equal to the emf
of the circuit.
• The effective resistance of resistors placed in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
• In a parallel circuit, there is more than one path for the current to flow through.
• Resistors in parallel have the same potential difference across them; the current in each resistor adds
up to the total current flowing into the parallel branch.
• In a parallel arrangement of resistors, the reciprocal of the effective resistance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual resistances:
1 1 1
= +
RT R1 R2
• A short circuit occurs when a conductor of negligible resistance is placed in parallel with a circuit
element and stops current from flowing through it.
• Circuits containing non-ohmic devices can be analysed using the rules for series and parallel circuits
with their current-versus-voltage characteristic graphs.
• The total power used in a circuit equals the sum of the powers used in individual devices.
• A voltage divider is used to reduce an input voltage to some required value.
• A voltage divider consists of two or more resistors arranged in series to produce a smaller voltage at its
output.
• The output of a voltage divider can be calculated using the equation:
[ ]
R2
Vout = Vin
R1 + R2
• A transducer is a device that can be affected by, or affects, the environment.
Resources
4.6.2 Key terms

Electric charge is a basic property of matter. It occurs in two states: positive (+) charge and negative (−) charge.
(page 3)
Electromotive force is a measure of the energy supplied to a circuit for each coulomb of charge passing through
the power supply.

A load is a device where electrical energy is converted into other forms to perform tasks such as heating or
lighting.
Devices connected in parallel are joined together so that one end of each device is joined at a common point
and the other end of each device is joined at another common point.
through it.
Devices connected in series are joined together one after the other.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a device that has a resistance which varies with the amount of light
falling on it.
A potentiometer is a variable voltage divider, with a fixed resistor that can slide up and down.
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another form.
The voltage divider is used to reduce, or divide, a voltage to a value needed for a part of the circuit.
Resources
Investigation 4.1
Series circuits
Aim: To observe the voltage and current in a circuit set up in series
Investigation 4.2
Parallel circuits
Aim: To observe the voltage and current in a circuit with resistors set up in parallel
Investigation 4.3
Determining emf and internal resistance
Aim: To determine the emf and internal resistance of circuits with old and
new dry cells with resistors of varying resistances
Resources

4.6 Exercises

Use the following information to answer questions 1 to 3.
Three resistors of 20 Ω, 30 Ω and 50 Ω are connected in series across a 9.0 V battery.
1. What is the effective resistance of the three resistors?
A. 0.01 Ω B. 0.33 Ω C. 100 Ω D. 330 Ω
2. What current flows in the circuit?
A. 90 mA B. 27 mA C. 9 A D. 27 A
3. What is the total voltage drop across the circuit?
A. 0 V B. 0.09 V C. 9 V D. 900 V
Use the following information to answer questions 4 to 6.
Three resistors of 6 Ω, 18 Ω and 9 Ω are connected in parallel across a 36 V power supply.
4. What current flows through the 9 Ω resistor?
A. 2 A B. 4 A C. 6 A D. 12 A
5. What is the effective resistance of the circuit?
A. 3 Ω B. 4.5 Ω C. 12 Ω D. 33 Ω
6. What total current flows in the circuit?
A. 2 A B. 4 A C. 6 A D. 12 A
7. Three resistors of value 25 Ω, 15 Ω and 10 Ω are connected in series to
a 10 V power supply. What is the current in the circuit?
A. 0.20 A B. 0.40 A R
C. 0.70 A D. 1.0 A 20 V
A
8. In the circuit on the right what is the voltage drop between A and B?
A. 0 V B. 4 V 4R
C. 16 V D. 20 V B
9. What is the value of the resistor shown in the circuit on the right?
A. 3 kΩ B. 4 kΩ 3 kΩ
C. 6 kΩ D. 12 kΩ 6V
10. Which behaviour is more likely when a thermistor is connected in

R 4V
an electrical circuit?
A. The resistance of the thermistor increases as the operating
temperature increases.
B. The ratio of the voltage across the thermistor to the current flowing through it is constant.
C. When the potential difference across the thermistor is increased the current flowing through it is
also likely to increase.
D. The behaviour of the thermistor is not temperature dependent.

1. In the series circuit shown in the figure on the right, Vab = 20 V, R2 = 30 Ω, V
d
and Ia = 2.0 A.
a
Find values for:
a. Ib R1
b. Vbc b
c. R1
R2
d. R T , the effective resistance of the circuit
e. V, the emf of the battery. c

2. In the parallel circuit shown in the following figure, I1 = 0.20 A, a I1
R1
b
R1 = 60 Ω and IT = 0.50 A. ε
Find values for: I2

a. Vab c d
R2
b. Vcd
c. 𝜀
d. I2
e. R2 . IT
3. When the following circuit is powered by an 18 V power supply, what is the current through
the 6 Ω resistor?
18 V
6Ω
3Ω 12 Ω
4. Two lamps labelled as 12 V 9 W and 12 V 24 W are connected in parallel with a 12 V battery.

a. What is the effective resistance of the circuit?
b. Will the lamps be equally bright? Explain your answer.
5. Consider the following circuit.
20 Ω
24 V 60 Ω
What current passes through each resistor?

a.
How much power is dissipated in each resistor?
b.
The switch is now closed.
c. What current passes through each resistor?
d. How much power is dissipated in each resistor?
6. Some lighting circuits are controlled by two switches in different locations. Design a DC circuit to
show how this could be achieved.

7. Find the voltage drop between A and B in each of the following voltage divider circuits.
(a) (b)
60 Ω 20 Ω
10 V 9V
A A
40 Ω 30 Ω
B B
40 Ω
8. Find the value of the unknown resistor in the voltage dividers shown.
(a) (b)
10 kΩ R
10 V 9.0 V
R 2.5 V 5.0 kΩ 6.0 V
9. A student connects a variable resistor and a lamp in series in a circuit to a fixed power supply.
a. What will happen in the lamp as the resistance of the variable resistor is increased?
b. As the resistance of the variable resistor is increased will the power consumed in the circuit change?
Justify your answer.
The lamp and the variable resistor are now connected in parallel.
c. What will happen in the lamp as the resistance of the variable resistor is increased?
d. What will happen to the power consumed in the circuit?
10. A thermistor has the temperature-versus-resistance characteristic shown by the bottom curve in the
following graph. It is placed in the voltage divider shown in the circuit diagram.
+9.0 V
100 000
R1
10 000
Resistance (Ω)
1000 R2 = thermistor
Vout
0V
100
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (°C)
a. What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 150 °C?
b. What is the value of the variable resistor if the temperature is 200 °C and Vout is 6 V?

Consider two people connected in series with a 25 V source across them. The first person, R1 , has a
resistance of 1000 Ω and the second person, R2 , has a resistance of 1500 Ω.
a. Determine the current through each person. 1 mark
b. What is the voltage drop across each person? 1 mark
The two people now connect themselves in parallel with the 25 V power source.
c. Determine the current through each person. 2 marks
d. What is the voltage drop across each person? 1 mark
Prove mathematically that the resistance of a short-circuited resistor branch is 0.
Consider the circuit on the right.
a. Find the value of the unknown resistor. 1 mark
b. What is the power of the circuit? 1 mark R
9V
b
5 kΩ 8 Vout
The resistor is now replaced by a variable resistor as shown.

c. What happens to the voltage drop Vab , when the resistance
of the variable resistor decreases and the other resistance
is unchanged? 1 mark

A thermistor has the temperature-versus-resistance characteristics shown by the top curve in the following
graph. It is placed in the voltage divider shown in the following circuit diagram.
+9.0 V
100 000
R1
10 000
R2 = Thermistor
Vout
Resistance (Ω)
1000 0V
100
10
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)
a. What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 200 °C? 1 mark
b. Calculate the value of the variable resistor in the voltage divider if the temperature is 100 °C and the
output voltage is 4.5 V. 2 marks
a. Find the value of R2 in the voltage divider in the following figure that would give an output
voltage of 2.0 V. 2 marks
R1 = 3.0 kΩ
Vin = 6.0 V
R2 Vout = 2.0 V

The resistor R2 is now replaced by the thermistor with a temperature-versus-resistance
curve as shown by the middle curve in the following graph.
100 000
10 000
Resistance (Ω)
1000
100
10
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)
b. What is the value of Vout when the temperature of the thermistor is 100 °C? 1 mark

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
5 Using electricity and

electrical safety
5.1 Overview
5.1.1 Introduction
In this topic you will see how the basic rules for series and parallel circuits can be applied to household use
of electricity. The safe use of electricity will also be discussed, as well as the effects of electric shocks on
the human body.
Parallel circuits are usually preferred over series circuits because each device in a parallel circuit can
be turned on and off independently. Devices in parallel circuits also have the same voltage drop. In series
circuits, on the other hand, the devices have the same current flowing through them and the voltage is
shared across the circuit. If one device is switched off, all the devices go off.
FIGURE 5.1 Light-duty all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles (combining electric drives with combustion
engines) reduce reliance on petrol, increase efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
TOPIC 5 Using electricity and electrical safety 145

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• model household (AC) electrical systems as simple direct current (DC) circuits
• explain why the circuits in homes are mostly parallel circuits.
• model household electricity connections as a simple circuit comprising fuses, switches, circuit
breakers, loads and earth
• compare the operation of safety devices including fuses, circuit breakers and residual current
devices (RCDs)
• describe the causes, effects and treatment of electric shock in homes and identify the approximate
danger thresholds for current and duration
• apply the kilowatt-hour (kW-h) as a unit of energy.

Resources
5.2 Household electricity and usage

KEY CONCEPTS
• Model household (AC) electrical systems as simple direct current (DC) circuits.
• Explain why the circuits in homes are mostly parallel circuits.
• Model household electricity connections as a simple circuit comprising fuses, switches, circuit breakers,
loads and earth.
• Apply the kilowatt-hour (kW-h) as a unit of energy.
5.2.1 Household use of electricity

Houses connected to the main electrical grid are supplied with an AC voltage of 230 VRMS at a frequency
of 50 Hz. The term ‘230 VRMS ’ means that the AC voltage produces the same heating effect when applied
across a conductor as would a DC voltage of 230 V applied across the same conductor. The actual value of
the voltage oscillates between +325 V and –325 V. ‘Root mean square’ (RMS) refers to the mathematical
process by which the equivalent DC voltage is calculated. A‘frequency of 50 Hz’ means that the full cycle
is completed 50 times each second. The voltage supplied is sinusoidal in nature.

Frequency ( f ) is a measure of how many times per second an event happens. The unit for
frequency is the hertz (Hz). One hertz means one cycle or event per second.
Period (T) is the amount of time one cycle or event takes, measured in seconds.
Period is the reciprocal of frequency:
1 1
T= or f =
f T
A frequency of 50 Hz means that the period is 0.02 seconds, as shown in figure 5.2.
FIGURE 5.2 The variation of voltage with time for a supply of 230 VRMS , 50 Hz
325
230
Amplitude
Voltage (V)
(Vpeak)
0
0.01 0.02 0.03
Time (s)
−325
T
Electricity is fed into the home through

FIGURE 5.3 Many houses have a meter and circuit
underground cables or overhead lines. It breaker in their meter box. The circuit breaker is in the
enters the house through a switchboard. This bottom left corner.
contains a mains switch which can cut off
the supply of electricity to the house. There
is also a meter that measures the amount of
electrical energy transformed in the house.
From the meter, the electricity enters a fuse
box or circuit breaker box where it is divided
among a number of parallel circuits. The role
of fuses and circuit breakers is dealt with later
in this topic.
The structure of household circuits differs
from the structure of DC circuits studied in
previous topics. Household circuits make
use of the earth to complete the circuit. The
active wire in a circuit is connected to the 230
VRMS supply at the switchboard. Its voltage oscillates periodically between +340 V and –340 V relative
to a reference voltage called ‘earth’. The earth is defined as having a voltage of 0 V. The neutral wire is
connected to the neutral link at the switchboard, which is connected to the earth through the supply wires
and via a metal rod driven into the ground at the switchboard. The neutral wire is always at 0 V. The voltage
drop between the active and the neutral wire oscillates between +340 V and –340 V.

When an appliance is connected between the active wire and the neutral wire, current flows backwards
and forwards between the active and neutral wires through the device, supplying it with energy.
Conventional current flows from a high voltage to a low voltage. When the active wire is positive, the
current flows from the active to the neutral wire and so to the earth. When the active wire is negative, the
neutral wire at 0 V will have the higher voltage and the current will flow from the neutral to the active wire.
In lighting circuits, only the active and neutral wires are used if there are no metal fittings. The current
oscillates through the filaments of the globes, transforming energy. If metal fittings are used, they must be
earthed. A typical lighting circuit is shown in figure 5.4.
In power circuits, a third wire is used. This is called the earth wire. It connects the case of the appliance
being used to the earth as a safety device. Its function is discussed in section 5.3.8. Otherwise, a power
circuit operates in exactly the same way as a lighting circuit, with the current oscillating between the active
and neutral wires through the appliance. Figure 5.5 shows how three-point power sockets are connected in a
typical power circuit.
FIGURE 5.4 A typical household lighting circuit FIGURE 5.5 A typical power circuit
Input from supply wires N A

N A
Fuse Neutral
box Neutral link
link Fuse (or Fuse
Active
circuit breaker)
Three-point
socket
Active
Earthing
connection
at the home Neutral
Earth
Neutral
Figure 5.6 shows the connection of the earth wire to the case of an appliance.
FIGURE 5.6 The connection of the earth wire to the case of an appliance
N A Appliance case
Neutral
link Fuse
Active
Neutral
Earth
Note that in both the lighting and power circuits the switch is in the wire connecting the device to the
active wire. A switch in the neutral wire would also turn off the device, but the functional parts of the
device, such as the element of a toaster, would still be directly attached to the active wire and ‘live’.
If you were to touch anything in contact with the active wire while you were in contact with the
ground, there would be a voltage drop across you and a potentially lethal current could flow through you.

For this reason, if ever it is necessary to tamper with the functional parts of an electrical device, it must be
unplugged first. The three-point socket may have been wrongly wired, and it is not worth taking the risk.
Different-coloured insulating plastic is used to distinguish the three wires from each other. In the modern
system, the active wire is brown, the neutral wire is blue and the earth wire is striped green and yellow. In
the old system, red was used for the active, black for the neutral and green for the earth wires.
FIGURE 5.7 A three-point socket. The top left point is the active connection (brown wire), the top right point is
neutral (blue wire) and the bottom point is the earth (green/yellow wire). The switch is connected in the active wire.
Active Neutral
Switch
Earth
Neutral
Active
Earth
5.2.2 Power ratings

The total power used in an electrical circuit, be it series or parallel, is the sum of the power used by each
device in the circuit. Electrical appliances or devices are given a power rating, which is usually printed
on them.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A toaster is rated at 1400 W, 230 V.
a. What current does the toaster draw when operating normally?
b. What is the resistance of the toaster element when hot?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the relationship between power, voltage and current a. P = VI
to make I the subject. P
I=
V

2. Substitute the known values and solve for I. P = 1400 W, V = 230 V
P
I=
V
1400 W
=
230 V
= 6.09 A
3. State the solution. When operating normally the
toaster draws 6.09 A.
b. 1. Use the relationship between voltage, resistance and V = IR
current to make R the subject. V
R=
I
2. Substitute the known values and solve for R. V = 230 V, I = 6.09
V
R=
I
230 V
=
6.09 A
= 37.8 Ω
3. State the solution. The resistance of the toaster
element when hot is 37.8 Ω.
Alternatively:
V2
1. The resistance could also have been calculated using the P=
R
V2
relationship: P = .
R
V2
2. Transpose to make R the subject. R=
P
2302
3. Substitute in the values, V = 230 V and P = 1400 W, R=
and solve. 1400
= 37.8 Ω
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A compact fluorescent light globe is rated at 15 W, 230 V.
a. Calculate the current through the globe when it is operating normally.
b. Calculate the resistance of the globe when it is operating normally.
5.2.3 Paying for electricity

The meter on a household switchboard is used to measure how much electrical energy has been consumed
on the premises. The amount of electrical energy used in a household can be determined by multiplying the
rate of power transformation by the time. Since power is equal to the voltage drop multiplied by current,
and the voltage drop across a household is 230 V, the meter on the switchboard records the total current that
has passed through the premises over a certain period of time. This amount is converted into the amount of
energy ‘consumed’ or transformed.
For domestic and commercial electrical consumption the joule is too small a measure. The unit used for
measuring energy in these cases is the kilowatt-hour (kW-h). This is the amount of energy transformed by
a 1000 W appliance when used for 1 hour.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
How many joules does 1 kilowatt-hour represent?
THINK WRITE
1. Energy (kW-h) = power (kW) × time (hrs) 1 kW-h = 1 kW × 1 h
= 1000 W × (60 × 60) seconds
= 3.6 × 106 J
= 3.6 MJ
2. State the solution. 1 kW-h represents 3.6 MJ.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
An oven used 8 kW-h of energy. In joules how much energy was used?
The cost to consumers of 1 kW-h of electrical energy

FIGURE 5.8 Many appliances have a
can be found on electricity accounts. Find out what sticker outlining their energy rating and
1 kW-h of electrical energy costs in your household. To the average kW-h of energy consumed
calculate the cost of running a particular appliance, per year.
calculate the energy in kW-h by multiplying the power
rating of the appliance, in kilowatts, by the number
of hours that it was used for.
If the power rating of the appliance is unknown

the energy consumed can be found using the
formula:
E = VIt
Where:
E = the energy consumed
V = the voltage drop across the device
I = the current flowing through the device
t = the time in seconds.
The amount of energy is then converted into kW-h
by dividing by 3.6 × 106 .
To calculate the cost, use the formula:

cost = energy × rate

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A television draws 0.37 A of current when connected to a 230 V supply.
a. What is the power rating of the television?
b. How much energy does the television consume if it is operated for 5 hours a day for 4 weeks?
c. What is the cost of running the television for this period of time if the consumer is charged at
a rate of 16.381 cents per kW-h?
Substitute in P = VI. P = 230 V × 0.37 A

THINK WRITE
P = 85 W
a. 1. a.
b. 1. energy = power × time b. Power = 85 W

State the solution.
2. The power rating of the television is 85 W.
Time = 5 hours per day for 28 days

= 140 h
Energy = 85 W × 140 h
= 11 900 W-h
= 11.9 kW-h
2. State the solution. The television consumes 12 kW-h if it is
cost = energy × rate c. Cost = 11.9 kW-h × 16.381 cents

operated for 5 hours a day for 4 weeks.
= 195 cents
c. 1.
= $1.95
2. State the solution. The cost of running the television is $1.95.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A home sound system consumes 2.4 W of electric power when it is on standby and connected to
a 230 V supply.
a. Calculate the current that flows through the system when it is on standby.
b. Calculate the energy consumed by the system if it is left on standby for one week.
c. Calculate the cost of leaving the system on standby for one week if electricity is priced at
12 cents per kW-h.
Resources
Weblink Operating costs of electrical appliances
5.2 EXERCISE
1. What is meant when it is said that a house is supplied with electricity at 230 VRMS , 50 Hz?
2. Why is an overload in a household circuit potentially dangerous?
3. What coloured insulation is used for the active, neutral and earth wires in modern houses?
4. Sketch a power point and plug. Label the active, neutral and earth in each case.
5. Why do many appliances need to be connected to both the neutral and earth wires?

6. When is the earth wire used in household lighting circuits?
7. What is the cost of running a 300 W refrigerator for a year (365 days) if the refrigerator operates on average
for 12 hours a day, and electricity costs 31.28 cents per kW-h?
8. The following table gives the power consumption of various products when they are on standby.
Product Power (W)

Laptop computer 14.5
Modem 3.4
Cordless phone equipment 3.7
DVD player 2.4
Television 6.2
(a) Calculate the energy used by each product if it is left on standby for one year.
(b) Calculate the mass of greenhouse gases produced by these products if they are left on standby for one
year, assuming that 1 kW-h of energy produces greenhouse gases that are equivalent to 1.444 kilograms
of CO2 .

5.3 Electrical safety

KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare the operation of safety devices including fuses, circuit breakers and residual current
devices (RCDs).
• Describe the causes, effects and treatment of electric shock in homes and identify the approximate danger
thresholds for current and duration.
5.3.1 A shocking experience

An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the FIGURE 5.9 A victim of electric shock in a home
nervous system caused by an electrical discharge or accident possibly caused by overloading the circuit
current through the body.
There are various factors that contribute to the
severity of an electric shock. The first of these is
the size of the voltage involved. Also, the human
body is far more sensitive to alternating current
than direct current. Voltages as low as 32 V AC and
115 V DC can be fatal.
It is not the voltage alone that causes damage
to the human body. When you slide across a car
seat, you can generate a voltage of several thousand
volts. When you get out of the car and touch the
ground, you are discharged and experience a shock,

but with no serious consequences. The voltage drop across a person is one factor in determining the
seriousness of an electric shock, but clearly other factors are involved.
The following information refers to shocks involving alternating currents with a frequency of 50 Hz.
5.3.2 Resistance of the human body

One contributing factor to the severity of an electric shock is the resistance of the human body. The interior
of the body is a good conductor of electricity. The tissues and fluids beneath the skin conduct electricity due
to the presence of ions in the fluids.
The skin provides the main resistance to the flow of electricity in the body. The resistance of the skin
ranges in value from 106 Ω for dry skin, to 1500 Ω for a person with wet hands, and about 500 Ω for a
person sitting in a bath. This is a good reason for keeping electrical appliances away from water in the
bathroom; tap water is also a reasonably good conductor.
Resistance to current flow is offered by the skin up to about 600 V, at which point the skin is punctured
and offers little resistance to current flow. Breaks or cuts in the skin also reduce the resistance of the skin.
One of the main reasons for the high resistance of skin is the poor contact that is made between the skin
and the electrical source. Water improves the contact. In hospitals, a conducting gel is used when a good
electrical contact is required — for example, when using an electrocardiogram.
5.3.3 The effect of current

The second and most important factor to be considered in respect
FIGURE 5.10 Diagram showing the
to the severity of an electric shock is the amount of current flowing biceps and triceps in the human arm
through the body. This is important because impulses within the
nervous system are themselves electrical in nature. Even very small Humerus
currents passing along nerves make muscles contract. Skeletal Tendon
muscles (muscles attached to the bones) work in pairs. To raise

your forearm, for example, the biceps muscle contracts and the
triceps muscle relaxes. To lower your forearm, the biceps muscle
Biceps
relaxes and the triceps muscle contracts. This arrangement of Triceps contracting
muscles is shown in figure 5.10. relaxing
One effect of passing a small current through the body is to Radius
make muscles contract. Another effect stimulates the nerves that
send pain signals to the brain, causing the painful sensations
associated with shocks.
Ulna
AS A MATTER OF FACT
You may have heard of someone who received an electric shock being ‘thrown across the room’. This is not due
to any explosion, but to the violent contraction of the person’s muscles.
A current of 9 mA AC across the chest causes shock. A current of twice that amount causes difficulty
in breathing. A current of 20 mA causes muscles to become paralysed: they contract and stay contracted.
A person unfortunate enough to touch a live conductor with the palm of their hand will grip onto the
conductor and not be able to let go. Some electricians, if unsure whether a wire is live, may bring the back
of the hand towards the wire. Any shock they receive will contract the muscles so that the hand is pulled
away from the wire. This procedure is definitely not recommended.
A current as low as 25 mA through the trunk of the body can cause fibrillation. This is the disorganised
rapid contraction of separate parts of the heart so that it pumps no blood, and death soon follows.
Sometimes fibrillation subsides when the external voltage is removed.

HEART STARTER
Defibrillation is a medical intervention technique
carried out on victims of heart attack. If the cardiac FIGURE 5.11 Automatic external defibrillators are
monitor shows that fibrillation is occurring, a vital to use on victims on heart attacks
current of 20 A at 3000 V is passed through the
heart for about 5 milliseconds. This produces a
major contraction of all the muscles in the heart,
which usually jolts them back into the proper
rhythm. The shock is applied above and below
the heart via two large electrodes called paddles.
Conducting gel is used to make good contact with
the body. It is important that the operator and other
staff are well insulated from the patient.
5.3.4 The effect of current path

The third factor affecting the severity of an electric shock is the path of the current through the body.
Respiratory arrest generally requires the current to pass through the back of the head. Ten milliamps
of current through the forearm muscles make them contract sufficiently to hold the victim to any live
conductor he or she is gripping. The most dangerous pathway for current is through the trunk of the body.
5.3.5 Time of exposure

The final factor contributing to the severity of a shock is the time of exposure to the current. The longer
the current flows through the body, the greater the damage to tissue will be. Table 5.1 shows what effects
current size and time duration have on the heart.
TABLE 5.1 Electric shock current-versus-time parameters
Current (mA) Time (ms) Effect
50 10–200 Usually no dangerous effect
50 > 4000 Fibrillation possible
100 10–100 Usually no dangerous effect
5.3.6 In the event of a shock

The first priority, when helping a victim of electric shock, is to make sure that the victim is not still
connected to the electrical source. If the person is still connected and you grab them, you could be
electrocuted too. (Electrocution is death brought about by an electrical shock.) Your muscles may contract
and you will not be able to let go of the victim, becoming a victim yourself. Turn off the electric circuit or
knock the victim away from the live conductor with an insulating material, for example, a wooden chair.
Artificial respiration should be given to the victim if breathing has ceased. Respiratory failure is a
common cause of death among shock victims. This is true of people who have been struck by lightning
also. An ambulance should be called immediately.

5.3.7 Safety in household circuits
Every year many lives are lost and much property is damaged or destroyed because of electrical ‘accidents’
or through electrical faults in both industrial and domestic situations. Accidents occur because basic safety
precautions are not followed in dealing with electricity. The effects of electricity on the human body
have already been discussed. This section looks at some common electrical faults and the safety devices
employed to reduce the danger to people.
One common pitfall is overloading a circuit (see figure 5.12). In parallel circuits, the total current flowing
in the circuit is the sum of the individual currents flowing through the devices in the circuit. Too many
appliances operating on a single power circuit will produce a large current in the conducting wires. The
wires will get hot and melt their insulation, potentially causing a fire in the walls or ceilings of the building.
A short circuit can occur when frayed electrical cords (see figure 5.13) or faulty appliances allow the
current to flow from one conductor to another with little or no resistance. This allows the current to increase
rapidly, with the same results as an overload.
Cheap extension cords are another source of overheating. They are not designed to carry more than 7 A
safely and exceeding this amount may result in the insulation melting and allow arcing to occur.
FIGURE 5.12 Overloading of an electric circuit FIGURE 5.13 Frayed electrical cords
Fuses and circuit breakers

In domestic applications, each circuit is protected
FIGURE 5.14 A plug-in fuse
by either a fuse or a circuit breaker. A fuse is a
short length of conducting wire or strip of metal Ceramic or plastic body
that melts when the current through it reaches
a certain value. The most common type of fuse
is the plug-in type illustrated in figure 5.14. This
has a ceramic body with metal prongs projecting
from each end. A short piece of special fuse wire
connects the metal prongs. When the current
through the fuse exceeds a predetermined value,
the wire melts, or ‘blows’, breaking the circuit.
(Figure 5.16 shows a plug that includes a Fuse
cartridge fuse.) wire
A circuit breaker carries out the same function as

a fuse. It breaks the circuit when the current through
the circuit exceeds a particular value. The advantage
circuit breakers have over fuses is that they can be
reset easily. There are two types of circuit breaker
Metal contacts
available: thermal and electromagnetic.

When a current flows through a thermal circuit breaker, like the one illustrated in figure 15.15, the
heating coil heats the bimetallic strip. The two metals in the bimetallic strip expand at different rates when
heated, causing the strip to bend. When the current exceeds the predetermined amount, the bimetallic strip
bends so much that it opens the catch and the circuit is broken. Because of the time it takes to heat up
the strip, these circuit breakers will not trip if the current surge is of a short duration. This type of circuit
breaker is not satisfactory if a short circuit occurs and offers little assistance in preventing electrocutions.
FIGURE 5.15 A thermal circuit breaker
(a) (b)
Trip bar Trip bar
Latch Latch
Contacts Contacts
closed open
Heating coil Heating coil

Line Line
Bimetallic
Bimetallic element
element Metal heats and bends to
open contacts on overload
The electromagnetic type uses the magnetic effects of electric currents: it uses an electromagnet to lift
the catch and break the circuit. The bigger the current is in the coil, the stronger the electromagnetic force
will be on the lever system. Again, these circuit breakers are designed to break the circuit at predetermined
values of the current. To prevent this type of circuit breaker tripping when a short-duration current surge
occurs, the switching mechanism is usually restrained in some way. The magnetic circuit breaker will trip
almost instantly when a heavy overload occurs. It provides good protection against short circuits.
Both fuses and circuit breakers are placed in the active wire at the meter box. Light circuits are
generally designed to take a maximum safe current of 5A, whereas power circuits have a maximum safe
current of 15 A.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A kitchen circuit has the following appliances operating in it: a 1000 W toaster, a 312 W
refrigerator, a 1200 W kettle, a 600 W microwave oven and a 60 W juicer. The circuit is protected
by a 15 A fuse and is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
a. What is the current flowing through the fuse when all the appliances are operating at the same
time? Will the fuse ‘blow’?
b. Will the fuse ‘blow’ if a 2400 W heater is used at the same time as the other appliances?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. First, calculate the current through each a. Toaster:
appliance using their power ratings and the 1000 W
P I= = 4.35 A
formula P = VI or I = . 230 V
V
Refrigerator:
312 W
I= = 1.36 A
230 V

Kettle:
1200 W
I= = 5.22 A
230 V
Microwave oven:
600 W
I= = 2.61 A
230 V
Juicer:
60 W
I= = 0.26 A
230 V
2. The total current in the circuit is the sum of the 4.35 + 1.36 + 5.22 + 2.61 + 0.26 = 13.8 A
individual currents of the appliances.
Add the currents to determine the current
through the fuse. If the current is less than the
capacity of the fuse, the fuse will not melt.
3. State the solution. The circuit is protected by a 15 A fuse, so the
fuse will not melt.
P 2400 W
b. 1 Calculate the additional current is using I = . b. I= = 10.4 A
V 230 V
2. If the current is larger than 15 A it is at risk of The 2400 W heater will draw an
‘blowing’. additional 10.4 A.
Total current in the circuit:
10.4 A + 13.8 A = 24.2 A
3. State the solution. 24.2 A is much greater than 15 A, so the fuse
will blow.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A bathroom fan, light and heater system consists of one 75 W light globe, four 150 W heat lamps and
one 100 W fan. It is connected to a 230 V supply.
a. Calculate the total current through the system when the fan and light globe are in use.
b. Calculate the total current through the system when the fan and two heat lamps are in use.
c. Calculate the total current through the system when all the devices are in use.
5.3.8 Earthing
The earth wire is another safety measure used for power circuits (see figure 5.16). It connects the metal
chassis of an appliance to the earth, which is at 0 V. This connection is made via a metal rod driven into
the ground at the switchboard.
An electrical fault could occur if the active wire were to come into contact with the metal case of
an appliance. The case would then carry an AC voltage, and anyone touching the case would receive a
shock. The earth wire provides a lower resistance conducting path to the earth than the appliance and the
person. The low resistance involved produces a large current in the circuit and the fuse blows or the circuit
breaker trips.

The earth wire does not provide the most reliable protection.
FIGURE 5.16 A three-pin plug with
As can be seen in figure 5.17, the amount of time it takes to blow its back cover removed. The earth
a fuse depends on the size of the current. A quicker method of wire is covered in a green and yellow
breaking the circuit is needed if lives are to be saved. coating. Also note the cartridge fuse
If the current is flowing through a person to the earth, the inside the plug.
following principles should be followed: the current should
be as small as possible and the time of exposure to the current
should be as short as possible. Fuses are not designed to meet
these requirements. Their main function is to prevent fires in
buildings due to the overheating of wires when they carry too
great a current.
FIGURE 5.17 Time before a typical 10 A fuse ‘blows’, as a function of (RMS) current
100
80
60
40
20
10
Time for fuse to ‘blow’ (s)
8
6
For 10 A fuse
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Current (A)
5.3.9 Residual current device

The residual current device is illustrated in figure 5.18. It operates by making use of the magnetic effects
of a current and is similar to a transformer. The current in the active wire flows in the opposite direction to
the current in the neutral wire. Both currents pass through the iron loop. When the current in the active wire
is equal in magnitude to the current in the neutral wire, each wire produces a magnetic field. These fields
are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, and have no overall effect.

FIGURE 5.18 A residual current device
Relay
Coil Appliance
Active IA
Neutral IN
Iron core Earth
If IA = IN Nothing happens.
If IA > IN A magnetic field in the coil produces a current

and the relay opens the switches.
However, if there is an electrical fault and a residual current flows to the earth via the earth wire or a
person, the current in the active will be greater than in the neutral. The residual current is the difference
between the active and neutral currents. The magnetic effects of the two currents will no longer cancel. A
current is then produced in the relay circuit and both the active and neutral wires of the circuit are broken by
a switch.
A residual current device operates in about 40 milliseconds, limiting the current to 30 mA. At such values
the shock will be perceptible, but not likely to have any harmful effects. The residual current device is
useful only when the current flows to earth, not if the current flows through the person between the active
and neutral wires.
5.3.10 Double insulation

Hand-held electrical tools and
FIGURE 5.19 An electric hair dryer with the double insulation
appliances, such as electric drills and symbol seen on the casing
hair dryers, are protected by double
insulation. These appliances have only
a two-pin plug, using only the active
and neutral wires. They should not be
earthed. The symbol on the casing
of an appliance means that it is double
insulated.
As the name implies, double
insulation means that the accessible
metal parts cannot become live unless
two independent layers of insulation
fail. The inner layer is called the
functional insulation. This layer has
both electrical insulation and heat-
resisting properties. The outer layer is
called protective insulation and often
forms part of the casing.

Resources
Digital documents Investigation 5.1 Examination of an electrical device (doc-31869)
Investigation 5.2 Model circuits (doc-31870)
Teacher-led video Investigation 5.1 Examination of an electrical device (tlvd-0814)
Video eLesson Electrical safety (eles-2517)
Weblink Electrical safety
5.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between a shock and electrocution?

2. Describe factors that reduce the resistance of human skin.
3. Why is the amount of current flowing through the body important in determining the severity of an
electric shock?
4. What is fibrillation?
5. What would happen if you touched a shock victim who was still conducting an electrical current?
6. How is the severity of a shock related to the time of exposure?
7. What is ‘double insulation’?
8. A worker touched an overhead power line and was electrocuted. A newspaper reported the incident:
‘He touched the cable and 50 000 V of electricity surged through his body.’
Evaluate this statement.

5.4 Review
5.4.1 Summary
• Household electricity is provided as alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz.
• Household circuits include an active wire that oscillates between +325 and –325 volts relative to the
earth, which is defined as having a voltage of zero. Household circuits also include a neutral wire,
which is connected to the earth. Electric current flows backwards and forwards between the active wire
and the neutral wire.
• In many circuits an earth wire is used as a safety device to connect the case of an appliance directly to
the earth.
• The rules relating to series and parallel circuits can be applied to both AC and DC circuits.
• The kilowatt-hour is a unit widely used to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed.
• An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the nervous system caused by an electrical discharge or
current through the body.
• The severity of an electric shock depends on a number of factors, including current, pathway through
the body and time of exposure.
• Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices that use different methods to break an electric circuit
when a dangerous level of current flows through it.
• The residual current device opens switches in the active and neutral wires when the currents in these
wires become unequal due to an electrical fault. It is designed to protect against electrocution and
operates more quickly than a typical fuse.
Resources
5.4.2 Key terms
The active wire in a circuit is connected to the 240 VRMS supply at the switchboard.
A circuit breaker carries out the same function as a fuse by breaking the circuit when the current through it
exceeds a certain value.
The earth wire is used in power circuits as a safety device; it connects the case of the appliance being used to
the earth.
An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the nervous system caused by an electrical discharge or current
through the body.
Electrocution is death brought about by an electrical shock.
Fibrillation is the disorganised, rapid contraction of separate parts of the heart so that it pumps no blood; death
may follow.
Frequency is a measure of how many times per second an event happens.
A fuse is a short length of conducting wire or strip of metal that melts when the current through it reaches a
certain value, breaking the circuit.
A kilowatt-hour (kW-h) is the amount of energy transformed by a 1000 W appliance when used for one hour.
The neutral wire in a circuit is connected to the neutral link at the switchboard, which is connected to the earth.
Period is the amount of time one cycle or event takes, measured in seconds.
A residual current device operates by making use of the magnetic effects of a current to break a circuit in the
event of an electrical fault.
A short circuit can occur when frayed electrical cords or faulty appliances allow the current to flow from one
conductor to another with little or no resistance. The current increases rapidly, causing the wires to get hot and
potentially cause a fire.
Resources
Digital documents Key terms glossary (doc-32182)
Investigation 5.1
Examination of an electrical device
Aim: To examine an electrical device and report on how it functions and
what safety features it has
Investigation 5.2
Model circuits
Aim: To apply the principles of series and/or parallel circuits to either household or car electrical systems through
designing a circuit
Resources
Digital documents Practical investigation logbook (doc-32181)

5.4 Exercises

1. Which colour wire carries the larger voltage in an electrical cable connected to a 230V AC supply?
A. All carry the same voltage.
B. Green and yellow stripes
C. Brown
D. Blue
2. Which best describes the reason for building fuses into electrical devices?
A. Fuses are not used in electrical devices.
B. To protect the device from damage
C. To protect the circuit from current overload
D. To protect against electric shock
3. Under what condition is a fuse in a circuit most likely to blow?
A. When the current is too large
B. When the voltage is too large
C. When the current is too small
D. When the voltage is too small
4. Which statement best describes the function of a circuit breaker?
A. A circuit breaker diverts excess current to other parts of the circuit.
B. A circuit breaker is a resettable switch.
C. A circuit breaker comprises many fuses that are resettable.
D. A circuit breaker must be replaced after a circuit has blown.
5. What current is drawn by a 1.84 kW sandwich maker when it is connected to a 230 V supply?
A. 0.3 A
B. 2.8 A
C. 8.0 A
D. 14.7 A
6. When charged at 30 cents per kW-h, what will be the cost of leaving a 250 W computer switched on for
two days?
A. $1.80
B. $3.60
C. $5.40
D. $7.20
7. An electric handtool with a power rating of 2 kW has a built-in fuse. Which of the following fuses
would be most suitable?
A. 3 A
B. 5 A
C. 7 A
D. 9 A
8. Which of the following correctly describes the appearance and function of the earth wire?
A. It is coated in blue plastic and connects the appliance to the earth.
B. It is coated in brown plastic and provides a lower resistance conducting path to the earth than the
appliance and the person.
C. It is coated in green and yellow plastic and connects the case of the appliance being used to the
earth as a safety device.
D. It is coated in green plastic and is a safety measure in electric circuits.

9. Many hair dryers have a double insulation symbol ( ) found on them. What does it mean for a hair
dryer to have double insulation?
A. It has a two-pin plug with no neutral wire.
B. There are two layers that separate the live wire and the external metal casings.
C. There is a single insulating layer coating the wire, but it is double thickness.
D. It has double the number of wires than usual (two neutral, two earth and two live).
10. What is the first priority when someone is a victim of electric shock?
A. Calling an ambulance
B. Making sure the victim is not still connected to the electric source
C. Giving immediate CPR
D. Making sure that a defibrillator is available

1. A 3.6 kW domestic electric hot water system typically heats water for 3 hours per day.
a. How much energy will this appliance consume in one year?
b. If the cost of electricity is 28 cents per kW-h, how much will it cost to provide hot water for
one year?
2. Two 10 A speakers are connected to a 230 V sound system.
a. Should these speakers be connected in series or parallel? Justify your answer.
b. How much power will these speakers use?
c. If the cost of electricity is 32 cents per kW-h, how much will it cost to operate the speakers at full
volume for 6 hours?
d. There is a fuse in each speaker. What size fuse should be used? Justify your answer.
3. An oil heater is rated at 1000 W and runs off 230 V supply.
a. What current does the heater draw?
b. What is the effective resistance of the heater?
c. If electricity costs 17 cents per kW-h, what does it cost to run the heater for 5 hours?
4. Some household appliances such as electric kettles are encased with metal. When a person touches the
metal casing they do not get a shock.
a. What stops someone from getting a shock when they touch the metal casing?
b. If someone did get a shock, why would this occur?
5. a. What is meant by the terms electric shock and electrocution?
b. Under what circumstances is an electric shock likely to be fatal?
6. Describe the difference in operation and advantages of a fuse in a circuit and a circuit breaker.
7. A bedroom circuit has the following appliances operating in it: a 150 W gaming console, a 140 W
television, a 60 W lamp, a 55 W DVD player and a 200 W mini fridge. The circuit is protected by a
15 A fuse and it is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
a. What is the current flowing through the fuse when all the appliances are operating at the same time?
b. Will the fuse ‘blow’ if a 2400 W air conditioner is used at the same time as the other appliances?
8. Why is the length of time a current is flowing through the body important in determining the severity of
an electric shock?
9. An individual uses a hair dryer immediately after getting out of the shower to dry their hair, with their
hands still wet. Explain why having wet hands leads to a greater risk of electric shock than having
dry hands.
10. Compare the operation of residual current devices and circuit breakers and how they improve safety of
electrical circuits.

A person is holding an electric appliance that is connected to a 230 V AC supply. If the insulation between
the case and the rest of the appliance is short circuited, the person could receive an electric shock. Describe
the factors that will determine the severity of the shock they could receive?
An appliance with a metal case is unsafely wired directly into a simple AC circuit as shown in the
following figure.
Casing
Appliance N
a. On the diagram show what safety features should be provided to help avoid electric shocks
and possible damage to the appliance. 3 marks
b. For the safety features you identify, explain how they improve the safety of the system. 2 marks
The metal cased appliance in question 2 is to be re-wired to a three-pin plug so that it can be plugged into
a domestic 230 V AC socket. On the following diagram show where each wire should be connected to
the appliance.
N
E
Fuse
The following table gives the power consumption of various products when they are on standby.
Product Power (W)
Laptop computer 14.5
Microwave 4.2
Laser printer 8.5
Set top box 11.2
Television 6.2

a. Calculate the energy used by each product if it is left on standby for one year. 3 marks
b. Calculate the mass of greenhouse gases produced by these products if they are left on standby
for one year, assuming that 1 kW-h of energy produces greenhouse gases that are equivalent
to 1.444 kg of CO2 . 2 marks
c. If you were charged 50 cents per kW-h, how much would you be required to pay in one year if the
devices were left on standby? 1 mark
A person stands on a rubber mat that connects an electric appliance to a 230 V mains power outlet.
However, the appliance, which has a metal casing, has short circuited.
a. What is likely to happen if the person has a resistance of 600 kΩ? Justify your answer. 2 marks
b. What is the smallest voltage on the case of the appliance that could cause fibrillation of
the heart? 1 mark
c. What would most likely happen if the person stands on a wet floor in bare feet where their resistance is
effectively 3 kΩ? Justify your answer. 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
How do electric circuits work?
OUTCOME 2
Investigate and apply a basic DC circuit model to simple battery-operated devices and household electrical systems,
apply mathematical models to analyse circuits, and describe the safe and effective use of electricity by individuals and
the community.
A 20 20
B 3 20
Total 40
•
Information:
•
•
Resources

1. Students in a class are each provided with a battery. Each battery has an emf of 15 V. In an experiment, a
student measured that a total 375 C of charge has passed through her battery. How much energy has been
supplied by the battery to these charges?
A. 1625 J
B. 2650 J
C. 5625 J
D. 6250 J
Use the following information to answer questions 2 and 3.
A model electric motor is connected with a 12 V battery. When the motor is running normally, the current through
the motor is measured to be 2.5 A.
A. 2.0 Ω
2. What is the resistance of the motor?
B. 4.8 Ω
C. 7.2 Ω
D. 9.6 Ω
UNIT 1 Area of Study 2 review 167

3. How much energy was consumed by the electric motor after 30 seconds?
A. 75 J
B. 360 J
C. 720 J
D. 900 J
pump is 8 Ω. Which of the following is the best estimate of its power?

4. An electrical pump operating normally has 9 A of current flowing through it. The electrical resistance of the
A. 72 W
B. 576 W
C. 648 W
D. 764 W
5. Anja and Cris are provided with a thermistor for a physics investigation. The characteristic curve of the
thermistor is shown as follows.
20
Resistance (kΩ)
15
10
0
10 20 30 40
Temperature (oC)
They measured the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 25 °C. What is the expected value of
the resistance?
A. 5 kΩ
B. 8 kΩ
C. 12 kΩ
6. An LED is connected in series with a 290 Ω resistor and a 9.0 V battery. The diode has a switch-on voltage of
D. 15 kΩ
3.20 V and is forward-biased in this circuit. Which of the following is the best estimate of the current in the
circuit?
A. 2.0 mA
B. 11 mA
C. 20 mA
7. An ohmic device with a resistance of 7.5 Ω is connected to a circuit, and the current through the device and
D. 31 mA
the voltage across it are measured. Which of the following combination of voltage and current could be
A. V = 20.0 V and I = 3.2 A

approximate readings of this set up?
B. V = 24.0 V and I = 4.2 A

C. V = 28.8 V and I = 3.8 A
D. V = 32.4 V and I = 4.8 A

8. The following diagram shows part of an electrical circuit with the values of the current in different parts of the
circuit.
0.8 A
I 4.8 A
1.2 A
Which of the following is closest to the value of the current I?

A. 3.6 A
B. 4.4 A
C. 5.6 A
D. 6.8 A
9. The following diagram is a battery circuit. When the switch is closed, the voltages across the different resistors
are shown on the diagram.
2.5 V
+
9V V
3.5 V
Which of the following is closest to the value of the voltage V?

A. 2.5 V
B. 3.0 V
C. 3.5 V
D. 4.0 V
Charlene and Deen found a box full of electrical resistors with resistances of either 7 Ω or 12 Ω. There are no other
types of resistors. They decide to construct an electrical circuit with a laboratory power supply and connecting
10. Charlene and Deen connected a 7.00 Ω resistor and a 12.0 Ω resistor in parallel and measured their total
wires.
A. 4.42 Ω
resistance. Which of the following is closest to the value of the reading on the resistance meter?
B. 5.42 Ω
C. 6.42 Ω
D. 7.42 Ω

11. One electrical circuit requires a resistance of 20.0 Ω. Which of the following combination of 7.00 Ω and 12.0 Ω
resistors could give them the required 20.0 Ω?
A. Series connection of a 7.00 Ω and 12.0 Ω resistors
B. Parallel connection of two 7.00 Ω resistors, then in series with a 12.0 Ω resistor
C. Parallel connection of two 12.0 Ω resistors, then in series with a 7.00 Ω resistor
D. Parallel connection of two 12.0 Ω resistors, then in series with two 7.00 Ω resistors
of 16 Ω.
12. The following circuit shows a 12 V battery connected with two parallel resistors, each with a resistance
+
12 V 16 Ω 16 Ω
Which of the following is closest to the value of the current, I?

A. 0.75 A
B. 1.5 A
C. 3.0 A
13. The following circuit shows a 12 V battery connected in series with a 3.0 Ω resistor and another resistor with
D. 4.5 A
an unknown resistance, R. The current, I, is 1.5 A.
3.0 Ω
+
12 V
1.5 A
A. 4.0 Ω
Which of the following is closest to the value of R?
B. 5.0 Ω
C. 6.0 Ω
D. 8.0 Ω
14. The following circuit shows a 12 V battery connected with two parallel resistors, each of which has an
unknown resistance, R. The current, I, is 2.4 A.
+
12 V R R
2.4 A

A. 7.2 Ω
Which of the following is closest to the value of R?
B. 8.4 Ω
C. 10 Ω
D. 14 Ω
15. The following circuit is a voltage divider circuit with a 9 V battery connected to a thermistor in series with
a 4 kΩ resistor. The output voltage, Vout , is 6 V.
R
+
9V
4 kΩ 6V
Which of the following is closest to the value of the resistance of the thermistor, R?
A. 1 kΩ
B. 2 kΩ
C. 3 kΩ
D. 4 kΩ
16. The Australian Standards specify that the AC electrical supply to households has a root mean square voltage
of 230 V. What does this mean in relation to the power supply?
A. It has a peak voltage of 230 V.
B. It has a peak-to-peak voltage of 460 V.
C. It will provide the same heating effect as an DC supply of 325 V.
D. It will provide the same heating effect as an DC supply of 230 V.
17. What colour is the active wire in household electrical wiring?
A. Blue
B. Brown
C. Green and yellow
D. Red
18. A dishwasher is rated at 1800 W and is operated for 2.5 hours. The cost of energy is 30 cents per kW-h. How
much does it cost to operate the dishwasher?
A. 75 cents
B. 135 cents
C. 75 000 cents
D. 135 000 cents
19. What is the operating principle of a residual current device (RCD)?
A. It measures the difference between the current of the active wire and the current of the neutral wire.
B. It melts due to the dangerously high current.
C. It provides an alternative path to current that flows through the casing of an electrical appliance.
D. It activates an electromagnet to switch off the circuit.
A. 500 Ω
20. Which of the following values is in the range of the electrical resistance of a dry hand?
B. 2000 Ω
C. 500 kΩ
D. 2 MΩ

Consider the following circuit.
Switch
Battery
Light globe
A battery is connected to a light globe and a switch. The emf of the battery is 4.2 V. The switch is currently open.
a. What is the voltage across the switch? 1 mark
1C = 6.24 × 1018 electrons.

The switch is now closed. During each second, 1.4 C of charge pass through the battery when the switch closed.
b. What is the current flowing out of the battery? 1 mark

c. How much energy does the battery supply to each coulomb of charge? 1 mark
d. State the potential difference across the switch when it is closed. 1 mark
e. Calculate the number of electrons that flow through the battery each second. 1 mark
f. What is the power that the battery is transferring to the circuit? 1 mark
g. How much electrical potential energy is transformed into light and heat by the globe in 3 minutes? 1 mark
h. Calculate the resistance of the light globe. 1 mark
Consider the following circuit where a 15 V battery is connected to a switch S and there are three light globes with
the labelled resistances.
6Ω
+
15 V
3Ω 2Ω

b. Calculate the current flowing through the 6 Ω light globe.
a. Determine the total resistance of the circuit. 2 marks
c. What is the potential difference across the 2 Ω light globe?

2 marks
d. Find the current flowing through the 3 Ω light globe.

2 marks
1 mark
e. Calculate the power supplied by the battery. 1 mark
An electrician decided to break open an old toaster and examine the various safety features.
a. Within the plug, he noted the presence of an earth wire. Describe the appearance of the earth wire, and explain
how this works as a safety feature. 2 marks
The electrician decides the toaster is still fine to use and plugs it back into his kitchen circuit. The circuit already
has a 500 W fridge, a 800 W coffee machine and a 1000 W fan plugged into it. This is connected to a 230 V supply
and protected by a 10.5 A fuse.
b. If the toaster is 700 W, will the fuse blow when the toaster is added to the circuit? Justify your response using
calculations. 2 marks

ASSESSMENT TASK — PROPOSED SOLUTION TO A SCIENTIFIC OR TECHNOLOGICAL

PROBLEM
In this task, you will be required to investigate
and apply a basic DC circuit model to household
electrical systems, apply mathematical models
to analyse circuits and describe the safe and
effective use of electricity by individuals.
• A scientific calculator is permitted.
Total time: 50 minutes (5 minutes reading and
45 minutes writing)
SUPPLYING ELECTRICAL POWER TO

A SHED
A farmer, Alisa, is considering how to supply electrical
power to a shed containing farming equipment. The
farming equipment is designed to work safely from a
power supply with a voltage of 30 V to 50 V DC.
The main problem is that the shed is 1 kilometre from the power lines that service her farmhouse.
Alisa has two choices:
1. to purchase a generator and position it next to the shed
2. to construct additional power lines that connect the shed to the existing power lines that service
her farmhouse.
Part A: Using a generator

A review of generators shows that they come with different attributes, which need to be analysed to assist Alisa in
solving her problem.
1. One generator states that it is an AC generator while a second model states that it is a DC generator. In what
way are the two generators different in terms of the electrical current they produce when connected to a load
such as a piece of farming equipment?
Alisa reviews two DC generators, X and Y, as a possible solution to her problem.
2. Alisa finds that DC generator X outputs a voltage of 32 V, while generator Y outputs a voltage of 48 V. Explain
how the generators differ by clearly explaining in terms of energy transfer what the different voltages mean.
3. Each generator has a cut-off safety switch if the current drawn exceeds the maximum specified current. The
maximum current of the 32 V generator is 36 A and is slightly lower in the 48 V generator, at 32 A. Which
generator, X or Y, is capable of producing the greatest power output at maximum current? Use an
appropriate calculation to support your choice.
4. What would be the electrical resistance of farming equipment if 36 A were drawn from the 32 V generator?
5. What would be the electrical resistance of farming equipment if 32 A were drawn from the 48 V generator?
Alisa measures the electrical resistance of the farming equipment and finds it to be 1.20 Ω.
6. If Alisa connected the farming equipment to each of the generators in turn, what current would each
generator supply to the equipment?
7. (a) How much power would the farming equipment consume when using the 32 V generator?
(b) How much power would the farming equipment consume when using the 48 V generator?
(c) The farming equipment is required to run for 8 hours per day. What is the total energy delivered to the
farming equipment if generator X is used? Express your answer in joule and kW-h.
8. (a) Is there a problem using either of the generators with the existing farming equipment?
(b) Of the two generators she has reviewed, which one would be more suitable? Explain your choice.
Part B: Using power lines

The potential difference of the power lines to Alisa’s farmhouse is 240 V DC. It would normally be an AC voltage,
but for this assessment we will simplify the task and make the voltage a 240 DC voltage.
9. If Alisa is to use power lines, how much cable (in km) will she need to supply electricity to the shed from her
farmhouse?

10. She finds that she can purchase the cable, but it has a resistance of 1.60 Ω per km. What would be the total
resistance of the power lines?
11. Draw a circuit of a 240 V DC power supply and power lines that connects to the farming equipment. In your
diagram include a switch S that can isolate the farming equipment from the 240 V power supply.
Alisa has previously measured the resistance of the farming equipment to be 1.20 Ω.
12. What would be the total resistance of the circuit containing the power lines and the farming equipment?
13. Determine the current that would be in the circuit if the switch S were closed and the farming equipment
turned on.
14. (a) By determining the voltage across the farming equipment, if the switch were closed, assess whether the
system would be safe. Remember that the farming equipment is designed to operate safely with a
voltage of between 30 V and 50 V.
(b) If you find the system would not be safe, give one possible modification that would change the situation
and explain how it would enable this. If you find the system would be safe to operate, explain why.
Part C: Proposing a solution

15. Sum up your findings from Part A and B, identifying which of the two choices you would recommend to
solve Alisa’s problem. Justify your response ensuring you compare both choices.
Resources

AREA OF STUDY 3
WHAT IS MATTER AND HOW IS IT FORMED?
6 Origins of atoms
6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Introduction
Scientists find it useful to analyse matter in terms of the atoms that form it. This is the basis of chemistry,
and our understanding of biology and geology. These atoms contain a dense nucleus of protons and
neutrons surrounded by a cloud of electrons. But atoms did not always exist; they only exist under the right
conditions. Through an amazing journey of exploration, physicists are now confident that the first atoms
formed about 13.8 billion years ago, a mere 380 000 years after the universe itself came into being. This
topic explores how physicists have come to this conclusion.
To understand the origin of atoms, we need to understand how the universe began. The Big Bang is the
name given to the theory that scientists use to explain why the universe is as it is. The Big Bang model
of the universe is a triumph of decades of observation, measurement, theory and scientific exploration.
However, there is still a lot that is not known, and there are alternative interpretations. The universe is a
very active research field with new and surprising discoveries being made and new questions being asked.
FIGURE 6.1 Spectacular panoramic view of the Carina nebula and the unique star Eta Carinae in the heart of
the nebula

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• describe the Big Bang as a currently held theory that explains the origins of the universe
• describe the origins of both time and space with reference to the Big Bang Theory
• explain the changing universe over time due to expansion and cooling
• apply scientific notation to quantify and compare the large ranges of magnitudes of time, distance,
temperature and mass considered when investigating the universe
• explain the change of matter in the stages of the development of the universe including inflation,
elementary particle formation, annihilation of anti-matter and matter, commencement of nuclear fusion,
cessation of fusion and the formation of atoms.

Resources
6.2 Early developments of the Big Bang Theory

KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the Big Bang as a currently held theory that explains the origins of the universe.
• Describe the origins of both time and space with reference to the Big Bang Theory.
• Explain the changing universe over time due to expansion and cooling.
6.2.1 Scientific theories

A theory in science is not a wild guess. It is the best attempt by scientists to explain the results of
experiment and observation. In this subtopic we look at the major evidence about the nature of the universe
and the particles of matter that form it. This evidence is used by scientists to form what is known as the Big
Bang Theory. A good theory can be tested by observation and often helps scientists predict phenomena yet
to be observed. The Big Bang Theory has allowed scientists to explain observations of the universe and
make successful predictions of what would be observed in the future.
TOPIC 6 Origins of atoms 177

6.2.2 Discovering the universe of galaxies
In the early twentieth century, significant progress was made
FIGURE 6.2 The Big Bang Theory of
in our understanding of atoms and subatomic particles with the universe is a triumph of decades of
the discovery of the nuclear atom, made up of protons, observation.
neutrons and electrons. At the same time, our understanding
of the universe was advancing at a tremendous pace. At the
turn of the twentieth century, there was little comprehension
of how large the universe was. Astronomers knew there
were a very large number of stars and that these stars
seemed to be clustered into a region of space known as the
Milky Way. It was not yet clear whether the Milky Way was
the extent of the universe, or just one population of stars
among many.
FIGURE 6.3 The Milky Way

In 1912, Henrietta Leavitt (1868–1921) made FIGURE 6.4 Henrietta Leavitt investigated the
a discovery that was about to shine light on this. relationship between period and luminosity in
She investigated a type of star called a Cepheid Cepheid variables.
variable. These stars vary in brightness overtime in
a regular way. Leavitt studied the two clouds of stars
called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small
Magellanic Cloud. She reasoned that the stars in each
of these ‘clouds’ would all be approximately the same
distance from us, meaning that any variation in their
brightness could be attributed to an actual difference in
luminosity, rather than just being the result of varying
distance. As with all light sources, stars become
dimmer the further away they are. Working with the
stars from the Magellanic Clouds proved to be a very
powerful technique. Leavitt plotted a graph of the
maximum luminosity of the stars versus the period of
their variation in brightness. She discovered a clear
relationship between the luminosity and period: the
more luminous the Cepheid variable, the longer its period.
The period is the time it takes for one occurrence of a repeating event. For example, the period of the
Earth rotating on its axis is 24 hours; the period of the motion of the second hand on a clock is 60 seconds.
FIGURE 6.5 The vertical axis measures the brightness of the star. As they are all in the same body of stars, they
are similar distances from us meaning that the brightness varies in the same way as the luminosity. The horizontal
axis shows increasing period plotted on a logarithmic scale; the scale is 10 to the power of the numbers on
the axis.
m M
13.0 −4.35
14.0 −3.35
15.0 −2.35
16.0 −1.35
17.0 −0.35
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Logarithm of period
By 1919, Harlow Shapley (1885–1972) had used this relationship to determine how far the Earth is from
groups of stars called globular clusters and the Large Magellanic Cloud. All he needed to do was measure
the period of the variation in brightness of the Cepheid variable stars in these clusters and use Leavitt’s
relationship to determine the luminosity of the star. By comparing this luminosity to the brightness he could
measure the distance to the stars, and hence the distance to the clusters they were in. Most of the stars in the
Milky Way lie in a plane in the shape of a spiral. Shapley found that the globular clusters group around the
centre of the Milky Way in a sphere.

Globular clusters are spherical clusters of thousands, and FIGURE 6.6 Globular cluster
sometimes millions, of stars. Shapley used his mapping of globular
clusters to determine the general shape and size of the Milky Way
galaxy and found that the clusters formed a spherical shell whose
centre lay in the direction of the constellation of Sagittarius. This
suggested that the centre of the galaxy was in this direction and
that our solar system was located towards the edge. Until Shapley’s
measurements, the solar system was thought to be near the centre of
the galaxy.
Shapley’s estimate of the size of the galaxy included the
Magellanic Clouds and assumed that the Andromeda nebula was
within the Milky Way. He had made quite an error in his estimate.
By this time thousands of nebulae in the shape of spirals and
ellipses had been catalogued. Some of them seemed to be very
small. How could they all be in our galaxy?
From 1919 to 1926, Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) examined the
FIGURE 6.7 Edwin Hubble
Andromeda nebula in great detail using the large telescopes at
Mount Wilson, California. He took long exposure photographs
of the spiral arms and counted numerous novae (singular nova;
bright stars that were not in previous photographs) and Cepheid
variables. Using these, Hubble established the size and distance of
the Andromeda nebula from Earth and found that it lay well beyond
our galaxy and was comparable in size to the Milky Way. It seemed
that our galaxy was only a tiny portion of the universe after all.
One of the most significant results in the history of cosmology
came from the work of Shapley and Hubble. In 1919, Shapley
noticed that the velocities of nebulae, later found to be galaxies,
indicated that they were nearly all moving away from us. Hubble
explored further and, in 1929, showed that the more distant the
galaxies were from us, the faster they were moving away. The
speeds were enormous; one measurement suggested that a galaxy
was moving away from us at 42 000 km s–1 , more than one-tenth of
the speed of light!
FIGURE 6.8 The Andromeda galaxy contains most of its stars in a flat disk
similar to the Milky Way. The globular clusters are not restricted to this disk.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The discovery that stars form enormous structures called galaxies and that the rate galaxies
recede from the Earth increases with their distance from us depended on a discovery by
Henrietta Leavitt. Describe her discovery and how it enabled these great discoveries by Edwin
Hubble and his collaborators.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what Henrietta Leavitt discovered. Leavitt discovered that a type of star called a
Cepheid variable varied in luminosity in such
a way that the more luminous the star, the
longer its period of variation. This provided a
method to determine the luminosity of the star
and therefore its distance could be determined
by the difference between its luminosity and
its brightness when viewed from Earth.
2. Link this discovery to the use of it by Hubble used this discovery to show that
Hubble and others to discover galaxies clouds of stars were well beyond the limits of
and their recession. the Milky Way galaxy and therefore separate
galaxies in their own right. He also found that
the more distant the galaxies, the faster they
were receding from us.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Henrietta Leavitt discovered that Cepheid variables varied in luminosity over a period of time which
increased the more luminous the stars were. Knowing this relationship, astronomers could determine
the luminosity of the star by measuring its period. Why can’t astronomers simply measure the
luminosity of a star by observing how bright it is?
6.2.3 The expansion of space

Everywhere that astrophysicists looked in the sky, they found galaxies moving away from us. This
information was astonishing and very unexpected. All galaxies are experiencing the same thing. If people
in another galaxy looked at us, they would see us racing off in the opposite direction. In fact, it is not
the galaxies themselves that are moving away; rather, space is expanding and taking the galaxies with it!
Galaxies do also move through space due to gravitational interactions with other galaxies; we know that
the Milky Way is currently colliding with the relatively tiny Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy. But these
motions of neighbouring galaxies do not explain why distant galaxies are moving away from each other
with a speed that increases with distance.
Galaxies and tightly bound clusters of galaxies do not expand as they are held together by gravity. The
Milky Way is part of a cluster of galaxies known as the Local Group. The Local Group includes over
30 galaxies, the two largest being Andromeda and the Milky Way. The Large and Small Magellanic
Clouds are also members of the Local Group. The Andromeda galaxy is actually approaching us at
enormous speed due to gravitational attraction, but as we look at more distant galaxies beyond the Local
Group, the expansion of space dominates gravitational forces.
Hubble jumped to the obvious conclusion. All of the galaxies are racing away from each other, so if we
imagine running time backwards, we would see that they had all come from the same spot. It was as though

the universe was born from some form of explosion that threw space and matter out in all directions. This
was the first scientific evidence that the universe had a beginning. Prior to this, scientists assumed that the
universe had existed forever. This was the beginning of time and space, which has expanded ever since.
6.2.4 Measuring expansion

Hubble measured the expansion of space using a phenomenon called the red shift.
Light emitted by a star or galaxy that is moving away from us is shifted towards the red end of the
spectrum. The faster the galaxy moves away, the greater the red shift. Stars or galaxies moving towards us
have their light shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum, which is called blue shift.
FIGURE 6.9 Light from astronomical objects observed through a spectroscope reveals spectra showing red shift.
The scale indicates the wavelength in nanometres.
400 500 600 700
Distant galaxy
Medium-distance
galaxy
Close galaxy
Close star
400 500 600 700
The visible spectrum of light contains red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
The spectrum continues into invisible forms of radiation, including infra-red at lower
frequencies than red and ultraviolet at higher frequencies than violet.
Hubble observed that the red shift was greater for more distant galaxies.
The red shift of all distant galaxies could be explained if space were expanding. As the light from a
distant source travels through space en route to Earth, the space it passes through stretches, increasing the
light’s wavelength. The longer the light travels through space (that is, the further away the galaxy), the
greater the increase in wavelength due to expanding space, and so the greater the red shift.
This effect can be quickly demonstrated using a rubber band to represent space. Mark a rubber band
every 2 mm along a 2 cm length. The distance between neighbouring marks represents the wavelength of
light. As you stretch the rubber band a little, you will see each mark move away from all of the others. As
time goes on the universe keeps expanding, like stretching the rubber band further. As a consequence, the
wavelength of light from distant galaxies gets longer over time.

FIGURE 6.10 (a) The rubber band before stretching (b) The stretched rubber band — each dot has moved away
from all of the other dots
(a) (b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
What major discovery about the nature of our universe did Hubble make when he considered the
red shift effect in his analysis of spectra from galaxies?
THINK WRITE
1. Identify what Hubble saw when observing When Hubble measured the red shift of distant
the red shift of galaxies. galaxies he noticed that it increased the further
the galaxy was from us.
2. Connect his observation with the nature of This was interpreted by physicists as meaning
the universe. that the universe must be expanding. Prior to
this discovery they thought it was static.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Explain how the light from distant galaxies has come to be red shifted before it reaches us?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Explain why expansion is observed on the large scale for distant galaxies, but not on the relatively
small scale of nearby galaxies.
THINK WRITE
1. State that expansion is seen when When Hubble measured the motion of more
observing distant galaxies. distant galaxies, he found that they were
moving away from us, but some nearer ones
were moving towards us.
2. Explain the difference in gravitational Gravity is a force that weakens with distance.
effects over different distances. Gravity can cause galaxies near to each other
to move toward each other; but for galaxies
separated across a greater distance, the gravity
becomes too weak and the expansion of space
overrides its effect.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
What did Hubble observe about all of the galaxies that were not near to the Milky Way?

UNDERSTANDING WAVES
Waves can be described in terms of their period, frequency, speed and wavelength. The wavelength is the
distance between successive corresponding parts of a periodic wave — the length of one cycle. The period of
a periodic wave is the time for one part of the wave to travel one wavelength. The frequency of a periodic wave is
the number of cycles that occur every second.
FIGURE 6.11 Transverse periodic waves in a piece of string
Direction
of wave
Crest Wavelength movement
Amplitude
Amplitude
Position of
Trough Direction of
undisturbed
medium particle motion
6.2.5 Einstein and general relativity

In parallel to the experimental work of Shapley, Hubble and other
FIGURE 6.12 Aleksandr Friedman
astronomers, theoretical physics was making tremendous progress.
In particular, Albert Einstein published his General Theory of
Relativity in 1915, which provided a new way of understanding
gravity. Until then, scientists had used Isaac Newton’s theory of
gravity, which essentially stated that masses exert an attractive
force on each other. Einstein’s theory was that mass curves
space and other masses move in response to the curvature of
space. However, there was a problem with both theories. Newton
wondered why the universe was not collapsing, given that all
masses attract each other, and decided that the universe must
be infinite. The idea that the universe is infinite in size and has
existed forever endured until the Big Bang Theory was developed.
Einstein’s theory did not provide a satisfactory answer to the
collapsing universe problem either, so he inserted what became
known as a cosmological constant in his equations to counter the
curvature of space.
Beginning in 1917, scientists proposed other cosmological
models based on the General Theory of Relativity. Aleksandr
Friedman (1888–1925) found that there were a number of
solutions to the equations of general relativity, each of which is
equally valid in terms of the theory, but of course only one could
represent our universe. In some solutions the universe expands
forever, in others the universe would expand for a time and then collapse back on itself. This theoretical
work led Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) to encourage Hubble to measure the red shift of the galaxies.

Georges Lemaître (1894–1966) was both a Catholic priest and professor of physics. He was fascinated
by what physics might say about the birth of the universe. In 1927, he used general relativity to produce an
early version of what became known as the Big Bang Theory.
6.2 EXERCISE
1. What is a galaxy?
2. Using Cepheid variables of equal distance from Earth, Henrietta Leavitt discovered a relationship between
their luminosity and their period of variation.
(a) Describe this relationship.
(b) What does this relationship enable astronomers to measure?
(c) Why did she need to use Cepheid variables that were similar distances from the Earth to determine
the relationship?
3. What did Hubble notice about all the more distant galaxies?
4. Which of these spectra of three distant galaxies would be from the most distant galaxy? Give your reason.
5. Which great theory of Albert Einstein’s was used in the development of the Big Bang Theory?
6. It is easy to read about the red shift of the galaxies in all directions and jump to the conclusion that the Earth
is at the centre of an expanding universe. Use the rubber band analogy, with each dot on the rubber band
representing a galaxy, to explain why this is not so.
7. Why did proof of the expansion of space still come as such a surprise to scientists, even though those
working with the General Theory of Relativity had already shown an expanding universe was possible?
8. Why did Einstein adjust his theory with a cosmological constant?
9. The light from the Andromeda galaxy is blue shifted. Explain why it is not red shifted like the light from
most galaxies.

Resources
Digital document Investigation 6.1 Expansion of the universe (doc-31871)
Teacher-led videos Investigation 6.1 Expansion of the universe (tlvd-0816)
Video eLesson The expansion of the universe (eles-0038)
Interactivity Shifting stars (int-6395)
6.3 Further developments of the Big Bang Theory

KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the Big Bang as a currently held theory that explains the origins of the universe.
• Describe the origins of both time and space with reference to the Big Bang Theory.
• Explain the changing universe over time due to expansion and cooling.
6.3.1 An expanding, cooling universe

By 1929 there was both a theoretical basis for the expansion of space, through the work of Lemaître, de
Sitter and Friedman, and the observational evidence of the red shift of galaxies to support it; however, it was
by no means generally accepted.
Hubble plotted the velocity (red shift) of galaxies versus their distance from Earth and ambitiously fitted
a straight line to the data, well aware that the distance calculations had large uncertainties. If the galaxies
really did fit this straight line rule, then it would be easy to judge the distance to other galaxies; simply
measure their red shift and divide by the gradient of the line. This gradient became known as Hubble’s
1
constant (H) and the relationship between velocity and distance as Hubble’s Law ( gives physicists a
H
means of calculating the age of the universe).
FIGURE 6.13 Hubble’s data. The solid dots are the results for galaxies treated individually and the solid line is
clusters. One parsec (pc) is 3.09 × 1016 m or 3.26 light-years. Notice the group of blue-shifted galaxies at about
the line of best fit for these data. The dashed line is fitted to the circles, which are the result of treating galaxies in
2.5 × 105 parsecs. This corresponds to the Andromeda galaxy and its satellites.
1000
Velocity (km s−1)
500
0 106 2 × 106
Distance (pc)
Source: Adapted from Edwin Hubble, ‘A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebula’, Proceedings
of the National Academy of Science, vol. 15, no. 3, 15 March 1929, Mount Wilson Observatory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Communicated 17 January 1929.

The value of Hubble’s constant has been measured with increasing accuracy since Hubble’s time and
discoveries in recent years have established its value to a small margin of uncertainty. Using the simplest
scenario — that the universe has expanded at a constant rate — Hubble’s early measurements put the age
of the universe at 2 billion years, but the age of the Earth appeared to be greater than that. Improvements
in measurement, including a better understanding of Cepheid variable stars and measuring the red shift of
much more distant galaxies, have since put the age of the universe at about 13.8 billion years.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Use the solid line in the graph of Hubble’s data to estimate the age of the universe. Compare this
with his estimate of 2 billion years.
THINK WRITE
–1
1. As the unit for speed here is km s , convert the 2 × 106 pc = 2 × 106 × 3.09 × 1013
distance to kilometres. = 6.2 × 1019 km
1100
2. Hubble’s constant is the gradient of the graph. H=
6.2 × 1019
= 1.78 × 10−17 s−1
1
3. The age of the universe is the reciprocal of t=
Hubble’s constant. H
1
=
1.78 × 10−17
= 5.62 × 1016 s
= 1.8 × 109 years
4. State the answer. The universe is 1.8 × 109 years old. This is
2 billion years to one significant figure, so
consistent with Hubble’s estimate.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Given the currently accepted age of the universe is 13.8 billion years, is Hubble’s trendline with this
early data too steep or not steep enough in gradient?
Resources
Weblink The expansion of the universe and Brian Schmidt
Other evidence for the expansion model of the universe included surveys showing that galaxy density in
distant space was greater than the density of galaxies closer to Earth. This is expected with the expansion
model because when we observe distant galaxies, we see them as they were billions of years ago — due to
the limit of the speed of light — when the universe had undergone much less expansion.
The young universe must have been very hot and we will learn that a significant event called
recombination resulted in photons (light) being able to travel freely for the first time without interacting
with electrons. The wavelength of a photon depends on its energy. As the universe expanded, the
wavelengths of the photons would have expanded, stretching out to form microwaves with much less
energy than when the photons were initially released. These microwaves have become known as cosmic
microwave background radiation (CMB) and correspond to a background temperature of about −270 °C
or 2.7 K. Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered this radiation in 1965 when they were trying to

eliminate some noise coming from their radio telescope.
FIGURE 6.14 Penzias and Wilson discovered
The identification of this noise as the missing energy the cosmic microwave background radiation
left over from the beginning of the universe was the (CMB) in 1965.
turning point for the Big Bang Theory. The theory had
predicted the existence of greatly red shifted energy
left over from the early universe. With the discovery
of CMB, this energy had been found — cooled from
3000 K at recombination to 2.7 K today by the expansion
of the universe.
The name ‘Big Bang’ came from an early opponent
of the theory, Fred Hoyle, in 1950. It is not a particularly
accurate description as it implies that the creation of the
universe was like an enormous explosion pushing matter
through space, which is not the case. Instead of pushing
matter through space, space and time were created in the
Big Bang and the expansion of the universe with time carries matter with space.
In summary we have discovered that:
• the universe is vast, filled with billions of galaxies each containing billions of stars
• these galaxies are moving away from each other at a rate that increases the more distant the
galaxies are
• the more distant galaxies (the older ones) are more densely packed than those closer to us
• the predicted CMB has been detected.
Most scientists concluded that these discoveries meant the universe had a beginning — in a relatively
small volume — and has expanded ever since. This idea is the Big Bang Theory.
STEPHEN HAWKING AND THE BIG BANG

The Big Bang Theory raises many questions. What happened
before the Big Bang? What is outside the universe? What is the FIGURE 6.15 Stephen Hawking
universe expanding into? Famous physicist Stephen Hawking, in
collaboration with others, posed answers to these questions. He
reminded us that in the past people contemplated what would
happen if you sailed off the edge of the world. That question turns
out to not need an answer because we have a completely different
view of the shape of the world; it is a globe, so we never reach an
edge. The question of what happened off the edge of the world only
arose because of our misunderstanding of the shape of the world,
thinking that it was flat.
In his PhD thesis in the mid-1960s, Stephen Hawking proved that
Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity required the universe to have
a beginning in what was called a ‘singularity’. A singularity is a point
of infinite density that is achieved when we think of what happens
if we run time backwards so that the expanding universe collapses
back to its beginning. This was a stunning result for general relativity.
If the universe was initially very dense, it must also have been
incredibly hot and that energy should still be found throughout the
universe. This energy was found soon after Hawking’s initial work on
singularities in the form of the CMB. This radiation is central to the
subject of this topic, the origin of atoms.
Later Hawking showed that time becomes like another dimension of space under extreme conditions. It makes
no more sense to ask what happened before the Big Bang than to ask what is south of the South Pole. Hawking
asked us to imagine the passing of time as being like decreasing degrees of latitude away from the South Pole.
The latitude is 90° at the South Pole and as we move north it becomes 89°, 88°, and so on. There is no 91° of
latitude and there is no ‘before the Big Bang’. Time began with the Big Bang and space has no edge to fall off, or
to step outside of, to discover what the universe is expanding into.

6.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the connection between the observed cosmic microwave background and the Big Bang Theory?
2. Explain how Hubble’s observation of receding galaxies led to the idea that the universe had a beginning.
3. What does the Big Bang Theory say about time and space before the beginning of the universe?
4. What does the Big Bang Theory have to say about space since the beginning of the universe?
5. Explain how the energy left over from the Big Bang has cooled as a result of the universe’s expansion.
6. How does the Big Bang Theory explain Hubble’s observation that the more distant the galaxy, the greater its
red shift?
7. Why would the galaxies have been more densely packed in the universe in the past?
6.4 Measurements of the universe

KEY CONCEPT
• Apply scientific notation to quantify and compare the large ranges of magnitudes of time, distance,
temperature and mass considered when investigating the universe.
The universe is on a scale that is very difficult to comprehend with the usual numbers we are accustomed
to. For example, when measuring distance on Earth, measurements in metres or kilometres are sufficient
for most situations. For small objects millimetres or centimetres are often used. Using these units, even the
vastness of the circumference of the Earth is not too unwieldy. The circumference of the Earth is around
40 000 km. It is a big number, but manageable. When looking beyond the Earth, physicists and astronomers
find other units and notations easier to work with.
6.4.1 The astronomical unit

One of the earliest measurements of the vastness of space was the distance from the Earth to the Sun. This
was an important measurement because it could be used to work out the distance to the other planets. The
main reason for Captain James Cook’s voyage, which eventually led him in 1770 to the east coast of what is
now Australia, was to measure this distance by observing a transit of Venus at Tahiti. The average distance
from the Earth to the Sun is known as an astronomical unit (AU), as shown in figure 6.16. It provides an
alternative unit for measuring distance on the scale of the solar system.
To see the effectiveness of the astronomical unit consider the following:

1 AU = 150 000 000 km or 150 000 000 000 m

FIGURE 6.16 The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 1 AU.
Venus
Mercury
Sun
AU
1
Earth
The average distance from the Sun to Saturn is 1.4 billion km or 1 400 000 000 000 m.
When performing calculations with these numbers it is easy to make a mistake, such as including an extra
zero. The metre, or even the kilometre is not a very useful reference on the scale of the solar system. It can
be easier to understand that Saturn is 9.6 AU, or 9.6 times as far as the Earth is from the Sun.
However, the astronomical unit is not very helpful on the scale of the universe. The nearest star is
270 000 AU. The distance to the nearest large galaxy is 160 000 000 000 AU.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
The planet Mars has an elliptical orbit. It is 1.38 AU from the Sun at its closest (perihelion) and
1.67 AU from the Sun at its furthest (aphelion). Calculate these distances in metres.
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the number of metres in 1 AU. 1 AU = 150 000 000 000 m
2. Multiply this value by the number of At aphelion: 1.67 × 150 000 000 000
astronomical units. At perihelion: 1.38 × 150 000 000 000
3. State the solution in metres. At aphelion: 250 500 000 000 m
At perihelion: 207 000 000 000 m
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
a. Venus has an average orbital radius of 0.72 AU. What is the average distance of Venus from
the Sun in metres?
b. The distance from the Earth to the Moon averages about 385 000 kilometres. What is this in
astronomical units?

6.4.2 The parsec
Measurement of the distance to nearby stars uses a technique called parallax. This involves observing the
tiny change in position of the nearby star against the distant background stars as the Earth moves around the
Sun. This change in position is so tiny that it is very difficult to measure, even with the largest telescopes.
The lack of parallax observed is one of the reasons that it took a long time to accept that the Earth moved
around the Sun, rather than the other way around as most ancients believed.
The change in position is measured as an angle, but no changes as big as 1 degree were observed. Even
one-sixtieth of that, one minute of arc, was too large a unit. Astronomers measure parallax in fractions
of seconds of arc. The distance of an object that would cause one second of parallax as the Earth moved
around the Sun is called a parallax second, or parsec (pc). The nearest star, Proxima Centauri is 1.3 parsec
from Earth. The parsec is equivalent to 30 900 000 000 000 000 m.
FIGURE 6.17 1 parsec is the distance of a nearby star (object) with a parallax angle of 1 arc second.
Earth
1 AU Parallax angle = 1 arc second
Nearby star
Sun
Distance = 1 parsec
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Alpha Centauri is 1.339 pc from Earth and Rigel is 265 pc from Earth. How many times further
away is Rigel than Alpha Centauri?
THINK WRITE
1. What is the distance from Earth to Rigel and Alpha 265 pc and 1.339 pc
Centauri in the same units?
265
2. Divide the distance to Rigel by the distance to = 197.9
Alpha Centauri. 1.339
3. State the solution. Rigel is about 198 times as far away
as Alpha Centauri.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
The Andromeda galaxy is 778 000 pc from the Earth, while the Large Magellanic Cloud is 48 500 pc
away. How many times further away is the Andromeda galaxy than the Large Magellanic Cloud?

6.4.3 The light-year
A unit often used in the measurements of distances in space is the distance that light travels in one year. The
light-year is 9 460 000 000 000 000 m. The light-year is informative because it describes how long it has
taken the light to reach Earth. A galaxy that is observed as 4 billion light-years away is observed as it was
4 billion years ago. That galaxy will not currently be four billion light-years away as it has moved relative
to the Earth in the meantime. The unit of measurement takes this complication into account.
1 light-year = 9 460 000 000 000 000 m = 9.46 × 1015 m
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The Andromeda galaxy is measured to be 2.5 million light-years away. How long has it taken the
light from it to reach our eyes and telescopes?
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the distance in light-years. 2.5 million light-years
2. Write that distance as the number of years the light The light has travelled for 2.5 million
has travelled. years to reach us.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
How long has it taken light to reach the Earth from Betelgeuse, which is measured as being 643 light-
years away?
6.4.4 Working in metres

Astronomical units, parsecs and light-years are excellent units for working on astronomical scales but
ultimately scientists need to be able to relate distances to common units like metres. This involves dealing
with very large numbers. Rather than write them out in full as has been done so far in this subtopic,
scientists use scientific notation (also known as standard form). This is a number between one and ten
multiplied by multiples of ten.
For example, the light-year is the unwieldly 9 460 000 000 000 000 m. In scientific notation this is
written as 9.46 × 1015 m. A number like 1 000 000 000 000 becomes 1012 . This is so much quicker to write
and is much easier to read.
Scientific notation makes it easy to compare very large numbers. It makes use of the
powers of ten.
100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 100
103 = 1000 ... and so on
Try comparing the following numbers 9 450 000 000 000 and 3 600 000 000 000. It is much easier to
compare 9.45 × 1012 and 3.6 × 1012 . Immediately it becomes clear that the first number is bigger than

the second by a factor of less than three. To find that factor exactly all that is needed is to perform the
9.45
calculation = 2.625. The rest of the number (1012 ) cancels out so can be ignored. If the numbers
3.6
did not have the same power of ten, they can be written so that they do. Consider the numbers 2.6 × 1016
and 1.2 × 1015 . To compare the numbers the first could be written as 26 × 1015 , then they can be compared
on the same scale.
Big numbers are everywhere in distance in the universe, from the diameters of stars to the circumference
of a galaxy. Scientific notation is an effective way of managing these large numbers.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
Add the numbers 2.5 × 108 and 1.2 × 109 .

THINK WRITE
1. Write the two numbers so the powers of ten 2.5 × 108
are the same. 1.2 × 109 = 12 × 108
2. Now that they have common powers of ten, 2.5 + 12 = 14.5
add the numbers together.
3. Write with the multiple of ten. 14.5 × 108
4. Rewrite in scientific notation if necessary. 1.45 × 109
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Add 2.3 × 107 and 4.3 × 106 .
6.4.5 Numbers and time

The universe is not only grand on the scale of distances; the scale of time is also difficult to comprehend.
The age of the universe is currently measured to be close to 13.8 billion years (1.38 × 1010 years).
The next subtopic will address the earliest moments of the universe. The normal practice of dividing
time into seconds is not very helpful. An event like the emergence of gravity occurred
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 seconds after the universe began.
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 is much easier to read as a power of ten.
1 = 100
0.1 = 10−1
0.01 = 10−2
0.001 = 10−3 ... and so on
The time when the force of gravity is understood to have first been active as a separate force in the
universe was when the universe was 10−43 seconds old.
Temperatures and masses also require extremely large and small numbers to describe them. Temperatures
range from 2.7 K in deep space to 1.47 × 1032 K, the temperature at which physics as we know it cannot
explain what happens — the Planck temperature. Masses vary enormously too. An electron has a mass of
9.1 × 10−31 kg, while the observable universe has an estimated mass of 1.5 × 1053 kg.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The mass of the Sun is 1.989 × 1030 kg. Write this number in full decimal notation.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the number that needs to be converted. 1.989 × 1030 kg
2. Write the digits without the power of ten, then 1 989 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg
move the decimal point 30 places to the right,
adding zeros where necessary.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
The Earth is understood to be 4.54 × 109 years old. Write this age in full decimal notation.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
The temperature at the centre of the Sun is approximately 15 000 000 K. Write this number in
scientific notation to two significant figures.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the number to be converted. 15 000 000 K
2. Write down the first digits to the appropriate number of 15
significant figures.
3. Add a decimal point to make the number between 1 and 10. 1.5
4. Count the number of places the decimal point would have to 7
move to obtain the original number.
5. Write the number as the product of part 3 and 10 to the 1.5 × 107 K
power of part 4, including units.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
The mass of Saturn is 568 300 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg. What is the mass of Saturn in
scientific notation to four significant figures?
6.4 EXERCISE
1. The average distance from the Sun to Neptune is 30.1 AU. Convert this distance to metres.
2. The distance from the Earth to Mercury averages 77 million kilometres. How far is that in astronomical units?
3. The solar system lies about 8 kpc from the centre of the galaxy. The radius of the galaxy is approximately
15 kpc. Describe our location within our galaxy.
4. Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is about 8.6 light-years from Earth. How long has it taken the light
that we see on Earth to reach us from Sirius?
5. The distance from the Sun to Neptune is 4.495 billion kilometres. Write this in scientific notation in metres.
6. The light from the most distant galaxy observed has travelled 1.3339 × 1010 years to reach us. Write this
number in decimal notation.

7. When the universe was a second old the Big Bang Theory estimates its temperature was about
10 000 000 000 K. Write this number as a power of ten.
8. The mass of Earth is about 5.98 × 1024 kg and the mass of the Moon about 7.35 × 1022 kg. Without using a
calculator determine the total mass of the Moon and Earth to three significant figures.
9. The mass of Jupiter is 1.90 × 1027 kg and the mass of Earth is 5.98 × 1024 kg. Calculate the ratio of mass of
Jupiter to mass of Earth to two significant figures.

6.5 The formation of the first atoms

KEY CONCEPT
• Explain the change of matter in the stages of the development of the universe including inflation,
elementary particle formation, annihilation of antimatter and matter, commencement of nuclear fusion,
cessation of fusion and the formation of atoms.
6.5.1 Looking back in time

To look into space is to look back in time. This is a consequence of the speed of light and the vast distances
involved. Light travels faster than anything else in the universe, but it still only travels at just under
300 000 000 metres per second. The distance light travels in a year is called a light-year. The light from
Earth’s nearest star, other than the Sun, takes more than four years to reach us, so we see it as it was
more than four years ago. When we look out to the nearest large galaxies we see them as they were over
2.5 million years ago. This is still recent in the universe’s history.
Looking at the most distant galaxies, we see them as they were over 13 billion years ago. These distant
galaxies are incredibly faint and our current telescopes cannot see further. But even if we could, we don’t
expect to see much more because physicists believe that the first stars would have only begun to shine at
this time. A little over 13 billion years ago the matter in the universe was hydrogen and some helium in
vast clouds, collapsing due to gravity on their way to producing the first stars and galaxies. This period is
known as the Dark Ages (borrowed from a term used to describe the period in history following the fall of
the Roman Empire). The Dark Ages marks the period from 380 000 years following the beginning of the
universe until stars began to shine 150–800 million years later.
To look further back in time, we don’t see objects, we see the remnants of an event. This is CMB, the
energy in the form of photons left over from the early universe. Prior to the universe reaching 380 000
years of age, this energy was trapped in a state of constant scattering, a bit like light in a cloud. It was not
water molecules that scattered this light but the charged particles that filled the universe. These protons
and electrons were too energetic, too hot, to combine to form atoms until the expansion of the universe had
cooled it enough for the bonds between electrons and protons and the other nuclei to form. This event is
called recombination and marks the time when atoms first formed 380 000 years after the beginning of the
universe. The CMB provides physicists with a picture of what the universe was like at 3.8 × 105 years of
age because the light that formed it was free to travel through the universe from that time. The CMB has
been red shifted uniformly in all directions by the expansion of the universe.

FIGURE 6.18 The CMB as measured by the Planck satellite. The differences in colour indicate temperature
differences that correspond to differences in the density of the universe when it was 380 000 years old.
Source: ESA and the Planck Collaboration
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
What event was the origin of the cosmic microwave background?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall what the cosmic The cosmic microwave background radiation is a
microwave background is. uniform low temperature radiation throughout space in
all directions.
2. Recall what event resulted in the Energy from the Big Bang was constantly scattered by
cosmic background radiation. charged particles until the universe was cool enough for
electrons to remain bonded to the hydrogen and helium
nuclei that had formed. This event produced the first
atoms and is called recombination. The photons of
energy were able to propagate through space after this
point and it is the greatly red shifted photons that are
observed as the cosmic microwave background.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
Why is it not possible to view the universe using light as it was prior to recombination?
6.5.2 The early universe

The CMB marks the earliest observation we have of the universe. To understand what happened prior to this
event, physicists rely on particle physics and the Theory of General Relativity to help them make sense of
their observations of the CMB and the universe that followed. Particle physics experiments, such as those

in the Large Hadron Collider that discovered the Higgs boson at CERN, create conditions that existed for
particles in the early universe, so physicists do have experimental evidence for much of what happened
prior to recombination.
FIGURE 6.19 Diagram of the evolution of the universe (observable part) from the Big Bang (left) to the present
Source: NASA WMAP Science Team
Let’s piece the story together from the beginning until the formation of the first atoms, summarised in
figure 6.20.
Planck era
The first 10−43 seconds
This is known as the Planck era and current theories of physics cannot explain what happened in the
conditions that were present. The universe was too small, too dense, too hot and existed for too short a
time for current physics to say anything precise about it. Physicists refer to what existed prior to when the
universe was 10−43 seconds old as a singularity. In this period space and time began. Gravity became a
distinct force at the end of the Planck era. The temperature was 1032 degrees Celsius and the universe was
10−35 cm across.
Grand unified era

10−43 seconds to 10−36 seconds
This tiny interval of time in the early universe is known as the grand unified era. During this period,
physicists believe that the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force did
not yet exist as separate forces. The first matter began to form, but for each particle of matter, there was a
particle of antimatter. As soon as a particle was formed, it would meet an antiparticle and be annihilated.

Inflation era FIGURE 6.20 Timeline of the early universe
10−36 seconds to 10−32 seconds
This next period of time is known as the inflation
era. During this time, a period of exponential
expansion has been proposed to explain a number of 10 10
features of the universe. The universe is thought to

have expanded in size by a factor of 1026 , so that the
observable universe was about 10 cm across. This 10 5
rapid expansion explains, among other things, why
the CMB is so uniform, being close to 2.7 degrees Nucleogenesis
above absolute zero in all directions. 3 mins to 20 mins
Protons and neutrons
Alan Guth proposed this radical idea in 1980. 10 0 fuse to form helium-4.
It was a response to some of the limitations of the Hadron era
standard Big Bang model that worked well for 10−6 seconds to 3 mins
Quarks form protons
most of the evidence, but fell short when it came and neutrons.
10 –5
to explaining the relative uniformity of the CMB
in all directions and what is known as the ‘flatness’
of the universe. At first, inflation may look like a Quark era
crazy idea invented just to explain away problems. 10 –10 10−12 seconds to
10−6 seconds
However, in all of the time since, no-one has come Quarks,
up with a more successful explanation of why electrons and
the visible universe is so uniform in temperature neutrinos emerge in
large numbers.
or why the universe appears so ‘flat’. In a flat 10 –15
universe, parallel lines remain an equal distance
apart. In a curved universe, they could be more
like north–south lines on the surface of the Earth,
10 –20
which meet at the poles. It is thought that rapid
expansion during this era smoothed out deviations Electroweak era
10−32 seconds to 10−12
in the flatness of the universe that would otherwise seconds
have grown with time. A flat universe only just The strong nuclear 10 –25
avoids eventual gravitational collapse. forces emerge.
The Higgs boson
The small variations in the cosmic microwave provides particles
background detected by the Planck orbiting with inertial mass.
observatory are consistent with a universe that 10 –30
underwent a period of inflation and resulted in the

clumping of matter into clusters of galaxies. Inflation era
10 –35 10−36 seconds to
Electroweak era 10−32 seconds
10−32 seconds to 10−12 seconds Period of exponential
expansion
The electroweak era was the period when the strong Grand unified era
nuclear force came into play. The Higgs boson 10−43 seconds to 10−36 10–40
formed, enabling particles to have mass. seconds
Force of gravity
Planck era
emerges.
Quark era Matter annihilated by
10−43 seconds
10−12 seconds to 10−6 seconds antimatter. 10–45
Physics is unable to
describe what
The quark era was when particles began to appear in happened in this time.
large numbers. These included quarks, electrons and The universe was a
singularity.
neutrinos. Most particles still formed in pairs with
10–50
an antiparticle, but a bias towards particles resulted
in matter that was not annihilated through contact
with antimatter. The source of this bias is not well
understood.
Hadron era
10−6 seconds to 3 minutes
The hadron era was the period when the temperature of the universe had dropped to the point where three
quarks could form protons and neutrons (particles like neutrons and protons made from three quarks are
called hadrons). Most are annihilated by contact with their antiparticles, and leptons such as electrons
dominate.
Nucleogenesis
3 minutes to 20 minutes
Nucleogenesis occurs. During this era, annihilation with antimatter became less significant and the
critical phase of fusion occurred. During these few minutes most of the nuclei in the universe formed. The
following section outlines this in detail.
FIGURE 6.21 Temperature and size of the universe over time
Time (years)
10−50 10−40 10−30 10−20 10−10 1 1010
1030
Temperature of universe (K)
Inflationary model
20
10
1010
Current interior of Sun
Boiling water
1060
1050
1040 Radius of
30 observable
10
universe
1020
Distance (m)
1010
1
10−10
10−20
Radius of
10−30
observable universe
10 −40 B C
(inflationary model)
10−50
10−60
10−45 10−35 10−25 10−15 10−5 105 1015
Time (seconds) Present time
Inflation era = 10−36 s to 10 −32

s Light nuclei Universe
form transparent
to light

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
What separates the quark era from the other eras of the early universe?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the details of the The quark era was when particles such as quarks,
quark era. electrons and neutrinos began to appear in large
numbers and matter began to dominate over antimatter.
2. Identify the details that Prior to the quark era particles were annihilated by their
distinguish it from other eras. antiparticles as soon as they formed. Quarks existed as
individual particles. In subsequent eras, quarks have
been only found combined with other quarks to form
larger particles like protons and neutrons.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
What distinguishes the electroweak era from other eras of the early universe?
6.5.3 Nucleogenesis (the birth of atoms)

In 1948, George Gamow (1904–1968) and Ralph Alpher (1921–2007) proposed a model that explained
how over 99% of the atoms found in the universe could have formed. The protons and neutrons in the early
period of the universe readily interacted with the abundance of electrons and neutrinos present, causing
them to change from proton to neutron, and vice versa. This produced equal numbers of each, but as the
universe cooled, fewer protons interacted with electrons with sufficient energy to form neutrons. This
resulted in more protons being formed than neutrons in a ratio of about 7 to 1. This formed a universe of
hydrogen. Under the right temperature and pressure protons and neutrons can fuse, one at a time, to form
helium-4. These conditions were present when the early universe was about 400 seconds old, allowing
nuclei up to a mass number of 4 to form.
This produced:
• hydrogen (1 proton)
• deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron)
• tritium (an isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 2 neutrons)
• helium-3 (2 protons and 1 neutron)
• helium-4 (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
No stable isotope with a mass number of 5 exists (this has been tested in the laboratory), so fusion of
nuclei beyond helium-4 was very limited. Tiny quantities of lithium-7 and beryllium-7 were produced
through fusion of helium nuclei, but the step to heavier elements involving the fusion of three helium nuclei
to form carbon takes too long. The universe rapidly cooled through its expansion to the point where the
conditions no longer supported fusion. This provided the young universe with its composition of about 75%
hydrogen and 25% helium by mass.
To understand the prediction of the proportion of hydrogen to helium, consider the ratio of protons to
neutrons, which is 7:1. To form a helium-4 nucleus, 2 protons and 2 neutrons are required. According to
the 7:1 ratio, for every 2 neutrons in the universe, there were 14 protons. The formation of helium-4 would
take 2 neutrons and 2 protons, leaving 12 protons in the mix. That leaves 4 nucleons in helium and 12 in
hydrogen, or 25% of the mass in helium and 75% in hydrogen. The fusion in these first moments of the

universe was so rapid and complete that virtually all of the available neutrons went into helium-4. Only
a tiny proportion remained as deuterium or tritium (which decays to helium-3) so this simple calculation
gives a very good prediction of the composition of the universe prior to star formation.
FIGURE 6.22 In the early universe protons outnumbered neutrons 7 to 1.
Fusion
For nearly 20 minutes, conditions in the universe were sufficiently hot and dense for protons to fuse with
neutrons ensuring that virtually all neutrons were bound in helium-4 nuclei. One of the strongest pieces of
measured evidence for the Big Bang model of the universe (along with the observed expansion and CMB)
is this predicted proportion of hydrogen and helium. As astrophysicists measure the proportions of the
elements in regions of the universe not greatly affected by fusion in stars, the elements are found in this
predicted abundance.
So we have the formation of nuclei in the early universe, but there are no atoms. That will take more time
because although the universe has cooled sufficiently for nuclei to form, it is still way too hot for electrons
to stay bound to those nuclei. Before atoms could form, 380 000 years would pass.
Table 6.1 outlines significant events in the early universe.
TABLE 6.1 Significant events in the early universe
Time since beginning of Temperature (K) Event

universe (seconds)
10−36 to 10−32 Inflation occurs
10−12 to 10−6 1016 Elementary particles including quarks and leptons form
10−6 to 100 1012 Annihilation of antimatter and matter leave relatively

small amount of matter
102 109 Commencement of nuclear fusion
103 Cessation of fusion
1013 (380 000 years) 3000 Formation of atoms (recombination), CMB produced
1013 to 1016 Dark Ages (stars yet to form)

16
10 (800 000 000 years) First stars and galaxies form; most atoms re-ionised
1017 (9.3 billion years) Earth and solar system form
1018 (13.82 billion years) 2.7 Today
It was not until 800 million years into the universe’s life that the story of the atom resumed, when the
first stars formed and new elements began to form in nuclear fusion in their interiors. In the centres of these
enormous stars, the temperature and pressure was sufficient for long enough for fusion to continue beyond
the formation of helium-4, resulting ultimately in the genesis of all of the elements in nature.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
A section of space contained 20 neutrons prior to nucleogenesis. How many helium-4 nuclei
would have formed in this section of space during nucleogenesis?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall how many neutrons and protons 2 neutrons and 2 protons per helium-4
are required to make a helium-4.
2. Recall that there were seven protons for 7 protons for every neutron were present, so in a
every neutron. space containing 20 neutrons we could expect
7 × 20 = 140 protons — plenty to make helium-4
from every neutron available.
3. Count how many helium-4 nuclei could Each helium-4 requires 2 neutrons, so 20
have formed from this raw material. neutrons would produce 10 helium-4 nuclei.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
A section of space formed 2 × 1030 helium-4 nuclei in the nucleogenesis era of the early universe. How
many hydrogen-1 nuclei would have been produced in the same section of space?
Resources
Weblinks NASA — the Big Bang
Planck data
The early universe
6.5 EXERCISE
1. Outline how the quark era differed to the electroweak era.
2. What first happened in the hadron era?
3. When did the force of gravity first exist as a defined force?
4. How long into the universe’s existence did protons and neutrons begin to appear in significant numbers?
5. Why were particles in the earliest moments of the universe so short lived?
6. Provide two problems that the inflation hypothesis solves.
7. What prevented nuclear fusion occurring prior to 3 minutes and later than 20 minutes into the life of
the universe?
8. Explain how the Big Bang Theory predicts a ratio of hydrogen to helium of 3:1 in terms of mass.
9. What prevented electrons from binding to nuclei to form atoms in the first 380 000 years of the universe’s
existence?
To answer practice exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for
every question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

6.6 Review
6.6.1 Summary
• Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is only one of billions of galaxies.
• All distant galaxies are moving away from us, and the further away they are, the faster they are
receding.
• The expansion of space provided the first evidence that the universe had a beginning, now determined
to have occurred 13.8 billion years ago.
• In the earliest moments of the universe, there was a period called inflation, where the size of the
universe grew exponentially within a fraction of a second.
• After about 20 minutes, the universe consisted of hydrogen and helium nuclei with 25% of the mass in
helium and 75% in hydrogen.
• Atoms first appeared 380 000 years into the universe’s history when the universe was cool enough for
electrons to stay bound to nuclei.
• Light was then free to travel through the universe, which is now visible as the cosmic microwave
background radiation.
• Production of heavier elements did not occur until the first stars began fusing hydrogen and helium in
their cores, 800 000 000 years after the beginning of the universe.
• The Big Bang is the name given to the theory that describes the universe beginning from a point of
infinite density and expanding to create space and time as we see it today.
• The key evidence for the Big Bang includes: the expansion of the universe, the higher density of
galaxies in the past, the proportion of elements in the universe and the cosmic microwave background
radiation.
• Stephen Hawking showed that the universe may have no boundaries of space or time — time began
with the universe, and space and time outside of the universe have no meaning.
• When measuring distance, temperature, mass and time in the universe, the numbers can be
unmanageably large or small. To reduce this problem numbers can be expressed in scientific notation
where a number between 1 and 10 is multiplied by a power of 10. For very small numbers, the power
of ten is negative.
• Alternative units for distance are used in measuring space. The astronomical unit (AU) is the distance
from Earth to the Sun. It is useful for measuring the solar system. The parsec (pc) is the distance that
produces a parallax angle of one arc second as the Earth moves around the Sun. A light-year is the
distance light travels in one year.
Resources
6.6.2 Key terms
The Big Bang is the name for the dramatic beginning of the universe from an infinitely dense, small point.
A Cepheid variable is a type of star that has a relationship between its period of variation in luminosity and its
maximum luminosity. They are useful for measuring distances to galaxies.
The cosmic microwave background is radiation that can be found in all regions of empty space. It is left over
energy from the Big Bang.
Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, has evolved and will end.

A galaxy is a collection of hundreds of billions of stars. Stars are organised into galaxies, with very few stars
existing between galaxies.
A globular cluster is a very old, densely packed cluster of stars in the shape of a sphere.
Hubble’s constant is the constant of proportionality relating the speed that galaxies are receding from Earth and
their distance from Earth.
Hubble’s Law states that the speed of recession of galaxies is proportional to their distance from Earth.
Recombination is the event when electrons could remain bound to nuclei to form atoms. Prior to 380 000 years
after the Big Bang, electrons had too much energy due to the temperature to remain bound to nuclei.
Red shift is the increase in wavelength that results from a light source moving away from the observer.
Resources
Investigation 6.1
Expansion of the universe
Aim: To model the expansion of the universe in two dimensions, using

the surface of a balloon
Resources
6.6 Exercises
1. Which of the following correctly describes scientific theories?
A. Well thought out scientific explanations
B. Guesses
C. Beyond dispute
D. Measured facts
2. What does the Big Bang Theory predict?
A. The ratio of hydrogen to helium is 3:2.
B. Galaxies are further apart as we look further into space.
C. There is a relationship between distance and red shift of distant galaxies.
D. The expansion of the universe will cause the universe to heat up.
3. Which of the following facts did Hubble use to measure distances to galaxies?
A. Super novae have a known luminosity.
B. Some stars have a luminosity related to their period of variation.
C. Globular clusters contain old stars.
D. The CMB is nearly uniform.

4. What did Hubble discover that was important evidence for the Big Bang Theory?
A. Red shift of galaxies increases with distance.
B. Red shift of galaxies decreases with distance.
C. The CMB is nearly uniform.
D. There is three times the amount of hydrogen by mass than there is helium.
5. What is the explanation for the photons of the CMB having much less energy that 13 billion
years ago?
A. The photons have worn out with age.
B. Photons are more dispersed through the expanded universe.
C. They have lost energy through interaction with matter.
D. Their wavelengths have been stretched as they travel through the expanding universe.
6. Which of the following numbers is the smallest?
A. 3.4 × 108
B. 2.34 × 109
C. 3.39 × 108
D. 3 × 108
7. Which of the following is not written in correct scientific notation?
A. 25 × 103
B. 2.3 × 1025
C. 1.006 × 106
D. 7 × 10–7
8. Which of the following is correct?
A. Matter formed before the quark era.
B. The strong nuclear force emerged in the inflation era.
C. The first atoms formed during nucleogenesis.
D. Electrons existed in the quark era.
9. When did the Dark Ages in cosmology occur?
A. Before recombination
B. After recombination and prior to the first stars
C. During inflation era
D. Before the quark era
10. When did inflation occur most dramatically?
A. Prior to the appearance of gravity
B. After atoms formed
C. After the strong nuclear force emerged
D. After the grand unified era

1. What did Hubble discover in 1929 that led to the formulation of the Big Bang Theory?
2. The light from the Andromeda galaxy is blue shifted. Explain why it is not red shifted like the light
from most galaxies.
3. How is the Big Bang different from normal explosions in terms of space and time?
4. List the key evidence in favour of the Big Bang Theory.
5. Why was the CMB discovery so important in establishing the Big Bang Theory?
6. Why is scientific notation preferred when writing very large and very small numbers?
7. The inflation era is the time when the universe was between 10−36 and 10−32 seconds old. Write these
times in decimal notation.
8. Why did nucleogenesis in the early universe only produce light nuclei like hydrogen and helium?
9. List the following events in chronological order: particle–antiparticle annihilation, ignition of the first
stars, nuclear fusion, inflation, the formation of atoms.
10. What metaphor did Stephen Hawking use to help explain how time has a beginning?

a. Sketch a graph of red shift versus distance that summarises Hubble’s observations of
galaxy red shifts. 2 marks
b. How did Hubble determine the speed of recession of galaxies? 1 mark
c. What type of star did Hubble use in his distance measurements for the galaxies? 1 mark
a. Describe the source of the cosmic microwave background radiation. 2 marks
b. The variations in CMB measured by the Planck space observatory are about 0.000 57 K.
Write this in scientific notation. 1 mark
Question 3 (1 mark)
What tools do physicists use to improve their understanding of what happens to matter in
the conditions in the early universe?
Question 4 (1 mark)
What needs to happen to energy in order to explore earlier periods?
Question 5 (1 mark)
As physicists explored the earliest moments of the universe they noticed that the four
fundamental forces — gravity, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force and electromagnetic
force — were not always separate. In what order did the forces appear after the beginning
of the universe?
For just a few minutes in the early universe, nuclear fusion could take place.
a. What were the products of this fusion? 2 marks
b. Why were the products limited to these? 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 3
7 Particles in the nucleus

your digital formats, eBookPLUS and learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.
7.1 Overview
7.1.1 Introduction
The nucleus was first described in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford. Earlier discoveries such as X-rays in 1895
by Wilhelm Röntgen, radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 and new radioactive elements in 1898
by Marie and Pierre Curie were both explained by and made possible by the nuclear model of the atom
developed by Rutherford.
By further investigating the nucleus, scientists have been able to identify a set of fundamental particles
that are the building blocks of all matter. These particles, and the way they interact with each other, form
the Standard Model of particle physics.
Understanding the Standard Model is essential in identifying some of the major challenges we face,
whether they be scientific, economic, technological, environmental or medical. That understanding is the
focus of this topic. The next topic will focus on how the nucleus relates to energy production.
FIGURE 7.1 The Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory is situated 1000 metres underground to insulate
it from other subatomic particles. Neutrinos are incredibly difficult to detect, with observatories such as
Super-Kamiokande detecting only a handful each month.
TOPIC 7 Particles in the nucleus 207

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• explain nuclear stability with reference to the forces that operate over very small distances
• describe the radioactive decay of unstable nuclei with reference to half-life
• model radioactive decay as random decay with a particular half-life, including mathematical modelling with
• apply a simple particle model of the atomic nucleus to explain the origin of 𝛼, 𝛽 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation,
reference to whole half-lives
− +
• explain nuclear transformations using decay equations involving 𝛼, 𝛽 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation

including changes to the number of nucleons
− +
• analyse decay series diagrams with reference to type of decay and stability of isotopes
• relate predictions to the subsequent discoveries of the neutron, neutrino, positron and Higgs boson
• describe quarks as components of subatomic particles
• distinguish between the two types of forces holding the nucleus together: the strong nuclear force and the
weak nuclear force
• compare the nature of leptons, hadrons, mesons and baryons
• explain that for every elementary matter particle there exists an antimatter particle of equal mass and
opposite charge, and that if a particle and its antiparticle come into contact, they will annihilate each other
to create radiation.

Resources
7.2 The discovery of subatomic particles

KEY CONCEPTS
• Relate predictions to the subsequent discoveries of the neutron, neutrino, positron and Higgs boson.
• Describe quarks as components of subatomic particles.
• Distinguish between the two types of forces holding the nucleus together: the strong nuclear force and the
weak nuclear force.
• Compare the nature of leptons, hadrons, mesons and baryons.
• Explain that for every elementary matter particle there exists an antimatter particle of equal mass and
opposite charge, and that if a particle and its antiparticle come into contact they will annihilate each other
to create radiation.

7.2.1 The Standard Model of particle physics
The Standard Model of particle physics describes all known elementary particles of matter and three of the
four known fundamental forces that describe their behaviour. There are seventeen particles named in the
Standard Model, all of which can be classified into two types of particles: fermions and bosons.
Fermions describe the fundamental particles that make up all matter, while bosons are the mediators
(cause) of interactions between other particles. A fundamental particle is one that is not made up of other
smaller particles.
FIGURE 7.2 The Standard Model of particle physics
7.2.2 Gauge bosons

There are four fundamental forces of physics that describe the way particles interact with each other. They
• gravity. The force of attraction between any two objects with mass, it is the weakest of the four forces
are, in order of increasing strength:
• weak nuclear force (or weak interaction). This force causes radioactive decay. It is much stronger than
and acts over an infinite distance.
small distances of magnitude 10−18 metres, or distances less than the width of a proton.
gravity, but weaker than electromagnetism and the strong force. The weak nuclear force acts over very
• electromagnetism. The force that governs electric fields and magnetic fields, it is the second strongest
• strong nuclear force (or strong interaction). This force is responsible for holding protons and neutrons
force after the strong nuclear force and acts over an infinite distance.
neutron. It acts over distances of magnitude 10−15 metres, which is about the size of the nucleus.
together in the nucleus by acting between the fundamental particles that make up the proton and

We know that a particle can experience a force due to another particle, even though the two particles are
not in direct contact. In the Standard Model, force-carrying particles, called gauge bosons (or bosons), are
thought to ‘carry’ forces from one particle to another.
Three of the four fundamental forces are governed by the exchange of bosons. Electromagnetism, the
strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force each have their own boson, so gauge bosons come in
three main forms: photons, which carry the electromagnetic force, gluons, which essentially hold quarks
together and are therefore considered to carry the strong nuclear force, and the W and Z bosons, which are
responsible for the weak nuclear force. As yet, no boson has been found that carries the gravitational force
and so gravity is the one force that the Standard Model does not yet explain.
7.2.3 Fermions
The twelve fundamental particles of matter are called fermions, which are defined by their quantum
numbers (such as charge). Fermions can be classified into two groups: quarks and leptons.
FIGURE 7.3 The families of subatomic particles and their relationship to matter and atoms
Fermions (matter)
Quarks Leptons
Hadrons
Mesons Baryons
Nuclei
Atoms
Leptons
Leptons are the simplest and lightest of the subatomic particles. The different types of leptons are shown in
table 7.1. Leptons interact using the weak nuclear force. They do not experience the strong nuclear force.

Leptons are fundamental particles, that is, they have no internal structure, although muons and tau
particles decay into electrons. The neutrinos accompany any interaction of their heavier partner.
TABLE 7.1 Leptons
Name Symbol Mass Charge First observed Half-life
Electron e– Negative 1869 Stable
Muon 𝜇– About 200 × mass of electron Negative 1936 10−6 s
Tau 𝜏 About 277 × mass of electron Negative 1977 10−13 s
Electron neutrino ve Negligible Neutral 1956 Stable
Muon neutrino vµ Negligible Neutral 1962 Stable
Tau neutrino vτ Negligible Neutral 2000 Stable
The muon decays to an electron according to the equation: 𝜇 − → e− + ve + v𝜇 . The ve particle is an

The electron is found in atoms and determines the chemical properties of elements.
anti-electron neutrino. The bar above the symbol indicates that it is an antiparticle (discussed later).
Note: The neutrino that is produced in beta decay — that is, when a neutron decays into a proton — is
actually an anti-electron neutrino.
Muons have a number of industrial uses. They are more penetrating than X-rays and gamma rays and are
non-ionising, so they are safe for humans, plants and animals. Their better penetrating power means that,
for example, they can be used to investigate cargo containers for shielded nuclear material. Muons have
also been used to look for hidden chambers in the pyramids. Muon detectors were used at the Fukushima
nuclear complex to determine the location and amount of nuclear fuel still inside the reactors that were
damaged by the Japanese tsunami in 2011.
it decays into two pions, which are discussed later. The decay equation is 𝜏 − → 𝜋 − + 𝜋 0 + v𝜏 . The
The tau particle was discovered some time later than the muon. The unusual feature of this particle is that
negative pion, 𝜋 − , then decays into an electron, while the neutral pion, 𝜋 0 , decays to two gamma rays.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
How many different leptons are there in the Standard Model? Name them.
THINK WRITE
1. Look up leptons in table 7.1. There are six leptons in the Standard Model.
2. List the names from table 7.1. The six leptons are:
• electron
• muon
• tau
• electron neutrino
• muon neutrino
• tau neutrino.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Compare the life times of the leptons.

Quarks
We know that all matter is made up of protons, TABLE 7.2 Quarks
neutrons and electrons, however, protons and
neutrons can be broken down further into Multiple of First
Quark Symbol Charge proton mass observed
+ 32
fundamental particles called quarks.
The quark model has six different quarks, Up u 0.003 1968
each with different masses and a fraction of the Down d − 31 0.006 1968
+3
charge of the electron. Each quark has its own
2
antiparticle. Quarks have rather unusual names, Charm c 1.3 1974
which are shown in table 7.2 along with their Strange s − 31 0.1 1968
+ 32
charges and mass.
Top t 184.0 1995
−3
The top quark has the same mass as a
1
gold atom! Bottom b 4.5 1977
Quarks are the only particles that interact
using the strong nuclear force. Leptons do not experience the strong nuclear force. Quarks have never been
found on their own, they have only been found bound together with other quarks to form hadrons.
Hadrons
Hadrons are distinctive because they are much heavier than the leptons, but much more importantly they
all have an internal structure. Hadrons are made up of different combinations of quarks. Hadrons that are a
combination of two quarks are called mesons. The other hadrons are combinations of three quarks and are
called baryons.
Mesons
There are over 60 different types of mesons. They play a role in nuclear interactions but have very short
of one quark and one antiquark. A positive pion (𝜋 + ) is made of one up quark and one down antiquark to
half-lives, so they are very difficult to detect. Each meson also has an antiparticle. Mesons are composed
give a charge of +1. While its antiparticle, 𝜋 – , is made of one up antiquark and one down quark to give a
charge of −1.
Baryons
Baryons include the proton and neutron as well as about 70 other different particles. Only the proton and
neutron are stable, with all other baryons having extremely short half-lives. Each baryon also has its own
charge of +1. A neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks to give a charge of zero.
antiparticle. Baryons have three quarks. A proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark to give a
FIGURE 7.4 The quark structure of the neutron FIGURE 7.5 The different types of fermions
and proton
Baryons (e.g.
Leptons (e.g. protons and Mesons
electrons) neutrons)
Hadrons
(co Q uarks
m bi )
ne to fo r m h a dro n s
Fermions
A proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark to give a charge of +1. A neutron consists of
one up quark and two down quarks to give a charge of zero.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Particles of matter can be classified as either mesons, baryons or leptons. Which of these is not
part of an atom?
THINK WRITE
1. Look at figure 7.3, a classification key for According to the key, atoms are made up of a
subatomic particles. Locate ‘Atoms’ and combination of nuclei, which in turn are made
determine which is not part of an atom: a up of baryons and leptons. Mesons are found on
meson, baryon or lepton. a different branch, therefore, a meson is not part
of an atom.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
According to figure 7.3, nuclei are made of baryons. What, therefore, are two particles from the
baryon family?
Why a quark model?

In the late nineteenth century, when visible light was shone through a gas of atoms of a particular element,
a spectra of black lines was observed. Each element produced a unique pattern of these lines, called an
absorption pattern (see figure 7.6).
FIGURE 7.6 A continuous spectrum and two different ways of producing an element’s fingerprint
Continuous spectrum
Emission line spectrum

Hot gas
Cold gas
Absorption line spectrum

In topic 2, the greenhouse effect was explained by describing how H2 O and CO2 molecules respond to
particular infra-red wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The lines in the atomic absorption patterns
suggested that there was some complexity or structure inside the atom. This structure was discovered early
in the twentieth century. Similarly, the absorption patterns for H2 O and CO2 molecules tell us something
about how the molecules are put together.
More information about the internal structure of the nucleus can be determined by the energy of alpha
particles emitted through radioactive decay. This energy is specific to the nucleus undergoing decay.
If a system is showing evidence that it can have only certain energy values, then it must have a structure,
that is, be made up of smaller particles.
During the 1960s it was discovered that when protons and neutrons were hit by a beam of particles, a
type of spectra was evident, much like molecules, atoms and nuclei. This meant that protons and neutrons
are made up of even smaller particles. This was the beginning of the quark model.
In 1961, Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima developed a classification of all the known
subatomic particles that predicted a new type of particle called a quark, which was found a few years later.
Then Gell-Mann and George Zweig developed their idea further into the quark model.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Like atoms and nuclei, protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles. They can be
explained as a combination of smaller particles called quarks. How do physicists know that
atoms, nuclei, protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles?
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the observations that In a similar way to atoms and nuclei, a spectrum of
physicists have about protons and allowable energies has been detected for protons
neutrons. and neutrons.
2. How does this information imply that Atoms produce electromagnetic spectra containing
protons and neutrons are not particular allowable energies that are interpreted as
fundamental particles? energy released by electrons as they change state
in the atom. If the atom had no structure, but was a
fundamental particle, this would be impossible as
there would be no electrons or energy states.
Similarly with protons and neutrons, the existence
of possible energy states within these particles
reveals that they have internal structure. They are
not fundamental.
As protons and neutrons also have a spectrum of
distinct energy states they are not fundamental, but
are made up of smaller constituent parts known as
quarks.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
How many energy states could a fundamental particle be in?

7.2.4 Matter and antimatter
In 1928, Paul Dirac developed a mathematical theory to explain the properties of the electron: its mass,
charge, role in beta decay and its energy inside the atom. The calculated values for these properties exactly
fitted their measured values, but Dirac’s equations suggested there may be two solutions — a negatively
charged electron and a positively charged electron, with the same mass but opposite charge. Indeed, he
raised the possibility of there being another form of matter, which he called ‘antimatter’.
Every particle, whether lepton, hadron or boson has an antiparticle. The best known example is probably
the antiparticle of the electron, known as the positron. These antiparticles have important practical uses and
are a key component of medical scanning through positron emission tomography (PET) scans.
Particles and their antiparticles have the same mass but opposite charge. To indicate an antiparticle of an
uncharged particle, a bar is placed above the symbol of the matter particle; for example, a tau neutrino has
the symbol v𝜏 and the antitau neutrino has the symbol v𝜏 . To indicate the antiparticle of a charged particle,
the symbol is given the opposite sign; for example, the symbol for the electron is e− and the symbol for the
positron is e+ .
The electron is a lepton and the positron its antiparticle. Hadrons, such as protons, neutrons and mesons
also have antiparticles. If the hadron is charged, its antiparticle has the same mass but opposite charge. The
neutron has no charge so the antineutron also has no charge.
Mesons have some interesting examples because they are made from a quark and an antiquark. If the
quark and antiquark are of the same type, known as flavour (for example, an up quark and an anti-up quark),
then the antiparticle is exactly the same particle!
W is the W− , and vice versa.

+
Bosons, apart from the W are chargeless. These bosons are their own antiparticles. The antiparticle of the
When a particle and its own antiparticle come together, they annihilate each other, producing photons
of energy.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
The antiparticle of a proton is an antiproton. It is made from two up antiquarks and a down
antiquark. What is the charge of the antiproton? Show that this is consistent with the charges of
its component quarks.
A proton has a charge of +1 so an antiproton has

THINK WRITE
a charge of −1.
1. Recall that a charged particle has the
opposite charge of its antiparticle.
An up quark has a charge of + and a down
2
2. Look up the charges of the up and down
quark has a charge of − . Therefore, an up

quarks and find the charges of the 3
1
antiquarks.
antiquark has a charge of − and a down
3
2
antiquark has a charge of + .

3
1
3
3. Add the charges of the three antiquarks that An antiproton is made of two up antiquarks and
− + − + = −1.
make an antiproton. one down antiquark. These have a total charge of
2 2 1
3 3 3
4. Compare this total with the charge of the The sum of the antiquark charges is the same as
antiproton. the antiproton charge as expected.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Compare the properties of an antiproton with those of an electron.
7.2.5 Bosons and the strong and weak nuclear forces

The strong force acts between quarks and holds protons and neutrons together to form the different nuclei.
The way that this force acts between quarks is through the exchange of massless particles called gluons.
The strong force acts over a tiny distance so quarks and hadrons made from them must be very close for
gluon exchange to occur. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces.
The weak nuclear force is much stronger than gravity but much weaker than electromagnetic force and
the strong nuclear force. It acts over only one thousandth of the distance of the strong nuclear force. It is
the force that results in beta decay, where protons become neutrons, or neutrons become protons. Other
W+ or a W− , is exchanged. The weak force acts on all particles involved in beta decay, the nucleon, the
forces do not change particles from one type to another like this. To achieve this change a boson, either a
electron/positron and the neutrino/antineutrino. The strong nuclear force does not act on leptons such as
electrons and neutrinos. A third boson can be exchanged in the weak force. The uncharged Z particle is
exchanged when scattering of leptons, like neutrinos, changes their momentum.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
How does the strong nuclear force differ from the weak nuclear force in terms of particles it acts
on and the distance over which it acts?
THINK WRITE
1. What particles does the strong The strong nuclear force acts on quarks and particles
nuclear force act on? made from quarks — hadrons, including protons
and neutrons.
2. What particles does the weak The weak nuclear force acts on leptons such as
nuclear force act on? electrons and neutrinos, as well as quarks. While the
strong force holds quarks to each other, the weak
force changes properties of the particle. (It can
change an up quark to a down and it can change the
momentum of a neutrino.)
3. Over what distances do the strong The strong force acts over a distance of the order of a
and weak forces act? proton diameter. The weak force acts over a distance
only about one-thousandth of this distance.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
There is a particle known as a pion. It is a meson made from combinations of pairs of up and down
2.6 × 10−8 seconds. They decay into muon and muon neutrinos. What force acts to cause this decay?
quarks and antiquarks. The half-life of the pion made from an up quark and a down antiquark is
7.2.6 Explaining the strong nuclear force

The atomic nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force due to the exchange of gluons between
quarks. The hadrons (such as the proton and neutron) made up of these quarks also experience the
strong force.

In the 1930s, Hideki Yukawa was seeking an explanation for the properties of the strong nuclear force
that exists between protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. It was known that this force had a very short
range, with each proton or neutron attracted only to its near neighbours, not the whole nucleus. Yukawa
suggested that a previously unobserved particle acted as ‘glue’ between pairs of protons in the nucleus, as
well as between other pairings. To fit the known features of the strong force, he determined the properties of
• be about 200 times the mass of the electron

this unobserved particle. He said it should:
• have the same charge size as the electron

• come in two types: positive and negative
• have a very short half-life of about a millionth of a second
• interact very strongly with nuclei.
In 1936 Carl Anderson’s group found such a particle in cosmic ray showers. This particle was named
the muon. However, while the muon satisfied the first four of Yukawa’s properties, it became apparent
that its interaction with nuclei was very weak, so the muon was not a good candidate to explain the strong
nuclear force.
A few years later, Cecil Powell investigated cosmic ray showers at high altitude in the Pyrenees and the
Andes. These observations were higher up in the cascade of collisions that cosmic rays set off when they hit
force. This particle is called the 𝜋-meson or pion.

the atmosphere. At this altitude, Powell found another particle that better fit the needs of the strong nuclear
Shortly after Powell’s discovery, the pion was also detected in the laboratory when carbon nuclei were
bombarded with high-energy alpha particles. After this time, most new particles were found in laboratories
using particle accelerators.
7.2.7 Prediction of new particles

The positron
Natural radioactivity was first discovered when beta particles exposed photographic plates. One of the
other technologies used to investigate radioactivity was the gold leaf electroscope. Electroscopes show the
presence of electric charge. A charged electroscope slowly loses charge due to the ions in the air produced
by radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust. It was thought that this effect would decrease with height above
the ground.
FIGURE 7.7 The number of charged particles from cosmic rays varies by altitude above the Earth’s surface.
Charged
electroscope
− − − Negative
charges
Number of ions detected every second
− −
− − −
80 −
− −
− −
− −
−
60 − −
− −
− −
− −
− −
40 −
Gold leaf
−
− − is repelled
− −
− −
20 − −
−
0 2 4 6 8
Altitude (km)

However, in 1909 it was found that the intensity of radiation was greater on top of the Eiffel Tower.
Balloon flights then showed the intensity continued to increase with height, suggesting that the radiation
may originate from space. So, the name cosmic rays was coined.
Initially cosmic rays were called ‘rays’ because they were thought to be like light. However, even though
they are now known to be particles, the name has stuck. Further investigation over the following decades
showed that the particles entering the Earth’s atmosphere were mainly protons. The particles seemed to
come from beyond the solar system from all points of the sky. Indeed they are now thought to originate
in supernovae and the centre of galaxies. They are also extremely fast and energetic. The energy of these
protons is 40 million times the energy of the protons in the Large Hadron Collider used to produce the
Higgs boson.
When these protons with their massive energy hit an atom in the upper atmosphere, they cause a cascade
of successive collisions that produces a shower of charged particles and gamma rays at the Earth’s surface.
On average, cosmic rays contribute about 16% of your exposure to ionising radiation from natural
sources. This exposure increases the more you fly in a plane and the higher you fly.
In 1933 Carl Anderson was investigating the charged particles in cosmic ray showers and observed a
particle that had the same mass as the electron, but with a positive charge. He had discovered a new particle,
the positron.
The chamber Anderson used to detect this charged particle was placed in a strong magnetic field so
that a positively charged particle would curve one way and a negatively charged particle would curve the
gamma ray is converted into mass, using E = mc2 , but because charge needs to be conserved, two particles
other way. In this experimental set up, an incoming gamma ray collides with a nucleus; the energy of the
of opposite sign are produced.
FIGURE 7.8 Showers of particles form as cosmic rays hit the atmosphere.
p — proton
Top of the
n — neutron
atmosphere
π+, π−, π0— pions
p
μ+, μ−— muons
e−— electron
e+— positron
v — neutrino
γ — gamma ray
π+ π−
π+
n π0
γ γ
μ+ μ−
v v
e+
e− e+ −
e
Source: NASA
The reverse process is also possible. An electron and a positron, or indeed, any particle and its
antiparticle, can collide and annihilate each other, producing two gamma rays.

FIGURE 7.9 A gamma ray produces an electron and a positron. FIGURE 7.10 A particle and
The spiralling is due to the slow loss of energy as the track is antiparticle annihilate each other with
created. their mass, producing two gamma rays.
Invisible gamma ray A more energetic

electron–positron pair
Positron
Electron
Gamma ray
Electron
− +
Positron
Before After
Energy = 2mec2 gamma ray
Resources
Interactivity Electrons and positrons (int-6394)
The neutron
When Rutherford was developing the concept of the nucleus, it was known that an alpha particle had
exactly twice the positive charge of a hydrogen ion, so presumably contained two protons, but was almost
exactly four times as heavy. There were a number of explanations for this anomaly. One was that the extra
mass was made up of proton–electron pairs, which would effectively have zero charge; another was that
there was an as yet unknown neutral particle in the nucleus.
It was only in the 1930s that this neutral particle, called the ‘neutron’, was discovered. In 1930, Walter
Bothe and Herbert Becker fired alpha particles at beryllium and detected what they thought was gamma
radiation. The husband-and-wife team Frédéric Joliot and Irène Joliot-Curie (daughter of Marie Curie)
placed hydrogen-rich paraffin wax in front of this ‘gamma radiation’ and observed the ejection of protons.
While they explored the possibility of very high-energy radiation, James Chadwick showed that this was
virtually impossible; instead, he demonstrated that a single neutron was ejected when the alpha particle
entered the beryllium nucleus, which in turn knocked on a proton in a simple billiard-ball-like collision.
FIGURE 7.11 Discovery of the neutron
Unknown
particles Protons
Ionisation chamber
Source of α particles
Be Paraffin wax

The discovery of the neutron now provided an explanation for the existence of isotopes (atoms with the
same atomic number but different atomic mass due to different numbers of neutrons).
The neutrino
Alpha particles are emitted with particular energies that are unique to the host nucleus, whereas beta
particles are emitted with any energy up to a maximum. When examining decay reactions, scientists found
• the Law of Conservation of Energy, one of the foundations of physics, did not apply in nuclear
that not all of the energy was accounted for. The possible explanations were:
• a second particle, as yet undetected, was emitted. This idea was proposed by Wolfgang Pauli, who said
processes
the particle must have no charge, as all the charge was accounted for, and have negligible mass.
Pauli’s suggestion into a theory of 𝛽 decay that not only built on Dirac’s work but also derived a
Enrico Fermi named the particle ‘neutrino’, from the Italian for ‘little neutral one’. Fermi incorporated
emitted 𝛽 particle. This relationship matched the experimental data, which was convincing evidence for
mathematical relationship between the half-life of a particular decay and the maximum energy of the
the existence of the neutrino, although it was not actually detected until 1956.
complete 𝛽 – decay process is:

The neutrino has the symbol v, which is the Greek letter nu. The antineutrino has the symbol v. The
1
0
n → 11p + −10e + v
Beta decay will be further explored in section 7.4.2.
The Higgs boson

Since the positron was observed in 1932, confirming a prediction from theory, particle after particle that
has been predicted has been observed. By the end of 2000, all predicted particles had been observed in
experiment except for the Higgs boson. This particle had been predicted in 1964 to solve problems with
existing theory. Scientists had developed a theory that made sense of what was known about the particles of
matter that made up the known universe. However, it only worked if certain particles had zero mass. Some
of those particles were known to have mass so something was missing. Peter Higgs, François Englert and
three others proposed that there was a field through space, now known as the Higgs field, that particles with
mass interacted with via a particle called the Higgs boson. If the Higgs boson was found, the theory of the
Standard Model would match experimental results. To search for this elusive particle, the largest particle
accelerator ever built was constructed at CERN on the boarder of Switzerland and France. More than 100
countries are involved in the Large Hadron Collider, which has cost more than US$13 billion. In July 2012
scientists announced that this enormous investment had paid off and the final piece in the Standard Model
had been observed. Higgs and Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2013, for the prediction
they had made nearly fifty years earlier.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Name four particles whose existence was predicted by scientific theory before they were observed
or detected.
THINK WRITE
1 This topic highlights four particles The neutron, neutrino, positron and Higgs boson were all
that were predicted prior to discovery. predicted by scientific theory prior to their detection. If
they had been found not to exist, a new theory would have
been required as the theory would not have been
consistent with observation.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Refer to topic 6. What is another example of a phenomenon that was predicted by theory prior to
being observed?
7.2 EXERCISE
1. The Large Hadron Collider used to discover the Higgs boson is an internationally run experiment that has
cost billions of dollars. Comment on the importance of scientific theory in its construction.
2. Explain the difference between the terms baryon and hadron.
3. How many quarks does the Standard Model predict? Name them.
4. How many leptons does the Standard Model predict? Name them.
5. Compare the forces holding electrons in an atom with those holding protons and neutrons together in the
nucleus.
6. Neutrinos are very difficult to detect and most that hit the Earth pass right through. Protons and electrons
do not pass through. Explain the differences.
7. From your knowledge of the neutron, describe an antineutron.
8. What would happen if a neutron and an antineutron came together?
9. Antimatter was discussed in topic 6 when describing matter in the first moments of the universe. Explain
why matter appeared for such brief moments before being destroyed in the early universe, and why most
of the matter in the form of protons, neutrons and electrons has existed since the first minutes of the
universe’s existence.
10. Hadrons and quarks were eras of the early universe discussed in topic 6. What were the defining features
of those eras?
11. The lambda baryon (Λ) was discovered by researchers at the University of Melbourne in 1950. Its quark
composition is uds. What is its charge?

7.3 Nuclear radiation

KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain nuclear stability with reference to the forces that operate over very small distances.
• Distinguish between the two types of forces holding the nucleus together: the strong nuclear force and the
weak nuclear force.
• Describe the radioactive decay of unstable nuclei with reference to half-life.
• Model radioactive decay as random decay with a particular half-life, including mathematical modelling with
reference to whole half-lives.
7.3.1 Atoms and isotopes

Nuclear radiation, as the name suggests, is radiation emitted from the nucleus of an atom. In order to
explain the mechanisms that release such radiation, it is important to understand a little about the structure
of the atom.

Atoms
All matter is made up of atoms. Each atom consists of a tightly
FIGURE 7.12 The structure of a
packed, positively charged centre, called the nucleus, which is typical atom
surrounded by a ‘cloud’ of negatively charged electrons. The
particles in the nucleus are known collectively as nucleons, but Proton
(positive)
there are two different types, protons and neutrons. Protons are
positively charged, neutrons are chargeless, and both are about Electron
2000 times heavier than the electrons that surround the nucleus. cloud
Scientists name atoms according to the number of protons in

the nucleus. For example, all atoms with six protons are called Nucleus
carbon, all atoms with 11 protons are called sodium, and all atoms
with 92 protons are called uranium. A substance consisting of
atoms that all have the same name is called an element. Each
Electron
element’s name has its own shorthand symbol that scientists use. (negative)
Neutron
Carbon has the symbol ‘C’, sodium ‘Na’ and uranium ‘U’. It is (neutral)
very important that the upper or lower case of the letters used in
the symbols is kept the same. The names of all the elements, and their symbols, can be found in the periodic
table in figure 7.13.
FIGURE 7.13 The periodic table

Group 1 Group 18
1 2
metals
Hydrogen Helium
Period 1
H He
1.0 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 4.0
Key
3 4 1 2 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lithium Beryllium Hydrogen Helium Name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Period 2
Li Be Period 1 H He Symbol B C N O F Ne
6.9 9.0 1.0 4.0 Relative atomic mass 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Period 3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23.0 24.3 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9 Group 10 Group 11 Group 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Period 4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Period 5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 96.0 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Caesium Barium Lanthanoids Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Period 6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Period 7
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) (226) (261) (262) (266) (264) (267) (268) (271) (272) (285) (280) (289) (289) (292) (294) (294)
Alkali metal Lanthanoids

Alkaline earth metal
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Transition metal
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Actinoids 138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
Unknown chemical properties
Actinoids
Post-transition metal
Metalloid 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Reactive non-metal Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Halide
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Noble gas
Isotopes
Not all atoms of the same name (and therefore the same number of protons) have the same number of
neutrons. For instance, it is possible to find carbon atoms with six, seven and eight neutrons in the nucleus
along with the six protons that make it carbon. These different forms of an element are called isotopes. To
avoid confusion about which isotope is being referred to, scientists have a few standard ways of writing
them. The number of nucleons, or mass number, of the particular isotope is used. The isotope of carbon
with six protons and six neutrons is written as carbon-12 or 12 C, whereas the isotope of carbon with eight

neutrons is written as carbon-14 or 14 C. Sometimes the number of protons, or atomic number, is written
directly underneath the mass number, although this is not necessary (for example, 146C ).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Write the name of the isotope of an atom with 90 protons and 144 neutrons.
THINK WRITE
1. What element has 90 protons? Checking the periodic table, the element
90 + 144 = 234
thorium (symbol Th) has 90 protons.
2. What is the mass number of this isotope?
3. Write the name of the isotope. The isotope of an atom with 90 protons and
144 neutrons is thorium-234 or 234 Th.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
What is the name of the isotope of an atom with 26 protons and 30 neutrons?
What holds the nucleus together?

The force that holds electrons around a nucleus is called an electrostatic force. Electrostatic forces increase
as charges move closer together. Electrostatic attraction exists between unlike charges; electrostatic
repulsion exists between like charges. So it seems strange that the positive charges inside a nucleus don’t
repel each other so strongly that the nucleus splits apart. In fact, two protons do repel each other when
they are brought together but in the nucleus they are so close to each other that the force of repulsion is
overcome by an even stronger force — the strong nuclear force. While the strong nuclear force is a very
strong force, it can act over incredibly small distances only. Inside a nucleus, the nucleons are sufficiently
close that the pull of the strong nuclear force is much greater than the push of the protons repelling each
other, and therefore the nucleus remains intact. Figure 7.14 shows how the strength and sense of the strong
strongest at around 1 × 10−15 metres but is virtually zero at about 2.5 times this distance.
nuclear force changes with the separation of the nucleons. Its ability to hold two nucleons together is
FIGURE 7.14 How the strong nuclear force between two nucleons varies with the separation of the nucleons
Repulsion
Force between nucleons
Separation of nucleons
1 2 3 4 (10−15 m)
Attraction

Unstable nuclei
Some nuclei are unstable. Isotopes that contain
FIGURE 7.15 This graph shows which nuclei are stable
unstable nuclei are called radioisotopes. (yellow) and which are unstable (other).
The reason that some nuclei are unstable can
N
be explained by considering the interaction
Unstable isotopes can emit various types of
radiations of the nucleons with the fundamental
forces.
Though the strong nuclear force acts over
very short distances only, the electromagnetic
force continues to act with decreasing strength
126
as the distance between charged particles
increases. This is one reason that many nuclei
Number of neutrons
are unstable. In a large nucleus, the combined Z=N
effect of all the protons in the nucleus results
in an electrostatic repulsion on some protons
greater than the strong force holding those 82
Type of decay
protons in the nucleus. This nucleus is unstable
and cannot remain like this forever. This
explains why the number of neutrons in large β+
50
atoms is greater than the number of protons; β−
neutrons are chargeless, so do not contribute α
to the electromagnetic repulsion. This trend is 28 Fission

apparent in figure 7.15. Stable nuclide
The weak nuclear force and the gravitational 14
force are not significant in determining the 6
stability of nuclei as they are comparatively

Z
weak over the distance of nucleon separation. 6 14 28 50 82
In order to become more stable, the nucleus Number of protons
in a radioisotope emits different types of nuclear radiation that increase the stability of the nucleus. The
different types of radiation will be explained in detail in subtopic 7.4.
TABLE 7.3 Types of forces, their relative strengths and ranges
Force Strength Range Type

–15
Strong nuclear 1 10 m (diameter of a nucleus) Attractive
1
Electric and magnetic 137 Infinite Attractive or repulsive
1
Weak nuclear 1000 000 10–18 m (fraction of proton diameter) Attractive
1
Gravity 38 Infinite Attractive
10
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
The existence of nuclei larger than a single proton depends on forces holding neutrons and
protons to together. Describe the nature of this force.
THINK WRITE
1. A nucleus larger than a proton There is an attractive force called the strong nuclear
includes protons and neutrons that force that acts between protons and neutrons.
are somehow held together.

2. Protons repel each other as they The strong nuclear force can only hold a nucleus
have like charge. together when it is stronger than the electromagnetic
force pushing the protons apart.
3. Describe the nature of the force. The force holding protons and neutrons together to
form nuclei must be an attractive force that works
between neutrons and protons and is stronger than the
electromagnetic force at close range.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A helium-3 nucleus has two protons and one neutron. Describe the forces acting within it.
7.3.2 Half-life
It is not possible to predict exactly when a given unstable nucleus will decay. However, we can predict what
proportion of a certain number of nuclei will decay in a given time. It is rather like tossing a coin. We can’t
be sure that a given toss will result in a tail but we can predict that from 1000 tosses about 500 will result in
tails. Scientists know that it will take 24 days for half of a group of unstable thorium-234 nuclei to decay to
protactinium-234. The time taken for half a group of unstable nuclei to decay is called the half-life. Half-
lives vary according to the isotope that is decaying. They range from microseconds to thousands of millions
of years.
TABLE 7.4 Table of half-lives
Element Half-life
Indium-115 6 × 1014 years
Potassium-40 1.3 × 109 years
Uranium-235 7.1 × 108 years
Actinium-227 22 years
Thorium-227 18 days
Carbon-11 20 minutes
Thallium-207 4.8 minutes
Magnesium-23 11 seconds
Polonium-212 3 × 10−7 seconds
Mathematicians and scientists often use graphs with the same basic shape as the one in figure 7.16.
It shows what is known as a decay curve. This type of curve often appears in science. It is called
exponential decay.

Looking at figure 7.16, in the first few days the FIGURE 7.16 Graph showing decay of
number of atoms decaying every day is quite high but 1000 thorium-234 nuclei. The time taken
towards the end the number is quite low. If there was a for half of the original nuclei (500 nuclei)
Geiger counter near the source at the beginning, it would to remain is called the half-life. It can be
days. After the fourth half-life (at time =

seen from this graph that the half-life is 24
be clicking quickly but near the end you would wait days
for the next click. In fact, a graph of the count rate (the 96 days) it can be predicted that one-sixteenth
number of clicks per second) will have exactly the same of the thorium-234 (about 62 or 63 nuclei)
shape and will show the same half-life. The number of would remain undecayed.
decays per second of a radioactive source is a measure of
its activity and is measured in becquerels (Bq). 1000
TABLE 7.5 Activities of some everyday items
Number of 234Th nuclei

Item Activity (Bq)
1 adult human 3000 500

1 kg coffee 1000
1 kg granite 1000
1 kg coal ash (used in cement) 2000
1 kg superphosphate fertiliser 5000 0

24
50 Time (days)
t1
–
2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
Technetium-99 is often used for medical diagnosis. It has a half-life of 6 hours. A patient has a
small amount of the isotope injected into the bloodstream. What fraction of the original amount
will remain after:
a. 12 hours
b. 48 hours?
= 2 half-lives
THINK WRITE
12
a. 1. How many half-lives have passed? a.
6
× = =
( )2
1 1 1 1
2. How much would be left after halving it that
many times? 2 2 2 4
3. State the solution. One-quarter would be left after 12 hours.
= 8 half-lives
48
b. 1. How many half-lives have passed? b.
(6 )8
=
1 1
2. How much would be left after halving it that
many times? 2 256
1
3. State the solution. would be left after 48 hours.
256

PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
Cobalt-60 is radioactive with a half-life of 5.27 years. It is produced from cobalt-59 by bombardment
with neutrons at a nuclear reactor. It emits a low-energy beta particle followed by two high-energy
gamma rays. It is used in the sterilisation of medical equipment, in radiotherapy and in industrial
1
applications. A cobalt-60 source will need to be replaced when its activity decreases to 16 of its initial
value. How long will this take?
7.3 EXERCISE
1. Name the isotope that has an atomic number of 11 and contains 12 neutrons.
2. How many protons and neutrons are there in one atom of each of the following isotopes?
(a) Hydrogen-2, also known as deuterium
(b) Americium-241
(c) Europium-164
3. What force acts between a proton and a neutron and under what conditions does it act?
4. The half-life of caesium-134 is 2.06 years. What fraction of caesium is left after 10.3 years?
5. What is meant when an isotope is described to be stable?
6. If the strong nuclear force acts between all nucleons and is much stronger than the electromagnetic force
at the distance of two neighbouring nucleons in a nucleus, explain how a nucleus might be unstable.
7. 100 grams of a radioactive isotope is delivered to a hospital. Three hours later there is only 6.25 grams left.
What is the half-life of the isotope?
8. Sketch a graph of the decay of the isotope in question 7.
9. Why is half-life used for radioactive isotopes rather than just stating how long it takes to decay?
10. The activity (decays per second) of a radioactive isotope halves with each half-life. Explain why that would
be the case.
11. You need 20 grams of a radioactive isotope with a half-life of three hours. How much would you need to
buy if it takes 24 hours to deliver it?

7.4 Types of nuclear radiation

• Apply a simple particle model of the atomic nucleus to explain the origin of 𝛼, 𝛽 – , 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation,
KEY CONCEPTS
+
• Explain nuclear transformations using decay equations involving 𝛼, 𝛽 – , 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation.

including changes to the number of nucleons.
+
• Analyse decay series diagrams with reference to type of decay and stability of isotopes.
three naturally occurring forms of nuclear radiation: 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 (pronounced alpha, beta and gamma). Each
Unstable isotopes can emit various types of radiation while ‘striving’ to become more stable. There are
type of radiation was named with a different Greek letter because, when the different types of radiation
were discovered, scientists did not know what they consisted of. The emissions are described as decay
processes because the nucleus changes into a different nucleus and the change is irreversible.

7.4.1 Alpha (𝛼) decay
During 𝛼 decay an unstable nucleus ejects a relatively large particle known as an 𝛼 particle. This actually
consists of two protons and two neutrons, and so may be called a helium nucleus. The remainder of the
original nucleus, known as the daughter nucleus, is now more stable.
FIGURE 7.17 Alpha decay: a nucleus ejects a helium nucleus.
Parent Daughter Alpha

nucleus nucleus particle
nucleus is therefore of a different element. For example, uranium-238 decays by emitting an 𝛼 particle.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the elemental name of the atom. The daughter
The uranium-238 atom contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons (238 – 92 = 146). It emits an 𝛼 particle,
(92 – 2 = 90) and 144 neutrons (146 – 2 = 144). As the daughter nucleus now has 90 protons, it is called
with two protons and two neutrons. The original nucleus is left with four less nucleons: 90 protons
thorium and has the symbol Th. This particular isotope of thorium has 234 nucleons (90 protons and
144 neutrons) and is more correctly written as thorium-234.
The information in the previous paragraph can be written much more effectively in symbols. This
is called the decay equation:
238
92
U → 90Th
234
+ 42He + energy
or 238
92
U → 90Th
234
+ 𝛼 + energy
The ejected 𝛼 particle is relatively slow and heavy compared to other forms of nuclear radiation. The
Properties of alpha radiation
particle travels at 5–7% of the speed of light: roughly 2 × 107 metres each second. Every object that moves
has a form of energy known as kinetic energy, or energy of motion. Because the 𝛼 particle is moving, it has
In addition to having energy, the 𝛼 particle has an overall charge of +2 because it contains two protons.
kinetic energy. That energy is written into the decay equation.
scientists determine what an 𝛼 particle consisted of.

This charge means the particle can be deflected by electric or magnetic fields — properties that helped
The mass and charge of the alpha particle ensure that it cannot travel more than ten centimetres through
the air without interacting with other matter including atoms and molecules. A sheet of paper will stop most
alpha particles. For the same reason, its ability to penetrate the skin of animals and humans is extremely
limited. However, if an alpha emitting source decays inside the body, it can do significant damage. As a
result, alpha emitters are rarely used in nuclear medicine although its lethal properties are being put to work
in a targeted way to destroy cancer tissue.

Alpha particles are a strongly ionising form of radiation. As a charged particle it can remove electrons
from other atoms it approaches, which can result in chemical changes in body tissue and genetic material.
RADIOACTIVITY IN SMOKE DETECTORS

Some smoke detectors include a sample of the isotope americium-241, an
FIGURE 7.18 Smoke
alpha emitter. The alpha particles ionise the air, which sustains a small current
alarms are set off when
between charged plates in the detector. When smoke blocks the access of the
smoke blocks the path of
alpha particles to the air molecules between the charged plates, the current can
alpha particles
no longer flow, which triggers an alarm to go off.
Discovering the nucleus

Ernest Rutherford was one of the central players in the investigation of radioactivity. By 1908, Rutherford
and his team had determined that alpha particles were doubly charged helium ions and that they were
moving very fast — at about 5% of the speed of light. They quickly realised that these particles would be
ideal ‘bullets’ to investigate the structure of the atom.
Two of Rutherford’s younger colleagues, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, fired alpha particles at a very
thin foil of gold, about 400 atoms thick, and measured their angle of deflection. Nearly all of the particles
either went straight through or suffered a very small deflection, but about 1 in every 8000 came back.
FIGURE 7.19 Geiger and Marsden’s gold foil experiment
(a) (b)
Alpha particles
Beam of Gold foil
Source alpha Nucleus
of alpha particles
particles
Atoms of
Lead shield
gold foil
Fluorescent screen
The positively charged 𝛼 particle was repelled and deflected by the electrostatic interaction with the
positive charges in the atom. Rutherford calculated that for an 𝛼 particle to be turned around, these
He calculated that the radius of such a nucleus would be about 10−14 metres, and the radius of an atom
positive charges would need to be concentrated in a very small volume, which he called the ‘nucleus’.
was about 10−10 metres.

Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom had nearly all the mass of the atom in the central nucleus and the
much lighter electrons ‘orbiting’ around it.
However, this model was incomplete because it did not fully explain the mass of an atom. The neutron
was subsequently discovered.

7.4.2 Beta (𝛽) decay
Two types of 𝛽 decay are possible. The 𝛽 − particle is a fast moving electron that is ejected from an unstable
nucleus. The 𝛽 + particle is a positively charged particle with the same mass as an electron and is the
but some nuclei do decay by 𝛽 + emission.

electron’s antiparticle, the positron. Positrons are mostly produced in the atmosphere by cosmic radiation,
FIGURE 7.20 𝛽 − decay: a nucleus ejects an electron.
Parent Daughter
nucleus nucleus
+ energy
β− particle
In 𝛽 − decay, an electron is emitted from inside the nucleus. Since nuclei do not contain any electrons
this might seem strange, but it is in fact true! There is no change whatsoever to the electrons in the shells
surrounding the nucleus.
Some very interesting changes take place inside a nucleus to enable it to emit an electron. One of the
electron is emitted and called a 𝛽 − particle:

neutrons in the nucleus transforms into a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus and the
1
0n → 11p + −10e
The resulting daughter nucleus has the same number of nucleons as the parent, but one less neutron and
An example of 𝛽 − decay is the decay of thorium-234. This isotope is the result of the 𝛼 decay of
one more proton.
uranium-238. The nucleus is more stable than it was before the emission of the 𝛼 particle but could
become more stable by emitting a 𝛽 − particle. During this second decay, the mass number of the nucleus
proton and an electron. There are now 91 (90 + 1) protons in the nucleus, so the atom must be called
is unchanged (234). The number of protons, however, increases by one when a neutron changes into a
protactinium-234. In the next section we will learn about the neutrino. Beta minus decay is accompanied by
the emission of another particle called an antineutrino. Beta positive decay is accompanied by the emission
of a neutrino. Neutrinos are particles with no charge and nearly zero mass.
The decay equation is written as:
90 Th → 91Pa + 𝛽 + 𝜈 + energy
−
90 Th → 91Pa + −1e + 𝜈 + energy

234 234
234
or 234 0
In 𝛽 + decay, the positron is also emitted from inside the nucleus. In this case, strange as it may seem, the
proton changes into a neutron and a positron with the neutron staying in the nucleus:
1
1
p →10 n + +10e + v + energy

The resulting nucleus has one less proton but the same number of nucleons. An example of 𝛽 + decay is
sodium-22 decaying to neon-22:
22
11
Na 10 Ne + +1e + v + energy
→22 0
Properties of beta particles
from that of an alpha particle up to 99% of the speed of light. Just like 𝛼 particles, 𝛽 particles are deflected
Beta particles are very light when compared to alpha particles. They travel at a large range of speeds —
by electric and magnetic fields.

The lower charge, mass and higher speed of the beta particle ensures that it can penetrate much further
through air and body tissues than alpha particles. They can travel through centimetres of human skin and a
metre or two of air. They can be stopped by a few centimetres of water or a few millimetres of aluminium.
Beta radiation is useful for precisely measuring the thickness of paper in production and for treating some
types of cancers. It is also a form of ionising radiation.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Write down the complete decay equation in each of the following.
92 U → 90 Th + ? + energy
a. 234 230
82 Pb → 83 Bi + ? + energy
b. 210 210
6 C→ 5 B + ? + energy
c. 11 11
234 − 230 = 4
THINK WRITE
a. 1. What is the mass number of the missing a.
92 − 90 = 2
particle?
2. What is the atomic number of the
𝛼 particle
missing particle?
3. Determine the missing particles from
this information.
4. Write the equation. The number of particles in the nucleus has
decreased by 2. This implies that an 𝛼 particle, or

decreased by 4, while the number of protons has
92U → 90T h + 2H e + energy

helium nucleus, has been released. The full
b. 210 − 210 = 0
equation is 234 230 4
b. 1. What is the mass number of the missing
82 − 83 = −1
particle?
𝛽 – particle
missing particle?
This equation cannot show an 𝛼 emission, as the

this information.
4. Write the equation.
mass number remains constant. The atomic
has been formed, and therefore 𝛽 – decay has

number has increased, indicating that a proton
82P b → 83B i + −1e + energy

occurred. The equation becomes:
210 210 0

c. 1. What is the mass number of the missing c. 11 − 11 = 0
6−5=1
particle?
𝛽 + particle
missing particle?
this information.
less proton, so it must be 𝛽 + decay. The equation

4. Write the equation. The mass number stays the same, but there is one
C → 115B + +10e + energy

becomes:
11
6
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
Write the equations for:
b. the 𝛽 − decay of platinum-197

a. the alpha decay of americium-241
c. the 𝛽 + decay of magnesium-23.
7.4.3 Gamma (𝛾) decay

This form of radioactive decay is quite different from either 𝛼 or 𝛽 decay. During 𝛾 decay a small packet of
electromagnetic energy called a 𝛾 ray, or photon, is emitted, rather than a particle. Gamma emission occurs
after another form of nuclear decay has taken place. Following a decay, the arrangement of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus may not be ideal and the nucleus may need to release some extra energy to become
denoted by an asterisk (*) after the symbol for the element. The excess energy is emitted as a 𝛾 ray.
more stable. Before the release of this energy, the nucleus is known as ‘excited’. An excited nucleus is
FIGURE 7.21 Gamma decay: an excited nucleus ejects a photon.
Parent Daughter
nucleus nucleus
Gamma ray
One example of 𝛾 decay occurs after lead-210 emits a 𝛽 − particle and becomes bismuth-210. The excited
daughter nucleus goes on to emit a 𝛾 ray:
210 ∗
83 Bi →210
83 Bi + 𝛾

This 𝛾 ray is a packet of excess energy. It has no mass and no charge and is not deflected by electric or
Properties of gamma radiation
magnetic fields. Because it is a photon, or packet of electromagnetic energy, it travels at the speed of light.
Gamma radiation is extremely penetrating. A shield of a few centimetres thickness absorbs about 90%
of gamma rays. Gamma radiation is ionising like alpha and beta radiation. These properties of gamma
radiation make if very useful in medicine. It can be used to trace physiological processes by injecting or
swallowing chemical compounds with gamma emitters in the compound. The movement of the compound
through the body can be traced with cameras outside the body detecting the gamma rays. A newer
technique involves using positron emitters. When the positrons are emitted they meet electrons and both
are annihilated, producing gamma rays that
can be detected outside the body and an FIGURE 7.22 Radioactive series of uranium-238. The half-life
image constructed by computer. This is given beside each decay.
is called positron emission tomography,
N
or PET scans. Gamma rays are also a
238
powerful means of killing α
U
cancerous tissue. 145

234
4.5×109 y
Th
β
7.4.4 Decay series 24 d 234

β
Pa
1.2 min
In its ‘quest’ to become stable, an isotope 234
U
α
may have to pass through many stages. As 2.5×105 y
230
a radioactive isotope decays, the daughter 140 Th
nucleus is often radioactive itself. When α

8×104 y
this isotope decays, the resulting nucleus 226
Ra
may also be radioactive. This sequence of α
1600 y
radioisotopes is called a decay chain or 222Rn
decay series. α
Number of neutrons
Uranium-238 undergoes 14 radioactive 135 3.8 d

218Po
decays before it finally becomes the stable β
isotope lead-206. Two other decay chains, 3.0 m α 218
At
one starting with uranium-235 and another 214Pb
β
α
with thorium-232, also end with a stable 27 m 214Bi

isotope of lead. Another decay chain once 20 m β 214
130 α Po
passed through uranium-233, but this chain 210
Tl α 1.6×10−4 s
is almost extinct in nature now due to its β
210
Pb
1.3 m
shorter half-lives. β
Not all naturally occurring radioisotopes 22 y 210Bi
5.0 d
are part of a decay series. There are about β
206
Tl α 210
Po
10 with atomic numbers less than that of lead, 125
α
138 d
for example, potassium-40. How can there be β Key
206Pb
radioisotopes isolated in the periodic table? α alpha decay
β beta decay
A look at the half-lives of potassium-40 and y year(s)
indium-115 reveals the answer (see table 7.4). m month(s)
Their half-lives are so long, greater than the d
s
day(s)
second(s)
age of the Earth, that they are still decaying 120
from when they were formed in a supernova
80 85 90 95 100 Z
explosion billions of years ago. Number of protons

SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
Using the decay series, comment on whether the daughter nucleus is always more stable than
its parent.
THINK WRITE
1. How can I tell how stable a nucleus is? The longer the half-life, the more stable the nucleus.
2. Do the daughter nuclei always have Often, in a decay chain, the daughter nucleus has a
longer half-lives than the parent shorter half-life than the parent. For example,
nucleus? uranium-238 has a much longer half-life than its
daughter thorium-234.
3. State the solution. In a decay chain, a nucleus may decay to a less stable
nucleus. This, however, is a step towards increased
stability as the final nucleus is always stable.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
a. Which is the most stable nucleus in the uranium-238 decay chain apart from lead-206, which
is stable?
b. Why do you think the decay chain starts with a relatively stable nucleus?
Nuclear transformations
Alpha and beta decay are natural examples of nuclear transformations. The numbers of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus change during these processes. Artificial nuclear transformations are also possible. These are
done either to investigate the structure of the nucleus or to produce specific radioisotopes for use in medicine
or industry. The first artificial transformation was made by Ernest Rutherford, who fired alpha particles at nitrogen
atoms to produce an isotope of oxygen.
14
7
N + 42 He → 178 O + 11 H
This result raised the intriguing possibility of achieving the alchemist’s dream of changing lead into gold.
Although prohibitively expensive, it appears to be theoretically possible.
The building of particle accelerators in the early 1930s enabled charged particles such as protons and alpha
particles to be fired at atoms as well as alpha particles, but with the advantage that their energy could be
pre-set. The limitation of both these particles is that since they are positively charged, they have to be travelling
at very high speed to overcome the repulsion of the positively charged nucleus. This problem was overcome with
the discovery of the neutron in 1932. The neutron, which has no net charge, can enter the nucleus at any speed.
produce neutron-deficient radioisotopes such as thallium-201 ( t 1 = 73 days), which is used to show damaged
Both protons and neutrons are used today to produce radioisotopes. Particle accelerators firing positive ions
heart tissue, and zinc-65 (t 1 = 244 days), which is used as a tracer to monitor the flow of heavy metals in mining
2
effluent. Neutrons from nuclear reactors produce neutron-rich radioisotopes such as iridium-192 (t 1 = 74 days),
2
which is used to locate weaknesses in metal pipes, and iodine-131 (t 1 = 8 days), which is used in the diagnosis
2
2
and treatment of thyroid conditions.
Particle accelerators are also used to produce new elements with atomic numbers greater than that of uranium.
The hunt is on for a new stable element. In 2007, calcium-48 ions were fired at californium-249 atoms to produce
the element with atomic number 118. Only three atoms were produced and, as the half-life of this isotope is
0.89 milliseconds, they don’t exist anymore.

Resources
Digital documents eModelling: Numerical model of a decay series (doc-0045)
Investigation 7.1 Radioactive decay (doc-31872)
Investigation 7.2 Background radiation (doc-31873)
Teacher-led video Investigation 7.1: Radioactive decay (tlvd-0817)
Video eLesson Nuclear stability and radiation (eles-2518)
7.4 EXERCISE
1. Write the nuclear equation for the 𝛼 decay of radon-222.

2. Write the nuclear equation for the 𝛽 decay of lead-214.

3. Write the nuclear equation for the 𝛾 decay of cobalt-60.
4. (a) A particle is missing from the right-hand side of a nuclear equation. The atomic numbers on the left-hand
side of a nuclear equation add to 20. The sum of the atomic numbers on the right-hand side of the
equation add to 18. What is the atomic number of the missing particle?
(b) The mass numbers of the equation in part (a) add to 50 on the left-hand side. The sum of the mass
numbers on the right-hand side of the equation add to 46. What is the mass number of the missing
particle?
(c) What is the missing particle?
5. Identify two particles or emissions in nuclear equations that have a mass number and atomic number
of zero.
6. Energy is released in nuclear decays other than in the form of gamma rays. What form does this
energy take?
7. The atomic number counts the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. In nuclear equations some
particles have atomic numbers but no protons. Given an example and explain what it means.

7.5 Review
•
7.5.1 Summary
•
There are two types of fundamental particles of matter: quarks and leptons.
•
There are six leptons. They are the electron, muon and tau particle, and each has its own neutrino.
electron. Three have a charge of + 32 , and three have a charge of − 31 . Their masses vary significantly.
There are six quarks. They all have an electric charge, which is a fraction of the charge size of the
• The quarks combine to form particles called hadrons, of which there are two types: mesons and
•
baryons.
Mesons are composed of one quark and one antiquark. There are many mesons. They can be positively
•
charged, neutral or negatively charged, and have short half-lives.
range of masses and charges ranging from +2 to −2.

Baryons are composed of three quarks. There are a large number of different types of baryons, with a
•
•
Some of the subatomic particles were predicted well before they were detected.
Nuclear radiation is emitted from the nucleus of unstable atoms (radioisotopes) that are striving to
become more stable.

• There are four types of nuclear decay: 𝛼, 𝛽 – , 𝛽 + and 𝛾 radiation.
• 𝛼 particles are released during 𝛼 decay. 𝛼 particles are relatively slow-moving particles that are
equivalent to a helium nucleus and can be represented as 42 He. After 𝛼 decay, the mass number of the
• 𝛽 − particles are released in 𝛽 − decay. 𝛽 − particles are high-speed electrons released from the nucleus
daughter nucleus is four less than that of the parent nucleus and the atomic number is two less.
when a neutron transforms into a proton, an electron and an antineutron. After 𝛽 − decay, the mass
number of the daughter nucleus is the same as that of the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is one
• 𝛽 + particles are released in 𝛽 + decay. 𝛽 + particles are high-speed positrons emitted with a neutrino
more than that of the parent nucleus.
from the nucleus when a proton transforms into a neutron. The atomic number of the daughter nucleus
• 𝛾 radiation is electromagnetic radiation that is emitted when an excited nucleus becomes more stable.
is one less than the parent nucleus; the mass number remains the same.
𝛾 rays are emitted during 𝛼 and 𝛽 decay.

•
•
In all nuclear transformations, atomic and mass numbers are conserved.
Half-life is the time for half of a group of unstable nuclei to decay. It is different for every isotope. The
shorter the half-life of an isotope, the greater the activity — that is, the greater the number of decays
per second. Activity decreases over time as less and less of the isotope remains. Activity is measured
•
in becquerels (Bq).
Isotopes may pass through a sequence of decays in order to become stable. Such a sequence is called a
•
decay chain, or decay series.
The force that holds nucleons together in a nucleus of an atom is called the strong nuclear force. It acts
over a very short distance and is strong enough to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion that
exists between the protons of a nucleus when nucleons are very close together.
Resources
7.5.2 Key terms glossary
An 𝛼 particle is a relatively slow-moving decay product consisting of two protons and two neutrons. It is
equivalent to a helium nucleus and so can be written as 42 He. 𝛼 particles carry a positive charge.
A 𝛾 ray is the packet of electromagnetic energy released when a nucleus remains unstable after 𝛼 or 𝛽 decay.
𝛾 rays travel at the speed of light and carry no charge.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in its nucleus.
Baryons are hadrons with three quarks.
Cosmic rays are very energetic charged particles that enter our atmosphere. They are mainly protons and
originate from beyond the solar system.
A daughter nucleus is the nucleus remaining after an atom undergoes radioactive decay. It is more stable than
the original nucleus.
A decay chain also known as a decay series, is the sequence of stages a radioisotope passes through to
become more stable. At each stage, a more stable isotope forms. The chain ends when a stable isotope
forms.
A decay curve is a graph of the number of nuclei remaining in a substance versus the time elapsed. The half-life
of a substance can be determined by looking at the time that corresponds to half of the substance remaining.
A decay equation is a representation of a decay reaction. It shows the changes occurring in nuclei and lists the
products of the decay reaction.
An electron is a negatively charged particle found around the nucleus of an atom.
An element is a substance that consists only of atoms of the same name.

excited nucleus emits 𝛾 radiation to become more stable.
An excited nucleus is one that does not have an ideal arrangement of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. An
Hadrons are composite particles made up of either two or three quarks.

A half-life is the time taken for half of a group of unstable nuclei to decay.
Isotopes of an element are atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Leptons are the simplest and lightest of the subatomic particles. They are fundamental particles with no internal
structure.
Mass number describes the total number of nucleons in an atom.
Mesons are hadrons with two quarks.
A neutron is a nucleon with no charge.
The collective name for the particles found in the nucleus of an atom is nucleon.
The nucleus is the solid centre of an atom. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
A positron is a positively charged particle with the same mass as an electron.
A proton is a positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom.
Quarks are the fundamental particles that combine to form hadrons.
A radioisotope is an unstable isotope.
The strong nuclear force is the force that holds nucleons together in a nucleus of an atom. It acts over only very
short distances.
The weak nuclear force is the force that explains the transformation of neutrons into protons, and vice versa.
Resources
Investigation 7.1
Radioactive decay
Aim: To analyse the radioactive decay of a source
Investigation 7.2
Background radiation
Aim: To measure the background radiation in the classroom
at school
Resources

7.5 Exercises

1. Which of the following shows the quark composition of a proton?
A. Up, up, down
B. Up, down, down
C. Up, up, up
D. Down, down, down
2. Which of the following types of particles is not made of quarks?
A. Mesons
B. Baryons
C. Hadrons
D. Leptons
3. There are four fundamental forces:
i. gravity
ii. electromagnetic force
iii. weak nuclear force
iv. strong nuclear force.
What is the correct order, from strongest to weakest, at the distance between two nucleons in a nucleus?
A. i, ii, iii, iv
B. iv, iii, ii, i
C. iv, ii, iii, i
D. iv, ii, i, iii
4. Which of the following particles was discovered experimentally before being predicted theoretically?
A. Higgs boson
B. Positron
C. Electron
D. Neutron
5. Which of the following forces is not significant in the stability of nuclei?
A. Gravity
B. Electromagnetic force
C. Strong nuclear force
D. Weak nuclear force
6. How is the half-life of an isotope best described?
A. Half of the time it would take for the whole sample to decay
B. The time it would take for half of the existing sample to decay
C. The time for the stability of the nucleus to halve
D. A period during which the isotope is not very active
7. Radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine usually have short half-lives. Why is this?
A. They are cheaper.
B. They are more active.
C. The radiation is dangerous to the body so it is good to minimise the time of exposure.
D. The more stable isotopes are more toxic.
8. Alpha decay involves the ejection from the nucleus of which of the following?
A. A tightly bound package of two protons and two neutrons
B. An electron and an antineutrino
C. A positron and a neutrino
D. An energetic photon

9. Cobalt-60 is often used to as a gamma source for sterilising medical equipment. It is made by
bombarding stable cobalt-59 with neutrons in nuclear reactors. To answer the following think about the
effect on the stability of a relatively small nucleus of adding a neutron.
When cobalt-60 decays, it emits gamma rays and which of the following?
A. Neutrons
B. Alpha particles
C. Beta minus particles and antineutrinos
D. Beta plus particles and neutrinos
10. In a series of decays, the mass number drops by eight and the atomic number drops by two. Which
sequence of decays could result in this transmutation?
A. An alpha, a beta minus, a beta minus and another alpha
B. An alpha, a beta plus, a beta minus and an alpha
C. A beta plus, an alpha, a beta minus and an alpha
D. An alpha, an alpha, a beta minus and another alpha

a. +2
1. Design baryons with a charge of:
b. −2
c. zero.
2. Some mesons are their own antiparticle. Explain with an example.
3. Why do you think it has taken so long and been so difficult to find neutral particles such as the neutron,
neutrino and the Higgs boson?
4. How many protons and neutrons are in the following atoms?
a. 66
30 Zn
b. 230
90 Th
c. 45
20 Ca
d. 31
14 Si
5. Write the symbols for isotopes containing the following nucleons.
a. Two neutrons and two protons
b. Seven protons and 13 nucleons
c. Ninety-one protons and 143 neutrons
a. 146 C → 7N + X + energy
6. Determine the particle, X, that has been released in each of the following decay equations.
38 Sr → 39Y + X + energy
14
92 U → 90Th + X + energy
90
b. 90
234
c. 238
a. 𝛼 decay of:
7. Write a decay equation to show the following.
i. radium-226
ii. polonium-214
b. 𝛽 decay of:
iii. americium-241.
i. cobalt-60
ii. strontium-90
How many 𝛼 particles are released by one atom of uranium-238 as it becomes lead-206? How many 𝛽
iii. phosphorus-32.
8.
particles are released? (Hint: Look at the change in the proton number and the change in the nucleon
number.) Check your answer by using figure 7.22.

9. What is the half-life of the substance represented in the following graph?
Portion remaining
3
–
4
1
–
2
1
–
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (hours)
10. Assume the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. If you had 1 gram of carbon-14, how many years
would it take for one-eighth of it to remain?

Atomic nuclei consist of particles that can be classified as which of the following?
A. Hadrons
B. Mesons
C. Baryons
D. Leptons
PET scans provide doctors with information about how organs are functioning. PET scans use positron
emission from sources introduced into the patient’s body.
a. Compare the mass and charge of a positron with those of an electron. 2 marks
b. The PET scan detects gamma rays rather than positrons. How are these gamma
rays produced? 1 mark
a. Provide an example of a particle whose existence was predicted before it was discovered. 1 mark
b. How can the existence of an as yet unobserved particle be predicted scientifically? 2 marks
Consider the graph of nuclear stability in figure 7.15. Patterns can be seen where 𝛽 and 𝛼 decay occur in
Question 4 (6 mark)
relation to the line of stability.
𝛽 − decay?
a. Would adding a proton or a neutron to a stable nucleus make it more likely to undergo
b. Explain why 𝛽 − decay is likely to occur in this scenario.

1 mark
c. Explain why 𝛼 emission is restricted to very large nuclei by referring to the forces involved in
2 marks
the nucleus. 3 marks
Targeted alpha particle therapy (TAT) is a relatively new treatment for some cancers. One of the
radioisotopes used in TAT is actinium-225 ( 225
89A c), which decays to an isotope of francium (Fr).
a. Write the decay equation for this. 3 marks
b. The half-life of actinium-225 is 10 days. What fraction of the dose of actinium-225 administered would
remain after 30 days? 2 marks

The daughter nucleus of actinium-225 following 𝛼 decay is not stable. In fact, a sequence of 4 𝛼 decays
and 2 𝛽 − decays occurs before stability is reached with an isotope of bismuth. Determine the atomic
c.
number and mass number for this isotope of bismuth. Show your working. 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 3
8 Energy from the atom

8.1 Overview
8.1.1 Introduction
The universe can be considered to be made of matter and energy. In this topic we explore how the particles
of matter that shape the universe cannot be considered separately from energy. This discovery has led to
dangerous weapons and new sources of power for machines and electricity supply. Nuclear power plants
harness the energy from matter to create large amounts of energy from very little raw material. It is the
hope of many that further developments will provide an almost limitless source of energy with very little
pollution. The relationship between mass and energy has supplied a range of light sources for various
applications in medicine and many other fields.
FIGURE 8.1 Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to create roughly 13% of the world’s electricity supply.

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• explain nuclear energy as energy resulting from the conversion of mass: E = mc2
• compare the processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

• explain, using a binding energy curve, why both fusion and fission are reactions that produce energy
• explain light as an electromagnetic wave that is produced by the acceleration of charges
• describe the production of synchrotron radiation by an electron radiating energy at a tangent to its
circular path
• model the production of light as a result of electron transitions between energy levels within an atom.

Resources
8.2 Energy from mass

• Explain nuclear energy as energy resulting from the conversion of mass: E = mc2 .
KEY CONCEPT
The most famous physics equation of all is E = mc2 . The is an equation

FIGURE 8.2 Albert Einstein
that Albert Einstein derived as a result of his work on relativity. We will
now explore what this equation means and how it can be used.
In the previous topic we learnt that some nuclei are unstable. They
eventually decay by releasing particles including beta particles,
neutrinos, alpha particles and gamma rays. Which particles are released
depends on the particular isotope involved. Before 1905, scientists
would have said that these decays must obey two conservation laws:
conservation of mass and conservation of energy.
Conservation of mass states that there is always the same amount of
mass in a closed system — one where no mass is entering or leaving.
This resulted from early understandings of chemical reactions, where
the mass of the products is always the same as the mass of the reactants.
Conservation of energy states that there is always the same amount of
energy in an isolated system. Energy is never created or destroyed, it is
transformed to different forms or transfered from one system to another.
TOPIC 8 Energy from the atom 243

However, in 1905, Albert Einstein stunned the scientific world by showing that these two conservation
laws are not strictly correct. He demonstrated that only one conservation law was needed because mass and
energy are essentially the same thing. What is conserved is the combination of mass and energy, which is
sometimes called mass–energy.
Einstein’s equation was a result of theory. Like the prediction of particles including the neutrino,
positron, neutron and Higgs boson, there was no experimental evidence for it at the time and obtaining that
evidence was not going to be easy.
E = mc2
Where:
E is the energy in joules
m is the mass in kilograms
c is the symbol for the speed of light (c = 2.997 924 58 × 108 m s−1 ).
Note: The speed of light is usually rounded to 3.00 × 108 m s−1 in calculations.
This equation is a statement that energy and mass are equivalent. If we need to know how much energy a
certain mass is equivalent to, we use the equation.
For example, for a mass of 1 kilogram:
E = mc2
)2
= 1.0 × 3.00 × 108
(
= 9.0 × 1016 J
That is a tremendous amount of energy. However, the Sun produces four billion times that every second.
Einstein’s E = mc2 calculates that the Sun is losing energy at a rate that is equivalent to 4 billion kilograms
every second!
Why do we not see this loss of mass in everyday life when a body radiates energy? Let’s look at the
example of an object cooling down, like a hot water bottle in your bed on a winter’s night. The hot water
bottle would transfer approximately 100 000 J of energy to your bed as it cools. Using E = mc2 :
E = mc2
E
m=
c2
100 000
=( )2
3.00 × 108
= 1.1 × 10−12 kg
That is one-millionth of one-millionth of a kilogram, far too tiny to notice or measure. As far as typical
events are concerned, energy is conserved and mass is conserved. Even the mass lost by the Sun per second
is such a tiny percentage of the Sun’s mass that the Sun can continue losing mass at this rate for billions
of years.
However, Einstein’s equation has been tested in many ways. In 2008, researchers confirmed that E = mc2
explained the mass of protons and neutrons.
In the previous topic, we learnt that protons comprise two up quarks and one down quark. Similarly,
neutrons are made up of two down quarks and one up quark. These quarks are held together by the strong
nuclear force, which involves the exchange of a boson called a gluon. However, the mass of a proton or a
neutron cannot be determined by adding up the masses of the quarks they contain (gluons are massless).

Most of the mass of the proton and neutron derives from the energies
FIGURE 8.3 Alpha decay
of the quarks within each particle. To account for a proton having a mass of uranium-238
of 1.67 × 10−27 kilograms we need to add up the mass of the quarks
it contains and the mass equivalent of the energy involved by using E = mc2 . Uranium-238
Nuclear decays bring a nucleus to a state of lower energy and greater
stability. The nucleus prior to the decay, or decay series, has a greater
mass than the nucleus after decay, even when the masses of the particles
emitted in the decay are accounted for. In the decay, mass is not conserved.
Similarly, if the energies prior to the decay were compared with the energies
of all of the particles after the decay, we find some energy that appears to
have come from nowhere. The difference in mass (m) is equivalent to the
difference in energy (E) as predicted by E = mc2 .
For example, consider the alpha decay of uranium-238, shown in table 8.1.
TABLE 8.1 The decay of uranium-238 to thorium-234 and helium-4
Nucleus Mass (kg)
Parent Uranium-238 3.952 93 × 10−25
Daughter Thorium-234 3.886 39 × 10−25

Thorium-234
Decay particle Helium-4 6.645 758 × 10−27
Mass after decay He-4 + Th-234 3.952 85 × 10−25
Change of mass resulting from decay Mass defect 8.242 × 10−30
The thorium nucleus and the 𝛼 particle produced by the decay of

uranium-238 have a slightly lower mass than the parent uranium nucleus.
This change in mass is called the mass defect. Mass is not conserved here.
Where is the missing mass?
The mass can be accounted for by applying E = mc2 . The mass is
equivalent to 7.42 × 10−13 J. This energy is the kinetic energy of the
remaining particles, most of it going to the 𝛼 particle, which moves away
from the thorium nucleus at approximately 10 000 kms−1 .
Energy is often better expressed in a unit called the electronvolt (eV)
when dealing with nuclear physics.
1 eV is the kinetic energy an electron or proton would gain if accelerated
across a potential difference of 1 V. 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J. The energy
produced in the 𝛼 decay of uranium-238 is then 7.42 × 10−13 J = 4.63 MeV.
Helium-4
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the energy released when thorium-232 undergoes alpha decay. Thorium-232 has a mass
of 3.853 08 × 10−25 kg and radium-228 has a mass of 3.786 55 × 10−25 kg. An 𝛼 particle has a
mass of 6.64 648 × 10−27 kg. Give your answer in MeV.

THINK WRITE
1. Determine the mass of the mparent = 3.853 08 × 10−25 kg
parent nucleus.
2. Determine the mass of the mproducts = 3.786 55 × 10−25 kg + 6.64 648 × 10−27 kg
daughter nucleus and the = 3.85 301 × 10−25 kg
𝛼 particle.
3. Determine the change in the mparent − mproducts = 3.85 308 × 10−25 kg − 3.85 301 × 10−25 kg
mass due to the decay. = 7.26 × 10−30 kg
4. Determine the equivalent E = mc2
energy. )2
= 7.26 × 10−30 × 3.00 × 108
(
= 6.5 × 10−13 J
6.5 × 10−13
5. Convert to MeV. E= MeV
1.602 176 × 10−13
= 4.1 MeV
6. State the solution. 4.1 MeV of energy is released when thorium-232 undergoes
alpha decay.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
An 𝛼 particle has a kinetic energy of 4.2 MeV as it leaves a nucleus. Calculate the mass defect of this
reaction. (Assume that all the energy released went into the kinetic energy of the 𝛼 particle.)
8.2 EXERCISE
1. What does the equation E = mc2 express about mass and energy?
2. What is the energy equivalent of 100 grams of mass in joule?
3. A positron and an electron (each of mass 9.1 × 10−31 kg) annihilate each other. How much energy
is released?
4. What is the energy content of a 4500 kJ meal in eV?
5. Calculate the mass equivalent of 4500 kJ.


8.3 Energy from the nucleus
KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare the processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
• Explain, using a binding energy curve, why both fusion and fission are reactions that produce energy.
8.3.1 Binding energy

The amount of energy needed to overcome the strong nuclear force and pull apart a nucleus is known as the
binding energy. This is the amount of energy that has to be added to a nucleus to split it into its individual
nucleons — that is, to reverse the binding process. For example, it would take 2.23 MeV of energy to split a
‘heavy’ hydrogen nucleus into a separate proton and neutron.
Each isotope has its own specific binding energy. Nuclei with high binding energies are very stable as it
takes a lot of energy to split them into separate protons and neutrons. Nuclei with lower binding energies
are easier to split. Of course, it is difficult to supply sufficient energy to cause a nucleus to split totally apart.
It is much more common for a nucleus to eject a small fragment, such as an 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle, to become
more stable.
To compare the binding energies of various nuclei, and therefore their stability, it is necessary to look at
the average binding energy per nucleon. The average binding energy per nucleon is calculated by dividing
the total binding energy of a nucleus by the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
It can be seen from figure 8.4 that iron-56 has the highest binding energy per nucleon. This means it
is the most stable of all nuclei. In order to become more stable, other nuclei tend to release some of their
energy. Releasing this energy would decrease the amount of energy they contained, and therefore increase
the amount of energy that must be added to split them apart.
FIGURE 8.4 This graph of binding energy versus mass number peaks at nickel-62, although the much more
common iron-56 is very close behind.
9
14
7N 56
Average binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
8 26 Fe
141 238
4 56 Ba 92 U
2He
7
6
6
3 Li
5
3
3
2 He
2
2
1 1H
1
1H
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Mass number
The binding energy is not only the amount of energy required to separate a nucleus into its component
parts, but also the amount of energy released when those parts are brought together to form the nucleus; that
is, when a proton and a neutron collide to form a ‘heavy’ hydrogen nucleus, 2.23 MeV of energy is released
(twice the binding energy per nucleon).

The curve of the graph in figure 8.4 indicates that if two nuclei with low mass numbers could be joined
together to produce a single nucleus, then a lot of energy would be released. Similarly, if a nucleus with a
very high mass number could split into two fragments with greater binding energy per nucleon, then once
again a lot of energy would be released. These two possibilities were realised in the 1930s. The released
energy can be calculated from Einstein’s equation E = mc2 , where m is the difference between the total
nuclear mass before and after the event, and c is the speed of light.
The joining of two nuclei is nuclear fusion and the splitting of a single nucleus is nuclear fission.
Resources
Interactivity Making nuclei (int-6393)
8.3.2 Nuclear fission

In 1934, Enrico Fermi investigated the effect of firing neutrons at uranium. The products had half-lives
different from that of uranium. He thought that he had made new elements with atomic numbers greater
than 92. Others repeating the experiment got different half-lives. In 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann
chemically analysed the samples and found barium, which has atomic number 56, indicating that the nuclei
had split.
Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch called this process ‘fission’ and showed that neutrons could also initiate
fission in thorium and protactinium. Further chemical analysis revealed a range of possible fission reactions,
each with a different combination of fission fragments including bromine, molybdenum or rubidium
(which have atomic numbers around 40) and antimony, caesium or iodine (which have atomic numbers in
the 50s). Cloud chamber photographs showing two heavy nuclei flying off in opposite directions confirmed
that fission had occurred. Meitner and Frisch also calculated from typical binding energies that the fission
of one uranium-235 nucleus would produce about 200 MeV of energy, mainly as kinetic energy of the
fission fragments. This is a huge amount of energy to be released by one nucleus, as can be seen when it
is compared to the burning of coal in power plants. Each atom of carbon used in coal burning releases only
10 eV of energy — about 20 million times less than the energy released in the fission of uranium-235.
FIGURE 8.5 The first chain reaction in FIGURE 8.6 Nuclear fission reactions
a nuclear reactor was on a squash involve a large nucleus splitting into
court at the University of Chicago two smaller nuclei and a couple of
during World War II. neutrons.

LISE MEITNER (1878–1968)
Lise Meitner was the physicist who coined the term ‘fission’ and, along with her
FIGURE 8.7 Lise
nephew Otto Frisch, explained the splitting of uranium nuclei into barium and
Meitner (1878–1968)
lanthanum.
was the first to describe
Born in Vienna, Lise was fascinated by the world around her from an early
how a nucleus could
age. A talented student, she wanted to understand the things she observed
undergo fission.
in nature. Having decided that she would like to pursue her interest in physics
and mathematics, Lise engaged a private tutor to prepare her for the university
entrance exams, as schools that taught such subjects would not accept girls at
that time. She was the second woman to be granted a Doctorate in Physics from
the University of Vienna, conferred in 1906.
Lise then moved to the Institute of Experimental Physics in Berlin to work with
Otto Hahn. Initially, this proved difficult. Lise was forced to work in a converted
workshop as females were not permitted to use the facilities available to male
students. As the place of women in the institute became more accepted, Lise
was given positions of responsibility, finally being made a professor in 1926.
During her time at the institute, Lise made many important contributions to
atomic and particle physics, including the co-discovery with Otto Hahn of the
radioactive element protactinium.
In 1938 Berlin became a dangerous place for Jews, and Lise moved to Sweden. It was there she and Otto
Frisch interpreted the results of experiments conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman to come up with
the first explanation of the fission process. In doing so, Lise was the first person to use Einstein’s theory of
mass–energy equivalence to calculate the energy released during fission.
Her international reputation led to an invitation to join the Manhattan Project in 1941 and work on the
development of the atomic bomb. Lise objected to the project and declined the offer. She continued to work in
Sweden until moving to England in 1960, finally retiring at the age of 82.
Also in 1939, Frédéric Joliot, Irène Joliot-Curie and their team confirmed that two or three fast neutrons
were emitted with each fission reaction. This allowed for the possibility of a chain reaction, where one
fission triggers further fissions, which could potentially release enormous amounts of energy.
FIGURE 8.8 The neutrons produced by a fission reaction can go on to produce a chain reaction.

Some possible equations for the fission of uranium-235 set off by the absorption of a neutron are:
235 236 148
92U + 10n → 92U → 57L a + 85 1
35B r + 3 0n + energy
235 236 141
92U + 10n → 92U → 56B a + 92 1
36K r + 3 0n + energy
235
92U + 10n → 236
92U → 140
54X e + 94 1
38S r + 2 0n + energy
The data in figure 8.4 and Einstein’s equation E = mc2 can be used to calculate the amount of energy
released in each of these fission reactions.
TABLE 8.2 Masses and binding energies of atoms
Nucleus Symbol Mass (kg) Total binding energy (MeV)
Uranium-236 236
92 U 3.919 629 × 10–25 1790.415 039
Lanthanum-148 148
57 La 2.456 472 × 10–25 1213.125 122
Bromine-85 85
35 Br 1.410 057 × 10–25 737.290 649
Barium-141 141
56 Ba 2.339 939 × 10–25 1173.974 609
Krypton-92 92
36 Kr 1.526 470 × 10–25 783.185 242
Xenon-140 140
54 Xe 2.323 453 × 10–25 1160.734 009
Strontium-94 94
38 Sr 1.559 501 × 10–25 807.816 711
Neutron 1
0n 1.674 746 × 10–27
Speed of light, c, = 2.997 924 58 × 108 m s–1 ; 1 MeV = 1.602 176 × 10–13 joules
FIGURE 8.9 Graph of energies in a fission reaction. The sum of the binding energies of La-148 and Br-85 is
greater than the binding energy of U-236. The difference is released as kinetic energy of the neutrons and the
fission fragments. The total energy after fission is the same as the energy before.
Before After
Kinetic fission fission
energy
Neutron
KE
0
La-148 Total
Binding = energy
U-236 after
energy
+
Br-85

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Answer the following questions about the fission of uranium-236 producing lanthanum-148 and
bromine-85. Use table 8.2 for data on masses and binding energies.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of
the binding energies of the two fission fragments?
b. What is the difference between the mass of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the masses
of all the fission fragments, including neutrons?
c. Use E = mc2 to calculate the energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV.
THINK WRITE
236
a. 1. Write out the fission equation. a. 92U → 148 85 1
57L a + 35B r + 3 0n + energy
2. Use table 8.2 to find the binding Binding energy of uranium-236 = 1790.415 039 MeV
energy of uranium-236.
3. Use table 8.2 to calculate the Binding energy of lanthanum-148 = 1213.125 122 MeV
sum of the binding energies of Binding energy of bromine-85 = 737.290 649 MeV
the fragments. 1213.125 122 + 737.290 649 = 1950.415 771 MeV
4. Calculate the difference between Energy difference = 1950.415 771 − 1790.415 039
the binding energy of the = 160.000 732 MeV
uranium nucleus and its
fission fragments.
5. State the solution. The difference between the binding energy of the
uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the binding energies
of the two fission fragments is 160.001 MeV.
b. 1. Use table 8.2 to find the mass of b. Mass of uranium-236 = 3.919 629 × 10–25 kg
uranium-236.
2. Use table 8.2 to find the sum of Mass of lanthanum-148 = 2.456 472 × 10–25
the masses of the fragments. Mass of bromine-85 = 1.410 057 × 10–25
Mass of a neutron = 1.674 746 × 10–27
2.456 472 × 10−25 + 1.410 057 × 10−25 + 3 ×
1.674 746 × 10−27 = 3.916 771 × 10−25 kg
3. Calculate the difference between Mass difference = 3.919 629 × 10−25 − 3.916 771 × 10−25
the mass of the uranium nucleus = 2.857 62 × 10−28 kg
and its fission fragments.
4. State the solution. The difference between the mass of the uranium-236
nucleus and the sum of the masses of all the fission
fragments is 2.857 62 × 10−28 kg.
c. 1. Use E = mc2 to calculate the c. E = mc2
energy difference in joules. (The )2
= 2.857 62 × 10−28 × 2.997 924 58 × 108
(
full value for c is used here, but
you may use the rounded value.) = 2.568 301 × 10−11 J
2.568 301 × 10−11
2. Convert the energy to MeV. = 160.300 789 MeV
1.602 176 × 10−13
3. State the solution. The energy equivalent of this mass difference is
2.568 301 × 10−11 J or 160.300 789 MeV.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Answer the following questions about the fission of uranium-236 to barium-141 and krypton-92.
Use table 8.2 for data on masses and binding energies.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum
of the binding energies of the two fission fragments?
b. What is the difference between the mass of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the
masses of all the fission fragments, including neutrons?
Resources
Weblink Fission animation
8.3.3 Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process of joining two smaller FIGURE 8.10 Nuclear fusion of hydrogen-2
nuclei together to form a larger more stable nucleus. and a proton. The resulting nucleus is in an
This was first observed by Australian physicist Mark excited state, which releases a gamma ray.
Oliphant in 1932 when he was working with Ernest
Rutherford. He was searching for other isotopes of
hydrogen and helium. Heavy hydrogen (one proton and
one neutron) was already known, but Oliphant discovered
tritium (one proton and two neutrons) and helium-3 (with
only one neutron). In his investigation he fired a fast
heavy hydrogen nucleus at a heavy hydrogen target to
produce a nucleus of tritium plus an extra neutron. This
fusion reaction was to become the basis of the hydrogen bomb, but Oliphant was interested only in the
structure of the nucleus and did not realise the energy implications. For fusion to occur more extensively,
high temperatures and pressures are needed, such as those that exist inside the Sun or in a fission bomb
explosion.
The Sun’s core has a temperature of more than 15 million K, just perfect for fusion to occur! Inside the
nuclear energy is released. This energy is emitted from the nuclei as 𝛾 radiation, and is eventually received
Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium. As helium is more stable than hydrogen, the excess
on Earth as light and heat.

Fusion reactions also take place in other stars. Stars that are bigger than the Sun have such severe
conditions that larger, more stable nuclei such as silicon and magnesium can be produced from the fusion
of smaller nuclei. A star about 30 times more massive than the Sun would be needed to produce conditions
that would enable the formation of iron by fusing smaller nuclei.
Our Sun
The chain of events occurring in the Sun is quite complex. The major component of the Sun is 11 H; that is,
nuclei consisting of only one proton and no neutrons. When collisions occur between 11 H nuclei, they have
a chance of fusing together but a change needs to occur for this pairing of positively charged particles to
is changed into a proton and an electron during 𝛽 − decay). This forms a 21 H nucleus. The by-products of
become a stable nucleus. One of the protons is changed into a neutron (in much the same way as a neutron
this process are a positron and a neutrino.

Positrons are also produced when some
FIGURE 8.11 Our sun is powered by fusion of small
artificially produced isotopes undergo radioactive nuclei.
decay. As we learnt previously, positrons are the
antiparticle of the electrons; they have the same
mass but carry a positive charge. When a positron
and an electron collide, they immediately
annihilate each other. The only thing that remains
of either is a 𝛾 ray. Neutrinos are produced when
protons change into neutrons, and vice versa.
They have no charge, are considered massless and
travel at close to the speed of light. Fifty trillion
neutrinos from the Sun pass through the human
body every second.
When a 11 H nucleus and a 21 H nucleus collide,
in the conditions found in the centre of the Sun,
they form a more stable 32 He nucleus and release the extra energy as a 𝛾 ray. If two 32 He nuclei collide,
they complete the process of turning hydrogen into helium. The collision results in the formation of a 42 He
nucleus and two 11 H nuclei. Again, energy is released. The energy released during nuclear reactions inside
the Sun provides energy for life on Earth.
FORMATION OF LARGER ATOMS

Most of the atoms that make up your body (and the rest of the atoms in the Earth) were originally produced in
a star. Fusion in stars produced most of the atoms other than hydrogen and helium. Those nuclei with atomic
numbers up to that of iron were produced in regular stars. However, when large stars stop producing energy
from fusion of elements up to iron, they implode, or collapse in on themselves. This causes conditions in which
even larger atoms will fuse to produce very heavy elements such as gold, lead and uranium. These stars explode
as supernovas, spreading the elements they have made out into space. The Earth was formed from a cloud
consisting of remnants of old supernovas. Other atoms form from radioactive decay processes as described in
the previous topic, and from high energy collisions of cosmic rays.
The main sequence of nuclear equations that occur in the Sun to convert hydrogen to helium is:
1
1H + 11H → 21H + 01e + v
2
1H + 11H → 32H e + 𝛾
3
2H e + 32H e → 42H e + 11H + 11H
The binding energy can be used to determine the amount of energy released in a fusion reaction.
The difference between the binding energies of the reactants and the products is equivalent
to the mass defect.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
In the final nuclear equations that occur in the Sun, shown above, two helium-3 nuclei collide to
produce a helium-4 nucleus and two hydrogen-1 nuclei, that is, two protons.
Use the data in the following table to calculate the:
a. difference between the binding energy of the helium-4 nucleus and sum of the binding energies
of the two helium-3 nuclei

b. difference between the sum of masses of the helium-4 nucleus and the two protons, and mass of
two helium-3 nuclei
c. energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV.
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Total binding energy (MeV)

3
Helium-3 2
He 5.006 942 × 10–27 7.864 501
4
Helium-4 2 He 6.645 758 × 10–27 28.295 673
1 1
Proton 1 p or 1 H 1.673 351 × 10–27
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the table to find the a. Binding energy of helium-4 nucleus = 28.295 673 MeV
binding energy of the
helium-4 nucleus.
2. Use the table to find the Binding energy of two helium-3 nuclei = 2 × 7.864 501
binding energy of the = 15.729 002 MeV
helium-3 nuclei.
3. Calculate the difference in Difference = 28.295 673 − 15.729 002
binding energies. = 12.566 671 MeV
4. State the solution. The difference between the binding energy of the helium-4
nucleus and sum of the binding energies of the two
helium-3 nuclei is 12.566 671 MeV.
b. 1. Use the table to find the mass b. Mass before fusion = 2 × 5.006 942 × 10−27
of the reactants. = 1.001 388 × 10−26 kg
2. Use the table to find the mass Mass after fusion = 6.645 758 × 10−27 +
of the products. (
2 × 1.674 746 × 10−27
)
= 9.995 25 × 10−27 kg
3. Calculate the difference in Mass difference = 10.013 88 × 10−27 − 9.995 25 × 10−27
mass. = 1.863 × 10−29 kg
4. State the solution. The difference between the sum of masses of the helium-4
nucleus and the two protons, and mass of two helium-3
nuclei is 1.863 × 10–29 kg.
c. 1. Use E = mc2 to calculate the c. E = mc2
energy difference in joules. = 1.863 × 10−29 × (2.997 924 58 × 108 )2
= 1.674 381 × 10−12 J
1.674 381 × 10−12
2. Convert the energy to MeV. = 10.45 MeV
1.602 176 × 10−13
1.674 × 10−12 J or 10.45 MeV.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A fusion reaction in the Sun of hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 produces helium-3. Use the data in the
following table to calculate the:
a. difference between the binding energy of the helium-3 nucleus and sum of the binding
energies of the hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 nuclei
b. difference between the masses of the helium-3 nucleus and the sum of the masses of the
hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 nuclei
3
Helium-3 2
He 5.006 942 × 10–27 7.864 501
Hydrogen-2 2
1H 3.344 132 × 10 –27
2.224 573
1
Proton 1
1 p or 1
H 1.673 351 × 10–27
Resources
Digital document Investigation 8.1 Chain reaction of dominoes (doc-32621)
Teacher-led video Investigation 8.1 Chain reaction of dominoes (tlvd-0845)
Weblink Fusion animation
8.3 EXERCISE
1. Define the terms ‘fusion’ and ‘fission’.
2. Which of these reactions occurs in our Sun?
3. Explain why splitting uranium-235 nuclei releases energy, but joining hydrogen atoms also releases energy.
4. Use the graph of binding energy per nucleon (see figure 8.4) to estimate the amount of energy released
when a uranium-235 nucleus is split into barium-141 and krypton-92. Think carefully about the number of
significant figures in your answer. How well does your answer agree with the measured value of 200 MeV?
5. Why is energy released in the process of fusing two small nuclei together?
6. What aspect of the binding energy per nucleon curve shows that fusion of light elements releases more
energy than fission of heavy ones?
7. When two light elements fuse to form a single heavier one, is the product lighter or heavier than the sum of
the masses of the two light atoms? Explain.
8. When uranium-236 undergoes fission to form two lighter nuclei plus some neutrons, is the mass of the
uranium-236 greater than, equal to or less than the sum of the masses of the two nuclei plus the
neutrons? Explain.


8.4 Energy from accelerating charges
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain light as an electromagnetic wave that is produced by the acceleration of charges.
• Describe the production of synchrotron radiation by an electron radiating energy at a tangent to its
circular path.
• Model the production of light as a result of electron transitions between energy levels within an atom.
8.4.1 Matter and light

The word ‘light’ is often used as a shorthand collective for all the
FIGURE 8.12 Hundreds of
different types of electromagnetic radiation from radio waves to mobile phone towers around the
gamma rays, including infra-red, visible, ultraviolet and X-rays. state receive and transmit radio
It is used here in that context. waves from mobile phones.
So far in this text, matter has produced light in a variety of different
ways. The glow of hot objects, such as the Sun, was explained by
collisions between the outer electrons of atoms. The electrons’
collisions with each other caused a change in direction or speed, or
often both. This acceleration of the electron produced light. If the
temperature was high and the accelerations sudden, then the object
glowed. The same situation applies when electrons are free from their
atoms or free in space.
A common example of where electromagnetic waves are produced
is the mobile phone. A mobile phone turns the sound signal of the
person speaking into it into an electrical signal. This electrical signal
moves electrons back and forth in the antenna. The antenna is a
conductor inside the mobile phone. The electrons moving back and
forth along the antenna produce electromagnetic waves in the radio
wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, that move outwards
from the mobile phone at the speed of light. They are received by
another antenna on a mobile phone tower in the neighbourhood.
The electrons in the antenna experience a force in the presence of
the electromagnetic waves causing them to move up and down the
antenna, turning the radio wave signal back into an electrical signal. In this way the signals can be spread
around the world. Antennas work in both directions, turning electrical signals into radio waves or radio
waves into electrical signals, depending on whether they are transmitting or receiving a signal.
In particle accelerators such as the Large
FIGURE 8.13 Synchrotron radiation is emitted along
Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland and the tangent of the circular path.
the Australian Synchrotron, charged particles are
accelerated by electric fields to speeds close to
the speed of light, then deflected into a circular
path by magnetic fields. The circular path means a
constantly changing direction, so the particles are N Electron
beam
continually being accelerated and consequently
giving off radiation. At CERN, this radiation and
loss of energy is an unavoidable nuisance as the
researchers using it want very fast particles, such S
as protons, to smash into each other.
Synchrotron
radiation

However, at the Australian Synchrotron scientists use electrons accelerated to almost the speed of light.
When electrons reach this speed, the radiation comes off in a very narrow beam along the tangent to the
circular path. The radiation beam is also very intense and includes all the wavelengths across a large
range. The beams at the Australian Synchrotron have a variety of uses including scientific research such as
investigating the structure of proteins, medical uses such as high resolution imaging and cancer radiation
therapy, as well as the analysis of mineral samples, forensic analysis and the investigation of advanced
materials.
The name synchrotron radiation comes from the fact that it was first observed in 1946 when the first
synchrotron was built. Since then this type of radiation has been observed in galaxies, when electrons
travelling at the speed of light spiral through an intense magnetic field.
FIGURE 8.14 The Australian Synchrotron in Clayton Victoria produces intense beams of synchrotron radiation
that are used to analyse the composition and structure of materials, right down to the atomic scale.
Source: ANSTO
8.4.2 Light from atoms

Electrons within atoms are also able to produce light and electromagnetic radiation from other parts of the
spectrum. They can do this because there are different energy states that the electrons within atoms can
take. This model of the electrons in atoms differs from the common one that imagines electrons as circling
the nucleus like planets revolving around the Sun. This planetary model of the atom cannot work because
of synchrotron radiation. Those charged electrons orbiting the nucleus would radiate energy, which is not
observed. Also, as the electrons radiated energy they would lose energy, spiralling into the nucleus. This
does not happen.
Instead, we need to think of electrons in atoms very differently. An example of the evidence for electron
behaviour can be seen in the spectra from different materials. Figure 8.15 shows a typical absorption
spectrum, where light is shone through a gas and specific colours are absorbed. The figure also shows
an emission spectrum, where a gas is heated to a high temperature and gives a characteristic colour. The
inverse of one pattern is almost identical to the other.

FIGURE 8.15 A continuous spectrum and two different ways of producing an element’s fingerprint
Continuous spectrum
Emission line spectrum

Hot gas
Cold gas
Absorption line spectrum
Each line has a specific wavelength and frequency. Consequently, the light of that colour in the spectrum
has a specific energy. Each line of light in the emission spectrum has come from an electron inside the
atom that has jumped from one energy level down to a lower one. The difference in energy between the two
levels is emitted as light energy. The existence of several lines tells us about the different energy levels that
electrons in this atom can have and gives a picture of the structure inside the atom.
These emission and absorption spectra are unique to each element.
Each arrow in figure 8.16 shows possible energy transitions for electrons in hydrogen. The electron
would normally be in level n = 1, known as the ground state, but collision with another charged particle or
a photon could give the electron enough energy to enter one of the higher energy states. When this happens,
it is only a matter of time before the electron gives up that additional energy in the form of a photon of
light. Photons are packets of energy that make up light waves and all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The higher the energy of the photon, the further its light is towards the gamma end of the spectrum. Lower
energy photons are towards the radio end of the spectrum. The colour of the light depends on the size of
the energy transition. The arrows in figure 8.16 show energy transitions that would result in an emission
spectrum. Only photons of energies that correspond to the changes in energy levels can occur, so the light
emitted from excited hydrogen gas has very specific energies. Most of these lines have energies outside the
visible spectrum of light, but the Balmer series are in the visible spectrum.
This feature of gases is used to great effect in lighting. Gas discharge tubes like fluorescent tubes that
probably light up your Physics classroom contain a gas at low pressure. The gas in fluorescent tubes is
mercury vapour. When a high voltage is put across the ends of the tube, a current of electrons flows through
the tube. These electrons hit electrons in the mercury atoms, giving them energy to rise to a higher energy
level. When the electron falls back to its ground state it emits light of a particular frequency. With mercury,
this tends to be light in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. The glass tube is covered with a material that
absorbs the ultraviolet light and re-emits it in the visible part of the spectrum. The different frequencies of
this light can be viewed by observing the fluorescent tubes through a spectroscope.

FIGURE 8.16 Electron transitions for the hydrogen atom
n=7
n=6
n=5
n=4
Brackett series
E(n) to E(n=4)
n=3
Paschen series
E(n) to E(n=3)
n=2
Balmer series
E(n) to E(n=2)
n=1
Lyman series
E(n) to E(n=1)
FIGURE 8.17 The emission spectrum of hydrogen
UV IR
λ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 nm
Other gas discharge tubes are used in advertising, with different gases used in the tubes, like neon, to
produce light of different colours.
Liquids and solids produce spectra that resemble a continuous spectrum due to the proximity of the
atoms resulting in the energy levels that have little energy difference between them. Electrons in these
‘bands’ can take on a nearly continuous range of energies. As a result, glowing solids, like the filament in
an incandescent light bulb, produce a continuous spectrum.

FIGURE 8.18 The skipping girl sign in Richmond is a Melbourne landmark using tubes of different gases to
produce the effect of a girl skipping.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Identify three processes in which electrons produce electromagnetic radiation.
THINK WRITE
1 Recall three processes in which Any three of the following:
electrons produce electromagnetic • Electrons in atoms in a hot metal move between energy
radiation. levels and emit electromagnetic radiation.
• Electrons moving in circles in a synchrotron produce
intense electromagnetic radiation tangent to the path.
• Electrons passing through a gas at high voltage excite
the electrons in the gas, which then emit
electromagnetic radiation as they return to ground state.
• Electrons accelerate in an antenna.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Explain why electrons cannot move around the nucleus like planets around the Sun.

Resources
Digital documents Investigation 8.2 The spectrum of hydrogen (doc-31903)
Investigation 8.3 Spectroscopes (doc-32622)
Teacher-led video Investigation 8.3 Spectroscopes (tlvd-0254)
8.4 EXERCISE
1. What situation leads to the production of synchrotron radiation?
2. Electrons are said to exist in energy levels in atoms. What is some evidence for this claim?
3. What is the source of electromagnetic radiation?
4. What can you say about the electrons in the transmitter’s antenna at a radio station of frequency 621 kHz,
compared with one of frequency 774 kHz?
5. Compare the energy levels of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus (gamma rays) with that
emitted by the electrons in atoms.

8.5 Review
8.5.1 Summary
• Mass and energy are equivalent and related by the equation E = mc2 .
• The nuclei of different atoms have varying degrees of stability. The binding energy of a nucleus is the
energy required to completely separate a nucleus into individual nucleons. Therefore, the binding
energy is a measure of the stability of a nucleus. Iron-56 is commonly thought to be the most stable of
all nuclei, however, the rarer iron-58 and nickel-62 have a slightly higher binding energy per nucleon.
• In order for a nucleus to become more stable, it emits energy called nuclear energy. The amount of
energy released corresponds to the difference between the mass of the particles before and after the
release of energy, according to E = mc2 .
• Fusion reactions generally occur between small nuclei which form nuclei that are smaller than iron.
Fusion occurs in our Sun, where hydrogen nuclei are converted into helium nuclei, resulting in large
amounts of energy being released.
• Fission reactions occur when a large nucleus is split into smaller, more stable fission fragments that
have higher binding energy per nucleon.
• Electromagnetic radiation is produced when electric charges are accelerated.
• Electric charges can be accelerated in a number ways to produce electromagnetic radiation.
• Very fast electrons moving in a circular path produce synchrotron radiation.
• Electrons moving between energy levels inside an atom produce light in parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum determined by the difference between the energy levels.

Resources
8.5.2 Key terms
The number of protons in a nucleus is called the atomic number of the atom.
The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that is required to split a nucleus into individual nucleons.
Fission fragments are the products from a nucleus that undergoes fission. The fission fragments are smaller
than the original nucleus.
Atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of
an element.
The mass defect is the difference in the mass of the products and reactants in a nuclear reaction.
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a large nucleus to form two smaller, more stable nuclei.
Nuclear fusion is the process of joining together two nuclei to form a larger, more stable nucleus.
Synchrotron radiation is the electromagnetic radiation produced when electric charges move in circular motion.
It is radiated at a tangent to the curve.
Resources
Investigation 8.1
Chain reaction of dominoes
Aim: To model controlled and uncontrolled chain reaction in nuclear fission
using dominoes
Investigation 8.2
The spectrum of hydrogen
Aim: To observe the spectral lines of hydrogen, measure their wavelengths and compare these values with the
theoretical values
Investigation 8.3
Spectroscopes
Aim: To use a spectroscope to observe the spectrum of a light source

Resources
8.5 Exercises

1. What does the equation E = mc2 describe?
A. The equivalence of mass and energy
B. That energy is much more significant than mass by a factor of c2
C. That energy has mass
D. That the speed of light is constant
2. When does fission occur?
A. Two small nuclei merge.
B. A small nucleus splits.
C. Two large nuclei merge.
D. A large nucleus splits.
3. The products of fission have which of the following?
A. Greater binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus
B. Less binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus
C. Equal binding energy per nucleon as the original nucleus
D. It depends on the nucleus.
4. What do current commercial nuclear plants run on?
A. Fusion
B. Fission
C. Alpha decay
D. A mixture of fusion and fission
5. Electromagnetic radiation is not produced by accelerating which of the following?
A. Protons
B. Electrons
C. Neutrons
D. Positrons
6. Which of the following is a source of the Sun’s energy?
A. Fission of uranium-235
B. Fusion of carbon
C. Exothermic chemical reactions
D. Fusion of protons
7. Which of the following is not a product of the fusion of protons?
A. Electron
B. Positron
C. Antimatter
D. Neutrino
8. Radio waves from a radio station are produced by which of the following?
A. Synchrotron
B. Electrons moving between energy levels
C. Electrons moving back and forth along an antenna
D. Electrons moving in energy bands in the metal of an antenna

9. Which of the following is one of the conditions required for a nucleus to undergo fission?
A. The binding energy per nucleon must be less in the products that the parent nucleus.
B. The binding energy per nucleon must be greater in the products that the parent nucleus.
C. The mass of the products must be greater than the mass of the parent nucleus.
D. The nucleus must be smaller than that of iron-56.
10. Which of the following is not a unit of energy?
A. eV
B. MeV
C. J
D. kW

1. Why might different elements produce different absorption and emission spectra?
2. A gas absorbs some wavelengths of light to produce an absorption spectrum, but the light is very quickly
re-emitted. Why doesn’t the re-emitted light fill in the dark line?
3. The emission spectra shown in figure 8.17 is for hydrogen, which has only one electron. Why do you
think there are so many lines in the spectrum?
4. Why are neutrons good at initiating nuclear reactions?
5. In what form does the energy released from a nuclear fusion reaction appear?
6. What conditions are required before two protons will fuse to form a single nucleus? Why are this
conditions required?
7. Einstein’s theories suggested that energy and mass are not conserved.
a. Describe what he found.
b. Describe an example of where it can be observed that mass and energy are not conserved.
c. Why is the problem with the laws of conservation and mass so difficult to observe?

Use table 8.3 to answer the questions that follow.
TABLE 8.3 Masses and binding energies
Plutonium-240 240
94 Pu 3.985 755 × 10–25 1813.454 956
Strontium-90 90
38 Sr 1.492 791 × 10–25 782.631 470
Barium-147 147
56 Ba 2.439 632 × 10–25 1204.158 203
Uranium-234 234
92 U 3.885 920 × 10–25 1778.572 388
Zirconium-95 95
40 Zr 1.575 810 × 10–25 821.139 160
Tellurium-136 136
52 Te 2.256 760 × 10–25 1131.440 918
Neutron 1
0n 1.674 746 × 10–27
Proton 1
1p or 11 H 1.673 351 × 10–27
Hydrogen-2 2
1H or 21 D 3.344 132 × 10–27 2.224 573
3
Hydrogen-3 3
1H or 1T 5.007 725 × 10 –27
8.481 821
Helium-4 4
2 He 6.645 758 × 10–27 28.295 673
Lithium-6 6
3 Li 9.987 263 × 10–27 31.994 564

A plutonium-239 nucleus absorbs a neutron to become plutonium-240, which splits to form strontium-90,
barium-147 and three neutrons.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the plutonium-240 nucleus and the
sum of the binding energies of the two fission fragments? 2 marks
b. What is the difference between the mass of the plutonium-240 nucleus and the sum of the
masses of all the fission fragments, including neutrons? 2 marks
2
c. Use E = mc to calculate the energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV. 2 marks
A uranium-233 nucleus absorbs a neutron to become uranium-234, which splits to form zirconium-95,
tellurium-136 and three neutrons.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the uranium-234 nucleus and the
sum of the binding energies of the two fission fragments? 2 marks
b. What is the difference between the mass of the uranium-234 nucleus and the sum of the
masses of all the fission fragments, including neutrons? 2 marks
c. Use E = mc2 to calculate the energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV. 2 marks
A fusion reactor could not feasibly use the same reactions as the Sun. A reactor on Earth would have to use
a different reaction, preferably a one-step reaction with only two reactants. Three possible reactions for a
terrestrial fusion reactor are as follows.
2 3 4
a. 1H + 1H → 2He + 10n
2 2 3 1
b. 1H + 1H → 1He + 1H
2 6 4
c. 1H + 3Li → 2 2He
Using data from table 8.3, calculate the:
i. difference between the binding energy of the products and the sum of the binding
energies of the reactants 3 marks
ii. difference between the sum of masses of the products and of the reactants 3 marks
iii. energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV. 3 marks
Compare the processes of fission and fusion.
List two reasons fusion would be a preferable way of generating power to fission.

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 3
What is matter and how is it formed?
OUTCOME 3
Explain the origins of atoms, the nature of subatomic particles and how energy can be produced by atoms.
A 20 20
B 4 20
Total 40
•
Information:
•
•
Resources

1. Which of the following phenomena does Hubble’s Law refer to?

A. The red shift that is observed in distant galaxies, due to the expansion of the universe
B. That the more distant a galaxy is from us, the faster it is moving away from us
C. That the red shift of distant galaxies is due to the Doppler effect
D. The limit to the maximum possible speed that distant galaxies are receding from us
2. The currently accepted theory of the Big Bang origin of the universe is not supported by which of the following
observation?
A. The cosmic microwave background is the temperature the universe cooled to after the Big Bang.
B. Distant galaxies are observed to be red shifted as they are receding from us.
C. The further a galaxy is from us, the more red shifted it is.
D. Distant galaxies are all red shifted by the same amount.

3. The light from a star near the Sun within the Milky Way galaxy is blue shifted. Which of the following best
describes the current explanation for this change in wavelength?
A. The star is moving away from us.
B. The star is moving towards us.
C. The space between the star and the Sun is contracting.
D. The star is being drawn towards the centre of the Milky Way away from the Sun.
4. The Voyager 1 probe is the furthest human-made object from our solar system. It is travelling at a speed of
A. 2.2 × 108 m
approximately 17 km s–1 . What is the distance it will travel in one year, in metres?
B. 5.4 × 108 m
C. 2.2 × 1011 m
D. 5.4 × 1011 m
Edwin Hubble estimated the constant to have a value 1.6 × 10−17 s−1 . Which of the following is the best
5. The Hubble constant (H) could be used to estimate the age of the universe. Using the best observational data,
A. 1.6 × 1016 s−1

estimate of the age of the universe?
B. 6.3 × 1016 s−1

C. 1.6 × 1017 s−1
D. 6.3 × 1017 s−1
6. Which of the following best describes the reason for the ratio of protons to neutrons in the early universe
as 7:1?
A. There was insufficient matter to form neutrons.
B. Seven is the ideal ratio for the protons to fuse with neutrons to form helium nuclei.
C. The universe cooled to a point that protons do not interact with electrons with sufficient energy.
D. There were too many protons that interfered with neutron formation.
7. According to the current theory of matter, which of the following groups of particles comprise the basic
particles that form all other matter?
A. Protons, neutrons and electrons with their antiparticles
B. Hadrons and leptons with their antiparticles
C. Baryons and mesons with their antiparticles
D. Quarks and leptons with their antiparticles
8. An isotope of hydrogen is tritium. A neutrally charged atom of tritium comprises a proton and two neutrons.
How many quark and leptons make up this atom?
A. 3 quarks and 1 leptons
B. 6 quarks and 3 leptons
C. 3 quarks and 3 leptons
D. 9 quarks and 1 leptons
9. Which of the following cannot be classified as a fermion?
A. A beta particle
B. A hydrogen nucleus
C. A quark
D. A gamma ray
10. Which of the following does not describe the hadron family of particles?
A. They include the positron.
B. They include baryons and mesons.
C. They are composed of two or three quarks.
D. They have an internal structure.

Study the following table of quarks.
Type Charge Type Charge
+ +
2 2
Up (u) Charm (c)
3 3
− −
1 1
Down (d) Bottom (b)
3 3
− +
1 2
Strange (s) Top (t)
3 3
11. Which of the following best describes the charge of the combination of a charm quark and an antibottom
quark?
A. −
1
3
1
B. +
3
D. +1
C. –1
12. This combination of quarks results in what sort of particle?

A. Baryon
B. Lepton
C. Meson
D. Neutrino

When a matter particle and an antimatter particle collide, they annihilate each other and all matter and antimatter
Mass of electron: 9.1 × 10−31 kg

is transformed into energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Mass of proton: 1.67 × 10−27 kg

Speed of light: 3.0 × 108 m s−1
13. Using the data provided, what is the best estimate of the energy released when an electron and a positron
A. 1.6 × 10−13 J
meet, at rest?
B. 8.2 × 10−14 J
C. 5.5 × 10−22 J
D. 2.7 × 10−22 J
14. When a proton and an antiproton meet, at rest, the energy released is 3.0 × 10−10 J. What is the approximate
equivalent amount of this energy in MeV?
A. 1.9 MeV
B. 19 MeV
C. 190 MeV
15. How many protons and neutrons are there in an alpha particle 24𝛼 ?
D. 1900 MeV
A. 4 protons and 2 neutrons

B. 2 protons and 4 neutrons
C. 2 protons and 2 neutrons
D. 2 protons and 6 neutrons

90
Strontium-90, 38S r, is a beta emitter with a half-life of 29 years.
16. Element X is the daughter element of strontium-90. Which of the following best describes the nucleus of X
following the beta decay of strontium-90?
90
A. 39X
86
B. 36X
90
C. 38X
86
D. 39X
17. A chemical mixture from the last century contains strontium-90. A sample of it has been analysed and it is
found that there is only 12.5% of the original amount of strontium-90 left. How old is this chemical mixture?
A. 29 years old
B. 58 years old
C. 87 years old
D. 116 years old
18. The binding energy per nucleon for the deuteron 21 H (or D) is 1.11 MeV. Which of the following best describes
the binding energy of this nucleus?
A. 0.556 MeV
B. 1.11 MeV
C. 2.22 MeV
D. 3.33 MeV
releases 1.16 × 10−12 J of energy per carbon nucleus formed. What is the best estimate of the amount of mass
19. Helium fusion occurs in stars where three nuclei of helium fuse to form a carbon nucleus. This process
A. 3.9 × 10−21 kg
lost for each carbon nucleus formed?
B. 1.3 × 10−29 kg
C. 3.9 × 10−29 kg
D. 1.3 × 10−21 kg
20. A radioactive source has 240 000 active nuclei initially. After 32 hours, there are 15 000 active nuclei
remaining. Which of the following best describes the half-life of this source?
A. 2 hours
B. 4 hours
C. 6 hours
D. 8 hours

a. Within a second of the Big Bang, protons and neutrons were formed in equal amounts as the protons
interacted with electrons to form neutrons, which decayed in turn to form protons and electrons. Explain why
within the next few minutes the ratio of neutrons to protons dropped to 1:7. 2 marks
b. Within minutes of the Big Bang, nearly all the neutrons had fused to form helium-4, resulting in helium-4 making
up 25% of the mass in the universe. Provide a detailed explanation of how the mass of helium-4 is 25% that of
the universe. 3 marks
c. It took a further 380 000 years before neutral atoms were formed and the universe became transparent to
electromagnetic radiation. What was the condition that led to the formation of neutral atoms? 1 mark

the activity curve of a sample of americium-241. This sample had an initial strength of 6.0 × 105 Bq.
Americium-241, 241 95A m, is an alpha emitter that is commonly used in smoke detectors. The following graph shows
700 000
600 000
500 000
Activity (Bq)
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Age of source (year)
a. Use the graph to estimate the half-life of americium-241. Outline the two points on the graph that you used to
arrive at your estimate. 2 marks
b. Describe what is meant by the term alpha decay (which occurs to an alpha emitter). 1 mark
c. Americium-241 radioactively decays and its daughter element is neptunium, Np. Write the full decay equation
of americium. 2 marks
Plutonium-239 is a fissile radioisotope which undergoes a fission reaction according to the following equation:
1
0
n + 239
94P u →
134
54X e + 103xZ r + y 10n
a. What is the value of x in the equation? 2 marks
c. Each reaction event results in a mass deficit of 3.1 × 10 kg. What is the amount of energy produced per
b. How many neutrons, y, were produced in each reaction event? 2 marks
−28
reaction event, expressed in MeV? 2 marks
such hadron is found to be made up of three quarks, with a charge of +2.

Particle colliders have been used to create hadrons to study and discern the physics of the early universe. One
a. Is the hadron a meson or a baryon? 1 mark

b. Two of the quarks are known to be up quarks. Which of the following quarks might be the third quark? Justify
your response. 2 marks
Type Charge Type Charge
+ +
2 2
Up (u) Charm (c)
3 3
− −
1 1
Down (d) Bottom (b)
3 3
− +
1 2
Strange (s) Top (t)
3 3

ASSESSMENT TASK – A MODELLING ACTIVITY

In this task, you will be required to explain the origins of
atoms, the nature of subatomic particles and how energy
can be produced by atoms.
• A scientific calculator is permitted for this task.
• Access to a spreadsheet program such as Excel
will assist.
Total time: One lesson to complete the simulation;
50 minutes for the completion of the three listed tasks
(5 minutes reading and 45 minutes writing)
A MODELLING ACTIVITY FOR RADIOACTIVE
SAMPLES
The radioactive decay of a single nucleus is a random
event. However, for a large enough population of identical
radioactive nuclei, the half-life can be found for the sample.
Even a small radioactive sample contains many billions of
nuclei. Thus, the overall pattern of decay will appear quite
ordered with the source getting less intense over time.
1
Dice, when thrown, have a probability of landing with a 6 face up equal to 6 . Like radioactive material, the
outcome of each die, or nucleus, is unpredictable but a large sample will follow an ordered statistical behaviour.
In this experimental assessment task you will produce a radioactive decay curve by simulating the radioactive
decay process using dice. You will analyse this curve to determine the ‘half-life’ of your set of dice. The analogy is
simple. Each trial corresponds to a set interval of time. If a die falls with 6 face up it is said to have decayed. If not,
it is deemed to be still radioactive in the sense that it has not decayed. By recording the number of dice remaining
at the end of each successive trial you will trace the ‘radioactive decay’ of the sample of dice.
Materials
A box of dice, appropriate table (either by paper or on a digital spreadsheet) and graph paper
Method
Firstly, count how many dice you have to start with; a good number would be 50 dice.
Create a table similar to the following. The first row has been done assuming there were 50 dice to begin with.
This table could be completed in a spreadsheet.
Number Number of dice

of trial n remaining in sample
0 50
1
2
1. Toss all the dice randomly.
after the first trial where n = 1.

2. Count the number of 6s in the sample and remove them from the sample. Record the number of dice left
number of dice left after the second trial, this time n = 2.

3. Toss all the remaining dice and count the number of 6s. Again remove them from the sample and record the
4. Repeat this process a further 13 times making a total of 15 trials.

5. If all the dice have been removed before the 15th trial, record the dice remaining in the last trials as 0.
6. Now perform the process another two times to obtain three independent simulations in total. You will need to
make two more columns for your simulation data.

Results and discussion
Task 1
Create a spreadsheet or a table with column B recording the change in the sample size for trials 0 to 15 in your
first simulation.
In columns C and D record the results of your second and third simulations.
In column E obtain the sum of each of the rows in each of the other three simulations to get the total results for
your three simulations.
Task 2
Plot a graph of the total number of dice remaining (summed over three trials (column E)) versus the number of
trials, 1 through 15. Draw a curve of best fit.
Task 3
Answer the following questions related to this investigation.
1. If there are 100 dice and they are tossed, what fraction on average would you expect to land with 6 face up?
2. Consequently, from 100 dice how many would you expect to be removed?
3. How many dice would be left if those dice were removed?
4. From those remaining after the first toss, repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 each time calculating the number of dice
left after those with a face up value of 6 have been removed. Repeat this until there are less than 50 dice
remaining.
5. Use this sequence of numbers (called a geometric sequence) to estimate the half-life.
6. Use your graph of your simulation to estimate the half-life for your population of dice? Ensure you show this
on your graph and identify the result you obtained.
7. Describe how you used your graph to estimate this half-life.
8. What is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material?
10. 1 kilogram of Tc-99 (technetium-99) contains approximately 6.0 × 1024 atoms. The half-life of Tc-99 is 6
9. What happens to the decay rate — that is, the number of atoms decaying — after each half-life. Explain.
hours and it is a beta-emitter. What does the term beta-emitter mean?
(a) 500 grams (3.0 × 1024 atoms)

11. How long would it take for the Tc-99 sample to be reduced to a mass of:
(b) 125 grams (1.5 × 1024 atoms)?

12. Tim has 2 kilograms of Tc-99. It takes 6 hours for the sample to be reduced to 1 kilogram. Tim states that
every 6 hours, 1 kilogram will decay, so after 12 hours no sample will be left. Explain why the statement
made by Tim is incorrect.
13. Compare the processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. Explain why both fusion and fission are
processes that can produce energy.
14. The process of nuclear fusion was fundamental during the development of the universe. Explain how this
process lead to the formation of atoms, with specific reference to atoms and subatomic particles present
during the formation of the universe and early nucleogenesis.
15. There are two types of forces holding the nucleus together: the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear
force. Describe these two forces and identify which is responsible for the decay simulated in this
investigation.
Resources

UNIT 2
WHAT DO EXPERIMENTS
REVEAL ABOUT THE
PHYSICAL WORLD?
In this unit, you will explore the power
of conducting experiments and investigations
to understand and develop models
and theories. This unit allows you to investigate
motion, exploring the effects of balanced
and unbalanced forces both theoretically and
practically. You will conduct further research
in an area of interest, selecting from one
of 12 options. This will allow for an in-depth
application of physics, focusing on topics such
as astrophysics, medical physics and sports
science. You will also conduct a practical
investigation related to the knowledge and
skills developed across Units 1 and 2.
AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME TOPICS

1. How can motion be Investigate, analyse and mathematically model the 9. Analysing motion
described and explained? motion of particles and bodies. 10. Forces in action
11. Energy and motion
2. OPTIONS: Observation of Twelve options are available for selection in Area of Topics 12–23
the physical world Study 2. Each option is based on a different obser-
vation of the physical world. Students are required
to apply and explain concepts for the one option
selected.
3. Practical investigation Design and undertake an investigation of a physics 24. Practical investigation
question related to the scientific inquiry processes
of data collection and analysis, and draw conclu-
sions based on evidence from collected data.
AREA OF STUDY 1
HOW CAN MOTION BE DESCRIBED AND EXPLAINED?
9 Analysing motion
9.1 Overview
9.1.1 Introduction
The study of the motion of objects relies upon an accepted and reliable means for describing and analysing
motion. In this topic you will explore the key quantities used to describe motion, their characteristics and
interrelationships. By the end of this topic you should be able to distinguish between scalar and vector
quantities. You will be able to describe motion in terms of position, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration. You will analyse motion using the most suitable method, including numerical calculations,
estimations, algebraic analysis and graphical analysis. This area of study is often broadly referred to as
kinematics. The skills developed through this topic provide the foundation for studies of the role of forces
and energy in the understanding motion in the topics that follow.
FIGURE 9.1 When driving a vehicle, the driver needs to be aware of their movements in terms of position, speed,
direction and acceleration.
TOPIC 9 Analysing motion 275

KEY KNOWLEDGE
After completing this topic, you will be able to:
• identify parameters of motion as vectors or scalars
• analyse graphically, numerically and algebraically, straight-line motion under constant acceleration:
v = u + at, v2 = u2 + 2as, s = (u + v) t, s = ut + at2 , s = vt −

1 1 1
at2
2 2 2
• graphically analyse non-uniform motion in a straight line.

Resources
9.2 Describing movement

KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify parameters of motion as vectors or scalars.
• Analyse numerically and algebraically, straight-line motion under constant acceleration.
The study of the way in which an object moves is the starting point for developing an understanding of the
nature of forces and their relationship with motion.
9.2.1 Distance and displacement

Distance is a measure of the length of the path taken during the change in position of an object. Distance is
a scalar quantity. It does not specify a direction.
Displacement is a measure of the change in position of an object. Displacement is a vector quantity. In
order to describe a displacement fully, a direction must be specified as well as a magnitude. The path taken
by the fly in figure 9.2 as it escapes the swatter illustrates the difference between distance and displacement.
The displacement of the fly is 60 centimetres to the right, while the distance travelled is well over 1 metre.
In a 100-metre sprint, the runners travel in a straight line, therefore the magnitude of the displacement is
the same as the distance. However, it is the displacement that fully describes the change in position of the
runner because it specifies the direction.

FIGURE 9.2 Distance and displacement are FIGURE 9.3 Runners in the 100-metre sprint travel
different quantities. in a straight line.
The displacement of an object that has moved from position x⃗ 𝟏 to position x⃗ 𝟐 is expressed as:
displacement = change in position

= final position − initial position
Δ x⃗ = x⃗ 𝟐 − x𝟏⃗
Displacement can also be represented by the symbols x⃗ or s ⃗ . (Vectors can be represented using
either bold text or a right arrow.)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A hare and a tortoise decide to have a race along a straight 100-metre stretch of highway. They
both head due north. However, at the 80-metre mark, the hare realises that he dropped his phone
at the 20-metre mark. He dashes back, grabs his phone and resumes the race, arriving at the
finishing line at the same time as the tortoise. (It was a very fast tortoise!)
a. What was the displacement of the hare during the entire race?
b. What was the distance travelled by the hare during the race?
c. What was the distance travelled by the tortoise during the race?
d. What was the displacement of the hare during his return to collect his phone?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the relationship Δx = x2 − x1 . a. Δx = x2 − x1
2. Identify the variables. Using the start as the x1 = 0, x2 = 100 m north
reference point, the displacement was 100 m north.
In symbols, this calculation can be done by
denoting north as positive and south as negative.
3. Substitute into the relationship to find Δx. Δx = 100 − 0
= 100 m north
4. State the solution. The displacement of the hare is
100 metres north.

b. 1. The distance is the length of the path taken. b. The hare travels a total distance of
80 m (before noticing his phone) +
60 m (running back to the 20 m mark)
+ 80 m (from the 20 m mark to the
finishing line).
Distance = 80 + 60 + 80
= 220 m
2. State the solution. The total distance that the hare travels
is 220 metres.
c. 1. The distance travelled by the tortoise is the length c. Length of the path taken = 100 m
of the path taken.
2. State the solution. The tortoise travels a total distance of
100 metres.
d. 1. Recall the relationship Δx = x2 − x1 . d. Δx = x2 − x1
2. The hare returns from a position 80 m north of the = 20 m − 80 m
reference point (or start) back to a position 20 m = −60 m
north of the reference point.
3. State the solution. The displacement is 60 metres south.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A cyclist rides 4 kilometres due west from home, then turns right to ride a further 4 kilometres due
north. She stops, turns back and rides home along the same route.
a. What distance did she travel during the entire ride?
b. What was her displacement at the instant that she turned back?
c. What was her displacement from the instant she commenced her return journey until she
arrived home?
9.2.2 Speed
Speed is a measure of the rate at which an object moves over a distance. When you calculate the speed of
a moving object, you need to measure the distance travelled over a time interval.
The average speed of an object can be calculated by dividing the

distance travelled by the time taken:
distance travelled
average speed =
time interval
The speed obtained using this formula is the average speed during the time interval. Speed is a scalar
quantity as it does not include direction. The unit of speed is m s−1 if SI units are used for distance and
time. However, it is often more convenient to use other units such as cm s−1 or km h−1 .

SNAIL’S PACE
A snail would lose a race with a giant tortoise! A
giant tortoise can reach a top speed of
0.37 km h−1 . However, its ‘cruising’ speed is
about 0.27 km h−1 . The world’s fastest snail
covers ground at the breathtaking speed of
about 0.05 km h−1 . However, the common
garden snail is more likely to move at a speed of
about 0.02 km h−1 . Both of these creatures are
slow compared with light, which travels through
the air at 1080 million km h−1 , and sound, which
travels through the air (at sea level) at about
1200 km h−1 .
How long would it take the snail, giant
tortoise, light and sound respectively to travel
once around the equator, a distance of 40 074 km?
9.2.3 Converting units of speed

It is often necessary to convert units that are not derived from SI units (such as km h−1 ) to and from units
that are derived SI units, such as m s−1 .
TABLE 9.1 Converting units of speed
To convert 60 km h−1 to m s−1 To convert 30 m s−1 to km h−1
60 km 30 m
1h 1s
60 000 m 0.030 km
= =
3600 s 1
h
= 16.7 m s−1 3600
3600 × 0.030 km
=
1h
= 108 km h−1
The speed in km h−1 has been multiplied by The speed in m s−1 has been multiplied by
1000 3600
, or divided by 3.6. , that is, by 3.6.
3600 1000
To quickly convert between speeds in m s−1 and km h−1 you can simply multiply or divide by 3.6
depending on which way you are converting.
÷ 3.6
km h−1 m s−1
× 3.6

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A plane carrying passengers from Melbourne to Perth flies at an average speed of 250 m s−1 . The
flight takes 3 hours. Use this information to determine the approximate distance by air between
Melbourne and Perth.
THINK WRITE
distance travelled
1. Recall the relationship and Average speed =
rearrange to find distance. time interval
Distance travelled = average speed × times time interval
Time interval = 3 h
Average speed = 250 m s−1 × 3.6 to convert to km h−1
( )
2. Identify the values, and convert
into the similar units. = 900 km h−1
Note: Alternatively, the distance
could be calculated in metres and
converted to kilometres. Multiply
the time interval by 3600 to
convert h to s.
3 Substitute into the relationship to Distance travelled = 900 km h−1 × 3 h
find distance. = 2700 km
4 State the solution. The approximate distance by air between Melbourne
and Perth is 2700 kilometres.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
A car takes 8 hours to travel from Canberra to Ballarat at an average speed of 25 m s−1 . What is the
road distance from Canberra to Ballarat?
9.2.4 Velocity
In everyday language, the word velocity is often used to mean the same thing as speed. In fact, velocity
is not the same quantity as speed; velocity is a measure of the rate of displacement, or rate of change
in position, of an object. Because displacement is a vector quantity, velocity is also a vector quantity.
The velocity has the same direction as the displacement. The symbol v is used to denote velocity.
(Unfortunately, the symbol v is often used to represent speed as well, which can be confusing.) To make
a distinction between vectors and scalars, this text mostly displays vector symbols in bold. When bold
can’t be used to distinguish a vector (for example, in( the
) following(pink
) box or when writing by hand), it
is common practice to place a vector symbol above v ⃗ or below v⃯ vector quantities.
The average velocity of an object, v ⃗av , during a time interval t can be expressed as:
∆ x⃗
⃗ =
vav
∆t
where ∆ x⃗ represents the displacement (change in position).

For motion in a straight line in one direction, the magnitude of the velocity is the same as the speed.
The motion of the fly in figure 9.4 illustrates the difference between velocity and speed. If the fly takes 2
seconds to complete its flight, its average velocity is:
∆x FIGURE 9.4 When motion is not in a straight line, in
vav =
∆t one direction, velocity is different to speed.
60 cm to the right
=
2s
= 60 cm s−1 to the right
The path taken by the fly is about 180 cm. Its

average speed is:
Displacement
distance travelled Start Finish
average speed =
time travelled 60 cm
180 cm
=
2s
= 90 cm s−1
Resources
Digital document Investigation 9.1 Going home (doc-31874)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Calculate the (a) average speed and (b) average velocity of the hare in Sample problem 1 if it
takes 20 seconds to complete the race.
THINK WRITE
distance travelled
a. 1. Recall the relationship. a. Average speed =
time interval
2. Identify the values. Distance travelled = 220 m
Time interval = 20 s
220 m
3. Substitute into the relationship to find the Average speed =
average speed. 20 s
= 11 m s−1
4. State the solution. The average speed of the hare is 11 m s–1 .
Δx
b. 1. Recall the relationship. b. Average velocity: vav =
Δt
2. Identify the values. Displacement = 100 m north
Time interval = 20 s
100 m north
3. Substitute into the relationship to find vav . vav =
20 s
= 5.0 m s−1 north
4. State the solution. The average velocity of the hare is
5 m s–1 north.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
During the final 4.2-kilometre run stage of a triathlon, a participant runs 2.8 kilometres east, then
changes direction to run a further 1.4 kilometres in the opposite direction, completing the stage in
20 minutes. What was the participant’s:
a. average speed
b. average velocity?
Express both answers in m s−1 to two significant figures.
9.2.5 Instantaneous speed and velocity

Neither the average speed nor the average velocity provide information about movement at any particular
instant of time. For example, when Jamaican athlete Usain Bolt broke the 100-metre world record in 2009
with a time of 9.58 seconds, his average speed was 10.4 m s−1 . However, he was not travelling at that speed
throughout his run. He would have taken a short time to reach his maximum speed and would not have been
able to maintain it throughout the run. His maximum speed would have been much more than 10.4 m s−1 .
FIGURE 9.5 During his 100-metre world record in 2009, Usain Bolt’s average speed was 10.4 m s−1 .
The speed at any particular instant of time is called the instantaneous speed. The velocity at any
particular instant of time is, not surprisingly, called the instantaneous velocity. If an object moves with a
constant velocity during a time interval, its instantaneous velocity throughout the interval is the same as its
average velocity.

9.2.6 Acceleration
When the velocity of an object changes, it is helpful to describe it in terms of the rate at which the velocity
is changing. In everyday language, the word accelerate is used to mean ‘speed up’. The word decelerate
is used to mean ‘slow down’. However, if you wish to describe motion precisely, these words are not
adequate. The rate at which an object changes its velocity is called its acceleration. Acceleration is a
vector quantity.
A car starting from rest and reaching a velocity of 60 km h−1 north in 5 seconds has an average
acceleration of 12 km h−1 per second or 12 (km h−1 )s−1 north. This is expressed in words as 12 km per
hour per second. In simple terms, it means that the car increases its speed in a northerly direction by an
average of 12 km h−1 each second.
The average acceleration of an object, a⃗ av , can be expressed as:
∆v⃗
⃗ =
aav
∆t
The change in velocity during the time interval ∆t can be expressed as:
∆ v ⃗ = final velocity − initial velocity
This is commonly also written as:

∆ v ⃗ = v ⃗ − u⃗
The direction of the average acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in velocity.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Spiro leaves home on his bicycle to post a letter. He starts from rest and reaches a speed of
10 m s−1 in 4 seconds. He then cycles at a constant speed in a straight line to a letterbox. He
brakes at the letterbox, coming to a stop in 2 seconds, posts the letter and returns home at a
constant speed of 8 m s−1 . On reaching home he brakes, coming to rest in 2 seconds. The
direction away from home towards the letterbox is assigned as positive.
a. What is Spiro’s average acceleration before he reaches his ‘cruising speed’ of 10 m s−1 on the
way to the letterbox?
b. What is Spiro’s average acceleration as he brakes at the letterbox?
c. What is Spiro’s average acceleration as he brakes when arriving home?
d. During which two parts of the trip is Spiro’s acceleration negative?
e. Does a positive acceleration always mean that the speed is increasing? Explain.
THINK WRITE
Δv
a. 1. Recall the relationship. a. Average acceleration: aav =
Δt
2. Identify the values. Δv = 10 m s−1
Δt = 4 s
10 m s−1
3. Substitute into the relationship to find the Average acceleration =
average acceleration. 4s
= 2.5 m s−2

4. State the solution. Spiro’s average acceleration on his journey
to cruising speed is 2.5 m s−2 towards the
letterbox.
Δv
b. 1. Recall the relationship. b. Average acceleration: aav =
Δt
2. Identify the values. Δv = −10 m s−1
Δt = 2 s
−10 m s−1
average acceleration. 2s
= −5 m s−2
4. State the solution. Spiro’s average acceleration when braking
at the letterbox is 5 m s−2 away from the
letterbox.
Δv
c. 1. Recall the relationship. c. Average acceleration: aav =
Δt
2. Identify the values. Δv = 8 m s−1
Δt = 2 s
8 m s−1
average acceleration. 2 s
= 4 m s−2
4. State the solution. Spiro’s average acceleration when braking
at the end of his journey is 4 m s−2
towards the letterbox.
d. 1. Recall the positive and negative directions. d. Positive direction is away from the house,
negative direction is towards the house.
2. Acceleration is negative when the velocity in The two sections of the trip where
the direction towards the house is increasing. acceleration is negative are braking at the
letterbox and accelerating back towards
home from the letterbox.
e. 1. Recall the definition of acceleration. e. Acceleration is equal to change in
velocity.
2. As speed does not take into account direction, A decreasing speed in the negative
an increasing speed does not necessarily equate direction is a positive change in velocity,
to a positive acceleration. and hence a positive acceleration.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. A cheetah (the fastest land animal) takes 2 seconds to reach its maximum speed of 30 m s−1 .
What is the magnitude of its average acceleration?
b. A drag-racing car reaches a speed of 420 km h−1 from a standing start in 6 seconds. What is
its average acceleration in:
i. km h−1 s−1
ii. m s−2 ?

CHANGING DIRECTION
A non-zero acceleration does not always result from a change in speed. Consider a car travelling at 60 km h−1
in a northerly direction turning right and continuing in an easterly direction at the same speed. Assume that the
complete turn takes 10 seconds. The average acceleration during the time interval of 10 seconds is given by:
∆v
aav = FIGURE 9.6 A change
∆t
in acceleration can
The change in velocity must be determined first. Thus: occur even if there is
no change in speed.
∆v = v − u
= v + −u u
The vectors v and −u are added together to give the resulting change in 60 km h−1 north
velocity.
The magnitude of the change in velocity is calculated using Pythagoras’
theorem or trigonometric ratios to be 85 km h−1 . Alternatively, the vectors v
can be added using a scale drawing and then measuring the magnitude and 60 km h−1 east
direction of the sum. The direction of the change in velocity can be seen in v
figure 9.6 to be south-east. 45°
∆v −u
aav = Δv
∆t 45° 60 km h−1
85 km h−1 south-east south
=
10 s Δv = v + (−u)
= 8.5 km h−1 s−1 south-east N
In fact, the direction of the average acceleration is the same as the direction
of the average net force on the car during the 10-second interval. The steering W E
wheel is used to turn the wheels to cause the net force to be in this direction.
9.2 EXERCISE
1. State whether each of the following is a vector quantity or a scalar quantity.
(a) Distance
(b) Displacement
(c) Speed
(d) Velocity
(e) Acceleration
2. The speed limit on Melbourne’s suburban freeways is 100 km h−1 . Express this speed in m s−1 .
3. Leisel Jones’s average speed while swimming a 100-metre breaststroke race is about 1.5 m s−1 . Calculate
what her average speed would be in km h−1 .
4. The speed limit on US freeways is 55 miles per hour. One mile is approximately 1.6 km. Express this
speed in:
(a) km h−1
(b) m s−1 .
5. A jogger heads due north from his home and runs 400 metres along a straight footpath before realising he
has forgotten his sunscreen and runs straight back to get it.
(a) What distance has the jogger travelled by the time he gets back home?
(b) What was the displacement of the jogger when he started to run back home?
(c) What was his displacement when he arrived back home to pick up the sunscreen?

6. The world records for some women’s track events (as at early 2019) are listed in the table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 World records for women’s track events
Athlete Event Time
Florence Griffith Joyner (USA) 100 m 10.49 s
Florence Griffith Joyner (USA) 200 m 21.34 s
Marita Koch (German Democratic Republic) 400 m 47.60 s
Jarmilia Kratochvilova (Czechoslovakia) 800 m 1 min 53.28 s
Genzebe Dibaba (Ethiopia) 1 500 m 3 min 50.07 s
Wang Junxia (China) 3 000 m 8 min 06.11 s
Tirunesh Dibaba (Ethiopia) 5 000 m 14 min 11.15 s
Almaz Ayana (Ethiopia) 10 000 m 29 min 17.45 s
(a) Calculate the average speed (to three significant figures) of each of the athletes listed in the table.
(b) Why is there so little difference between the average speeds of the world-record holders of the
100-metre and 200-metre events despite the doubling of the distance?
(c) How long would it take Genzebe Dibaba to complete the marathon if she could maintain her average
speed during the 1500-metre event for the entire 42.2 km course? (The world record for the women’s
marathon, set on 13 April 2003, is 2 h 15 min 25 s.)
(d) Which of the athletes in table 9.2 has an average speed that is the same as the magnitude of her
average velocity? Explain.
7. (a) A jogger takes 30 minutes to cover a distance of 5 km. What is the jogger’s average speed in:
i. km h−1
ii. m s−1 ?
(b) How long does it take for a car travelling 60 km h−1 to cover a distance of 200 metres?
8. In 2018, cyclist Chloe Dygert, of the USA, set a world record of 3 min, 20.060 seconds for the 3000-metre
pursuit.
(a) What was her average speed?
(b) How long would it take her to cycle from Melbourne to Bendigo, a distance of 151 km, if she could
maintain her 3000-metre pursuit average speed for the whole distance?
(c) How long does it take a car to travel from Melbourne to Bendigo if its average speed is 80 km h−1 ?
(d) A car travels from Melbourne to Bendigo and back to Melbourne in 4 hours.
i. What is its average speed?
ii. What is its average velocity?
9. Once upon a time, a giant tortoise had a bet with a hare that she could beat him in a foot race over a
distance of 1 kilometre. The giant tortoise can reach a speed of about 7.5 cm s−1 . The hare can run as fast
as 20 m s−1 . Both animals ran at their maximum speeds during the race. However, the hare was a rather
arrogant creature and decided to have a little nap along the way. How long did the hare sleep if the result
was a tie?
10. An unfit Year 11 student arrives at school late and attempts to run from the front gate of the school to the
physics laboratory. He runs the first 120 metres at an average speed of 6 m s−1 , the next 120 metres at an
average speed of 4 m s−1 and the final 120 metres at an average speed of 2 m s−1 . What was the student’s
average speed during his attempt to arrive at his class on time?
11. While on holidays, a physics teacher drives her old Volkswagen from Melbourne to Wodonga, a distance of
300 kilometres. Her average speed was 80 km h−1 . She trades in her old Volkswagen and purchases a
brand-new Toyota Prius. She proudly drives her new car back home to Melbourne at an average speed of
100 km h−1 .
Calculate the average speed for the entire journey and explain any difference between the predicted and
calculated average speed.

12. Determine (i) the change in speed and (ii) the change in velocity of each of the following situations.
(a) The driver of a car heading north along a freeway at 100 km h−1 slows down to 60 km h−1 as the traffic
gets heavier.
(b) A fielder catches a cricket ball travelling towards him at 20 m s−1 .
(c) A tennis ball travelling at 25 m s−1 is returned directly back to the server at a speed of 30 m s−1 .
13. A car travelling east at a speed of 10 m s−1 turns left to head south at the same speed. Has the car
undergone an acceleration? Explain your answer with the aid of a diagram.
14. Estimate the acceleration of a car in m s−2 as it resumes its journey through the suburbs after stopping at
traffic lights.
15. Use the data in table 9.2 (question 5) to help you estimate the average acceleration of a world-class
100-metre sprinter at the beginning of a race.
9.3 Analysing motion graphically

KEY CONCEPTS
• Analyse graphically, numerically and algebraically, straight-line motion under constant acceleration.
• Graphically analyse non-uniform motion in a straight line.
The motion of an object often varies with time. To help analyse the motion of objects it can be very useful
to construct graphs of the characteristics of that motion against time.
9.3.1 Position-versus-time graphs

Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam decide to race each other on foot over a distance of 100 metres. They run due
west. Timekeepers are instructed to record the position of each runner after each 3-second interval.
TABLE 9.3 The progress of Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam
Position (distance from starting line) in metres
Time (seconds) Bolter Beryl Steady Sam
0.0 0 0
3.0 43 20
6.0 64 40
9.0 78 60
12.0 90 80
15.0 100 100

FIGURE 9.7 The position-versus-time graph of the race provides valuable information about the motion of the
two runners.
100
80
Position (m) west
yl
60
er
rB
lte
Bo
m
Sa
dy
40
ea
St
20
0
3 6 9 12 15
Time (s)
The points indicating Bolter Beryl’s position after each 3-second interval are joined with a smooth curve.
It is reasonable to assume that her velocity changes gradually throughout the race.
A number of observations can be made from the graph of position versus time.
• Both runners reach the finish at the same time. The result is a dead heat. Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam
each have the same average speed and the same average velocity.
• Steady Sam, who has an exceptional talent for steady movement, maintains a constant velocity
throughout the race. In fact, his instantaneous velocity at every instant throughout the race is the same
as his average velocity. Steady Sam’s average velocity and instantaneous velocity are both equal to the
gradient of the position-versus-time graph since:
∆x
vav =
∆t
100 m west
vav =
15 s
rise
vav =
run
vav = gradient
Steady Sam’s velocity throughout the race is 6.7 m s−1 west.

• Bolter Beryl, in her usual style, makes a flying start; however, after her initial ‘burst’, her instantaneous
velocity decreases throughout the race as she tires. Her average velocity is also 6.7 m s−1 west.
A more detailed description of Bolter Beryl’s motion can be given by calculating her average velocity
during each 3-second interval of the race (see table 9.4).

TABLE 9.4 Bolter Beryl’s changing velocity
Time interval (s) Displacement Δx⃗ Average velocity during interval

(m west) Δx ⃗ (
v⃗av =
)
m s−1 west
Δt
0.0−3.0 43 − 0 = 43 14.0
3.0−6.0 64 − 43 = 21 7.0
6.0−9.0 78 − 64 = 14 4.7
9.0−12.0 90 − 78 = 12 4.0
12.0−15.0 100 − 90 = 10 3.3
The average velocity during each interval is the same as the gradient of the straight line joining the data
points representing the beginning and end of the interval. An even more detailed description of Bolter
Beryl’s run could be obtained if the race was divided into, say, 100 time intervals. The average velocity
during each time interval (and the gradient of the line joining the data points defining it) would be a very
good estimate of the instantaneous velocity in the middle of the interval. In fact, if the race is progressively
divided into smaller and smaller time intervals, the average velocity during each interval would become
closer and closer to the instantaneous velocity in the middle of the interval.
The gradient of the tangent of a position-versus-time graph

gives the instantaneous velocity of the object.
Figure 9.8 shows how this process of using smaller time intervals can be used to find Bolter Beryl’s
instantaneous velocity at an instant 4 seconds from the start of the race.
Bolter Beryl’s instantaneous
velocity is not the same as the average FIGURE 9.8 The first 9 seconds of Bolter Beryl’s run
velocity during the 3-second to
6-second time interval shown in table Tangent
9.4. However, it can be estimated by Q

drawing the line AD and finding its
gradient. The gradient of the line BC 80
would provide an even better estimate

of the instantaneous velocity. If you
continue this process of decreasing
Position (m) west
60 C D
the time interval used to estimate
the instantaneous velocity, you will
eventually obtain a line which is a B
tangent to the curve. The gradient of 40
the tangent to the curve is equal to the P
instantaneous velocity at the instant A

represented by the point at which it
meets the curve. 20
The gradient of the tangent to the
curve at 4 seconds in figure 9.8 can
be determined by using the points
P and Q. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (s)

rise
gradient =
run
(84 − 36) m
=
(8 − 2) s
48 m
=
6s
= 8 m s−1
Bolter Beryl’s instantaneous velocity at 4 seconds from the start of the race is therefore 8 m s−1 west.
Just as the gradient of a position-versus-time graph can be used to determine the velocity of an object,
a graph of distance versus time can be used to determine its speed. Because Bolter Beryl and Steady
Sam were running in a straight line and in one direction only, their distance from the starting point is the
magnitude of their change in position. Their speed is equal to the magnitude of their velocity.
The gradient of the tangent of a distance-versus-time graph

gives the instantaneous speed of the object.
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Numerical model of motion 1: finding speed from position-time data (doc-0048)
9.3.2 Velocity-versus-time graphs

The race between Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam described by the position-versus-time graph in figure 9.7
can also be described by a graph of velocity versus time. Steady Sam’s velocity is 6.7 m s−1 due west
throughout the race. The curve describing Bolter Beryl’s motion can be plotted by determining the
instantaneous velocity at various times during the race.
This can be done by drawing tangents at a number of FIGURE 9.9 Velocity-versus-time graph for
the race
points on the position-versus-time graph in figure 9.7.
Table 9.5 shows the data obtained using this method.
The velocity-versus-time graph in figure 9.9 describes
20
the motion of Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam.
TABLE 9.5 Beryl’s velocity during the race

Velocity (m s−1 west)
15
Time (s) Velocity (m s−1 west)
0.0 18.0
2.0 12.0 ‘Bolter’ Beryl
10
4.0 8.0
6.0 5.4 ‘Steady’ Sam
8.0 4.7 5
10.0 4.2
12.0 3.5
14.0 3.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)

The velocity-versus-time graph confirms what you already knew by looking at the position-versus-time
graph, namely that:
• Steady Sam’s velocity is constant and equal to his average velocity
• the magnitude of Bolter Beryl’s velocity is decreasing throughout the race.
The velocity-versus-time graph allows you to estimate the velocity of each runner at any time. It provides
a much clearer picture of the way that Bolter Beryl’s velocity changes during the race, namely that:
• the magnitude of her velocity decreases rapidly at first, but less rapidly towards the end of the race
• for most of the duration of the race, she is running more slowly than Sam. In fact Bolter Beryl’s speed
(the magnitude of her velocity) drops below that of Steady Sam’s after only 4.7 seconds.
Displacement from a velocity-versus-time graph

In the absence of a position-versus-time graph, a velocity-versus-time graph provides useful information
about the change in position, or displacement, of an object. Steady Sam’s constant velocity, the same as his
average velocity, makes it very easy to determine his displacement during the race.
∆x
( )
∆x = vav ∆t since vav =
∆t
−1
∆x = 6.7 m s west × 15 s
∆x = 100 m west
This displacement is equal to the area of the rectangle under the graph depicting Steady Sam’s motion.
area = length × width
= 15 s × 6.7 m s−1 west
= 100 m west
Because the race was a dead heat, Bolter Beryl’s average velocity was also 6.7 m s−1 . Her displacement
during the race can be calculated in the same way as Steady Sam’s.
∆x = vav ∆t
= 6.7 m s−1 × 15 s
= 100 m west
However, Bolter Beryl’s displacement can also be found by calculating the area under the velocity-
versus-time graph depicting her motion. This can be done by ‘counting squares’ or by dividing the area
under the graph into rectangles and triangles. The area under Beryl’s velocity-versus-time graph is, not
surprisingly, 100 metres.
In fact, the area under any part of the velocity-versus-time graph is equal to the displacement during the
interval represented by that part.
The area under a velocity-versus-time graph gives the displacement (or change in position)
of the object during that time interval. To determine the position of the object you must
know its starting position.
Note: If the velocity-versus-time graph is in the negative velocity range, you can get a negative value for
the area. Although this may seem counterintuitive, it indicates a negative displacement.
The area under a speed-versus-time graph gives the distance travelled by the object during
that time interval.

CALCULATING THE AREA UNDER A GRAPH WITH TIME INTERVALS
When an object travels with a constant velocity, it is obvious that the displacement of the object is equal to
the area under a velocity-versus-time graph of its motion. However, it is not so obvious when the motion is not
constant. The graphs below describe the motion of an object that has an increasing velocity. The motion of the
object can be approximated by dividing it into time intervals of ∆t and assuming that the velocity during each
time interval is constant. The approximate displacement during each time interval is equal to ∆ x = vav ∆t, which
is the same as the area under each rectangle. The approximate total displacement is therefore equal to the total
area of the rectangles.
FIGURE 9.10 By dividing the velocity-versus-time graph into rectangles representing small time intervals,
the displacement can be estimated.
Velocity (m s−1)
Velocity (m s−1)
Velocity (m s−1)
Velocity (m s−1)
etc.
Δt
0 0 0 0
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
To better approximate the displacement, the graph can be divided into smaller time intervals. The total area of
the rectangles is approximately equal to the displacement. By dividing the graph into even smaller time intervals,
even better estimates of the displacement can be made. In fact, by continuing the process of dividing the graph
into smaller and smaller time intervals, it can be seen that the displacement is, in fact, equal to the area under
the graph.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
At what time in the race between Bolter Beryl and Steady Sam did Bolter Beryl’s speed drop
below Steady Sam’s speed? What is Steady Sam’s displacement at this point in time?
THINK WRITE
1. See the velocity-versus-time graph (figure 9.9) to The time at which Bolter Beryl’s
determine when Bolter Beryl’s speed dropped speed dropped below Steady Sam’s is
below Steady Sam’s. approximately 4.7 seconds.
2. Determine Steady Sam’s displacement by Area under the graph = 4.7 × 6.7
calculating the area under the graph. = 3.1 m
Steady Sam’s displacement was 31
metres at 4.7 seconds.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
The following graph is of a section of figure 9.9 showing the first 4.7 seconds of Bolter Beryl’s motion.
20
Bolter Beryl
15
Velocity (m s−1 west)
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
a. Estimate Bolter Beryl’s displacement after 2 seconds.

b. At 4.7 seconds into the race, determine how far ahead Bolter Beryl was of Steady Sam
(whose velocity was a constant 6.7 m s–1 ).
Acceleration from a velocity-versus-time graph

The graph in figure 9.11 describes the motion of an elevator as it moves from the ground floor to the
top floor and back down again. The elevator stops briefly at the top floor to pick up a passenger. For
convenience, any upward displacement from the ground floor is defined as positive. The graph has been
divided into seven sections labelled A to G.
Finding the acceleration
The acceleration at any instant during the motion can be determined by calculating the gradient of the
graph. This is a consequence of the definition of acceleration. The gradient of a velocity-versus-time
graph is a measure of the rate of change of velocity just as the gradient of a position-versus-time graph is
a measure of the rate of change of position.
The gradient of a velocity-versus-time graph gives the acceleration of the object.
Throughout interval A (see figure 9.11), the acceleration, a, of the elevator is:
rise
a=
run
+8.0 m s−1
=
5.0 s
= +1.6 m s−2 or 1.6 m s−2 up

FIGURE 9.11 The motion of an elevator
15
10
B
A C
5
Velocity (m s−1)
D
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Time (s)
−5
E G
−10
F
−15
During intervals B, D and F, the velocity is constant and the gradient of the graph is zero. The
acceleration during each of these intervals is, therefore, zero.
Throughout interval C, the acceleration is:
−8.0 m s−1
a=
2.5 s
= −3.2 m s−2 or 3.2 m s−2 down
Throughout interval E, the acceleration is:
−12 m s−1
a=
2.5 s
= −4.8 m s−2 or 4.8 m s−2 down
Throughout interval G, the acceleration is:

+12 m s−1
a=
5.0 s
= +2.4 m s−2 or 2.4 m s−2 up
Notice that during interval G the acceleration is positive (up) while the velocity of the elevator is
negative (down). The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in velocity.
Finding the displacement

As explained previously, the area under the graph is equal to the displacement of the elevator. Dividing the
area into triangles and rectangles and working from left to right yields an area of:

Area = × 5.0 s × 8.0 m s −1
+ 12.5 s × 8.0 m s −1
+ × 2.5 s × 8.0 m s −1
+
1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
× 2.5 s × −12 m s−1 + 7.5 s × −12 m s−1 + × 5.0 s × −12 m s−1
1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
= 20 m + 100 m + 10 m − 15 m − 90 m − 30 m
2 2
= −5 m
This represents a downwards displacement of 5 metres, which is consistent with the elevator finally
stopping two floors below the ground floor.
Resources
Digital documents. eModelling: Numerical model of motion 2. Finding position from speed–time data (doc-0049)
Investigation 9.2 Let’s play around with some graphs (doc-31875)
eModelling: Numerical model for acceleration (doc-0050)
Video eLessons Motion with constant acceleration (eles-0030)
Ball toss (eles-0031)
Teacher-led video Investigation 9.2 Let’s play around with some graphs (tlvd-0820)
9.3.3 Acceleration-versus-time graphs

The graph in figure 9.12 represents the acceleration of the elevator described in the previous section.
FIGURE 9.12 An acceleration-versus-time graph for the elevator
4.8
4.0
3.2
2.4
G
1.6
Acceleration (m s−2 )
A
0.8
B D F
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Time (s)
−0.8
−1.6
−2.4
C
−3.2
−4.0
E
−4.8

The area under an acceleration-versus-time graph gives the change in
velocity of the object during that time interval. To determine the
velocity of the object you must know its starting velocity.
Just as the area under a velocity-versus-time graph is equal to the change in position of an object, the area
under an acceleration-versus-time graph is equal to the change in velocity of an object. The area under the
part of the graph representing the entire upwards part of the journey is given by:
Area A + Area B + Area C = 5.0 s × 1.6 m s−2 + 0 + 2.5 s × −3.2 m s−2

= + 8.0 m s−1 + −8.0 m s−1
=0
This indicates that change in velocity during the upward journey is zero. This is consistent with the fact
that the elevator starts from rest and is at rest when it reaches the top floor. Similarly, the area under the
whole graph is zero.
The change in velocity during intervals C, D and E is given by the sum of areas C, D and E. Thus:
Area C + Area D + Area E = 2.5 s × −3.2 m s−2 + 0 + 2.5 s × −4.8 m s−2

( ) ( )
= 8.0 m s−1 + −12 m s−1

= −20 m s−1
The change in velocity is −20 m s−1 , or 20 m s−1 down.

At the beginning of time interval C, the velocity was 8 m s−1 upwards. A change of velocity of
−20 m s−1 would result in a velocity at the end of interval E of 12 m s−1 downwards. This is consistent
with the description of the motion in the velocity-versus-time graph in figure 9.11.
The change in velocity during interval G is 5 s × 2.4 m s−1 , or 12 m s−1 upwards, which is consistent
with the elevator coming to rest at the end of its journey.
9.3.4 Working with motion graphs

Position-versus-time graphs
• The instantaneous velocity of an object can be obtained from a graph of the object’s position versus
time by determining the gradient of the curve at the point representing that instant. This is a direct
consequence of the fact that velocity is a measure of the rate of change of position.
• Similarly, the instantaneous speed of an object can be obtained by determining the gradient of a graph
of the object’s distance travelled from a reference point versus time.
Velocity-versus-time graphs
• The displacement of an object during a time interval can be obtained by determining the area under the
velocity-versus-time graph representing that time interval. The actual position of an object at any
instant during the time interval can be found only if the starting position is known.
• Similarly, the distance travelled by an object during a time interval can be obtained by determining the
corresponding area under the speed-versus-time graph for the object.
• The instantaneous acceleration of an object can be obtained from a graph of the object’s velocity
versus time by determining the gradient of the curve at the point representing that instant. This is a
direct consequence of the fact that acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration-versus-time graphs
• The change in velocity of an object during a time interval can be obtained by determining the area
under the acceleration-versus-time graph representing that time interval. The actual velocity of the
object can be found at any instant during the time interval only if the initial velocity is known.

TABLE 9.6 Summary of motion graphs
Position-versus- Velocity-versus- Acceleration-
time graphs time graphs versus-
time graphs
Quantities that you can Horizontal axis Time Time Time
read directly from the graph Vertical axis Position Velocity Acceleration
Quantities that you can Gradient of Instantaneous Instantaneous
calculate from the graph tangent velocity acceleration
Area under the Change in position Change in velocity
graph (displacement)
Resources
Digital document Investigation 9.3: On your bike or on your own two feet (doc-31876)
Weblink Constant acceleration app
9.3 EXERCISE
1. The position-versus-time graph shown describes the motion of five
Position
different objects, labelled A to E.
(a) Which two objects start from the same position, but at different times?
A B
(b) Which two objects start at the same position at the same time? C
(c) Which two objects are travelling at the same speed as each other, but
with different velocities? D
(d) Which two objects are moving towards each other for the whole period
shown on the graph? Time
(e) Which of the five objects has the lowest speed?
2. (a) Describe in words the motion shown A B C

for each of scenarios A, B and C
x x x
shown on the right.
(b) Copy the incomplete graphs for each
scenario into your workbooks and
then complete each graph.
0 t 0 0
v v v
0 0 0
t
a a a
0 0 0
t

3. Sketch a velocity-versus-time graph to illustrate the motion described in each of the following situations.
(a) A bicycle is pedalled steadily along a road. The cyclist stops pedalling and allows the bicycle to come
to a stop.
(b) A parachutist jumps out of a plane and opens his parachute midway through the fall to the ground.
(c) A ball is thrown straight up into the air and is caught at the same height from which it was
thrown.
4. Sketch a position-versus-time graph for each scenario in question 3.
5. The graph in the following figure is a record of the straight-line motion of a skateboard rider during an
80-second time interval. The time interval has been divided into sections labelled A to E.
The skateboarder initially moves north from the starting point.
(a) During which section of the Position (m)
interval was the skateboard
rider stationary?
(b) During which sections of the interval 80
was the skateboarder travelling
north? 60
(c) At what instant did the skateboard
rider first move back towards the 40
starting line?
(d) What was the displacement of the 20
skateboarder during the 80-second C D
Starting 0
interval? point 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Time (s)
(e) What distance did the skateboarder A B
travel during the 80-second interval? −20
E
(f) During which section of the interval
was the skateboard rider speeding up? −40
(g) During which section of the interval
was the skateboard rider slowing down?
(h) What was the skateboarder’s average speed during the entire 80-second interval?
(i) What was the velocity of the skateboarder throughout section C?
(j) Estimate the velocity of the skateboarder 65 seconds into the interval.
6. The figure that follows is a record of the motion of a battery-operated toy robot during an 80-second time
interval. The interval has been divided into sections labelled A to G.
(a) During which sections is the Velocity (m s−1)
acceleration of the toy robot
zero?
(b) What is the displacement of the 1.0
toy robot during the 80-second
interval? 0.75
(c) What is the average velocity of
the toy robot during the entire 0.50
interval?
(d) At what instant did the toy robot 0.25
first reverse direction? C D E F G
Starting 0
(e) At what instant did the toy robot
point 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Time (s)
first return to its starting point? A B
(f) During which intervals did the toy −0.25
robot have a negative acceleration?
(g) During which intervals did the toy −0.50
robot decrease its speed?
(h) Explain why your answers to (f) and (g) −0.75
are different from each other.
(i) What is the acceleration of the toy robot −1.0
throughout section E?
(j) What is the average acceleration during
the first 20 seconds?
(k) Describe the motion of the toy robot in words.

7. The figure that follows compares the straight-line motion of a
jet ski and a car as they each accelerate from an initial
speed of 5 m s−1 . 6
Acceleration (m s−2)
(a) Which is first to reach a constant speed — the jet
ski or the car — and when does this occur?
(b) What is the final speed of:
i. the jet ski 4
Ca
ii. the car?
r
(c) Draw a speed-versus-time graph describing the motion of Je
either the jet ski or the car. ts
2 ki
To answer practice exam questions online and to receive immediate

feedback and sample responses for every question go to your learnON 0
title at www.jacplus.com.au. 2 4 6 8 10
studyON: Practice exam questions Time (s)
9.4 Equations for constant acceleration

KEY CONCEPT
• Analyse numerically and algebraically, straight-line motion under constant acceleration.
In the absence of a graphical representation, a number of formulae can be used to describe straight-line
motion as long as the acceleration is constant. These formulae are expressed in terms of the quantities used
to describe such motion. The terms are:
• initial velocity, u
• final velocity, v
• acceleration, a
• time interval, t
• displacement, s.
Because the formulae describe motion along a straight line, vector notation is not necessary. The
displacement, velocity and acceleration can be expressed as positive or negative quantities.
9.4.1 Deriving the equations algebraically
The first formula is found by restating the definition of acceleration.
∆v
a=
∆t
Where:
∆v = the change in velocity
∆t = the time interval.
Thus:
v−u
a=
t
⇒ v − u = at
⇒ v = u + at [1]

The second formula is found by restating the definition of average velocity.
∆s
vav =
∆t
∆s = the change in position.

Where:
But:
u+v
vav =
2
Thus:
u+v
=
s
2 t
⇒ s = (u + v) t
1
[2]
2
Three more formulae are obtained by combining formulae [1] and [2].
s= (u + u + at) t (substituting v = u + at from formula [1] into formula [2])

1
2
= (2u + at) t
1
2
= u + at t
1
( )
2
⇒ s = ut + at
1 2
[3]
2
s= (v − at + v) t (substituting u = v − at from formula [1] into formula [2])

1
2
= (2v − at) t
1
2
= v − at t
1
( )
2
⇒ s = vt − at
1 2
[4]
2
A final formula can be found by eliminating t from formula [2].
s= (u + v) t
1
(formula [2])
2
But:
v−u
t= . (rearranging formula [1])
a

1 v−u
( )
⇒ s = (u + v)
2 a
1 v2 − u2
= (expanding the difference of two squares)
2 a
⇒ 2as = v2 − u2
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2as [5]
In summary, the formulae for straight-line motion under

constant acceleration are:
v = u + at [1]
1
s= (u + v) t [2]
2
1
s = ut + at2 [3]
2
1
s = vt − at2 [4]
2
v2 = u2 + 2as [5]
9.4.2 Deriving the equations graphically

Each of the five formulae derived here allow you to
FIGURE 9.13 A velocity-versus-time
determine an unknown characteristic of straight-line motion graph for an object travelling in a straight
with a constant acceleration as long as you know three line with constant acceleration
other characteristics. Although the formulae have not been
derived from graphs, they are entirely consistent with a
C D
graphical approach. vf
acceleration = gradient of velocity-versus-time graph

rise
=
run
Velocity
v−u v−u
=
t
v−u
⇒ a=
t B E
ui
⇒ v = u + at [1]
A F
displacement = area under graph t Time
= area of trapezium ABDF
1
= (u + v) t [2]
2

displacement = area under graph
= area of rectangle ABEF + area of triangle BDE
1
= ut + t × at (v − u = at from [1])
2
1
= ut + at2 [3]
2
displacement = area under graph

= area of rectangle ACDF − area of triangle BCD
1
= vt − × t × at (v − u = at from [1])
2
1
= vt − at2 [4]
2
Formula [5] can be derived by combining formula [1] with any of formulae [2], [3] or [4].
9.4.3 Problem-solving steps

The following steps may help you when solving problems using the constant acceleration equations.
1. Sketch the situation.
2. Identify known quantities (converting to consistent units if necessary).
3. Identify the quantity to be determined.
4. Select an appropriate formula.
5. Substitute values and solve.
It is possible to rearrange each of the equations to make different variables the subject. Table 9.7
summarises all possible versions of the equations and may be useful when solving problems.
TABLE 9.7 Equations for solving problems
Variables that are involved in the problem
uvat uvas uvts uats vats

Variable that is to be calculated
2s s at
u u = v − at u2 = v2 − 2as u= −v u= − –
t t 2
2s s at
v v = u + at v2 = u2 + 2as v= −u – v= +
t t 2
v−u v 2 − u2 2 (s − ut) 2 (vt − s)

a a= a= – a= a=
t 2s t2 t2
v−u 2s
t t= – t= Find v then solve Find u then solve
a (u + v)
v2 − u2
s – s= s= 1
2
(u + v) t s = ut + 12 at2 s = vt − 12 at2
2a

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Ying drops a coin into a wishing well and takes 3.0 seconds to make a wish. The coin splashes into
the water just as she finishes making her wish. The coin accelerates towards the water at a
constant 9.8 m s−2 .
a. What is the coin’s velocity as it strikes the water?
b. How far does the coin fall before hitting the water?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the appropriate constant acceleration a. v = u + at
formula.
2. Identify the values. u = 0, a = 9.8 m s−2 , t = 3.0 s
3. Substitute into the formula to find the final velocity. v = 0 + 9.8 × 3.0 = 29 m s−1
4. State the solution. The coin had a velocity of 29 m s−1
when it hit the water.
1
b. 1. Recall the appropriate constant acceleration b. s = ut + at2
formula. 2
2. Identify the values. u = 0, a = 9.8 m s−2 , t = 3.0 s
1
3. Substitute into the formula to find the distance. s = 0 × 3.0 + × 9.8 × 3.02 = 44 m
2
4. State the solution. The coin fell 44 metres before hitting
the water.
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Solving problems with a graphics calculator (doc-0051)
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
A parked car with the handbrake off rolls down a hill in a straight line with a constant acceleration
of 2 m s−2 . It stops after colliding with a brick wall at a speed of 12 m s−1 .
a. For how long was the car rolling?
b. How far did the car roll before colliding with the wall?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The driver of a car was forced to brake in order to prevent serious injury to a neighbour’s cat.
The car skidded in a straight line, stopping just 2 centimetres short of the startled but lucky cat.
The driver (who happened to be a physics teacher) measured the length of the skid mark to be
12 metres. His passenger (also a physics teacher with an exceptional skill for estimating small
time intervals) estimated that the car skidded for 2 seconds.
a. At what speed was the car travelling as it began to skid?
b. What was the acceleration of the car during the skid?

THINK WRITE
1
a. 1. Recall the appropriate constant a. s= (u + v) t
acceleration formula. 2
2. Identify the values. v = 0, t = 2 s, s = 12 m
1
3. Substitute into the relationship to find 12 = (u + 0) × 2
the initial velocity. 2
u = 12 m s−1
4. State the solution. The initial speed of the car was 12 m s−1 .
1
b. 1. Recall the appropriate constant b. s = vt − at2
acceleration formula. 2
2. Identify the values. v = 0, t = 2 s, s = 12 m
1
3. Substitute into the relationship to find 12 = 0 × 2 − a × 22
the acceleration. 2
12 = −2a
a = −6 m s−2
4. State the solution. The acceleration during the skid was −6 m s−2 ;
that is, the car was decelerating at 6 m s−2 during
the skid.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
A car travelling at 24 m s−1 brakes to come to a stop in 1.5 seconds. If its acceleration (deceleration in
this case) was constant, what was the car’s:
a. stopping distance
b. acceleration?
It is worth noting that sample problems 6 and 7 could both have been solved without the use of the
constant acceleration formulae. Both examples could have been completed with a graphical approach
and a clear understanding of the definitions of velocity and acceleration. Go ahead and try to answer
both problems without the formulae.
9.4 EXERCISE
1. How long does it take for:
(a) a car to accelerate on a straight road at a constant 6 m s−2 from an initial speed of 60 km h−1
(17 m s−1 ) to a final speed of 100 km h−1 (28 m s−1 )
(b) a downhill skier to accelerate from rest at a constant 2 m s−2 to a speed of 10 m s−1 ?
2. In Acapulco, on the coast of Mexico, professional high divers plunge from a height of 36 metres above the
water. (The highest diving boards used in Olympic diving events are 10 metres above the water.) Assuming
that throughout their dive, the divers are falling vertically from rest with an acceleration of 9.8 m s−2 ,
estimate:
(a) the length of the time interval during which the divers fall through the air
(b) the speed with which the divers enter the water.
3. A skateboard rider travelling down a hill notices the busy road ahead and comes to a stop in 2.0 seconds
over a distance of 12 metres. Assume a constant negative acceleration.
(a) What was the initial speed of the skateboarder?
(b) What was the acceleration of the skateboarder as they came to a stop?

4. A car is travelling at a speed of 100 km h−1 when the driver sees a large fallen tree branch in front of her. At
the instant that she sees the branch, it is 50 metres from the front of her car. The car travels a distance of
48 metres after the brakes are applied before coming to a stop.
(a) What is the average acceleration of the car while the car is braking?
(b) How long does the car take to stop once the brakes are applied?
(c) What other information do you need in order to determine whether the car stops before it hits the
branch? Make an estimate of the missing item of information to predict whether or not the car is able to
stop in time.
5. A dancer in a school musical is asked to leap 80 centimetres into the air, taking off vertically on one beat of
the music and landing with the next beat. If the music beats every 0.5 seconds, is the leap possible? The
acceleration of the dancer during the leap can be assumed to be 9.8 m s−2 downwards.
6. A brand-new Rolls Royce rolls off the back of a truck as it is being delivered to its owner. The truck is
travelling along a straight road at a constant speed of 60 km h−1 . The Rolls Royce slows down at a constant
rate, coming to a stop over a distance of 240 metres. It is a full minute before the truck driver realises that
the precious load is missing. The driver brakes immediately, leaving a 25-metre skid mark on the road. The
driver’s reaction time (time interval between noticing the problem and depressing the brake) is 0.5 seconds.
How far behind is the Rolls Royce when the truck stops?
7. A girl at the bottom of a 100-metre high cliff throws a tennis ball vertically upwards. At the same instant a
boy at the very top of the cliff drops a golf ball so that it hits the tennis ball while both balls are still in the air.
The acceleration of both balls can be assumed to be 9.8 m s−2 downwards.
(a) With what speed is the tennis ball thrown so that the golf ball strikes it at the top of its path?
(b) What is the position of the tennis ball when the golf ball strikes it?

9.5 Review
9.5.1 Summary
• Scalar quantities have a magnitude (size) only. Vector quantities have both a magnitude and a
direction.
• Displacement is a measure of the change in position of an object. Displacement is a vector quantity.
• Speed is the rate at which distance changes over time and is a scalar quantity. Velocity is the rate at
which displacement changes over time and is a vector quantity.
distance travelled
average speed =
time interval
displacement
average velocity =
time interval
The average velocity of an object, vav , during a time interval, t, can be expressed as:
∆s
vav =
∆t
• Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at
a particular instant of time.

• The change in velocity during the time interval ∆t can be expressed as:
∆v = final velocity − initial velocity = v − u
• The instantaneous velocity of an object can be found from a graph of its displacement versus time by
calculating the gradient of the graph. Similarly, the instantaneous speed can be found from a graph of
•
distance versus time by calculating the gradient of the graph.
The displacement of an object during a time interval can be found by determining the area under its
velocity-versus-time graph. Similarly, the distance travelled by an object can be found by determining
•
the area under its speed-versus-time graph.
∆v
Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity. The
average acceleration of an object, aav , can be expressed as aav = where ∆v = the change in
∆t
velocity during the time interval ∆t.
• The instantaneous acceleration of an object can be found from a graph of its velocity versus time by
•
calculating the gradient of the graph.
When acceleration of an object is constant, the following formulae can be used to describe its motion.
v = u + at
s= (u + v) t
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
2
s = vt − at2
1
v2 = u2 + 2as
2
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice exam
question booklet (sonr-0034).
9.5.2 Key terms
Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity.
Displacement is a measure of the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity.
Distance is a measure of the length of the path taken by an object. It is a scalar quantity.
Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time.
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instant of time.
Scalar quantities specify magnitude (size) but not direction.
Speed is the rate at which distance changes over time. Speed is a scalar quantity.
A vector quantity specifies direction as well as magnitude (size).
Velocity is the rate at which displacement changes over time, or the rate of change in position. Velocity is a
vector quantity.
Resources

Investigation 9.1
Going home
Aim: To analyse your journey from home to school
Investigation 9.2
Let’s play around with some graphs
Aim: To demonstrate the motion represented by position-versus-time
graphs and velocity-versus-time graphs
Investigation 9.3
On your bike or on your own two feet
Aim: To record and analyse the motion of a bicycle or runner over a distance of 100 metres on a straight track
Other practical work ideas:
• Place a small ruler with one end sitting over the edge of a desk. Hit the end so that it flies through the air.
How far does it travel horizontally? What factors might affect this, and how? Investigate.
• How does the initial acceleration of a sprinter depend on the spacing between their feet on the blocks?
• Fill a bottle with some liquid. Lay it on its side and give it a push. The bottle may first move forward and
then oscillate before it comes to rest. Investigate the bottle’s motion.
• Make a small parachute from a piece of cloth, lengths of cotton and Blu-Tack. Hold it in the air and drop it
with the canopy open. The parachute accelerates, then maintains a steady speed. Investigate the motion
and what factors affect the initial acceleration and the final speed.
Resources
9.5 Exercises

1. Which of the following does a vector quantity have?
A. Size (magnitude) only
B. Direction only
C. Both size (magnitude) and direction
2. A track cyclist warming up for a race completes three laps of a 250-metre velodrome track. What is their
displacement?
A. 0 m
B. 250 m
C. 500 m
D. 750 m

3. The Airbus A380 aircraft has a cruising speed 1060 km h–1 . How many metres does it travel in
1 second when cruising at this speed?
A. 3816 m
B. 1060 m
C. 294 m
D. 106 m
4. A hairy-nosed wombat that is feeling threatened runs as fast as its legs can take it. At its top speed it
travels 21.0 metres in 1.90 seconds. What is its average velocity during this interval?
A. 0.09 m s−1
B. 39.9 m s−1
C. 1.11 m s−1
D. 11.1 m s−1
5. A car is travelling at 12 m s-1 . How fast is this in km h-1 ?
A. 3.3 km h−1
B. 43.2 km h−1
C. 33.3 km h−1
D. 4.3 km h−1
6. A Tesla Model S accelerates from a standstill to a speed of 97 km h−1 in 2.28 seconds. What is its
average acceleration during this time interval?
A. 12 m s−2
B. 43 m s−2
C. 153 m s−2
D. 27 m s−2
Use the following graph, describing the motion of an elevator, to answer questions 7 and 8.
15
10
B
A C
5
Velocity (m s−1)
D
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Time (s)
−5
E G
−10
F
−15
7. The acceleration of the elevator is zero at which intervals?

A. Intervals E, F and G
B. Interval D
C. Intervals B, D and F
D. Intervals B and F

8. The accelerator reaches the maximum speed for the time period shown during which interval?
A. Interval B
B. Interval C
C. Interval E
D. Interval F
9. A student drops a stone into a wishing well (starting at rest). It falls at a rate of 9.80 m s−2 . The student
hears the stone hit the water 2.00 seconds after they dropped it. How far down the well did the stone
travel from the student’s hand until it hit the water?
A. 9.80 m
B. 19.6 m
C. 39.2 m
D. 78.4 m
10. A shopping trolley rolls down a hill in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 3.00 m s−2 . It starts
at rest beside a car and travels 100 metres before it collides with a picket fence. How fast is it travelling
the instant before it collides with the fence?
A. 17.3 m s−1
B. 600 m s−1
C. 24.5 m s−1
D. 300 m s−1

1. A student is doing a ‘shuttle run’ activity where they run backwards and forwards along a straight line
that runs north–south. They run 10 metres north, then 5 metres south, then 7 metres north, then 9 metres
south. What distance have they travelled? What is their displacement?
2. An engineer takes a direct flight from Munich to Detroit on an Airbus A350. The flight takes 10 hours
and 30 minutes and covers a distance of 6980 kilometres. What is the average speed of the aircraft
during this flight?
3. A shuttlecock in a game of badminton is travelling at 330 km h−1 when it strikes the racket of an
opposing player and rebounds at 264 km h−1 . Assuming that the collision takes 0.25 seconds.
Determine the average acceleration that it experiences during the collision with the racket.
4. The following graph records the straight-line motion of a skateboarder. Calculate the velocity of the
skateboarder during section A.
Position (m)
80
60
40
20
Starting 0 C D
point 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Time (s)
A B
−20
E
−40

5. The following velocity-versus-time graph was sketched by a physics student from data collected during
a practical investigation. Determine the change in position of the object during the 20-second motion.
v (m s–1)
30
20
10
0
5 10 15 20 t (s)
−10
6. The student is analysing their data presented in question 5. Use the graph to estimate the largest
magnitude acceleration that the object experiences during this motion.
7. A physics student records the acceleration versus time for a dynamics trolley colliding with a bumper.
Use the following graph to estimate the change in velocity of the trolley during the collision.
a (m s–2 )
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 t (s)
−0.5
−1.0
−1.5
−2.0
−2.5
−3.0
−3.5

8. A physics student has their very first experience of cross-country skiing on a school camp. They
tentatively ski in a straight line down a gentle slope, with constant acceleration, starting from rest. They
travel 50 metres in 40 seconds. What was their final speed?
9. A model rocket is launched directly upwards from a school oval. The engine switches off when it is
45 metres above the ground and travelling at 90 m s−1 directly upwards. Assuming that it continues to
travel directly upwards with a constant downwards acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m s−2 . What is the
total height above the oval that the rocket reaches?
10. A car travelling in a 40 km h−1 speed limit zone brakes hard to avoid hitting a kangaroo that hops onto
the road. It comes to a complete stop 4.5 seconds after the brakes were applied and left a skid mark that
was 27 metres long. Was the driver travelling faster than the speed limit when they braked? Use a
calculation to support your answer.

Question 1 (1 mark)
Jo is jogging around a track at a leisurely constant speed. He is joined by a friend who matches his speed
and challenges him to a race to the finish. Jo accelerates to run as fast as he can and then continues at this
speed until the finish line. Sketch a position-versus-time graph of Jo’s motion.
Question 2 (1 mark)
A cyclist makes a left turn around a corner, keeping their speed constant. Do they experience an
acceleration during this motion? Justify your response.
Two runners, Alex and Bo, are exchanging a baton in a 4 × 100-metre track relay. Their motion is shown in
the following velocity-versus-time graph.
Baton exchange
v (m s–1)
Alex Bo
8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t(s)
a. Calculate how far ahead Bo is of Alex at the instant Bo starts to run. 3 marks
b. The rules of the race require that the baton exchange takes place over a maximum of 20 metres distance
and that the second runner can start running a maximum of 10 metres before the exchange. Use the graph
to determine if Alex and Bo are likely to have complied with these rules. 2 marks
A diver is standing at the top of a 75-metre tall cliff. They leap off the cliff with an initial vertical velocity
of 3 m s−1 . Assume that their acceleration throughout the dive is 9.8 m s−1 directly downwards. How long
will it be from the beginning of their leap until the instant they hit the water below?

During the filming of a new movie, a stuntman has to chase a moving
bus and jump into it. The stuntman is required to stand still until the bus
Stuntman
Velocity (m s−1)
passes him and then start chasing it. The velocity-versus-time graph in the 10
Bus
figure that follows describes the motion of the stuntman and the bus from 8
the instant that the bus door passes the stationary stuntman. 6
a. At what instant did the stuntman reach the same speed as 4
the bus? 1 mark 2
b. What is the magnitude 0
of the acceleration of the stuntman during the first 4 seconds? 1 mark 2 4 6 8 10 12
c. At what instant did the stuntman catch up with the bus door? 2 marks Time (s)
d. How far did the stuntman run before he reached the door of the bus?
1 mark

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1
10 Forces in action
10.1 Overview
10.1.1 Introduction
Have you ever seen somebody parachuting down from a skydive or BASE jump? They can land without
injury as the force of the air resisting the motion of the parachute is large enough to slow them to a
safe speed.
This explanation stems from the concept of forces, which are central to our understanding and analysis
of motion. In his groundbreaking book Philosophia Naturalis Principia, published in 1687, Sir Isaac
Newton proposed three laws of motion. These laws accurately explain the motion of objects on Earth and
throughout the universe. In this topic we will use Newton’s laws to explore the nature of forces and their
relationship to motion.
FIGURE 10.1 BASE jumpers use a high point such as a cliff to launch themselves. The forces involved in the
jump must be carefully calculated to allow the parachute to open in time.
TOPIC 10 Forces in action 313

KEY KNOWLEDGE
∆p
• explain changes in momentum as being caused by a net force: F net =
∆t
• model the force due to gravity, F g , as the force of gravity acting at the centre of mass of a body, F g = mg,
where g is the gravitational field strength (9.8 N kg−1 near the surface of Earth)
• model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and direction), labelling these
forces using the convention ‘force on A by B’ or F on A by B = −F on B by A
F net
• apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , F on A by B = −F on B by A
m
• apply the vector model of forces, including vector addition and components of forces, to readily observable
forces including the force due to gravity, friction and reaction forces
• calculate torque: 𝜏 = r⊥ F
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically translational forces and torques in simple structures
that are in rotational equilibrium
• apply concepts of momentum to linear motion: p = mv.

Resources
Digital documents Key science skills — Units 1–4 (doc-31856)
10.2 Forces as vectors

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply the vector model of forces, including vector addition and components of forces, to readily observable
forces including the force due to gravity, friction and reaction forces.
• Model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and direction), labelling these
forces using the convention ‘force on A by B’ or F on A by B = −F on B by A .
• Model the force due to gravity, F g , as the force of gravity acting at the centre of mass of a body, F g = mg,
where g is the gravitational field strength (9.8 N kg−1 near the surface of Earth).
10.2.1 Describing a force

A force is a push or a pull applied by one object on another. Forces can start things moving, stop them, or
change their speed or direction. Forces can spin objects or change their size or shape. Some types of force
require contact. For example, the force applied by your hand on a netball or basketball when shooting a
goal requires contact between your hand and the ball. The friction applied by the road on a bicycle or car

requires contact between the road surface and the tyres. Some forces do not require contact. For example,
the force of gravity applied on your body by the Earth is present even when you are not in contact with
the Earth. A magnet attracts certain materials without being in contact with them. Note that descriptions
of forces indicate both the object that the force is applied on and the object that applies the force.
FIGURE 10.2 Contact and non-contact forces at work
(a) (b) (c) Non-contact force
Non-contact force Non-contact force Contact force
In diagrams showing forces, such as figure 10.3, a

FIGURE 10.3 Force is a vector quantity.
labelled arrow should be drawn from the centre of mass A vector quantity in this text is represented
of the object upon which the force acts (this was not by symbols in bold italic font.
included in figure 10.2 for the sake of simplicity). The
length of the arrow should indicate the relative size
of the force.
To fully describe a force, you need to specify its
direction as well as its magnitude or size. A quantity that
can be fully described only by specifying a direction as
well as a magnitude is called a vector quantity. Force
is a vector quantity. A vector quantity can be described
in writing or by a labelled arrow. If a symbol is used
to represent a vector quantity, it should have a half-
arrow above it (some people use a ‘squiggly’ line below R
Air resistance (R)
upwards
the symbol instead). In this text, vector quantities are
= Fon apple by air
represented by symbols in bold italic font. When bold
can’t be used to distinguish a vector (for example, writing Force due to
gravity (Fg )
by hand), a right-facing arrow may be used instead. Fg downwards
When labelling forces, it helps to describe the force as = Fon apple by Earth
Fon A by B ; for example, the arrow representing the force
due to gravity of the apple is labelled Fon apple by Earth .
The SI unit of force is the newton (N). The force of gravity on a 100 gram apple is about 1 N downwards.
A medium sized car starting from rest is subjected to a forward force of about 4000 N.
Quantities that can be described without specifying a direction are called scalar quantities. Mass, energy,
time and temperature are all examples of scalar quantities.
The present understanding of our universe posits that there are four fundamental forces or interactions:
• strong nuclear force
• electromagnetic force
• weak nuclear force
• gravitational force.
While these categories are fundamental to our understanding of the physics of interactions in the
universe, they are not wholly useful for describing and analysing everyday motion at a human scale. The
following sections introduce some everyday categories of forces.

10.2.2 Force due to gravity (F g )
The apple in figure 10.3 is attracted to the Earth by the force due to gravity. Even before it falls, the force
due to gravity is pulling it down. However, before it falls, the tree branch is pulling it up with a force of
equal magnitude.
The force due to gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any pair of objects that have mass.
Gravity is such a small force that, unless at least one of the objects is as massive as a planet or a natural
satellite like the Moon, it is too small to measure. The force due to gravity is a force that acts ‘at a distance’
in that the items that it acts on do not need to be in contact with each other.
→
The force on an object due to the pull of gravity is usually given the symbol Fg . In simple
scenarios where objects of relatively small mass (e.g. humans, buildings, whales) are in
close proximity to a very massive object (e.g. the Earth) the force due to gravity can be
represented by: → →
Fg = m g
Where:
m = the mass of the smaller object in kg
→
g = the gravitational field strength in N kg−1 due to the larger object.
The gravitational field strength is defined as the force of gravity on a unit of mass. The magnitude of
g at the surface of the Moon is approximately one-sixth that at the surface of the Earth. Gravitational field
strength is a vector quantity. The direction of the force due to gravity on an object is towards the centre of
the source of attraction (e.g. the centre of the Earth).
The magnitude of gravitational field strength at the Earth’s surface is, on average, 9.8 N kg−1 . The
magnitude of g decreases as altitude (height above sea level) increases. It also decreases as one moves from
the poles towards the equator. Table 10.1 shows the magnitude of g at several different locations.
TABLE 10.1 Variation in gravitational field strength

Magnitude of g
Location Altitude (m) Latitude (N kg−1 )
Equator 0 0° 9.780
Sydney 18 34°S 9.797
Melbourne 12 37°S 9.800
Denver 1609 40°N 9.796
New York 38 41°N 9.803
North Pole 0 90°N 9.832
The magnitude of g at the Earth’s surface will be taken as 9.8 N kg−1 throughout this text. At the surface
of the Moon, the magnitude of g is 1.60 N kg−1 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
What is the force due to gravity by the Earth acting on a 50-kilogram student:
a. on the Earth
b. on the Moon?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the formula for force due to gravity. a. Fg = mg
2. Substitute the values to determine the force due Fg = 50 × 9.8
to gravity. = 490 N downwards

3. State the solution. The force due to gravity by the Earth
acting on a 50-kilogram student on
the Earth is 490 N downwards.
b. 1. Recall the formula for force due to gravity. b. Fg = mg
2. Substitute the values to determine the force due to Fg = 50 × 1.60
gravity. = 80 N downwards
3. State the solution. The force due to gravity by the Earth
acting on a 50-kilogram student on
the Moon is 80 N downwards.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
a. What is the difference between the force due to gravity by the Earth acting on a 70-kilogram
person at the North Pole and at the equator?
b. A hospital patient is very accurately measured to have a mass of 64.32 kilograms and the
force due to gravity by the Earth acting on them is 630.08 N. In which of the locations in
table 10.1 could the patient be?
WEIGHING IN
Bathroom scales are designed for use only on Earth. Fortunately (at this point in
time), that’s where most of us live.
If a 60-kilogram student stood on bathroom scales on the Moon, the reading
would be only about 10 kilograms. Yet the mass of the student remains 60
kilograms. Bathroom scales measure force, not mass.
However, scales are designed so that
you can read your mass in kilograms.
Otherwise, you would have to divide the
measured force by 9.8 to determine your mass.
The manufacturer of the bathroom scales saves
you the trouble of having to do this.
The 60-kilogram student experiences a force
due to gravity from Earth of about 588 N. However, on the Moon the force due to
gravity from the Moon is only about 100 N. The reading on the scales
will be 100 N divided by 9.8 N kg−1 , giving the result of 10.2 kilograms.
The term weight is often used in high school physics texts in order to draw a distinction between the force due
to gravity on an object and its mass. However, the accepted definition of the term weight in physics is more
complex than this and there are different conventions for how it is defined. Confusion that this may cause is
further compounded by inconsistent use of the term weight in everyday life. As such, the term weight is not used
in this text or the VCE Physics Study Design.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 10.1 The relationship between mass and the force due to gravity (doc-31879)

10.2.3 Friction (F fr )
Friction is a force that surfaces exert on each other when
FIGURE 10.4 This scanning electron
they ‘rub’ together. The magnitude of the friction force micrograph shows a magnified metal
depends greatly on the nature of each of the two surfaces. surface.
Smooth surfaces experience smaller friction forces than
rough surfaces. However, even very smooth surfaces are
rough on a microscopic scale.
It is this roughness that is mostly responsible for the
resistance to motion that we call friction. As two surfaces
move across each other, they intermesh, resisting the motion.
Friction can seem to be a real nuisance at times. It makes
doors squeak. It causes wear and tear in car engines and can
make them overheat.
Friction is also a necessary force in many situations. If
you have ever walked on a banana peel or ice, you know
the importance of friction to walking. When you walk,
you push backwards against the ground so that the ground
pushes forward on your foot. Without a significant friction force, your foot slides backwards and you fall.
Friction is also needed for safe driving in a car. A large friction force is needed to start moving, change
direction and stop. The rubber tyres of a car have a deep tread to ensure that the friction force is still present
on a wet road when water forms a lubricating film between the road and the tyres. Smooth tyres would slide
across a wet road, making it difficult to stop, turn or accelerate. The deep grooves in tyres pick up the water
from the road and throw it backwards, providing a drier road surface and greater friction. The lubricating
effect of water is also evident in ice skating. The moving blade melts the surface of the ice beneath it,
creating a thin lubricating film of water on which it glides.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 10.2 Friction (doc-31877)
Teacher-led video Investigation 10.2 Friction (tlvd-0822)
Video eLesson Friction as a driving force (eles-0032)
Interactivity Friction as a driving force (int-0054)
10.2.4 Forces from fluid motion

The motion of an object through fluids such as air
FIGURE 10.5 Racing cyclists reduce the effects
or water results in forces acting on the object. One of fluid friction (air resistance) by wearing
component of this is a force acting in the opposite streamlined costumes and using aerodynamically
direction of the motion. This resistance to the motion designed bicycles.
of objects through air and water is given a variety of
names including fluid friction, fluid resistance, drag or
air resistance.
Olympic swimmers, cyclists and track athletes are
becoming increasingly aware of the effects of fluid
resistance as the accuracy of timing improves.
The desire to win gold medals has resulted in
swimmers shaving their heads, cyclists shaving their
legs, new bicycle designs and tighter fitting costumes.
Because fluid friction increases with the speed of the
object, streamlining is particularly important in cars,

planes, watercraft and bicycles. Streamlining involves creating a shape that reduces the slowing effect of
collisions with particles of the fluid.
While air resistance can be a seen as a problem, it is an absolute necessity for parachutists and
paragliders, who rely on it to slow their descent and land safely.
The forces arising from motion through fluids is very complex and has been very simply introduced here.
To learn more about this, you may choose to study the option in topic 16 ‘How do heavy things fly?’ where
more detail on these forces is provided.
10.2.5 The normal force (F N )

At this moment you are probably sitting on a chair with your feet on the
FIGURE 10.6 The normal
floor. The material in the chair, whether it is plastic, timber, foam or steel force acts perpendicular to
springs, has been compressed and is pushing back up. This force that is the surface of the chair.
pushing up is called a reaction force because if you were not sitting on the
chair, there would be no force. This force is more properly called a normal
force, FN , as it acts at right angles to the surface.
The normal force and the friction force comprise the two perpendicular
components of forces that arise from the interactions between two objects
or surfaces. In both instances the fundamental force involved is the
electromagnetic interaction between the atoms in the materials.
FN
10.2.6 Compression and tension materials
Forces acting on materials, such as a concrete pillar or a steel cable, can
cause the material to experience compression or tension. These are types of
loadings on a material.
In a material that is experiencing compression, the atoms and molecules
are pushed closer together. In the photo of the pole house in figure 10.7,
the concrete pillar is in compression. The house is pushing down on the
pillar and the rocky hillside below is pushing up on it, causing the pillar
to be squashed in compression. An object that is in compression will be
pushing against the objects that are compressing it. Some materials are
best suited for withstanding compression, such as concrete, stone, brick
and bone.
FIGURE 10.7 The Pole House located on the Great Ocean Road is supported by a concrete column that goes
several metres into the ground.
Fon house by Earth

Fon house by pillar
Fon pillar by house
Fon pillar by rock
Fon rock by pillar

Similarly, when atoms and molecules in a material are pulled further apart by a loading, it experiences
tension. In the photo of the crane in figure 10.8, the steel cable is in tension. The crane is pulling up on the
cable and the load that it is supporting is pulling down on the cable, causing it to be stretched in tension.
An object that is in tension will be pulling against the objects that are stretching it. Metals are a common
example of materials that are well suited to withstanding tension loading.
FIGURE 10.8 Cranes use metal cables in tension to lift large loads
Fby crane on cable
Fby cable on crane
Fby cable on mass
Fby Earth on mass
10.2.7 Free body diagrams

A free body diagram or force diagram is used to depict all external forces acting upon an object (see
figures 10.7 and 10.8).
The ability to accurately and effectively represent the forces on an object through a free body diagram is
a critical skill in analysing forces and motion. The key to developing this skill is practice. To create a free
body diagram consider the following steps.
• Represent the object with a suitable simplified shape or, if the problem is simple enough, a single point
(e.g. a car could be represented very simply as a rectangular block).
• Identify each interaction that the object is experiencing and the force that represents that interaction
(e.g. gravitational interaction with the Earth represented by the force due to gravity, Fg ).
• Represent each force with an arrow drawn at the point where it acts on the object (e.g. a friction force
on a car by the road will act where the car tyres contact the road; the force due to gravity will act at the
centre of mass of an object).
• The direction of the arrow should be in the expected direction of the force. If the direction is not
known, make an assumption (e.g. the force in a connection between a car and trailer could be either
forwards or backwards).
• The length of the arrow should represent the expected magnitude (size) of the force. If unknown, make
an assumption.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Draw a forces diagram for each of the following.
a. An ice skater moving at a constant velocity
b. Ball hanging straight down on a string
c. Trolley slowing down
d. Block stationary on slope

THINK WRITE
a. The only forces acting on the ice skater are the a.
normal force and the force due to gravity. Normal force, FN
Force due to gravity, Fg
b. The forces acting on a ball hanging on a string are b.

the force due to gravity and a tension force. Tension, T
Force due to
gravity, Fg
c. The forces acting on a trolley that is slowing down c.

are the force due to gravity, the normal force and a Normal
force, FN
friction force.
Friction
Force due to
gravity, Fg
d. The forces acting on a stationary block on a slope d.

are the force due to gravity, the normal force and a Normal
Friction force, FN
friction force in the direction up the slope.
Force due to
gravity, Fg
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Draw a forces diagram for each of the following.
a. Falling stone
b. Mass being pulled at a steady speed
c. Piece of iron on a string, which is hanging near a strong magnet.
10.2.8 The net force (F net ) or sum of forces

What happens if more than one force acts on an object?
It is rare for just one force to be acting on an object. For example, a moving car has friction forces, the
normal force and the force due to gravity acting on it. A suspended magnet will experience the force due to
gravity, a tension force and a magnetic force.
The net force is the result of combining all the forces into one force. You may also see this referred to as
the sum of forces or the resultant force.
Sometimes all the forces can balance leaving a net or overall force of zero. At other times there is a
non-zero force left, and because it is a vector, it has a particular direction, which may be different from any
of the individual forces acting on the object. However, because force is a vector, combining forces is not
just simple arithmetic, but is a vector sum as the direction of the force has to be taken into account.

When more than one force acts on an object, the net force is found by the vector addition of the forces.
If an object has two forces acting on it, one of 30 N and another of 40 N, the sum of the two forces, or net
force, is 70 N only if both forces are acting in the same direction. Figures 10.9b, c and d show these two
forces acting in different directions; figure 10.9a shows them acting in the same direction. The net force is
indicated in each of the three examples. The net force is usually denoted by the symbol Fnet .
It is critical to distinguish that the net force is not a particular type or category of force that acts on an
object. It is simply the combination of all forces.
To distinguish the net force vector from the vectors for the actual forces, the arrow for Fnet is often drawn
in another colour or as a dashed line. A geometric method of adding vectors uses a parallelogram, where the
vector sum is the diagonal. This is shown in figure 10.9d.
FIGURE 10.9 Adding forces together
30 N Fnet = 70 N 30 N 40 N
(a) (b)
40 N Fnet = 10 N
(c) (d)
Fnet = 50 N
30 N FB
FA + FB
40 N FA
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The free body diagram on the right shows F2 = 25 N y
the forces acting on an object.
Calculate the: F1 = 35 N 37º
x
a. component of F2 that acts in the x direction
b. component of F2 that acts in the y direction
c. magnitude of the net force on the object.
THINK WRITE
adjacent
a. 1. The force F2 acts at an angle a. cos 𝜃 =
of 37° from the x-axis. Its x hypotenuse
component can be found F2x
cos(37°) =
using trigonometry. 25
F2x = 25 cos(37°)
≈ 20 N
2. State the solution. The component of F2 that acts in the x direction is 20 N.
opposite
b. 1. Similarly the y component b. sin 𝜃 =
of F2 can be found hypotenuse
using sin. F2y
sin(37°) =
25
F2y = 25 sin(37°)
≈ 15 N
2. State the solution. The component of F2 that acts in the y direction is 15 N.

c. 1. To find the net force, consider c. In the x direction:
the force components in the x Fnet, x = F2x − F1
and y directions separately. = 20 − 35
= −15 N
In the y direction:
Fnet, y = F2y
= 15
= 15 N
2. Combining these two forces, Fnet
15 N
Pythagoras’ theorem can be
used to fine the resultant net
force.
15 N
c 2 = a2 + b2
F2net = 152 + 152
F2net = 450
√
Fnet = 450
Fnet ≈ 21.2 N
3. State the solution. The magnitude of the net force on the object is 21.2 N.
Note: This problem only requires the magnitude of the net
force. If the direction was required it would be necessary
to calculate the angle that the force is acting at.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3 70 N
The free body diagram on the right shows the forces acting
y
on an object.
Calculate the magnitude of the net force acting on 45º
x
the object. 30º
40 N
Resources
Digital document Investigation 10.3 Force as a vector (doc-32308)
10.2 EXERCISE
1. Describe the difference between a vector quantity and a scalar quantity.
2. Which of the following are vector quantities?
(a) Mass
(b) Force due to gravity
(c) Gravitational field strength
(d) Time
(e) Energy
(f) Temperature

3. A car has a mass of 1400 kilograms with a full petrol tank.
(a) What is the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on it at the surface of the Earth?
(b) What would be the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on it on the surface of Mars where the
magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.6 N kg−1 ?
(c) What is the mass of the car on the surface of Mars?
4. Estimate the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting at the surface of the Earth on:
(a) an apple
(b) a textbook
(c) your physics teacher.
5. Estimate your own mass in kilograms and determine:
(a) the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on you at the surface of the Earth
(b) the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on you at the surface of Mars where the magnitude of
the gravitational field strength is 3.6 N kg −1
(c) your mass on the planet Mars.
6. Draw force diagrams for:
(a) an open parachute falling slowly to the ground.
(b) a thrown basketball approaching its maximum height before coming down into the basket
(c) a car approaching a red light rolling slowly to a stop
(d) a rocket during liftoff.
7. Draw force diagrams for figures a–d. For figures a, b and c, show the forces acting on the rock. For
figure d, show the force acting on the block.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Stretched spring
Swinging
8. A person is standing on a horizontal floor. Draw and label in the form Fon A by B all of the forces acting on the
person, the floor and the Earth.
9. Determine the net force in the situations illustrated in diagrams a and b.
(a) (b)
2N
3N 100 N
4N
N 45°
45°
W E
100 N
S

10. In the following diagrams, the net force is shown along with all but one of the contributing forces.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the missing force.
(a) (b)
Fnet = 200 N
200 N
N
400 N 200 N
60° W E
200 N 30°
30°
Fnet = 0 200 N S
11. A car is moving north on a horizontal road at a constant speed of 60 km h−1 . Draw a diagram showing all of the
significant forces acting on the car. Show all of the forces as if they were acting through the centre of mass.
12. Determine the magnitude of the horizontal components of each of the forces shown in the following
diagrams.
(a) (b) (c)
200 N 200 N
200 N
25° 60°

10.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion

KEY CONCEPT
F net
• Apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , F on A by B = −F on B by A .
m
It is difficult to explain the motion of objects without an understanding of force. The ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) concluded from his observations that a moving object would come
to rest if no force was pushing it. Aristotle thought that steady motion required a constant force and that
‘being at rest’ was the natural state of matter. This view held sway for almost 2000 years, although contrary
views were expressed by philosophers such as Epicurus and Lucretius.
It was not until Galileo (1564–1642) that this explanation of motion was seriously challenged. Galileo
argued that if a ball rolled down an inclined plane gained speed and a ball rolled up an inclined plane lost
speed, a ball rolled along a horizontal plane should neither gain nor lose speed. Galileo knew that this did
not really happen. He claimed that if there was a lot of friction, the ball slowed down quickly; if there was
little friction, the ball slowed down more gradually. However, he predicted that if there were no friction at all,
the ball would continue to move with a constant speed forever unless something else caused it to slow down
or stop.
Galileo introduced the concept of friction as a force and concluded that objects retain their velocity
unless a force, often friction, acts upon them. Galileo stated in his Discorsi (1638):
A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed.

Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) was able to refine Galileo’s ideas about motion. In 1687, he published his
Philosophia Naturalis Principia, which included three laws of motion.
Newton’s First Law of Motion:
Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non-zero net force.
A coin flicked across a tabletop changes its motion because the net force on it is not zero. In fact, it
slows down because the direction of the net force is opposite to the direction of motion. The vertical forces,
gravity and the support force of the table balance each other. The only ‘unbalanced’ force is that of friction.
A coin pushed steadily across a tabletop moves in a straight line at constant speed as long as the net force
is zero (that is, as long as the magnitude of the pushing
force is equal to the magnitude of friction). The coin FIGURE 10.10 The changing net force on this
bungee jumper determines their state of motion
will speed up if you push horizontally with a force
and whether or not they will stop in time.
greater than the friction. It will slow down if the force
of friction is greater than the horizontal pushing force.
The motion of a bungee jumper can be explained
in terms of Newton’s First Law of Motion. Until the
bungee cord tightens, the net force is downwards
and the speed of the bungee jumper increases. As the
jumper’s speed increases, so does the air resistance.
However, the air resistance is quite small compared
with the force due to gravity on the jumper. Until
the cord begins to tighten, the tension pulling the
jumper up is zero. As the rope tightens, the tension
increases. Until the tension and air resistance forces
together balance the force due to gravity, the bungee
jumper continues to speed up. The tension continues to
increase, eventually resulting in an upwards net force
which allows the bungee jumper to slow down, stop
(just in time) and rise again.
SIR ISAAC NEWTON

Sir Isaac Newton was one of many famous scientists who were not
FIGURE 10.11 Sir Isaac Newton
outstanding students at school or university. Newton left school at
14 years of age to help his widowed mother on the family’s farm.
He turned out to be unsuited to farming and spent much of his time
reading. At the age of 18, he went to Cambridge University, where
he showed no outstanding ability.
When Cambridge University was closed down in 1665 due to
an outbreak of the plague, Newton went home and spent the next
two years studying and writing. During this time, he developed the
laws of gravity that explain the motion of the planets, and his three
famous laws of motion. Over the same period, he put forward the
view that white light consisted of many colours and he invented
calculus. Newton’s laws of gravity and motion were not published
until about 20 years later.
Newton later became a member of Parliament, a warden of the
Mint and President of the Royal Society. After his death in 1727, he
was buried in Westminster Abbey, London, alongside many English
kings, queens, political leaders and poets.

10.3 EXERCISE
1. With reference to Newton’s First Law of Motion explain why a coin flicked across a table does not move at a
constant speed.
2. When you are standing on a bus, train or tram that stops suddenly, you lurch forwards. Explain why this
happens in terms of Newton’s first law.
3. If the bicycle that you are riding runs into an obstacle such as a large rock, you may be flung forwards over
the handlebars. Explain in terms of Newton’s first law why this happens.

10.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

KEY CONCEPT
F net
m
Casual observations indicate that the acceleration of a given object increases as the net force on the object
increases. It is also clear that lighter objects change their velocity at a greater rate than heavier objects when
the same force is applied.
It can be shown experimentally that the acceleration, a, of an object is:
• proportional to the net force, Fnet , applied to it
• inversely proportional to its mass, m.
1
a ∝ Fnet a∝
m
Thus:
Fnet
a∝
m
kFnet
⇒a=
m
Where:
k = a constant of proportionality.
The SI unit of force, the newton (N), is defined such that a net force of 1 N causes a mass of 1 kilogram
to accelerate at 1 m s−2 . The value of the constant, k, is 1. It has no units. Thus:
Fnet
a=
m
Fnet = ma

This equation describes Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
→
→ Fnet
a =
m
→ →
Fnet = m a
This statement of Newton’s second law allows you to:

• determine the net force acting on an object without knowing any of the individual forces acting on it.
The net force can be deduced as long as you can measure or calculate (using formulae or graphs) the
acceleration of a known mass
• determine the mass of an object. You can do this by measuring the acceleration of an object on which
a known net force is exerted
• predict the effect of a net force on the motion of an object of known mass.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A 65-kilogram physics teacher, starting from rest, glides gracefully down a slide in the local
playground. The net force on her during the slide is a constant 350 N. How fast will she be
travelling at the bottom of the 8-metre slide?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall Newton’s Second Law of Motion. Fnet = ma
2. Substitute the mass and force to find the Fnet = ma
acceleration.
350 = 65a
350
a=
65
≈ 5.38 m s−2
3. As the acceleration is constant, a constant v = u2 + 2as
2
acceleration formula can be used. = 0 + 2 × 5.38 × 8

= 86.08
√
v = 86.08
≈ 9.3 m s−1
4. State the solution. She will be travelling at approximately
9.3 m s–1 at the bottom of the slide.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. What is the magnitude of the average force applied by a tennis racquet to a 58-gram tennis
ball during service if the average acceleration of the ball during contact with the racquet is
1.2 × 104 m s−2 ?
b. A toy car is pulled across a smooth, polished horizontal table with a spring balance. The
reading on the spring balance is 2 N and the acceleration of the toy car is measured to be
2.5 m s−2 . What is the mass of the toy car? (Note: Because the table is described as smooth
and polished, friction can be ignored.)
Resources
Video eLesson Newton’s second law (eles-0033)
10.4.1 Applying Newton’s second law in real life

Of course, the practice problems presented above do not reflect what really happens. When a tennis ball is
served, the force applied by the tennis racquet is not the only force acting on the ball. However, the force
due to gravity acting on the ball and the air resistance on the ball are negligible; that is, they are so small
compared with the force of the racquet on the ball that they can be ignored while the racquet is in contact
with the ball. The table surface in Practice problem 4b is smooth. This description was deliberately included
so that you would know the force of friction on the toy car was negligible. If the table were not described as
smooth, you could not have answered the question without taking friction into account. The event described
in Sample problem 4 was also simplified. It is unlikely that the net force on the teacher gliding down the
slide would be constant.
The assumptions made to answer each of the questions asked in the sample problem and practice
problem are called idealisations. However, caution is needed when making idealisations. For example, it
would be unreasonable to ignore the air resistance on a tennis ball while it was soaring through the air at
150 km h−1 (42 m s−1 ) after the serve was completed.
Most applications of Newton’s second law are not as simple as those given above. Some more typical
examples are presented in the following sample problems.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
When the head of an 80-kilogram bungee jumper is 24 metres from the surface of the water
below, her velocity is 16 m s−1 downwards and the tension in the bungee cord is 1200 N. Air
resistance can be assumed to be negligible.
a. What is her acceleration at that instant?
b. If her acceleration remained constant during the rest of her fall, would she stop before hitting
the water?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Calculate force due to gravity, then draw a a. Fg = mg
diagram to show the forces acting on the = 80 × 9.8
bungee jumper. = 784 N

FT = 1200 N
Fg = mg
= 784 N
2. Calculate the net force. Fnet = 1200 − 784
= 416 N upwards
3. Use Newton’s second law to calculate the Fnet = ma
acceleration.
416 = 80a
416
a=
80
= 5.2 m s−2 upwards
4. State the solution. Her acceleration at that instant is 5.2 m s–2 .
b. 1. If the jumper’s acceleration were constant, one b. v2 = u2 + 2as
of the constant acceleration formulae could be u = 16 m s−1 , v = 0, a = −5.2 m s−2 , s = ?
used to answer this question. Assign down as
positive for this part of the question as the
bungee jumper has a downwards initial
velocity and displacement during the time
period being considered.
2. Substitute the values into the formula and solve v2 = u2 + 2as
for s. 0 = 162 + 2 × −5.2 × s
0 = 256 − 10.4s
10.4s = 256
256
s=
10.4
≈ 24 m
3. State the solution. The bungee jumper will not stop in time.
However, don’t be upset. In practice, the
acceleration of the bungee jumper would not
be constant. The tension in the cord would
increase as she fell. Therefore, the net force
on her would increase and her upwards
acceleration would be greater in magnitude
than the calculated value. She will therefore
almost certainly come to a stop in a distance
considerably less than that calculated.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A 1200-kilogram sports car is testing its brakes by driving at a constant speed of 100 km h−1 and
then braking hard. To pass the test it needs to come to a complete stop in a distance of 50 metres.
If the friction is a constant 1000 N, what force do the brakes need to apply for the sports car to pass
the test?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
A waterskier of mass 80 kilograms, starting from rest, is pulled in a northerly direction by a
horizontal rope with a constant tension of 240 N. After 6 seconds, he has reached a speed of
12 m s−1 .
a. What is the net force on the skier?
b. If the tension in the rope were the only horizontal force acting on the skier, what would his
acceleration be?
c. What is the sum of the resistance forces on the skier?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. A good first step is to draw a labelled force a. Fg = mg
diagram. = 80 × 9.8
= 784 N
The force due to gravity can be calculated by
N
the formula Fg = mg.
Normal force = 784 N
Tension = 240 N
Resistance
forces
Force due to gravity = mg

= 784 N
2. The net force cannot be determined by adding v = u + at
the individual force vectors because the 12 = 0 + a × 6
resistance forces are not given, nor is there any 12
a=
information in the question to suggest that they 6
can be ignored. = 2 m s−2 north
To calculate the net force we will first need to
find the acceleration.
3. Use Newton’s second law to calculate Fnet = ma
the net force. = 80 × 2
= 160 N north
4. State the solution. The net force on the skier is 160 N north.

b. 1. As the vertical forces cancel out, the net force b. Fnet = 240 N north
is determined by the horizontal forces. If the
tension were the only horizontal force acting
on the skier it would be the net force.
the acceleration. 240 = 80a
240
a=
80
= 3 m s−2 north
3. State the solution. If the tension in the rope were the only
horizontal force acting on the skier, his
acceleration would be 3 m s–2 north.
c. 1. The sum of the resistance forces (friction c. sum of resistance forces = Fnet − tension
caused by the water surface and air resistance) = 160 N north − 240 N north
on the skier is the difference between the net = 80 N south
force and the tension.
2. State the solution. The sum of the resistance forces on the skier
is 80 N south.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
A loaded sled with a mass of 60 kilograms is being pulled across a level snow-covered field with a
horizontal rope. It accelerates from rest over a distance of 9 metres, reaching a speed of 6 m s−1 .
The tension in the rope is a constant. The frictional force on the sled is 200 N. Air resistance is
negligible.
a. What is the acceleration of the sled?
b. What is the magnitude of the tension in the rope?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The following velocity-versus-time graph describes the motion of a 45-kilogram girl on
rollerblades as she rolls on a horizontal concrete path for 6 seconds before crossing onto a rough
horizontal gravel path for the remaining 4 seconds.
a. What was the magnitude of the net force on the girl
on the concrete surface?
8
b. If the only horizontal force acting on the blades
Velocity (m s−1)
is the friction force applied by the path, what is the 6

value of the following ratio?
friction force of gravel path on rollerblades 4
friction force of concrete path on rollerblades

2
2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

THINK WRITE
rise
a. 1. The acceleration of the girl while a. a=
she was on the concrete surface is run
given by the gradient of the −2
=
corresponding section of the 6
velocity-versus-time graph. −1
= m s−2
3
2. Use Newton’s second law to Fnet = ma
calculate the magnitude of the net −1
force on the girl while on the = 45 ×
3
concrete surface. = −15 N
3. State the solution. The magnitude of the net force on the girl on the
concrete surface is –15 N.
friction force of gravel path on rollerblades
b. 1. If the only horizontal force acting b.
on the rollerblades is friction, the friction force of concrete path on rollerblades
net force on the girl is the same as Fnet on girl while on gravel
=
the friction force on the blades. Fnet on girl while on concrete
Fnet on girl while on gravel ma on gravel

2. Apply Newton’s second law and =
cancel out common terms. Fnet on girl while on concrete ma on concrete
a (during last 4 s)
=
a (during first 6 s)
a (during last 4 s) gradient (for last 4 s)
3. Use the gradient of the graph to =
evaluate the ratio of accelerations. a (during first 6 s) gradient (for first 6 s)
( −6 )
4
= ( −1 )
3
36
=
8
= 4.5
4. State the solution. The value of the ratio is 4.5.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
If the velocity-time graph in Sample problem 7 was applied to a car of mass 1200 kg on two road
surfaces, what net force (in magnitude) acts on the car during:
a. the first 6 seconds
b. the final 4 seconds?
10.4.2 Falling down

Objects that are falling (or rising) through the air in the atmosphere near the surface of Earth are subjected
to two forces — the force due to gravity and air resistance. The force due to gravity of the object is
effectively constant. The magnitude of the air resistance, however, is not constant. It depends on many

factors, including the object’s speed, surface area and density. It also depends on the density of the body
of air through which the object is falling. The air resistance is always opposite to the direction of motion.
The net force on a falling object of mass m and force due to gravity Fg can therefore be expressed as:
Fnet = ma (where a is the acceleration of the object)

Fg − air resistence = ma
When dense objects fall through small distances near the surface of the Earth it is usually quite reasonable
to assume that the air resistance is negligible. Thus:
Fg = ma
⇒ mg = ma (where g is the gravitational field strength)
⇒g=a
The acceleration of a body in free fall in a vacuum or where air resistance is negligible is equal to the
gravitational field strength. At the Earth’s surface, where g = 9.8 N kg−1 , this acceleration is 9.8 m s−2 .
The units N kg−1 and ms−2 are equivalent.
1 N = 1 kg m s−2
⇒ 1 N kg−1 = 1 kg m s−2 kg−1 (multiplying both sides by kg−1 )
⇒ 1 N kg−1 = 1 m s−2
TERMINAL VELOCITY
Terminal velocity is reached when the
forces acting on a falling object are FIGURE 10.12 Skydivers accelerate until the drag force equals
balanced and it stops accelerating. the force due to gravity, at terminal velocity.
When considering objects falling
vertically downwards in the atmosphere
near the surface of the Earth, the two
forces are air resistance or drag, FD FD
acting to oppose the motion of the
object and the force due to gravity,
Fg , acting vertically downwards.
The force due to gravity and air
resistance in balance when an object
is at terminal velocity.
The force due to gravity, Fg , depends Fg
only on the mass of the object, m, and
the gravitational field strength, g, which
can both be assumed to be roughly
constant during the fall of an object near the surface of Earth.
The air resistance or drag, FD , acting on an object depends on a number of factors:
• CD is the drag coefficient, which measures the ease with which air can move over an object. In simple
terms this indicates how streamlined an object is. This is a constant value for a particular object shape and
orientation and is often determined experimentally or via computer analysis.

−3
• 𝜌 is the air density measured in kg m , which can be assumed to be constant,
however, in reality it will vary with altitude, temperature, humidity and pressure. FIGURE 10.13
• v is the velocity that the object is moving through the air measured in m s .
−1 Forces acting on
• A is the cross-sectional or reference area that is perpendicular to the direction a falling object at
of motion of the object measured in m2 . For an object falling vertically this will terminal velocity
be the horizontal cross-section.
When terminal velocity occurs these two forces must be in balance (net force
is zero, acceleration is zero).
FD = Fg
FD = 1 CD ρv2A
1 2
CD 𝜌v2 A = mg
2
This can be rearranged to determine a relationship for the terminal velocity.
√
2mg
v=
CD 𝜌A
Provided that reasonable estimates can be made of the quantities involved,

this relationship can be used to calculate the theoretical terminal velocity of falling
objects. This can provide an interesting focus for an extended practical investigation. Fg = mg
If a bowling ball, a golf ball and a table tennis ball were dropped at the same instant from a height of
2 metres in a vacuum, they would all reach the ground at the same time. Each ball would have an initial
velocity of zero, an acceleration of 9.8 m s−2 and a downward displacement of 2 metres.
If, however, the balls are dropped either in a classroom or outside, the table tennis ball will reach the
ground a moment later than the other two balls.
The acceleration of each of the balls is:
FIGURE 10.14 A bowling ball, a golf ball and
Fnet a table tennis ball dropped from a height of
a=
m 2 metres. Which one would you expect to
mg − FD reach the ground first?
=
m
mg FD (where FD is air resistance)
= −
m m
FD
=g−
m
FD
is very small for the bowling ball and the golf ball.
m
Even though the air resistance on the table tennis ball is
F
small, its mass is also small and D is not as small as it is
m
for the other two balls.
WARNING: Do not drop a bowling ball from a height of 2 metres indoors. If you wish to try this
experiment, replace the bowling ball with a medicine ball and keep your feet out of the way!

Resources
Digital document Simulation of basketball throw (doc-0052)
Video eLesson Air resistance (eles-0035)
10.4 EXERCISE
1. What is an idealisation? Provide an example of an idealism that could be used to simplify a physics
problem.
2. When a space shuttle takes off, its initial acceleration is 3.0 m s−2 . It has an initial mass of about 2.2 × 106 kg.
(a) Determine the magnitude of the net force on the space shuttle as it takes off.
(b) What is the magnitude of the upward thrust as it takes off?
3. A 6 kilogram bowling ball and a 60 kilogram gold bar are dropped at the same instant from the third floor of
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Use Newton’s second law to explain why:
(a) they both reach the ground at the same time
(b) a 6 kilogram doormat dropped from the same location at the same time takes significantly longer to
reach the ground.
4. A bungee jumper with a mass of 70 kilograms leaps from a bridge.
(a) What is the force due to gravity acting on the bungee jumper?
(b) During which part of the jump is:
i. the upwards force on the jumper due to the tension in the bungee cord greater than force due to
gravity on the jumper
ii. the force due to gravity on the jumper greater than the upward pull of the bungee cord?
(c) What tension in the bungee cord is needed for the jumper to travel at a constant speed? Does this
occur at any time during the jump? Explain.
5. A car of mass 1200 kilograms starts from rest on a horizontal road with a forward driving force of 10 000 N.
The resistance to motion due to road friction and air resistance totals 2500 N.
(a) What is the magnitude of the net force on the car?
(b) What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the car?
(c) What is the speed of the car after 5 seconds?
(d) How far has the car travelled after 5 seconds?
6. A train of mass 8.0 × 106 kilograms travelling at a speed of 25 m s−1 is required to stop over a maximum
distance of 360 metres. What frictional force must act on the train when the brakes are applied if the train is
to do this?
7. A short-sighted skier of mass 70.0 kilograms suddenly realises while travelling at a speed of 12.0 m s−1
that there is a steep cliff 50.0 metres straight ahead. What frictional force is required on the skier if he is to
stop just before he skis off the edge of the cliff?
8. A physics teacher decides, just for fun, to stand on some bathroom scales (calibrated in newtons) in a lift.
The scales provide a measure of the force with which they push up on the teacher. When the lift is
stationary, the reading on the bathroom scales is 700 N. What will be the reading on the scales when
the lift is:
(a) moving upwards at a constant speed of 2.0 m s−1
(b) accelerating downwards at 2.0 m s−2
(c) accelerating upwards at 2.0 m s−2 ?
9. The cable holding a lift would break if the tension in it were to exceed 25 000 N. If the 480 kilograms lift has
a load limit of 24 passengers whose average mass is 70 kilograms, what is the maximum possible upwards
acceleration of the lift without breaking the cable?
10. A ball of mass 0.50 kilograms is thrown vertically upwards.
(a) What is the velocity of the ball at the top of its flight?
(b) What is the magnitude of the ball’s acceleration at the top of its flight?
(c) What is the net force on the ball at the top of its flight?


10.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

KEY CONCEPTS
F net
m
10.5.1 Forces in pairs

To explain the motion of everyday objects, Isaac Newton devised some basic principles. A key starting
point is the nature of force. Newton said that forces always act in pairs. Forces explain the interaction
between two objects. Each object acts on the other, so where there is one force by one object, there is
always another force by the other object.
Examples of forces in pairs include:
• bicycle back tyre. The action of the pedals push the tyre backwards against the road surface. The
frictional interaction between the tyre and the road results in a forward force by the road on the tyre.
• two suspended magnets. In the top diagram in figure 10.15b, each magnet is pushing the other away. In
the bottom diagram, each is pulling the other towards it.
• sitting in a chair. The normal force from the chair pushes up on the bones in the pelvis and the
compressed bone pushes down. This compression is what you feel when you are sitting.
FIGURE 10.15 Forces act in pairs
(a) (b) (c)
Fon bone by chair
A N N B
Fon A by B Fon B by A
A S N B
Fon tyre by road
Fon road by tyre Fon A by B Fon B by A Fon chair by bone

The pairing of these forces is apparent in the symmetry of their labels. If the label for one force is
Fon B by A , then the label for the other is Fon A by B . It is important to note that in these pairs of forces, the
forces act on different objects.
Newton not only identified forces acting in pairs, he also said that these two forces act in opposite
directions and are equal in magnitude or size. This statement became Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
Figure 10.15
Newton’s Third Law of Motion:

If object B applies a force to object A, then object A applies an equal and opposite force to object B.
→ →
Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
This symmetry between the pair of forces can be used to identify the other of the pair if only one is given.
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Skydiver spreadsheet (doc-0054)
REACTION OR NORMAL FORCE?

Some texts summarise Newton’s third law as ‘For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
This version is not preferred. The word ‘reaction’ here has a different meaning to its use in ‘normal force’.
The statement also implies one force in the pair is a response to the other, which is incorrect.
There are four forces acting as two force pairs FIGURE 10.16 Forces while sitting
when you sit on a comfortable chair. The Earth pulls
down on you, compressing the springs and foam, and Fon student by chair
the compressed springs and foam push up on you,
Chair pushes
compressing the bones in your pelvis. So, one force student.
pair is the upward push by the springs on you and the
downward push by the bones in your pelvis on the chair.
The second force pair is the Earth pulling down on you
and you pulling the Earth upwards.
The net force on a person sitting in a chair is the
vector sum of all the forces acting on the person. The
net force is zero because the upward push by the chair,
Fon student by chair , is balanced by the downward, and of
equal size, pull of the force of gravity, Fon chair by student .
Fon chair by student
Student pushes chair.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
Two ice skaters, Jack and Jill, push each other away.
The figure on the right shows the force on Jill by Jack with
a black arrow. Draw an arrow and label it to
show the force on Jack by Jill.
Fon Jill by Jack
THINK WRITE
1. Recall Newton’s Third Law of Motion. Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
2. Draw the force on Jack by Jill as an arrow of equal
length in the opposite direction.
Fon Jack by Jill
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Draw and label arrows for the other forces in the following force pairs.
a. b.
Fon boy by girl
Fon gas by rocket

c. d.
Fon apple by Earth

Fon ball by club
10.5.2 Moving forward

The rowing boat in figure 10.17 is propelled
FIGURE 10.17 This rowing team relies on a reaction
forward by the push of water on the oars. As the force to propel itself forward.
face of each oar pushes back on the water, the
water pushes back with an equal and opposite
force on each oar. The push by the oars, which
are held tightly by the rowers, propels the
rowers and their boat forward. A greater push
on the water results in a greater push on the oar.
In fact, none of your forward motion, whether
you are on land, water or in the air, could occur
without a third law force pair.
• When you swim, you push the water
backwards with your hands, arms and legs. The water pushes in the opposite direction, propelling you
forwards.
• In order to walk or run, you push your feet backwards and down on the ground. The ground pushes in
the opposite direction, pushing forwards and up on your feet.
• The forward driving force on the wheels of a car is the result of a push back on the road by the wheels.
• A jet or a propeller-driven plane is thrust forwards by air. The jet engines or propellers are designed to
push air backwards with a very large force. The air pushes forward on the plane with an equally
large force.
Resources
Video eLesson Newton’s laws (eles-0036)
Interactivity Newton’s laws (int-0055)

10.5 EXERCISE
1. Copy the following table into your workbook. Describe fully the missing half of the following force pairs.
Force 1 Pair of force 1

You push on a wall with the palm of your hand.
Your foot pushes down on a bicycle pedal.
The ground pushes up on your feet while you are standing.
The Earth pulls down on your body.
You push on a broken-down car to try to get it moving.
A hammer pushes down on a nail.
2. Label all of the forces in the following figures in the form Fon A by B .
(a) N (b)
Normal force Normal force
Friction
Tension
Resistance 30°
forces Fgy
Fgx
30°
Force due to gravity Force due to gravity
3. Identify the force pairs in the following figure.
4. Explain, in terms of Newton’s first and third laws, why a freestyle swimmer moves faster through the water
than a breaststroke swimmer.
5. A student says that the friction forces on the front and back tyres of a car are an example of Newton’s Third
Law of Motion. Is the student correct? Explain.


10.6 Forces in two dimensions
KEY CONCEPTS
F net
m
10.6.1 Vehicles on horizontal surfaces

The forces acting on a car being driven along a straight horizontal road are:
• force due to gravity. The force applied by the Earth on the car acts through the centre of mass, or
balancing point, of the car. This is normally closer to the front of the car than the back due to the
significant mass of the engine. A medium sized sedan containing a driver and passenger will
experience a force due to gravity of about 1.5 × 104 N.
• the normal force. The force applied on the car by the road is a reaction to the force applied on the road
by the car. A normal force pushes up on all four wheels. Its magnitude is normally greater at the front
wheels than the rear wheels. On a horizontal road, the sum of these normal forces has the same
magnitude as the force due to gravity. What do you think would happen if this were not the case?
• the driving force. This is provided by the road and is applied to the driving wheels. The driving wheels
are turned by the motor. In most cars, either the front wheels or the rear wheels are the driving wheels.
The motor of a four-wheel-drive vehicle turns all four wheels. As a tyre on a driven wheel pushes back
on the road, the road pushes forward on the tyre, propelling the car forward. The forward push of the
road on the tyre is a type of friction commonly referred to as traction, or grip. If the tyres do not have
enough tread, or the road is icy, there is not enough friction to push the car forward and the tyre slides
on the road. The wheel spins and the car skids. The car cannot be propelled forward as effectively.
Skidding also occurs if the motor turns the driving wheels too fast.
• road friction. This is the retarding force applied by the road on the tyres of the non-driving wheels.
The non-driving wheels of front-wheel-drive cars roll as they are pulled along the road by the moving
car. In older cars, the non-driving wheels are usually at the front. They are pushed along the road by
the moving car. Rolling friction acts on the non-driving wheels in a direction opposite to the direction
of the car’s movement. When the driving wheels are not being turned by the motor, rolling friction
opposes the forward movement of all four wheels. When the brakes are applied, the wheels to which
the brakes are attached are made to turn too slowly for the speed at which the car is moving. They are
no longer rolling freely. This increases the road friction greatly and the car eventually stops. If the
brakes are applied hard enough, the wheels stop completely, or lock, and the car goes into a skid. The
sliding friction that exists when the car is skidding is less than the friction that exists when the wheels
are rolling just a little.
• air resistance. The drag, or air resistance acting on the car, increases as the car moves faster. As a fluid
friction force, air resistance can be reduced by streamlining the vehicle.
The net force acting on the car in figure 10.18 is zero. It is therefore moving along the road at constant
speed. We know that it is moving to the right because both the air resistance and road friction act in a
direction opposite to that of motion. If the car were stationary, neither of these forces would be acting at all.
• If the driving force were to increase, the car would speed up until the sum of the air resistance and road
friction grew large enough to balance the driving force. Then, once again, the car would be moving at a
constant, although higher, speed.
• If the driver stopped pushing down on the accelerator, the motor would stop turning the driving wheels
and the driving force would become zero. The net force would be to the left. As the car slowed down,

the air resistance and road friction would gradually decrease until the car came to a stop. The net force
on the car would then be zero until such time as the driving force was restored.
FIGURE 10.18 Forces acting on a car. The state of motion of a front-wheel-drive car on a horizontal road
depends on the net force acting on it.
Air resistance, Fon car by air

Normal force,
Fon car by road
Normal force,
Fon car by road
Driving force,
Road friction, Fon tyre by road Fon tyre by road
Force due to gravity, Fon car by Earth
COMPUTER CONTROLLED BRAKE SYSTEMS

An anti-lock brake system (ABS) allows the
wheels to keep rolling no matter how hard the FIGURE 10.19 ABS on a motorcycle
brakes are applied. A small computer attached
to the braking system monitors the rotation of
the wheels. If the wheels lock and rolling stops,
the pressure on the brake pads (or shoes) that
stops the rotation is reduced briefly. This action
is repeated up to 15 times each second. Anti-
lock brake systems are most effective on wet
roads. However, even on a dry surface, braking
distances can be reduced by up to 20%.
When brakes in an older car without ABS are
applied too hard, as they often are when a driver
panics, the wheels lock. The resulting sliding
friction is less than the friction acting when the
wheels are still rolling. The car skids, steering
control is lost and the car takes longer to stop
than if the wheels were still rolling. Before ABS became commonplace, drivers were often advised to ‘pump’
the brakes in wet conditions to prevent locking. This involves pushing and releasing the brake pedal in quick
succession until the car stops. This, however, is very difficult to do in an emergency situation.
Since the advent of ABS, a myriad additional computer controlled systems have been developed to improve
safety when braking. One such system, often referred to as Brake Assist monitors the application of force to the
brake pedal to detect an emergency and apply additional brake pressure. More advanced systems use a range
of technology to monitor conditions on the road ahead and can warn the driver to apply the brakes and in some
systems even apply the brakes automatically if there is no driver response. The development of systems such
as these over recent decades has been a vital precursor to the rapid development of autonomous cars that is
underway at present.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 10.4 Static, sliding and rolling friction (doc-32309)

10.6.2 Vehicles on inclined planes
A car left parked on a hill will begin to roll down the hill with increasing speed if it is left out of gear and
the handbrake is off. Figure 10.20a shows the forces acting on such a car. In order to simplify the diagram,
all of the forces are drawn as if they were acting through the centre of mass of the car. The forces on the car
can then be modelled as acting on a single point. The direction of net force acting on the car is down the
hill. It is clear that the force of gravity is a major contributor to the downhill motion of the car.
FIGURE 10.20 (a) A simplified diagram of the forces acting on a car rolling down a slope (b) Vectors can be
resolved into components. In this case, the force due to gravity has been resolved into two components. The net
force is parallel to the slope.
(a) (b)
Normal force
Normal force
Road friction
Road friction
and air resistance
and air resistance
Components
Force due Force due of the force
to gravity to gravity due to gravity
It is often useful to divide vectors into parts called components. Figure 10.20b shows how the force
due to gravity can be broken up, or resolved, into two components — one parallel to the slope and one
perpendicular to the slope. Notice that the vector sum of the components is the force due to gravity. By
resolving it into these two components, two useful observations can be made:
1. The normal force is balanced by the component of force due to gravity that is perpendicular to the
surface. The net force has no component perpendicular to the road surface. This must be the case
because there is no change in motion perpendicular to the slope.
2. The magnitude of the net force is simply the difference between the magnitude of the component of
the force due to gravity that is parallel to the surface and the sum of the road friction and air resistance.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
A car of mass 1600 kilograms left parked on Normal force
a steep but rough road begins to roll down the
hill. After a short while it reaches a constant
speed. The road is inclined at 15° to the
horizontal. The car’s speed is sufficiently slow
that the air resistance is insignificant and can
be ignored. Determine the magnitude of 15° Road friction
the road friction on the car while it is rolling Fgy = Magnitude of normal
15° reaction force
at constant speed.
Force due
to gravity Fgx = Magnitude of road friction

THINK WRITE
1. Because the car is rolling at constant speed, the net Fnet = 0
force acting on it is zero.
2. As the net force is zero, the magnitude of the Friction = Fgx
friction must be equal to the magnitude of the force
due to gravity that is in the direction of the slope.
Fgx
3. The force due to gravity in the direction of the sin15° =
slope can be calculated using the trigonometric Fg
ratio sine. Fgx = Fg sin(15°)
4. The force due to gravity can be found using the Fg = mg
formula Fg = mg. = 1600 × 9.8
= 15 680 N
5. Substitute the force due to gravity into the formula Fgx = Fg sin(15°)
for Fgx . = 15 680 sin(15°)
≈ 4058 N
The road friction on the car is 4058 N.
Note: It is useful to consider the effect
on the net force of the angle of the
incline to the horizontal. If the angle
is greater than 15°, the component of
the force due to gravity parallel to the
slope increases and the net force will
no longer be zero. The speed of the
car will therefore increase. The
component of the force due to gravity
perpendicular to the slope decreases
and the normal force decreases by the
same amount.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
a. A 5000-kilogram truck is parked on a road surface inclined at an angle of 20° to the
horizontal. Calculate the component of the force due to gravity on the truck that is:
i. down the slope of the road
ii. perpendicular to the slope of the road.
b. In the case of the car in Sample problem 9, what is:
i. the component down the road surface of the normal force acting on it
ii. the normal force?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
A loaded supermarket shopping trolley with a total mass of 60 kilograms is left standing on a
footpath that is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. As the tired shopper searches for his
car keys, he fails to notice that the trolley is beginning to roll away. It rolls in a straight line down
the footpath for 9 seconds before it is stopped by an alert (and very strong) supermarket
employee. Find the:
a. speed of the shopping trolley at the end of its roll
b. distance covered by the trolley during its roll.
Assume that the footpath exerts a constant friction force of 270 N on the runaway trolley.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a diagram to show the three forces acting on a. Normal force
the shopping trolley. Air resistance is not included
Friction
as it is negligible. The forces should be shown as
acting through the centre of mass of the loaded
trolley as in the figure on the right. The components 30°
of the force due to gravity, which are parallel and Fgy
perpendicular to the footpath surface, should also Fgx

be shown on the diagram. 30°
Force due to gravity = mg
= 588 N
2. Calculate the net force. Fnet = Fgx − friction
= mg sin(30°) − 270 N
= 588 N sin(30°) − 270 N
= 294 N − 270 N
= 24 N
3. Use Newton’s second law to calculate the Fnet = ma
acceleration.
24 = 60a
24
a=
60
= 0.4 m s−2 down the slope
4. Use a constant acceleration formula to calculate the v = u + at
final speed. = 0 + 0.4 × 9
= 3.6 m s−1
5. State the solution. The speed of the trolley at the end of
its roll is 3.6 m s−1 .
1
b. 1. Use a constant acceleration formula to calculate the b. s = ut + at2
distance covered by the trolley. 2
1
= 0 + × 0.4 × 92
2
= 16.2 m
2. State the solution. The trolley travels 16.2 metres before
it is stopped.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
A cyclist rolls freely from rest down a slope inclined at 20° to the horizontal. The total mass of the
bicycle and cyclist is 100 kilograms. The bicycle rolls for 12 seconds before reaching a horizontal
surface. The surface exerts a constant friction force of 300 N on the bicycle.
a. What is the net force on the bicycle (including the cyclist)?
b. What is the acceleration of the bicycle?
c. What is the speed of the bicycle when it reaches the horizontal surface?
Resources
Video eLesson Motion down an inclined plane (eles-0034)
Weblink Inclined plane
10.6.3 Connected objects

In many situations, Newton’s laws need to be applied to more than one body.
Figure 10.21 shows a small dinghy being pulled by a larger boat. The forces acting on the larger boat are
labelled in red, while the forces acting on the small dinghy are labelled in green. Newton’s second law can be
applied to each of the two boats separately.
FIGURE 10.21 The forces acting on each of the two boats
Normal force
Normal force Resistance

Resistance forces
forces Tension Tension Thrust
Force due to gravity
Figure 10.22 shows only the forces acting on the whole system of the two boats and the rope joining
them. When Newton’s second law is applied to the whole system, the system is considered to be a
single object.
FIGURE 10.22 The forces acting only on the whole system. The system consists of the two boats and the rope
joining them.
Normal force
on both boats
Resistance System
forces on Thrust
both boats

The thrust that acts on the larger boat and the system is provided by the water. The propeller of the larger
boat pushes back on the water and the water pushes forwards on the propeller blades. The only force that
can cause the small dinghy to accelerate forward is the tension in the rope.
If the tension in the rope is greater than the resistance forces on the dinghy, the dinghy will accelerate. If
the tension in the rope is equal to the resistance forces on the dinghy, it will move with a constant velocity.
If the tension in the rope is less than the resistance forces on the dinghy, it will slow down. That is, its
acceleration will be negative.
The rope pulls back on the larger boat with the same tension that it applies in a forward direction on the
small dinghy. This is consistent with Newton’s third law. Through the rope, the larger boat pulls forward on
the small dinghy with a force that is equal and opposite to the force with which the small dinghy pulls on
the large boat.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
A car of mass 1400 kilograms towing a trailer of mass 700 kilograms accelerates at a constant
rate on a horizontal road. A thrust of 5400 N is provided by the forward push of the road on the
driving wheels of the car. The road friction on the car is 800 N, while that on the trailer is 400 N.
The air resistance on both the car and the trailer is negligible. Determine the:
a. acceleration of both the car and trailer
b. force with which the trailer is pulled by the car (labelled P in the figure in the solution).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a diagram to show the forces a. Direction of motion Normal force
acting on the car and trailer.
Normal force
P P
Driving force
Road friction Road friction
Force due
to gravity
Force due
to gravity
2. Consider the car and trailer as a Fnet = driving force − road friction (car)
system. The acceleration of the car − road friction (trailer)
and trailer can be calculated using = 5400 N − 800 N − 400 N
Newton’s second law if the net force = 4200 N
on the system is known.
the acceleration. 4200 = 2100a
4200
a=
2100
= 2 m s−2 to the right
4. State the solution. The acceleration of both the car and trailer is 2 m s−2
to the right.

b. 1. Calculate the force with which the b. Fnet = ma
trailer is pulled by the car, P, by P − 400 = 700 × 2
considering the net force on the P = 700 × 2 + 400
trailer. P = 1800 N
2. State the solution. The force with which the trailer is pulled by the car is
1800 N.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
A boat of mass 2000 kilograms tows a small dinghy of mass 100 kilograms with a thick rope. The
boat’s propellers provide a forward thrust of 4700 N. The total resistance forces of air and water on
the boat and dinghy system amount to 400 N and 100 N respectively.
a. What is the acceleration of the boat and dinghy?
b. What is the net force on the dinghy?
c. What is the magnitude of the tension in the rope?
10.6 EXERCISE
1. A ball rolls down a hill with an increasing speed.
(a) Draw a diagram to show all of the forces acting on the ball.
(b) What is the direction of the net force on the ball?
(c) What is the largest single force acting on the ball?
(d) When the ball reaches a horizontal surface, it slows, eventually coming to a stop. Explain, with the aid
of a diagram, why this happens.
2. When you try to push a broken-down car with its handbrake still on, it does not move. What other forces
are acting on the car to produce a net force of zero?
3. Redraw figure 10.18 for a car with rear-wheel drive. Normal force
4. A cyclist of mass 60 kilograms is riding up a hill inclined at 30° to the
horizontal at a constant speed. The mass of the bicycle is 20 kilograms. D
The figure on the right shows the forces acting on the bicycle–cyclist 10 N
system.
(a) What is the net force on the bicycle–cyclist system?
(b) What is the magnitude of the component of the weight of the
800 N
system that is parallel to the road surface?
(c) The sum of the magnitudes of the road friction and air resistance 30°
on the system is 10 N. What is the magnitude of the driving force D? Not to scale
(d) What is the magnitude of the normal force on the bicycle–cyclist system?
5. An experienced downhill skier with a mass of 60 kilograms (including skis) is moving down a slope inclined
at 30° with increasing speed. She is moving in a straight line down the slope.
(a) What is the direction of the net force on the skier?
(b) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the skier. Show all of the forces as if they were acting
through her centre of mass.
(c) What is the magnitude of the component of the skier’s force due to gravity that is parallel to the slope?
(d) If the sum of the forces resisting the movement of the skier down the slope is 8 N, what is the
magnitude of the net force on her?
6. A skateboarder of mass 60 kilograms accelerates down a slope inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
Her acceleration is a constant 2.0 m s−2 . What is the magnitude of the friction force resisting her motion?
7. A roller-coaster carriage (and occupants) with a total mass of 400 kilograms rolls freely down a straight
track inclined at 40° to the horizontal with a constant acceleration. The frictional force on the carriage is a
constant 180 N. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the carriage?

8. A skateboarder of mass 56 kilograms is rolling freely
down a straight incline. The motion of the skateboarder
is described in the graph on the right.
6
(a) What is the magnitude of the net force on the
Speed (m s−1)
skateboarder?
(b) If the friction force resisting the motion of the 4
skateboarder is a constant 140 N, at what angle is the
slope inclined to the horizontal?
9. What force provides the forward force that gets you moving 2
when you are:
(a) ice skating
(b) downhill skiing 0
2 4 6 8
(c) waterskiing Time (s)
(d) skateboarding
(e) swimming
(f) rowing?
10. Front-wheel-drive cars have a number of advantages over rear-wheel-drive cars. Compare and comment
on the forces acting on the tyres in the two different types of car while being driven at a constant speed on
a horizontal road.
11. The magnitude of the force due to air resistance, R, on a car of mass 1200 kilograms can be approximated
by the formula R = 0.6v2 , where R is measured in newtons and v is the speed of the car in m s−1 .
(a) Design a spreadsheet to calculate the magnitude of the force of air resistance and the net force on a car
for a range of speeds as it accelerates from 20 km h−1 to 50 km h−1 on a horizontal road. Assume that,
while accelerating, the driving force is a constant 1800 N and the road friction on the non-driving
wheels is a constant 300 N.
(b) Use your spreadsheet to plot a graph of the net force versus speed for the car.
(c) Modify your spreadsheet to show how the net force on the car changes when the same acceleration
from 20 km h−1 to 60 km h−1 is undertaken while driving down a road at an angle of 10° to the
horizontal.
12. A well-coordinated rollerblader is playing with a yoyo while accelerating on a
horizontal surface. When the yoyo is at its lowest point for several seconds, it
makes an angle of 5° with the vertical. Determine the acceleration of the rollerblader.
13. A student argues that since there are friction forces on the front and back wheels
of a bike that act in opposite directions, the bike cannot move. Explain how the
bike moves.
5°
14. Two loaded trolleys of masses 3.0 kilograms and 4.0 kilograms, which are joined by
a light string, are pulled by a spring balance along a smooth, horizontal laboratory
bench as shown in the following figure. The reading on the spring balance is 14 N.
3.0 kg 4.0 kg
(a) What is the acceleration of the trolleys?

(b) What is the magnitude of the tension in the light string joining the two trolleys?
(c) What is the net force on the 4.0 kilogram-trolley?
(d) What would be the acceleration of the 4.0 kilogram trolley if the string was cut?
15. A warehouse worker applies a force of 420 N to
push two crates across the floor as shown in the
figure on the right. The friction force opposing the
motion of the crates is a constant 2.0 N for each
kilogram.
(a) What is the acceleration of the crates?
(b) What is the net force on the 40-kilogram crate?
(c) What is the force exerted by the
40-kilogram crate on the 30-kilogram crate?

(d) What is the force exerted by the 30-kilogram crate on the 40-kilogram crate?
(e) Would the worker find it any easier to give the crates the same acceleration if the positions of the two
blocks were reversed? Support your answer with calculations.

10.7 Momentum and impulse

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply concepts of momentum to linear motion: p = mv.
∆p
• Explain changes in momentum as being caused by a net force: F net = .
∆t
10.7.1 Momentum
How difficult is it to stop a moving object? How difficult is it to make a stationary object move? The answer
to both of these questions depends on two physical characteristics of the object:
• the object’s mass
• how fast the object is moving, or how fast you want it to move.
The product of these two physical characteristics is called momentum.
The momentum, p⃗ , of an object of mass m with a velocity v ⃗ is defined as:

p⃗ = m v ⃗
Momentum is a vector quantity and has SI units of kg m s−1 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
What is the momentum of a train of mass 8 × 106 kilograms that is travelling at a speed of
15 m s−1 in a northerly direction?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for momentum. p = mv
2. Substitute the mass and velocity in p = mv
to find the momentum. = 8 × 106 × 15
= 1.2 × 108 kg m s−1
3. State the solution. The momentum of the train is 1.2 × 108 kg m s−1 north.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
A car of mass 1200 kilograms travels east with a constant speed of 15 m s−1 . It then undergoes a
constant acceleration of 3 m s−2 for 2 seconds. What is the momentum of the car:
a. before it accelerates
b. at the end of the 2 seconds acceleration?
10.7.2 Impulse
Making an object stop, or causing it to start moving, requires a non-zero net force. The relationship between
the net force applied to an object and its momentum can be explored by applying Newton’s second law to
the object.
Fnet = ma
( )
∆v
⇒ Fnet = m
∆t
⇒ Fnet ∆t = m∆v
The product Fnet ∆t is called the impulse of the net force. The impulse of any force is defined as the
product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity with SI units
of N s.
m∆v = m(v − u)
= mv − mu
= p f − pi
Where:
pf = the final momentum of the object
pi = the initial momentum of the object.
Thus, the effect of a net force on the motion of an object can be summarised by the statement: impulse =
change in momentum.
In fact, when translated from the original Latin, Newton’s second law reads:
The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and is in the direction
of the net force.
This is expressed algebraically as:
∆p
Fnet ∝
∆t
∆p
⇒ Fnet = k
∆t
The SI unit of force, the newton, has been defined so that the constant of proportionality, k, equals 1.
Thus:
∆p
⇒ Fnet =
∆t.
The effect of a net force on the motion of an object can be summarised by the statement:
impulse = change in momentum

⃗
F net Δt = mΔ v ⃗

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
A 30-gram squash ball hits a wall horizontally at a speed of 15 m s−1 and bounces back in the
opposite direction at a speed of 12 m s−1 . It is in contact with the wall for an interval of
1.5 × 10−3 seconds.
a. What is the change in momentum of the squash ball?
b. What is the impulse on the squash ball?
c. What is the magnitude of the force exerted by the wall on the squash ball?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Change in momentum is calculated from the a. pi = mu
initial and final momentums. = 0.03 × 15
Consider towards the wall as the positive = 0.45 kg m s−1
direction. (Note: This decision is arbitrary, you pf = mv
could choose the positive direction to be away = 0.03 × −12
from the wall, your answer will have the same
= −0.36 kg m s−1
magnitude but opposite sign.)
Δp = pf − pi
= −0.36 − 0.45
= −0.81 kg m s−1
2. State the solution. The change in momentum of the squash
ball is 0.81 kg m s –1 away from the wall.
b. 1. Impulse of the net force on the squash ball = b. I = Δp
change in momentum of the squash ball. = −0.81 N s−1
2. State the solution. The impulse on the squash ball is
0.81 N s−1 away from the wall.
Δp
c. 1. Recall the formula for the net force. c. Fnet =
Δt
Δp
2. Substitute the change in momentum and change Fnet =
in time into the equation to find the net force. Δt
−0.81
=
1.5 × 10−3
= 540 N
3. State the solution. The magnitude of the force exerted by the
wall on the squash ball is 540 N.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
During a crash test a 1400-kilogram car travelling at 16 m s−1 collides with a steel barrier and
rebounds with an initial speed of 4.0 m s−1 before coming to rest. The car is in contact with the
barrier for 1.4 seconds. What is the magnitude of:
a. the change in momentum of the car during contact with the barrier
b. the impulse applied to the car by the barrier
c. the force exerted by the barrier on the car?

Resources
Digital document Investigation 10.5 Impulse, momentum and Newton’s Second Law of Motion (doc-31880)
10.7.3 Impulse from a graph

The force that was determined in Sample problem 13 was actually the average force on the squash ball. In fact,
the force acting on the squash ball changes, reaching its maximum magnitude when the centre of the squash
ball is at its smallest distance from the wall. The impulse (I) delivered by a changing force is given by:
I = Fav ∆t
If a graph of force versus time is available, the impulse can be determined from the area under the graph. (You
might recall that the displacement of an object can be determined by calculating the area under its velocity-
versus-time graph — and displacement = vav ∆t. Similarly, the change in velocity of an object can be determined
by calculating the area under its acceleration-versus-time graph — and change in velocity = aav ∆t.)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14
The following graph describes the changing horizontal force on a 40-kilogram ice skater as she
begins to move from rest. Estimate her velocity after 2 seconds.
400
300
C
Force (N)
200
A
100 B
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)

THINK WRITE
1. The magnitude of the magnitude of impulse = area A + area B + area C
impulse on the skater can be 1 1
= × 1.1 × 400 + 0.9 × 200 + × 0.9 × 200
determined by calculating 2 2
the area under the graph. = 220 + 180 + 90
= 490 N
2. Use the formula for impulse I = Δp
to calculate the change in I = mΔv
velocity. 490 = 40Δv
490
Δv =
40
= 12.25 m s−1
3. State the solution. As the skater started at rest, her velocity after 2 seconds will
be equal to the change in velocity.
The skater’s velocity after 2 seconds is 12.25 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 14
Consider the motion described in Sample problem 14.
a. Estimate the velocity of the skater after 1.1 seconds.
b. What is the acceleration of the skater during the first 1.1 seconds?
c. What constant force would produce the same change in velocity after 2.0 seconds?
10.7.4 Follow through

Players of ball games are often advised to ‘follow through’. The force is
FIGURE 10.23 Golfers are
then applied to the ball by the bat, racquet, club, stick or arm for a larger
advised to ‘follow through’.
time interval. The impulse, F∆t, is larger and the change in momentum, The force is applied to the
∆p, is therefore larger. Consequently, the change in velocity of the ball as ball for a longer time, giving it
a result of the applied force is greater. more momentum.
10.7.5 Protecting that frail human body

The human body does not cope very well with sudden blows. The
skeleton provides a fairly rigid frame that protects the vital organs
inside and, with the help of your muscles, enables you to move.
A sudden impact to your body, or part of your body, can:
• push or pull the bones hard enough to break them
• tear or strain the ligaments that hold the bones together
• tear or strain muscles or the tendons that join muscles to bones
• push bones into vital organs like the brain and lungs
• tear, puncture or crush vital organs like the kidneys, liver and spleen.
The damage that is done depends on the magnitude of the net force
and the subsequent acceleration to which your body is subjected. In any
collision, the net force acting on your body, or part of your body, can be
expressed as:
∆p
Fnet =
∆t

The symbol ∆p represents the change in momentum of the part FIGURE 10.24 Gloves make it possible
of your body directly affected by that net force. The magnitude for wicketkeepers to catch a solid cricket
of your change in momentum is usually beyond your control. ball travelling at high speed without
For example, if you are sitting in a car travelling at 100 km h−1 severe pain and bruising.
when it hits a solid concrete wall, the magnitude of the change
in momentum of your whole body during the collision will be
your mass multiplied by your initial speed. When you land on a
basketball court after a high jump, the magnitude of the change
in momentum of each knee will be its mass multiplied by its
speed just as your feet hit the floor. You have no control over
your momentum.
You do, however, have control over the time interval during
which the momentum changes. If ∆t can be increased, the
magnitude of the net force applied to you will be decreased.
You can do this by:
• bending your knees when you land after jumping in sports
such as netball and basketball. This increases the time
interval over which your knees change their momentum,
and decreases the likelihood of ligament damage
• moving your hand back when you catch a fast-moving ball in sports such as cricket. The ball changes its
momentum over a longer time interval, reducing the force applied to it by your hand. In turn, the equal
and opposite force on your hand is less
• wearing gloves and padding in sports such as baseball, softball and gridiron. Thick gloves are essential
for wicketkeepers in cricket, who catch the solid cricket ball while it is travelling at speeds up to
150 km h−1
• wearing footwear that increases the time interval during which your feet stop as they hit the ground.
This is particularly important for people who run on footpaths and other hard surfaces. Indoor basketball
and netball courts have floors that, although hard, bend a little, increasing the period of impact of
running feet.
DON’T BE AN EGGHEAD
After bicycle helmets became compulsory in Victoria in July 1990, the
number of head injuries sustained by cyclists decreased dramatically. FIGURE 10.25 Helmets save
Bicycle helmets typically consist of an expanded polystyrene liner about lives and prevent serious injury
2 centimetres thick, covered in a thin, hard, polymer shell. They are in many activities.
designed to crush on impact.
In a serious bicycle accident, the head is likely to collide at high speed
with the road or another vehicle. Even a simple fall from a bike can result
in the head hitting the road at a speed of about 20 km h−1 . Without the
protection of a helmet, concussion is likely as the skull decelerates and
collides with the brain because of the large net force on it. If the net force
and subsequent deceleration is large enough, the brain can be severely
bruised or torn, resulting in permanent brain damage or death. The effect
is not unlike that of dropping a soft-boiled egg onto a hard floor.
Although a helmet does not guarantee survival in a serious bicycle
accident, it does reduce the net force applied to the skull, and therefore
increases the chances of survival dramatically. The polystyrene liner of
the helmet increases the time interval during which the skull changes its
momentum.
Helmets used by motorcyclists, as well as in horse riding, motor racing,
cricket and many other sports, all serve the same purpose — to increase
the time interval over which a change in momentum takes place.

BUCKLE UP
Seatbelts are a relatively new introduction to vehicles, with Victoria being one of the first places in the world to
make wearing them compulsory in 1970. Their introduction and the increasing emphasis on vehicle safety over
recent decades has drastically reduced the number of fatalities.
In a collision a car comes to a stop rapidly. An occupant not wearing a seatbelt continues at the original speed
of the car (as described by Newton’s first law) until acted on by a non-zero net force. An unrestrained occupant
therefore moves at speed until:
• colliding with part of the interior of the car, stopping even more rapidly than the car itself, usually over a
distance of only several centimetres
• crashing through the stationary, or almost stationary, windscreen into the object collided with, or onto
the road
• crashing into another occupant closer to the front of the car.
An occupant properly restrained with a seatbelt stops with the car. In a typical suburban crash, the acceleration
takes place over a distance of about 50 centimetres. The rate of change of the momentum of a restrained
occupant is much less. Therefore, the net force on the occupant is less.
The addition of airbags to complement seatbelts has further improved occupant safety. Airbags provide an
additional means of restraining the occupant and reducing the force experienced.
As well as increasing the time interval over which the occupant comes to a stop, the combination of seatbelts
and airbags:
• spreads the force over a larger area of the body
• reduces the likelihood of a collision between the body and the interior of the vehicle
• keeps the occupant in an aligned position, reducing injuries to vulnerable areas such as the neck, as well
as stopping them from crashing through the windscreen.
COMPUTER CRASH MODELLING

Automotive engineers use computer modelling during
the design and development of new vehicles to FIGURE 10.26 Engineers use computers to
investigate the effectiveness of safety features. This model collisions to design and develop features
sort of crash modelling takes place long before the that improve the safety characteristics of cars.
first prototype is built and the first physical crash tests Computer modelling takes place long before the
take place. real crash tests are performed.
Computer crash modelling has resulted in
improvements to front and side structural design and
to internal safety features such as seatbelt and airbag
systems. Modelling crashes allows the investigation of
a wide range of collision types, including full frontal,
offset frontal, angled frontal and pole or barrier;
collisions between trucks and cars; and rear impacts.
The possibilities are endless. The computer models
are then verified with the crash testing of real vehicles.
During side-impact modelling, the computer is
used to test thousands of combinations of seatbelt,
cushioning and airbag designs. For each test, the
computer can be set up to calculate the forces acting
on occupants, estimate the severity of injuries and
compare results with other design solutions.
One aspect of design that can be tested is the sensor that triggers airbags to inflate. Complex calculations
and comparisons are performed by a microprocessor within the sensing module before it ‘decides’ whether or
not to trigger the airbags. The crash events that are modelled to develop the airbag sensors include high- and
low-speed collisions, full-frontal and angled-frontal impacts and pole- or tree-type collisions.

CARS THAT CRUMPLE
Modern cars are designed to crumple at the front
FIGURE 10.27 A vehicle that has undergone a roof
and rear. This provision increases the time interval
crush test
during which the momentum of the car changes
in a collision, further protecting its occupants from
death or serious injury.
Even though the front and rear of the car crumple,
the passenger compartment is protected by a
rigid frame. The engine is also surrounded by
rigid structures that prevent it from being pushed
into the passenger compartment. The tendency
of the roof to crush is currently being reduced by
increasing the thickness of the windows, using
stronger adhesives and strengthening the structure
of the roof panel and pillars.
The inside of the passenger compartment is
also designed to protect occupants. Padded
dashboards, collapsible steering wheels and
airbags are designed to reduce the rate of change of momentum of occupants in the event of a collision. Interior
fittings like switches, door knobs and handbrakes are sunk so that the occupants do not collide with them.
10.7 EXERCISE
1. A 1400-kilogram car travels at 60 km h−1 east. Calculate the momentum of the car.
2. Make an estimate to one significant figure of the magnitude of each of the following.
(a) The average net force on a car while it is accelerating from 0 to 40 km h−1 in 3.2 seconds
(b) The magnitude of the air resistance on an 80 kg skydiver who has reached a terminal velocity of
200 km h−1
(c) The momentum of an Olympic class athlete participating in the 100-metre sprint event
(d) The momentum of a family car travelling at the speed limit along a suburban street
(e) The impulse that causes a 70-kilogram football player who is running at top speed to stop abruptly as
he collides with a goal post that he didn’t see
(f) The impulse applied to a netball by a goal shooter as she pushes it up towards the goal at a speed of
5 m s−1
(g) The change in momentum of a tennis ball as it is returned to the server in a Wimbledon final
3. A 60 gram tennis ball is bounced vertically onto the ground. After reaching the ground with a downwards
velocity of 8.0 m s−1 , the ball rebounds with a velocity of 6.0 m s−1 vertically upwards.
(a) What is the change in momentum of the tennis ball?
(b) What is the impulse applied by the tennis ball to the ground? Explain how you obtained your answer
without any information about the change in momentum of the ground.
(c) Does the ground actually move as a result of the impulse applied by the tennis ball? Explain your
answer.
(d) If the tennis ball is in contact with the ground for 2.0 × 10−3 s, what is the average net force on the
tennis ball during this interval?
(e) What is the average normal force during this time interval?
4. A 75-kilogram basketballer lands vertically on the court with a speed of 3.2 m s−1 .
(a) What total impulse is applied to his feet by the ground?
(b) If the basketballer’s speed changes from 3.2 m s−1 to zero in 0.10 seconds, what total force does the
ground apply to his feet?
(c) Estimate the height from which the basketballer fell to the court.

5. A car with a total mass of 1400 kilograms (including occupants) travelling at 60 km h−1 hits a large tree and
stops in 0.080 seconds.
(a) What impulse is applied to the car by the tree?
(b) What force is exerted by the tree on the car?
(c) What is the magnitude of the deceleration of the 70-kilogram driver of the car if he is wearing a properly
fitted seatbelt?
6. Airbags are fitted to the centre of the steering wheel of many new cars. In the event of a sudden
deceleration, the airbag inflates rapidly, providing extra protection for a driver restrained by a seatbelt.
Explain how airbags reduce the likelihood of serious injury or death.
7. Joggers are advised to run on grass or other soft surfaces rather than concrete paths or bitumen roads to
reduce the risk of knee and other leg injuries. Explain why this is so.
8. The graph on the right shows how the
horizontal force on the upper body of Occupant without seatbelt Occupant with seatbelt
10 000
Horizontal force on
each of two occupants of a car changes
occupant (N)
as a result of a head-on collision. One 8000
occupant is wearing a seatbelt while
the other is not. Both occupants are 6000
stationary 0.10 seconds after the initial 4000
impact.
(a) What is the horizontal impulse on the 2000
occupant wearing the seatbelt?
(b) If the mass of the occupant wearing the 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
seatbelt is 60 kilograms, determine the
Time (s)
speed of the car just before the
initial impact.
(c) Is the occupant who is not wearing the seatbelt heavier or lighter than the other (more sensible)
occupant?
(d) Write a paragraph explaining the difference in shape between the two curves on the graph.
9. The graph on the right shows how the upward
push of the court floor changes as a 60-kilogram
Upward push of court floor (N)
basketballer jumps vertically upwards to complete a 1600

slam dunk.
(a) What is the impulse applied to the basketballer
1200
by the floor?
(b) With what speed did the basketballer leave
the ground? 800
(c) What was the average force exerted on the
basketballer by the floor during the 400
0.10 second interval?
(d) Explain why the initial upward push of the floor
is not zero. 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
10. A well-known politician makes the suggestion that if
Time (s)
cars were completely surrounded by rubber ‘bumpers’
like those on dodgem cars, they would simply bounce off each other in a collision and passengers would
be safer. Discuss the merits of this suggestion in terms of Newton’s laws of motion.


10.8 Torque
KEY CONCEPT
• Calculate torque: 𝜏 = r⊥ F.
10.8.1 Torque or the turning effect of a force

So far the explanation of forces and motion has treated objects as if they are a single point, or as if the force
acts through the middle of the object; that is, its centre of mass. However, nature is more complicated than
this. Friction acts at the rim of the front tyre of a bike to make it roll, the thigh muscle straightens the leg, a
billiard cue hits the bottom edge of a ball to make it spin backwards, the wind blows over a tree, a pull on a
handle opens the door. All these actions involve rotation, and a force has made the object turn.
The turning effect of a force is called a torque. The symbol for torque is 𝜏, the Greek letter tau. Torque is
always measured about a particular point. In some situations, the point about which an object will rotate is
obvious (such as in a see-saw), and it may be referred to as a pivot or fulcrum.
FIGURE 10.28 Examples of torque being applied
r⊥
Wheel rolls forward
Friction resists sliding
The size of a torque about a point or pivot is determined by the product of two factors:
• the size of the force, ⃗
F
• the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the pivot, r⟂ .
𝜏 ⃗ = r⊥ ⃗
F
As a product of force and distance, torque has the units of newton metre (N m). It is also
a vector, but because its effect is rotation, the direction of the vector is set by a rule.
The rule is:
If the rotation in the plane of the page is clockwise, the direction of the vector is into the page.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 15
A torque wrench is used to
tighten nuts onto their bolts
to a specific tightness or force.
A torque wrench has a handle
(black in the photo on the right)
on one end and a socket that fits over a nut on the other end. In between is a scale that gives a
reading in Newton metres.
The scale on a torque wrench has a reading of 30 Newton metres. If the hand applying the
force is 30 centimetres from the end, what is the size of the force by the hand on the wrench?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for calculating torque. 𝜏 = r⊥ F
2. Substitute the torque and perpendicular distance 30 = 0.3 × F
into the equation to find the force applied. 30
F=
0.3
F = 100 N
3. State the solution. The force by the hand on the wrench
is 100 N.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 15
The handle of a torque wrench is hollow so an extension rod can be inserted. If you can exert only
30 N of force, how far along the extension rod from the handle should you place your hand to achieve
a torque of 30 N m?
10.8 EXERCISE
1. (a) A mechanic applies a force of 200 N to a wheel nut using a shifter. The perpendicular distance from
where they apply the force to the nut is 25 centimetres. What torque are they applying to the nut?
(b) The mechanic is unable to loosen the nut using the torque applied. Suggest two ways that they could
increase the torque in this situation.
2. A lever is used to apply a torque of 20 N m about a pivot point. The perpendicular distance is 0.25 metres
between the application of the force and the pivot point. What is the applied force?
3. There are myriad examples of everyday situations where we use devices that have a lever of some form to
increase the torque that we apply. Examples include door handles, car steering wheels, electric motors,
push bike pedals, wrenches, wheelbarrows, bottle lids. For one of these examples, or another that you can
identify, estimate the force applied and the perpendicular distance to calculate an estimate of the torque
involved.
4. Sam is standing at the right-hand end of the seesaw shown in the
following figure. He places a bag on the seesaw and then begins
walking up the plank to the left. Describe what happens as he walks
towards, and then beyond, the fulcrum.


10.9 Equilibrium
KEY CONCEPT
• Investigate and analyse theoretically and practically translational forces and torques in simple structures
that are in rotational equilibrium.
10.9.1 Equilibrium or keeping still

Earlier in this topic, ‘keeping still’ meant not moving. If the net
FIGURE 10.29 A zero net force can
force was zero and the object was at rest, it would stay still. The cause rotation.
forces were considered as acting on a single point. However, if the
forces act at different points on the object, it is possible to have a net
Nozzle
force of zero, but the object can still spin. In figure 10.29 the force
upwards equals the force downwards, so the net force is zero, but Steam
Pivot
the sphere rotates. In this case there is a net torque. The torques of
the two forces about the centre add together.
In cases such as car engines and electric motors, the production of
a torque is essential for rotation and movement. But torque, and the Steam rises
through tubes
rotation and movement it causes, can be detrimental. In bridges and
building, the torque effect of a force can’t be avoided, but needs to Water heated
be controlled if the structure is to remain standing. Such structures
need to be designed so that not only is the net force equal to zero,
but the net torque is also zero, and importantly this is true about
every point in the structure.
For a structure to be in equilibrium, two conditions need
to apply.
1. Translational equilibrium: net force = zero
2. Rotational equilibrium: net torque about any point = zero
10.9.2 Strategy for solving problems involving torque

Questions regarding torque will often involve determining the value of two forces, so the solution will require
generating two equations, which can then be solved simultaneously.
First, draw a diagram with all the forces acting on the structure. Label each force. If its size is given in the
question, write the value, for example, 10 N. If the size of the force is unknown, use a symbol such as F or R.

1. Using translational equilibrium: net force = zero
It is easier to break this into two simpler tasks such as:
a. sum of forces up = sum of forces down
b. sum of forces left = sum of forces right
2. Using rotational equilibrium: net torque about any point = zero
Choose a point about which to calculate the torques.
Any point is acceptable, however, it can make solving the problem easier if you choose a point through
which an unknown force acts. The torque of this force about that point will be zero as its line of action
passes through the point, so that unknown will be effectively eliminated from this equation.
sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
Now you will have two equations with two unknowns: one equation from the net force and one from the net
torque. You can then solve the equations simultaneously to determine the unknown quantities.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 16
Where should person 1 sit to balance the seesaw?
R
Person 1 Person 2
Fg2
600 N
Fg1
800 N
d 2m
THINK WRITE
1. To satisfy equilibrium, both the sum Fnet = 0
of the forces acting on the seesaw 𝜏 net = 0
and the sum of the torques must
equal zero.
2. Consider the net force equilibrium. R = 800 + 600
The sum of the upwards forces R = 1400 N upwards
must equal the sum of the
downwards forces.
3. Consider the net torque, taking the 𝜏 net = 0
torques about the fulcrum at the ⇒ sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
centre.
600 × 2 = 800 × d
1200
d=
800
= 1.5 m
4. State the solution. To balance the seesaw person 1 must sit 1.5 metres to
the left of the fulcrum.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 16
The following seesaw is balanced. Calculate the mass of person 1.
R
Person 1 Person 2
Fg2
600 N
Fg1
3.2 m 2.0 m
SAMPLE PROBLEM 17
Consider the painter’s plank supported between two
trestles shown. The plank behaves as a simple bridge or
R1
beam and the weight of the painter must be transferred
R2
through the plank to the two trestles. The mass
of the beam is 40 kilograms, the mass of the painter
is 60 kilograms and she is a quarter of the distance
from trestle 1. What is the magnitude of the reaction Fgp
forces R1 and R2 ?
Fgb
Trestle 1 Trestle 2
L
THINK WRITE
1. For the structure to be stable, the Fnet = 0
sum of the forces and the sum of 𝜏 net = 0
the torques must both equal zero.
2. Consider the net force. The sum R1 + R2 = 40 × 9.8 + 60 × 9.8
of the upwards forces must equal = 980 N
the sum of the downwards forces.
3. Consider the net torque, taking 𝜏 net = 0
the torques about trestle 1. ⇒ sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
1 1
40 × 9.8 × L + 60 × 9.8 × L = R2 × L
2 4
1 1
40 × 9.8 × + 60 × 9.8 × = R2
2 4
196 + 147 = R2
R2 = 343 N

4. Substitute the value of R2 into the R1 + R2 = 980
equation for the net force. R1 + 343 = 980
R1 = 980 − 343
R1 = 637 N
5. State the solution. The magnitude of R1 is 637 N and R2 is 343 N.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 17
A eucalyptus tree, 15 metres high and with a 200 centimetre diameter, was pulled over until it failed.
The applied load was 6.0 kN m about the base of the tree.
a. If the root ball of the tree has an average depth of 0.80 metres, what is the size of the force by
the soil on the root ball at the point of failure?
b. If the rope pulling on the tree was attached halfway up the tree, calculate the size of the force
at the point of failure:
i. in the rope (assuming the rope is horizontal)
ii. by the ground at the base of the tree.
10.9.3 Types of structures: cantilevers

A cantilever is a beam with one end free to move. A diving board, flagpole and a tree are examples of cantilevers.
The diving board in figure 10.30 is supported by an upward force, R1 , from the bracket. The force due
to gravity acts down through the middle of the board at a point further out. If these were the only forces
on the diving board, the board would rotate anticlockwise. To prevent this rotation, the other end of the
bracket pulls down on the diving board. The board is bolted to each end of the bracket. At which end are the
bolts not needed?
The tree in figure 10.31 is buffeted by winds from
the left. The soil on the right at the base of the tree FIGURE 10.31 A tree buffeted by winds is a
is compressed and pushes back to the left. The cantilever.
combination of these two forces pushes the roots of Force on tree by wind
the tree to the left, and the soil to the left of the roots
pushes back to the right.
FIGURE 10.30 A diving board is an example of a

cantilever.
R1 (compression)
Tension
Force on tree
by surface
Force due to gravity, mg
Force on tree (roots) by soil

10.9 EXERCISE
1. A truck crosses a concrete girder bridge (as shown in the 20 m
figure on the right). The bridge spans 20 metres and is
supported at each end on concrete abutments.
(a) Describe what happens to the reaction at each abutment
as the truck moves across the bridge from left to right.
(b) The truck weighs 12 tonne. Calculate the reaction at
12 t
each support when the centre of gravity of the truck is
4 metres from the right abutment.
2. A person standing on the outside edge of the cantilevered balcony shown in the following figure
walks inside.
(a) Explain what forces are necessary to support the balcony.

(b) As the person walks across the balcony, describe what happens to the reaction at the support.
3. The truck crane in the following figure is able to lift a 20-tonne load at a radius of 5 metres. If the weight of
the truck is evenly distributed, how heavy must the truck be if it is not to tip over? Assume the weight of the
truck is uniformly distributed.
5m
1.8 m 1.8 m
20 t

4. The pedestrian bridge spanning the creek in the following figure weighs 2 kN. Calculate the reaction at each
end when the three people are in the positions shown.
5.0 m
4.0 m
2.0 m
600 N 200 N
800 N
6.0 m
5. How far beyond the edge of the boat can Pirate Bill walk along the plank before it tips and he falls into the
water? The 6-metre long plank weighs 800 N and Pirate Bill weighs 500 N.
6m
4m
500 N
800 N


10.10 Review
10.10.1 Summary
• Forces are used to model interactions between objects.
• Force is a vector quantity.
• Force due to gravity is a measure of the force on an object due to the pull of gravity.
• The force due to gravity on an object is directly proportional to its mass.
• A free body diagram depicts all external forces acting upon an object.
• The vector sum of the forces acting on an object is called the net force.
• The velocity of an object can change only if a non-zero net force acts on it. This statement is an
expression of Newton’s First Law of Motion.
• When a non-zero net force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the net force.
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion describes the relationship between the acceleration of an object, the
net force acting on it and the object’s mass. It can be expressed as Fnet = ma.
• When an object applies a force to a second object, the second object applies an equal and opposite force
to the first object: Fon A by B = –Fon B by A . This statement is an expression of Newton’s Third Law
of Motion.
• The forces acting on a moving vehicle are:
– force due to gravity, acting down through the centre of mass
– the normal force, applied perpendicular to the surface of the road
– the driving force, applied in the direction of motion by the road
– road friction, applied to the non-driving wheels opposite to the direction of motion
– air resistance, applied opposite to the direction of motion.
• Newton’s second law can be applied to a single object or a system of multiple bodies that are in contact
or connected together.
• The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity, p = mv.
• The impulse delivered to an object by a force is the product of the force and the time interval during
which the force acts on the object, I = F∆t.
• The impulse delivered by the net force on an object is equal to the change in momentum of the object.
This can be expressed as Fnet ∆t = m∆v.
• The impulse delivered by a force can be found by determining the area under a graph of force
versus time.
• The damage done to the human body during a collision depends on the magnitude of the net force and
subsequent acceleration the body is subjected to.
• The net force on a human body during a collision can be decreased by increasing the time interval
during which the body’s momentum changes. Increasing the time interval to reduce the net force, and
hence damage, to the human body is used to advantage in many sports and in road safety.
• Torque is a measure of the turning effect of a force and is calculated as 𝜏 = r⊥ F.
• Translational equilibrium occurs when all forces acting on an object are in balance.
• Rotational equilibrium occurs when all torques acting on an object are in balance.
Resources

10.10.2 Key terms
Air resistance is the force applied to an object, opposite to its direction of motion, by the air through which it is
moving.
The centre of mass of an object is the point at which all of its mass can be considered to be.
Components are parts. Any vector can be resolved into a number of components. When all the components are
added together, the result is the original vector.
A force is a push or a pull. Forces model interactions between objects. Force is a vector quantity.
The force due to gravity is the force applied to an object, due to gravitational attraction.
Friction is the force applied to the surface of an object when it is pushed or pulled against the surface of another
object.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the force of gravity on a unit of mass.
An idealisation makes modelling a phenomenon or event easier by assuming ideal conditions that don’t exactly
match the real situation.
The impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. Impulse is a vector
quantity.
Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and its velocity. It is a vector quantity.
A quantity that is negligible is so small that it can be ignored when modelling a phenomenon or an event.
The vector sum of the forces acting on an object is called the net force.
The normal force is a force that acts perpendicularly to a surface as a result of an object applying a force to the
surface.
Resources
Investigation 10.1
The relationship between mass and the force due to gravity
Aim: To examine the relationship between the force due to gravity and mass
Investigation 10.2
Friction
Aim: To observe differences in friction when a wooden block is pulled
across a surface
Investigation 10.3
Force as a vector
Aim: To show that force is a vector and that the net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object; To
analyse the forces acting on an object by resolving the forces into components
Investigation 10.4
Static, sliding and rolling friction
Aim: To compare the relative sizes of different forms of friction

Investigation 10.5
Impulse, momentum and Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Aim: To measure and record the velocity of the trolley (or glider) at two separate instants as the load is falling

• Compare the accuracy of different methods of determining g.
• Investigate the friction of running shoes or of a towel falling off a rack.
• Investigate the compression and tension behaviour of plasticine.
• A wet rag is hard to drag when it is spread out and pulled across the floor. What does the resistive force
depend on?
• Design and test a safety helmet for a papier mâché ‘egg’.
Resources
10.10 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
In answering the following questions, assume the magnitude of the gravitational field strength near the
Earth’s surface is 9.8 N kg−1 .

1. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?
A. Force
B. Mass
C. Acceleration
D. Momentum
2. Which of the following forces would be acting on a basketball falling through the air during a game of
basketball?
A. Gravity
B. Normal force
C. Net force
D. Air resistance
3. Which of the following is not at rest or in a uniform state of motion?
A. A car travelling along a highway at a constant velocity using cruise control
B. A rocket sitting motionless on the launch pad
C. A ladder leaning against a wall
D. A train accelerating uniformly as it departs a station
4. An object of mass 43 kilograms has a net force of 86 N applied to it. Calculate its acceleration.
A. 9.8 m s−2
B. 0.50 m s−2
C. 2.0 m s−2
D. 1.6 m s−2

5. Which of the following is not a Newton’s third law pair of forces?
A. The force of a book on a table and the force of the table on the book
B. The normal force on someone sitting in a chair and the force of gravity on them
C. The force of a car tyre on the road and the force of the road on the car tyre
D. The force due to gravity of the Earth on you and the force due to gravity of you on the Earth
6. A car of mass 2250 kilograms is travelling at 20 m s−1 . Calculate its momentum.
A. 45 000 kg m s−1
B. 4500 kg m s−1
C. 1125 kg m s−1
D. 112.5 kg m s−1
7. A tennis ball of mass 58 grams experiences a change in velocity of 155 km h−1 when struck by a racquet
during a serve. Calculate the change in momentum it experiences.
A. 90 kg m s−1
B. 9 kg m s−1
C. 25 kg m−1
D. 2.5 kg m s−1
8. A car of mass 1850 kilograms is travelling at 8 m s−1 around a carpark when it collides with a parked car.
The collision lasts 0.2 seconds, after which the car has come to a complete stop. Determine the
magnitude of the average force acting on the car.
A. 9250 N
B. 74 000 N
C. 2960 N
D. 14 800 N
9. Some engineering students are discussing ways to reduce the force acting on a car during a collision.
Based on your understanding of impulse and momentum, which of the following will not be effective in
reducing the force acting on the car?
A. Reduce the initial speed of the car (using more effective braking or lowered speed limits).
B. Decrease the mass of the car (through better structural design and material selection).
C. Reduce the duration (time taken) for the collision.
D. All of the above will be effective.
10. A student sits at the end of pipe attached to a shifter to apply a force of 735 N at a perpendicular distance
of 125 centimetres from a wheel nut that they are struggling to undo. Calculate the torque applied to
the nut.
A. 93.8 N m
B. 9380 N m
C. 919 N m
D. 91 900 N m

1. As part of a practical investigation a physics student rolls objects horizontally off the edge of a table and
records the motion of their fall onto the floor below. Identify the forces that will be acting on these
objects during their fall to the floor. For each force you identify, describe the interaction it represents and
the likely direction of the force.
2. A rear-wheel-drive car is accelerating forwards along a horizontal road surface. Draw and label a
complete diagram of all external forces acting on the car.
3. A child pulls along a toy on a piece of string at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. They apply a
force of 25 N along the string. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of this force.

4. The following forces are acting on ropes used in a four-way tug of war (as viewed from above) as part of
a school athletics carnival. Resolve all of the forces into north–south or east–west components and
determine the size and direction of the net force.
3400 N
North
15° 10°
2500 N 3000 N
2400 N
5°
5. A sports car of mass 1645 kilograms accelerates at 9.6 m s−2 . Determine the net force that would be
required to produce this acceleration.
6. The Falcon Heavy rocket produces approximately 2.2 × 106 N of thrust during the first moments of
liftoff. If the acceleration of the rocket at this instant is 1.57 m s−2 , calculate its mass.
7. A piano is falling through the air near the surface of Earth. It has a mass of 410 kilograms.
a. At a particular instant during its fall, the force of air resistance acting to oppose its fall is 2400 N.
Calculate its acceleration at this instant.
b. Determine the magnitude of air resistance force that would be required for the piano to reach a
constant velocity during its fall.
8. A removalist is pushing two heavy boxes across the floor of their truck. The horizontal forces acting on
the boxes are shown in the following diagram.
a. Calculate the acceleration of the boxes.
b. Calculate the compression force acting between the two boxes.
Push by removalist
Box B
Box A 50 kg 175 N
25 kg
Total friction from floor
40 N
9. A tennis ball is travelling at 65 m s−1 towards a player’s racquet an instant before it collides with it. A
moment later, the ball leaves the racquet travelling at 33 m s−1 in the opposite direction. Assume that the
ball has a mass of 57 grams.
a. Determine the change in momentum that the ball experiences during this collision.
b. Assuming that the collision duration is 0.0020 seconds, determine the average force applied by the
racquet on the ball during the collision.
10. The following graph is a simplified representation of the force applied by a trampoline on an acrobat over
the duration of a single rebound. Use this graph to determine the impulse applied to the acrobat.
1200
Force (N)
0 0.15 0.3
Time (s)

Question 1 (1 mark)
Consider the example of a textbook at rest on a table. Explain why the normal force acting on the book and
the force due to gravity are not a Newton’s third law pair of forces.
A cycle tourist is towing all of their camping equipment, clothes and food behind their pushbike in a bike
trailer. Whilst pedalling at a reasonable pace they produce a driving force of 172 N acting forwards from the
rear wheel of their bike. The road friction and air resistance opposing the motion of the bike and trailer is equal
to 34 N acting backwards (20 N on the bike and 14 N on the trailer). The total mass of the cyclist and bike is
95 kilograms. The total mass of the trailer and all of its payload is 20 kilograms. Determine the tension force
in the link between the trailer and the bike.
A small rocket of mass 2500 kg is launched up along an inclined ramp at an angle of 42° from the horizontal.
During the launch, the rocket engine provides a constant thrust of 18 000 N. Determine the acceleration of the
rocket during its launch. It is reasonable to consider air resistance and friction to be negligible in this situation.
During a standardised car crash test, a vehicle of mass 1980 kilograms is travelling at 64.0 km h−1 when it
strikes a barrier. The car rebounds and is travelling at 12.0 km h−1 in the opposite direction immediately after
the collision. The duration of the collision with the barrier is 160 milliseconds. Determine the average force
exerted by the car on the barrier during the collision.
A truck of mass 14 500 kilograms is crossing a bridge over a small river. The bridge span is 40.0 metres
between the two supports. The bridge has a total mass of 46 000 kilograms, with its centre of gravity exactly
in the middle of its span. Determine the reaction at each of the supports when the centre of mass of the truck is
9.00 metres from the right-hand support.
40 m
9m

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1
11 Energy and motion

11.1 Overview
11.1.1 Introduction
What happens when a ball is dropped from a height of 1 metre? Depending on the type of ball, and the
surface it is bounced on, there will be a variety of different answers, but could a ball ever rebound to a
greater height than it started at? The answer to this question is based on the conservation of energy, a law
of nature which is inherent to the world we live in.
In this topic we will learn about the different forms of energy and how it can be transferred from one
form to another. These transfers allow energy from the food we eat to be turned into mechanical energy,
powering the body throughout the day.
FIGURE 11.1 In this collision the kinetic energy of a car is transferred into many other forms of energy. Energy
from the car is used up as the car’s front is deformed and a large amount of energy is transferred to the object
it collides with, the road and the particles of air around the car. Some of the energy is transferred into sound
and heat.

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• apply the concept of work done by a constant force using:
• work done = constant force × distance moved in direction of force: W = Fs
• work done = area under force-distance graph
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically Hooke’s Law for an ideal spring: F = −k∆x
• analyse and model mechanical energy transfers and transformations using energy conservation:
• changes in gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface: Eg = mg∆h
1
• potential energy in ideal springs: Es = k∆ x2
2
1 2
• kinetic energy: Ek = mv
2
E
• analyse rate of energy transfer using power: P =
t
useful energy out
• calculate the efficiency of an energy transfer system: 𝜂 =
total energy in
• analyse impulse (momentum transfer) in an isolated system (for collisions between objects moving in a
straight line): I = ∆p
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically momentum conservation in one dimension.

Resources
11.2 Impulse and momentum

KEY CONCEPTS
• Analyse impulse (momentum transfer) in an isolated system (for collisions between objects moving in a
straight line): I = ∆p.
• Investigate and analyse theoretically and practically momentum conservation in one dimension.
11.2.1 Impulse and momentum in collisions

When two objects, A and B, collide with each other, each object exerts a force on the other. These two
forces are an example of Newton’s Third Law of Motion. The two forces act on different objects, are equal
in magnitude and act in opposite directions.
TOPIC 11 Energy and motion 375

The collision starts at some point in time and finishes at another point in time. The symbol Δt represents
the duration of the collision. From Newton’s point of view, both objects measure the same duration.
Multiplying Fon B by A by ∆t gives Fon B by A ∆t, which is the impulse on B by A. This impulse produces
a change in momentum, but whose momentum? A or B? Because it is the impulse by A on B, it is B’s
momentum that is changed.
⃗
F on B by A Δt = Ion B by A = Δ pB⃗
Similarly, the force on A by B produces a change in A’s momentum.

⃗
F on A by B Δt = Ion A by B = Δ pA⃗
Forces are actions by one object on another, but momentum can be said to be a quantity an object has,
even if it is a vector. So a force acting for a time changes how much momentum an object has.
In a collision, the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. So the changes in
momentum of A and B are also equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Δ p⃗ B = −Δ pA⃗
Because momentum is a quantity, this statement can be interpreted as ‘the momentum that B gains
equals the momentum that A loses’. This is the basis of a conservation principle. Total momentum is
conserved.
The ‘change’ in something is always the ‘final’ value minus the ‘initial’ value, or what is added to the
‘initial’ value to get the ‘final’.
Δp = pfinal − pinitial or pfinal = pinitial + Δp
For object B: ΔpB = pB final − pB initial
For object A: ΔpA = pA final − pA initial
So, from the above relationship:
ΔpB = −ΔpA
pB final − pB initial = − pA final − pA initial
( )
Putting the initial momenta together gives:
pA final + pB final = pA initail + pB initial
sum of momentum after = sum of the momentum before

Total momentum is conserved.
From this analysis it can be seen that the conservation of momentum is a logical consequence of
Newton’s third law.
The interaction between objects A and B can be summarised as follows.
• The total momentum of the system remains constant.
• The change in momentum of the system is zero.
• The change in momentum of object A is equal and opposite to the change in momentum of object B.

FIGURE 11.2 The net force on this system of two blocks is zero; therefore, momentum is conserved.
pA pB
Before the collision

A
B
pA + pB
During the collision FA A

FB
B
pAB
After the collision A
The total momentum of the system pAB after the collision is the same as the total momentum of the system before and
during the collision.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Consider the collision illustrated in figure 11.2. Block A has a mass of 5 kilograms, block B has a
mass of 3 kilograms and each block has a speed of 4 m s−1 before the collision. After the collision,
the blocks move off together. Friction may be ignored.
a. Determine the velocity of the blocks after the collision.
b. What is the change in momentum of each of the blocks?
c. What is the impulse on block A during the collision?
d. Determine the final velocity of block B if, instead of moving off together, block A rebounds
to the left with a speed of 0.5 m s−1 .
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the formula for conservation of a. pA + pB = pA+B
momentum.
2. Calculate the momentum of each block pA + pB = mA vA + mB vB
to find pA + pB . Take right as the = 5 × 4 + 3 × −4
positive direction. = 20 − 12
= 8 kg m s−1 to the right
3. Use the formula for conservation of pA+B = pA + pB
momentum to find the velocity of the mA+B vA+B = 8
blocks after the collision. (5 + 3)v = 8
v = 1 m s−1

4. State the solution. The velocity of the blocks after the collision is
1 m s−1 to the right.
b. 1. Consider block A only. b. ΔpA = mA ΔvA
= 5(1 − 4)
= 5 × −3
= −15 kg m s−1
= 15 kg m s−1 to the left
2. ΔpB should be 15 kg m s−1 to the right ΔpB = mB ΔvB
since the change in momentum of the = 3(1 − (−4))
whole system is zero. To confirm this, =3×5
consider block B alone. = 15 kg m s−1 to the right
3. State the solution. The change in momentum of each of the blocks
is 15 kg m s−1 .
c. 1. Impulse is equal to the change in c. The impulse on block A is equal to the change in
momentum. momentum of block A: 15 kg m s−1 to the left.
d. 1. By conservation of momentum d. pAf + pBf = 8
pA + pB = 8 kg m s−1 . 5 × −0.5 + 3vBf = 8
−2.5 + 3vBf = 8
3vBf = 10.5
10.5
vBf =
3
vBf = 3.5 m s−1 to the right
2. State the solution. The final velocity of block B if, instead of
moving off together, block A rebounds to the
left with a speed of 0.5 m s−1 is 3.5 m s−1 to
the right.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Consider a collision in which a model car of mass 5 kilograms travelling at 2 m s−1 in an easterly
direction catches up to and collides with an identical model car travelling at 1 m s−1 in the same
direction. The cars lock together after the collision. Friction can be assumed to be negligible.
a. What was the total momentum of the two-car system before the collision?
b. Calculate the velocity of the model cars as they move off together after the collision.
c. What is the change in momentum of the car that was travelling faster before the collision?
d. What is the change in momentum of the car that was travelling slower before the collision?
e. What was the magnitude of impulse on both cars during the collision?
f. How are the impulses on the two cars different from each other?

11.2.2 Modelling real collisions
The Law of Conservation of Momentum makes it possible to predict the consequences of collisions
between two cars or between two people on a sporting field. For example, if a 2000-kilogram delivery
van travelling at 30 m s−1 (108 km h−1 ) collided with a small, stationary car of mass 1000 kilograms, the
speed of the tangled wreck (the two vehicles locked together) could be predicted. However, you would
need to assume that the frictional forces and driving force acting on both cars were zero after the collision.
A reasonably good estimate can be made of the speed of the tangled wreck immediately after the collision
in this way.
The initial momentum p⃗ i of the system is given by:
p⃗ van + pcar
⃗ = 2000 kg × 30 m s−1 + 0 kg m s−1
= 60 000 kg m s−1
Where the initial direction of the van is taken to be positive.
The momentum of the system after the collision pf is the momentum of just one object — the
tangled wreck:
pf = 3000 kg × v
where v is the velocity of the tangled wreck after the collision.

But since pf = pi :
3000 kg × v = 60 000 kg m s−1
60 000 kg m s−1
⇒v=
3000 kg
= 20 m s−1
The speed of the small car changes a lot more than the speed of the large van. However, the change in the
momentum of the car is equal and opposite to that of the van.
Δpcar = 1000 kg × 20 m s−1 − 0 kg m s−1

= 20 000 kg m s−1
Δpvan = 2000 kg × 20 m s−1 − 2000 kg × 30 m s−1
= 40 000 kg m s−1 − 60 000 kg m s−1
= −20 000 kg m s−1
If the small car hit the stationary van at a speed of 30 m s−1 , and the two vehicles locked together, the
speed of the tangled wreck would be less than 20 m s−1 . Apply the Law of Conservation of Momentum to
predict the speed of the tangled wreck immediately after this collision.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 11.1 Simulating a collision (doc-31878)
Teacher-led video Investigation 11.1 Simulating a collision (tlvd-0823)

11.2 EXERCISE
1. Explain in terms of the Law of Conservation of Momentum how astronauts walking in space can change
their speed or direction.
2. A physics student is experimenting with a low-friction trolley on a smooth horizontal surface. Predict the final
velocity of the 2-kilogram trolley in each of the following two experiments.
(a) The trolley is travelling at a constant speed of 0.6 m s−1 . A suspended 2 kilograms mass is dropped onto
it as it passes.
(b) The trolley is loaded with 2 kilograms of sand. As the trolley moves with an initial speed of 0.6 m s−1 , the
sand is allowed to pour out through a hole behind the rear wheels.
3. Two stationary ice skaters, Catherine and Lauren, are facing
each other and use the palms of their hands to push each other
in opposite directions. Catherine, with a mass of 50 kilograms,
moves off in a straight line with a speed of 1.2 m s−1 . Lauren
moves off in the opposite direction with a speed of 1.5 m s−1 .
(a) What is Lauren’s mass?
(b) What is the magnitude of the impulse that results in Catherine’s
gain in speed?
(c) What is the magnitude of the impulse on Lauren while the girls
are pushing each other away?
(d) What is the total momentum of the system of Catherine and
Lauren just after they push each other away?
(e) Would it make any difference to their final velocities if they
pushed each other harder? Explain.
4. Nick and his brother Luke are keen rollerbladers.
Nick approaches his stationary brother at a speed of
2.0 m s−1 and bumps into him. As a result of the collision Nick,
who has a mass of 60 kilograms, stops moving and Luke, who
has a mass of 70 kilograms, moves off in a straight line. The
surface on which they are ‘blading’ is smooth enough that
friction can be ignored.
(a) With what speed does Luke move off?
(b) What is the magnitude of the impulse on Nick as a result of
the bump?
(c) What is the magnitude of Nick’s change in momentum?
(d) What is the magnitude of Luke’s change in momentum?
(e) How would the motion of each of the brothers after their interaction
be different if they pushed each other instead of just bumping?
(f) If Nick held onto Luke so that they moved off together, what
would be their final velocity?
5. An unfortunate driver of mass 50 kilograms travelling on an icy road in her 1200-kilogram car collides with a
stationary police car of total mass 1500 kilograms (including occupants). The tangled wreck moves off after
the collision with a speed of 7.0 m s−1 . The frictional force on both cars can be assumed to be negligible.
(a) At what speed was the unfortunate driver travelling before her car hit the police car?
(b) What was the impulse on the police car due to the collision?
(c) What was the impulse on the driver of the offending car (who was wearing a properly fitted seatbelt) due
to the impact with the police car?
(d) If the duration of the collision was 0.10 seconds, what average net force was applied to the police car?
6. The Law of Conservation of Momentum can be written as ∆pB = −∆pA , which equates the change in
momentum of two different objects, A and B.
Newton’s third law is often expressed as Fon B by A = −Fon A by B . Although this equation looks very similar to a
law of conservation, no such law exists for forces. Explain why this is the case.


11.3 Work and energy

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply the concept of work done by a constant force using:
• work done = constant force × distance moved in direction of force: W = Fs
• work done = area under force-distance graph.
11.3.1 The concept of energy

A lot has already been said about energy in previous topics of this text. The word energy is used often
in everyday language. Try writing down your own definition of energy. Look up a dictionary — any
dictionary — to find out what it means. Most dictionaries and some physics textbooks define energy as the
capacity to do work. The term work is defined as the quantity of energy transferred when an object moves
in the direction of a force applied to it. These definitions do not, however, provide a clear understanding of
what energy actually is.
Energy is a concept — an idea — that is used to describe and explain change. The following list of some
of the characteristics of energy provides some clues as to what it really is.
• All matter possesses energy.
• Energy takes many different forms. It can therefore be classified. Light, internal energy, kinetic energy,
gravitational potential energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy are some of the different forms of
energy. The names given to different forms of energy sometimes overlap. For example, light is an
example of radiant energy. Gamma radiation could be described as nuclear energy or radiant energy.
Sound energy and electrical energy involve kinetic energy of particles.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed. This statement is known as the Law of Conservation of
Energy. The quantity of energy in the universe is a constant. However, nobody knows how much
energy there is in the universe.
• Energy can be stored, transferred to other matter or transformed from one form into another.
• Some energy transfers and transformations can be seen, heard, felt, smelt or tasted.
• It is possible to measure the quantity of energy transferred or transformed. However, many energy
transfers and transformations are not observable and therefore cannot be measured.
The concept of energy allows us to keep track of the changes that take place in a system. The system
could be the universe, Earth, your home, the room you are in, your body or a car.

11.3.2 Getting down to work
Energy can be transferred to or from matter in several different ways. It can be transferred by:
• emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation or nuclear radiation
• heating or cooling as the result of a temperature difference
• the action of a force on an object resulting in movement.
An interaction that involves the transfer of energy by the action of a force is called a mechanical
interaction.
When mechanical energy is transferred to or from an object, the amount of mechanical energy transferred
is called work.
The work (W) done when a force ( ⃗

F ) causes a displacement ( s ⃗ ) in the direction of the force is
defined as:
work = magnitude of the force × magnitude of displacement in the direction of the force
W=⃗
F s⃗
Work is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of work is the joule. One joule of work is done when a force of
magnitude of 1 newton (N) causes a displacement of 1 metre in the same direction of the force. That is:
1J = 1N × 1m
= 1Nm
It is important to remember that work is always done by a force acting on something.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A shopper pushes horizontally on a loaded supermarket trolley of mass 30 kilograms with a force
of 150 N to move it a distance of 5 metres along a horizontal, straight path. The friction force
opposing the motion of the trolley is a constant 120 N. How much work is done on the trolley by:
a. the force applied by the shopper
b. the net force
c. the shopper to oppose the friction force?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the formula for work done. a. W = Fs
= 150 × 5
= 750 J
2. State the solution. 750 J of work is done on the trolley by the
force applied by the shopper.
b. 1. Calculate the net force on the trolley, then b. Fnet = 150 − 120
use the formula for work done. = 30 N
W = Fnet s
= 30 × 5
= 150 J
new force.

c. 1. The force applied to oppose the friction is c. W = Fs
equal to the friction force. = 120 × 5
Use this force to calculate the work done. = 600 J
shopper to oppose the friction force.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
A warehouse worker pushes a heavy crate a distance of 2 metres across a horizontal concrete floor
against a constant friction force of 240 N. He applies a horizontal force of 300 N on the crate. How
much work is done on the crate by:
a. the warehouse worker
b. the net force?
11.3.3 Force-versus-distance graphs

The work done by a force can be calculated from a force-versus-displacement, or force-versus-distance
graph. For this to be applicable the force presented in the graph and the displacement must be in the same
direction.
The work done is equal to the area under the force-versus-distance graph.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A filing cabinet is pushed in a straight line across the floor of an office during some spring
cleaning. The force applied in the direction of its motion and its displacement are recorded in the
graph provided. Determine the work done.
150
Force (N)
0
1 2 3
Distance (m)
THINK WRITE
1. The work done can be calculated by the area under W = area under graph
the graph.
1 1
2. The area of a trapezium is (a + b)h where a and b W= (3 + 1) 150
2 2
are the lengths of the horizontal sides and h is the
= 300 J
height.
3. State the solution. 300 J of work is done.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A spring is used in an old fashioned pinball machine to launch the ball from a rest position into
the arcade game. The following graph shows the force applied to the ball by the spring during this
motion against the distance travelled in the direction of the force. Determine the work done.
50
Force (N)
0
5 10 15
Distance (cm)
11.3 EXERCISE
1. A box is pushed across the floor with force as shown in the following force-versus-displacement graph.
Calculate the work done to push the box 25 metres.
300
Force (N)
200
100
0
5 10 15 20 25
Distance (m)
2. How much work is done on a 4-kilogram brick as it is pushed a distance of 1.5 metres by a net force
of 40 N?
3. Imagine that you are trying to push-start a 2000-kilogram truck with its handbrake on. How much work are
you doing on the truck?
4. A toddler swings her fluffy toy by a string around in circles at a constant speed. How much work does she
do on the toy in completing:
(a) one full revolution
(b) half of a full revolution?
studyON: Practice questions


11.4 Energy transfers
KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate and analyse theoretically and practically Hooke’s Law for an ideal spring: F = −k∆x.
• Analyse and model mechanical energy transfers and transformations using energy conservation:
• changes in gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface: Eg = mg∆h
1
• potential energy in ideal springs: Es = k∆x2
2
1 2
• kinetic energy: Ek = mv .
2
11.4.1 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object. By imagining how much energy it
would take to stop a moving object, it can be deduced that kinetic energy depends on the mass and speed of
the object.
A formula for kinetic energy can be deduced by recalling Newton’s First Law of Motion:
Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non-zero net force.
The kinetic energy of an object can change only as a result of a non-zero net force acting on it in the
direction of motion. It follows that the change in kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done on
it by the net force acting on it. If an object initially at rest is acted on by a net force of magnitude Fnet and
moves a distance s (which will necessarily be in the direction of the net force), its change in kinetic energy
∆Ek can be expressed as:
∆Ek = Fnet s
The quantity of kinetic energy it possesses is:
Ek = Fnet s
because the initial kinetic energy was zero.
Applying Newton’s second law (Fnet = ma) to this expression:
Ek = mas
where m is the mass of the object.
The movement of the object can also be described in terms of its initial velocity v and its final velocity u.
The magnitudes of the quantities a, s, v and u are related to each other by the equation:
v2 = u2 + 2as
If the object acquires a speed v as a result of the work done by the net force:
v2 = 2as since u = 0
v2
⇒ as =
2
Substituting this into the expression for kinetic energy:
Ek = mas
mv2
⇒ Ek =
2

The kinetic energy of an object of mass m and speed v ⃗ can therefore be expressed as:
1 𝟐
Ek = m v ⃗
2
𝟐
Note that the momentum ( p⃗ = m v ⃗ ) is a vector quantity, whereas kinetic energy Ek = 21 m v ⃗ is a
scalar quantity.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Compare the kinetic energy of an Olympic track athlete running the 100-metre sprint with that
of a family car travelling through the suburbs. Assume the athlete is 70 kilograms and travelling
at 10 m s–1 and the car is 1500 kilograms and travelling at 60 km h–1 .
THINK WRITE
1
1. Use the estimated mass and speed to Ek = mv2
calculate the kinetic energy of the athlete. 2
1
= × 70 × 102
2
= 3500 J
2. Convert the speed into m s−1 Speed ≈ 60 km h−1
≈ 17 m s−1
1
3. Use the estimated mass and speed to Ek = mv2
calculate the kinetic energy of the 2
1
family car. = × 1500 × 172
2
≈ 217 000 J
217 000
4. Interpret the results. = 62
3500
5. State the solution. The family car has approximately 62 times
more kinetic energy than the athlete.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 2000-kilogram elephant charging at a speed of 8.0 m s−1 .
b. Estimate the kinetic energy of:
i. a cyclist riding to work
ii. a snail crawling across a footpath.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A shopper pushes horizontally on a loaded supermarket trolley of mass 30 kilogram with a force
of 150 N to move it a distance of 5 metres along a horizontal, straight path. The friction force
opposing the motion of the trolley is a constant 120 N. If the trolley starts from rest what is its
final speed?

THINK WRITE
1. The change in kinetic energy of the trolley is equal ΔEk = Fnet s
to the work done on it by the net force acting on it.
2. As the trolley was initially at rest the change in Ek = Fnet s
kinetic energy is equal to the final kinetic energy. = 30 × 5.0
= 150 J
1
3. Use the formula for kinetic energy to calculate the Ek = mv2
velocity. 2
1
150 = × 30 × v2
2
150
v2 =
15
= 10
√
v = 10
≈ 3.2 m s−1
4. State the solution. The trolley’s final speed is 3.2 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A gardener pushes a loaded wheelbarrow with a mass of 60 kilograms a distance of 4 metres along
a straight horizontal path against a constant friction force of 120 N. He applies a horizontal force of
150 N on the wheelbarrow. If the wheelbarrow is initially at rest, what is its final speed?
If the net force is in the opposite direction to that in which the object is moving, the object slows down.
For example, the work done by the net force to stop a 70-kilogram athlete running at a speed of 10 m s−1 is
given by:
work done by net force = ∆Ek
1
= 0 − mv2
2
1 )2
= − × 70 kg × 10 m s−1
(
2
= −3500 J
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the net force is opposite to the direction of the
displacement.
SPEED KILLS
The truth of the slogan ‘Speed kills’ can be appreciated by comparing the kinetic energy of a 1500-kilogram car
travelling at 60 km h−1 (16.7 m s−1 ) with that of the same car travelling at 120 km h−1 (33.3 m s−1 ).
At 60 km h−1 , the car’s kinetic energy is:
1
Ek = mv2
2
1 )2
× 1500 kg × 16.7 m s−1
(
=
2
= 2.1 × 105 J

At 120 km h−1 , its kinetic energy is:
1
Ek = mv2
2
1 )2
× 1500 kg × 33.3 m s−1
(
=
2
= 8.3 × 105 J
In other words, a 100% increase in speed produces a 400% increase in the kinetic energy and therefore four
times as much work needs to be done on the car to stop it during a crash with a solid object.
11.4.2 Potential energy

Energy that is stored is called potential energy. Objects that have potential energy have the capacity to apply
forces and do work. Potential energy takes many forms.
• The food that you eat contains potential energy. Under certain conditions, the energy stored in food can
be transformed into other forms of energy. Your body is able to transform the potential energy in food
into internal energy so that you can maintain a constant body temperature. Your body transforms some
of the food’s potential energy into the kinetic energy of blood, muscles and bones so that you can stay
alive and move. Some of it is transformed into electrochemical energy to operate your nervous system.
• Batteries contain potential energy.
• An object that is in a position from which it could potentially fall has gravitational potential energy.
The gravitational potential energy of an object is ‘hidden’ until the object is allowed to fall.
Gravitational potential energy exists because of the gravitational attraction of masses towards each
other. All objects with mass near the Earth’s surface are attracted towards the centre of the Earth. The
further away from the Earth’s surface an object is, the more gravitational potential energy it has.
• Energy can be stored in objects by compressing them, stretching them, bending them or twisting them.
If the change in shape can be reversed, energy stored in this way is called strain potential energy.
Strain potential energy can be transformed into other forms of energy by allowing the object to reverse
its change in shape.
11.4.3 Gravitational potential energy

When an object is in free fall, work is done on it by the force of gravity, transforming gravitational potential
energy into kinetic energy. When you lift an object, you do work on it by applying an upwards force on it
greater than or equal to its weight. Although the gravitational field strength, g, decreases with distance from
the Earth’s surface, it can be assumed to be constant near the surface. The increase in gravitational potential
energy ∆Egp by an object of mass m lifted through a height ∆h can be found by determining how much work
is done on it by the force (or forces) opposing the force of gravity.
W = Fs
= mg∆h (substituting F = mg and s = ∆h)
⇒ ∆Eg = mg∆h
This formula only provides a way of calculating changes in gravitational potential energy. If the
gravitational potential energy of an object is defined to be zero at a reference height, a formula for the
quantity of gravitational potential energy can be found for an object at height h above the reference height.
∆Eg = mg∆h
⇒ Eg − 0 = mg(h − 0)
⇒ Eg = mgh

Usually the reference height is ground or floor level. Sometimes it might be more convenient to choose
another reference height. However, it is the change in gravitational potential energy that is most important
in investigating energy transformations. Figure 11.3 shows that the gain in gravitational potential energy as
a raw egg is lifted from the surface of a table is mgd. When the raw egg is dropped to the table, the result
will be the same whether you use the height of the table or ground level as your reference height. The
gravitational potential energy gained will be transformed into kinetic energy as work is done on the egg by
the force of gravity.
FIGURE 11.3 The choice of reference height does not have any effect on the change in gravitational
potential energy.
ΔEg = mgΔh ΔEg = mgΔh

= mg(he − 0) = mg(H − ht)
= mgd = mgd
h = he h=H
d d
h=0 h = ht
h=0
THE FOSBURY FLOP

High jumpers use a technique called the FIGURE 11.4 The Fosbury Flop places a high jumper’s
Fosbury Flop that allows them to clear the centre of mass below the bar.
bar while keeping their centre of mass as
low as possible. The gravitational potential
energy needed to clear the bar is minimised.
Thus, with their maximum kinetic energy at
take-off, high jumpers can clear those extra
few centimetres.
Incidentally, you might like to estimate just
how much energy is needed to clear the bar
in the high jump. Start by working out the
change in height of an athlete’s centre of
mass during a jump of about 2 metres.

11.4.4 Strain potential energy
Work must be done on an object by a force in order to change its strain potential energy. However, when
objects are compressed, stretched, bent or twisted, the force needed to change their shape is not constant.
For example, the more you stretch a rubber band, the harder it is to stretch it further. The more you
compress the sole of a running shoe, the harder it is to compress it further. The amount of strain potential
energy gained by stretching a rubber band or by compressing the sole of a running shoe can be determined
by calculating the amount of work done on it.
The amount of work done by a changing force is given by:
W = Fav s
It can be determined by calculating the area under a graph of force versus displacement in the direction of
the force. In the case of a simple spring, a rubber band or the sole of a running shoe, the work done (and
hence the change in strain potential energy) can be calculated by determining the area under a graph of
force versus extension, or force versus compression.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
The following figure shows how the force required to compress a spring changes as the spring is
compressed. How much strain potential energy is stored in the spring when it is compressed by
25 centimetres?
Force applied to spring (N)
20
15
10
0
5 10 15 20 25
Compression (cm)
THINK WRITE
1. The amount of strain potential energy added Es = W
to the spring when it is compressed is equal to
the amount of work done to compress it.
2. Work is equal to the area under the graph. W = area under graph
1
= × 20 × 0.25
2
= 2.5 J
3. State the solution. 2.5 J strain potential energy is stored in the
spring when it is compressed by 25 centimetres.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
How much strain potential energy is stored in the spring described in Sample problem 6 when it is
compressed by a distance of:
a. 10 centimetres
b. 20 centimetres?
Hooke’s Law
The spring in Sample problem 6 is an example of an ideal spring. For an ideal spring, the force required to
compress (or extend) the spring is directly proportional to the compression (or extension):
F ∝ ∆x
Where:
F is the force exerted by the spring
∆x is the displacement of the spring.
This relationship is expressed fully by Hooke’s Law, which states:
F = −k∆x
where k is known as the spring constant.
The negative sign in Hooke’s Law is necessary because the direction of the force applied by the spring is
always opposite to the direction of the spring’s displacement. For example, if the spring is compressed, it
pushes back in the opposite direction. If the spring is extended, it pulls back in the opposite direction.
Hooke’s Law is more conveniently expressed without vector notation as:
⃗
F = kΔ x⃗
Where:
⃗
F is the magnitude of the force applied by the spring
Δ x⃗ is the magnitude of the extension or compression of the spring.
FIGURE 11.5 Graphs showing the force applied by an ideal spring versus (a) compression and (b) extension
(a) (b)
Force applied to spring
Force applied to spring
F = kΔx
F = kΔx
0 Δx
0 Δx
Extension
Compression

The strain energy stored in a spring that is changed in length by Δ x⃗ , whether it is
compressed or extended, is equal to the area under the force-versus-compression graph or
the force-versus-extension graph. That is:
1
strain potential energy (Es ) = × kΔ x⃗ × Δ x⃗
2
1
= k(Δ x⃗ )2
2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
A wooden block is pushed against an ideal spring of length 30 centimetres until its length is
reduced to 20 centimetres. The spring constant of the spring is 50 N m−1 .
a. What is the magnitude of the force applied on the wooden block by the compressed spring?
b. How much strain potential energy is stored in the compressed spring?
c. How much work was done on the spring by the wooden block?

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall Hooke’s Law. a. F = kΔx
2. Substitute the values into the equation. Δx = 0.30 − 0.20 = 0.10 m
= 50 × 0.10
= 5.0 N
3. State the solution. 5 N is applied on the wooden block by the
compressed spring.
1
b. 1. Recall the formula for strain potential b. Es = k(Δx)2
energy. 2
1
2. Substitute the values into the equation. = × 50 × 0.102
2
= 0.25 J
3. State the solution. 0.25 J of strain potential energy is stored in
the compressed spring.
c. 1. The work done on the spring is equal to the c. W = Es
elastic potential energy. = 0.25 J
2. State the solution. 0.25 J of work was done on the spring by the
wooden block.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
a. An object hanging from the end of a spring extends the spring by 20 centimetres.
The spring constant is 60 N m−1 .
i. What upwards force is applied to the object by the spring?
ii. How much strain potential energy is stored in the spring when it is extended by
50 centimetres?
iii. What is the mass of the object?
b. What is the spring constant of the spring described in Sample problem 6?

11.4.5 Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy is a law of the universe. It states that the total energy in an isolated system is
constant. Considering the universe is an isolated system, the total amount of energy is constant, meaning
energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy can, however, be transferred from one form FIGURE 11.6 Energy is transferred into different
to another. A single bounce of a tennis ball onto forms when a tennis ball is bounced.
a hard surface involves the following mechanical
energy transformations.
• As the ball falls, the force of gravity does work
on the ball, transforming gravitational potential
energy into kinetic energy.
• As soon as the bottom of the tennis ball touches
the ground, the upwards push of the ground
does work on the tennis ball, transforming kinetic
energy into strain potential energy. A small
amount of gravitational potential energy is
also transformed into strain potential energy.
This continues until the kinetic energy of the
ball is zero.
• As the ball begins to rise and remains in
contact with the ground, the upwards push of
the ground does work on the tennis ball,
transforming strain potential energy into kinetic
energy and a small amount of gravitational
potential energy until the ball loses contact with
the ground.
• As the ball gains height, the force of gravity does work on the ball, transforming kinetic energy into
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A skateboarder of mass 50 kilograms, starting from rest, rolls from the top of a curved ramp, a
vertical drop of 1.5 metres (see the following figure). What is the speed of the skateboarder at the
bottom of the ramp? (The frictional force applied to the skateboarder by the ramp is negligible.)
Height of
centre of mass
1.5 m
1.5 m
Height of
centre
of mass

THINK WRITE
1. It can be assumed in this case that the total ΔEk = ΔEgp
mechanical energy is conserved. The only 1 2
mv = mgΔh
transformation that takes place is that from 2
gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy.
The gain in kinetic energy of the skateboarder is
therefore equal to the magnitude of the loss of
2. Substitute the values into the equation. ΔEk = ΔEgp
1 2
mv = mgΔh
2
1
× 50v2 = 50 × 9.8 × 1.5
2
25v2 = 735
735
v2 =
25
√
735
v=
25
v ≈ 5.4 m s−1
3. State the solution. The speed of the skater at the bottom
of the ramp is 5.4 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A toy car of mass 0.5 kilograms is pushed against an ideal spring so that the spring is compressed by
0.1 metres. The spring constant of the spring is 80 N m−1 .
a. How much strain potential energy is stored in the spring when it is compressed?
b. After the toy car is released, what will be its speed at the instant that the spring returns to its
natural length?
AS A MATTER OF FACT
Kangaroos have huge tendons in their hind legs
that store and return elastic potential energy much FIGURE 11.7 An adult red kangaroo.
more efficiently than do those of other mammals of
comparable size. This allows them to hop for very
large distances without tiring. An adult red kangaroo
can jump over obstacles up to 2 metres in height.
A young 50-kilogram kangaroo is capable of storing
about 360 J of energy in each of its hind legs. A
typical four-legged animal of the same mass stores
about 55 J in each of its hind legs while running.

11.4 EXERCISE
1. Use the formulae for work and kinetic energy to show that their units are equivalent.
2. Estimate the kinetic energy of:
(a) a car travelling at 60 km h−1 on a suburban street
(b) a 58 gram tennis ball as it is returned to the server in a Wimbledon final.
3. Estimate the amount of work done on a 58 gram tennis ball by the racquet when the ball is served at a
speed of 200 km h−1 .
4. Estimate the change in gravitational potential energy of:
(a) a skateboarder riding down a half-pipe
(b) a child sliding from the top to the bottom of a playground slide
(c) you at your maximum height as you jump up from rest.
5. A truck driver wants to lift a heavy crate of books with a mass of 20 kilograms onto the back of a truck
through a vertical distance of 1 metre. The driver needs to decide whether to lift the crate straight up, or
push it up along a ramp.
(a) (b)
(a) What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the crate of books in each case?
(b) How much work must be done against the force of gravity in each case?
(c) If the ramp is perfectly smooth, how much work must be done by the truck driver to push the crate of
books onto the back of the truck?
(d) In view of your answers to (b) and (c), which of the two methods is the best way to get the crate of
books onto the back of the truck? Explain your answer.
6. World-class hurdlers raise their centre of mass as little as possible when they jump over the hurdles. Why?
7. Two ideal springs, X and Y, have spring constants of 200 N m−1 and 100 N m−1 respectively. They are each
extended by 20 centimetres by pulling with a hook. For each of the springs, determine:
(a) the magnitude of the force applied to the hook
(b) the strain potential energy.
8. A tourist on an observation tower accidentally drops her 1.2-kilogram camera to the ground 20 metres
below.
(a) What kinetic energy does the camera gain before shattering on the ground?
(b) What is the speed of the camera as it hits the ground?
9. The following figure shows part of a roller-coaster track. As a fully loaded roller-coaster car of total mass
450 kilograms approaches point A with a speed of 12 m s−1 , the power fails and it rolls freely down the
track. The friction force on the car can be assumed to be negligible.
Who switched
off the lights?
A
20 m C
8m
Ground level B D
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the loaded car at point A?

(b) Determine the speed of the loaded car at each of points B and C.
(c) What maximum height will the car reach after passing point D?

10. The following graph shows how the driving force on a 1200-kilogram car changes as it accelerates from
rest over a distance of 1 kilometre on a horizontal road. The average force opposing the motion of the car
due to air resistance and road friction is 360 N.
2000
Driving force (N)

1500
1000
500
0
250 500 750 1000
Distance (m)
(a) How much work has been done by the forward push (the driving force) on the car?
(b) How much work has been done on the car to overcome both air resistance and road friction?
(c) What is the speed of the car when it has travelled 1 kilometre?
11. A toy truck of mass 0.5 kilograms is pushed against a spring so that it is compressed by 0.1 metres. The
spring obeys Hooke’s Law and has a spring constant of 50 N m−1 . When the toy truck is released, what will
be its speed at the instant that the spring returns to its natural length? Assume that there is no frictional
force resisting the motion of the toy truck.
12. A pogo stick contains a spring that stores energy when it is compressed. The following graph shows how
the upwards force of a pogo stick on a 30-kilogram child jumping on it changes as the spring is
compressed. The maximum compression of the spring is 8 centimetres. Assume that all of the energy
stored in the spring is transformed to the mechanical energy of the child. The mass of the pogo stick itself
can be ignored.
1500
Upwards force (N)
1000
500
2 4 6 8
Compression (cm)
(a) How do you know that the spring in the pogo stick is an ideal spring?
(b) What is the spring constant of the spring?
(c) How much work is done on the child by the pogo stick as the spring expands?
(d) What is the kinetic energy of the child at the instant that the compression of the pogo stick spring
is zero?
(e) How high does the child rise from the ground? Assume that the child leaves the ground at the instant
that the compression of the pogo stick spring is zero.
13. Describe the mechanical energy transformations that take place when a child jumps up and down on
a trampoline.

14. Discuss the mechanical energy transformations that take place when a diver uses a springboard to dive
into the water, from the time that the diver is standing motionless on the springboard until the time she
reaches her lowest point in the water. Use a graph describing the energy transformations in both the
springboard and the diver to illustrate your answer.
15. Discuss the mechanical energy transformations that take place
when a skateboard rider gets airborne off the end of a ramp (see
the figure on the right).
(a) Use a graph to describe the energy transformations that occur
during the time interval between starting at one end of the ramp,
getting airborne at the other end and returning to the
starting point.
(b) Explain in terms of the energy transformations how it is possible
for the rider’s feet to remain in contact with the skateboard
while in the air.

11.5 Efficiency and power

KEY CONCEPTS
useful energy out
• Calculate the efficiency of an energy transfer system: 𝜂 = .
total energy in
E
• Analyse rate of energy transfer using power: P = .
t
11.5.1 Efficiency
Along with kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and strain potential energy are referred to as forms
of mechanical energy. Transformation to or from each of these forms of energy requires the action of a
force. Of course, if mechanical energy were conserved, a ball would return to the same height from which
it was dropped. In fact, mechanical energy is not conserved. During each of the mechanical transformations
that occur during a bounce, some of the ball’s mechanical energy is transformed to thermal energy of the
air, ground and ball, resulting in a small temperature increase. Some mechanical energy is also lost as
sound, and as the ball undergoes permanent deformation.
Mechanical energy losses to thermal energy, sound, and so on are largely permanent. It is very difficult to
convert this lost energy back into mechanical energy and so it is not considered useful.
The efficiency, 𝜂, of an energy transfer is calculated from the ratio:

useful energy out
𝜂=
total energy in
where 𝜂 is the Greek letter ‘eta’.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
A ball dropped from 1.5 metres rebounds to 1.2 metres. What is the efficiency?
THINK WRITE
useful energy out
1. Recall the formula for efficiency. 𝜂=
total energy in
2. Calculate the total energy in. The total energy in is the initial gravitational
potential energy of the ball.
Eg = mgh
= mg × 1.5
3. Calculate the useful energy out. The ‘useful energy out’ is the gravitational
potential energy of the ball at its rebound
height of 1.2 metres.
Eg = mgh
= mg × 1.2
useful energy out
4. Substitute these values into the formula to 𝜂=
find the efficiency. total energy in
1.2mg
=
1.5mg
= 0.8
= 80%
5. State the solution. The efficiency is 80%.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
A basketball is pumped up to give an efficiency of 80% when dropped. If this basketball is dropped
from a height of 2 metres, to what height does it rebound after the fourth bounce?
11.5.2 Power
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed.
E
P=
t
Where:
E = the energy transformed, in joules
t = the time taken, in seconds.
In the case of conversions to or from mechanical energy or between different forms of
mechanical energy, power, P, can be defined as the rate at which work is done.
W
P=
Δt
Where:
W = the work done, in joules
∆t = the time interval during which the work is done, in seconds.

The SI unit of power is the watt (W), which is defined as 1 J s−1 .
The power delivered when a force, F, is applied to an object can also be expressed in terms of the
object’s speed v.
W Fx
P= =
∆t ∆t
x
=F×
∆t
= Fv
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
A student of mass 40 kilograms walks briskly up a flight of stairs to climb four floors of a
building, a vertical distance of 12 metres in a time interval of 40 seconds.
a. At what rate is the student doing work against the force of gravity?
b. If energy is transformed by the leg muscles of the student at the rate of 30 kJ every minute,
what is the student’s power output?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The work done by the student against the a. W = mgΔh
force of gravity is equal to the gain in = 40 × 9.8 × 12
gravitational potential energy. = 4704 J
W
2. Recall the formula for power. P=
Δt
4704
=
40
≈ 118 W
3. State the solution. The student is doing work against the force
of gravity at a rate of 118 W.
energy transferred
b. 1. Recall the formula for power. b. P =
time taken
= 30 kJ min−1
30 000 J
=
60 s
= 500 W
2. State the solution. If energy is transformed by the leg muscles
of the student at the rate of 30 kJ every
minute, the student’s power output is 500 W.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
a. If all of the 720 J of energy stored in the hind legs of a young 50-kilogram kangaroo were
used to jump vertically, how high could it jump?
b. What is the kangaroo’s power output if the 720 J of stored energy is transformed into kinetic
energy during a 1.2 second interval?

Resources
Digital document Investigation 11.2 Climbing to the top (doc-31881)
WHICH IS EASIER — RIDING A BIKE OR RUNNING?

A normal bicycle being ridden at a constant speed of 4 m s−1 on a horizontal road is subjected to a rolling friction
force of about 7 N and air resistance of about 6 N. The forward force applied to the bicycle by the ground must
therefore be about 13 N. The mechanical power output required to push the bicycle along at this speed is:
P = Fv
= 13 N × 4 m s−1
= 52 W
Running at a speed of 4 m s−1 requires a mechanical power output of about 300 W. Even walking at a speed of
2 m s−1 requires a mechanical power output of about 75 W.
Riding a bicycle on a horizontal surface is less tiring than walking or running for two reasons.
1. Less mechanical energy is needed. The body of the rider does not rise and fall as it does while walking or
running, eliminating the changes in gravitational potential energy.
2. Because the rider is seated, the muscles need to transform much less chemical energy to support body
weight. The strongest muscles in the body can be used almost exclusively to turn the pedals.
Once you start riding uphill or against the wind, the mechanical power requirement increases significantly. For
example, in riding along an incline that rose 1 metre for every 10 metres of road distance covered, the additional
power needed by a 50-kilogram rider travelling at 4 m s−1 would be:
∆Egp
P=
∆t
mg∆h
=
∆t
1
In a time interval of 1 seconds, the vertical climb is of 4 m = 0.4 m.
10
50 kg × 10 N kg−1 × 0.4 m
⇒P=
1s
= 200 W
11.5 EXERCISE
1. When a cricket ball bounces on a hard surface, 32% of the kinetic energy is stored as elastic potential
energy. If a 160 gram cricket ball is dropped from a height of 2 metres onto a hard surface, calculate:
(a) the kinetic energy of the ball as it hits the ground
(b) the maximum amount of elastic potential energy stored in the ball
(c) the height to which it will rebound.
2. A car of mass 1500 kilograms travelling at 50 km h−1 collides with a concrete barrier. The car comes to a
stop over a distance of 60 centimetres as the front end crumples.
(a) What is the average net force on the car as it stops?
(b) What is the average acceleration of the car and its occupants? Assume that the occupants are wearing
properly fitted seatbelts.
(c) What would be the average acceleration of properly restrained passengers in a very old car with no
crumple zone if it stopped over a distance of only 10 centimetres? (The maximum magnitude of
acceleration that humans can survive is about 600 m s−2 .)

(d) Explain in terms of mechanical energy transformations why the front and rear ends of cars are designed
to crumple.
(e) In a collision with a rigid barrier, would you feel safer in a large or a small car? Use some sample
calculations to illustrate your answer.
3. A girl of mass 50 kilograms rollerblades freely from rest down a path inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The
following graph shows how the magnitude of the net force on the girl changes as she progresses down
the path.
300
Magnitude of net force (N)

200
100
0
4 8 12 16 20
Distance (m)
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the girl after rolling a distance of 8 metres?
(b) What is the sum of the friction force and air resistance on the girl over the first 8 metres?
(c) What is the kinetic energy of the girl at the end of her 20-metre roll?
(d) How much gravitational potential energy has been lost by the girl during her 20-metre roll?
(e) Account for the difference between your answers to (c) and (d).
4. The following graph shows the results of a roof crush test conducted in the laboratories of the Department
of Civil Engineering at Monash University.
24
22
20
18
16
Load (kN)
14
12
127 mm
10
8
6
4
2
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Displacement of ram (mm)
(a) How much work has been done on the roof when the ram has reached its maximum displacement?
(b) If the car has a mass of 1400 kilograms, from what height would it need to be dropped on its roof to
crush it by 127 millimetres?
5. Jo and Bill are conducting an experimental investigation into the bounce of a basketball. Bill drops the ball
from various heights and Jo measures the rebound height. They also use an electronic timer with thin and
very light wires attached to the ball and to alfoil on the floor to measure the impact time. A top-loading
balance measures the mass of the ball. What physical quantities can they calculate using these four
measurements?
6. A tractor engine has a power output of 80 kW. The tractor is able to travel to the top of a 500-metre high hill
in 4 minutes and 30 seconds. The mass of the tractor is 2.2 tonnes. What is the efficiency of the engine?

7. Human muscle has an efficiency of about 20%. Take a heavy mass, about 1–2 kilograms, in your hand.
With your hand at your shoulder, raise and lower the mass 10 times as fast as you can. Measure the mass,
your arm extension and the time taken, and calculate the amount of energy expended and your power
output.
8. A pile driver has an efficiency of 80%. The hammer has a mass 500 kilograms and the pile a mass of
200 kilograms. The hammer falls through a distance of 5 metres and drives the pile 50 millimetres into the
ground. Calculate the average resistance force exerted by the ground.
9. Estimate the average power delivered to a 58 gram tennis ball by a racquet when the ball is served at a
speed of 200 km h−1 and the ball is in contact with the racquet for 4 milliseconds.
10. At what average rate is work done on a 4-kilogram brick as it is lifted through a vertical distance of
1.5 metres in 1.2 seconds?
11. In the sport of weightlifting, the clean-and-jerk involves bending down to grasp the barbell, lifting it to the
shoulders while squatting and then jerking it above the head while straightening to a standing position. In
1983, Bulgarian weightlifter Stefan Topurov became the first man to clean and jerk three times his own
body mass when he lifted 180 kilograms. Assume that he raised the barbell through a distance of
1.8 metres in a time of 3.0 seconds.
(a) How much work did Stefan do in overcoming the force of gravity acting on the barbell?
(b) How much power was supplied to the barbell to raise it against the force of gravity?
(c) How much work did Stefan do on the barbell while he was holding it stationary above his head?
12. A small car travelling at a constant speed of 20 m s−1 on a horizontal road is subjected to air resistance of
570 N and road friction of 150 N. What power provided by the engine of a car is used to keep it in motion
at this speed?
13. While a 60-kilogram man is walking at a speed of 2 m s−1 , his centre of mass rises and falls 3 centimetres
with each stride. At what rate is he doing work against the force of gravity if his stride length is 1 metre?
14. A bicycle is subjected to a rolling friction force of 6.5 N and an air resistance of 5.7 N. The total mass of the
bicycle and its rider is 75 kilograms. Its mechanical power output while being ridden at a constant speed
along a horizontal road is 56 W.
(a) At what speed is it being ridden?
(b) If the bicycle was ridden at the same speed up a slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal, what additional
mechanical power would need to be supplied to maintain the same speed? Assume that the rolling
friction and air resistance are the same as on the horizontal road.

11.6 Review
11.6.1 Summary
• If the net force acting on a system is zero, the total momentum of the system does not change. This
statement is an expression of the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
• If there are no external forces acting on a system of two objects when they collide, the change in
momentum of the first object is equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the second object.
• The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• Work is done when energy is transferred to or from an object by the action of a force. The work done
on an object by a force is the product of the magnitude of the force and the magnitude of the
displacement in the direction of the force.
• All moving objects possess kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object can be expressed as:
Ek = 12 mv2

• The work done on an object by the net force is equal to the object’s change in kinetic energy.
• The change in gravitational potential energy of an object near the Earth’s surface can be expressed as:
∆Eg = mg∆h
where ∆h is the object’s change in height.

• The change in the strain potential energy stored in an object can be found by determining the area
under a force-versus-compression or force-versus-extension graph.
• The force F applied by an ideal spring when it is compressed or extended is proportional to its
displacement ∆ x. This relationship is expressed by Hooke’s Law:
F = −k∆x
where k is known as the spring constant.

1
• The strain potential energy stored in an ideal spring is expressed as Es = k (∆x)2 .
2
• Kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and strain potential energy are referred to as forms of
mechanical energy. During a mechanical interaction, it is usually reasonable to assume that total
mechanical energy is conserved.
• The efficiency of an energy transfer is calculated from the ratio:
useful energy out
efficiency, 𝜂 =
total energy in
• Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed. In mechanical interactions, power is
also equal to the rate at which work is done.
E
P=
t
• The power delivered by a force is the product of the magnitude of the force and the velocity of the
object on which the force acts.
Resources
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice exam
question booklet (sonr-0036)
11.6.2 Key terms
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object. Like all forms of energy, kinetic energy
is a scalar quantity.
A mechanical interaction is one in which energy is transferred from one object to another by the action of a
force.
Strain potential energy is the energy stored in an object as a result of a reversible change in shape. It is also
known as elastic potential energy.
Work is done when energy is transferred to or from an object by the action of a force. Work is a scalar quantity.
Resources

Investigation 11.1
Simulating a collision
Aim: To show that momentum is conserved in a collision in which there are
no unbalanced external forces acting on the system
Investigation 11.2
Climbing to the top
Aim: To investigate the difference that extra load makes to the work done
against gravity and the power developed

• Investigate the magnetic collision between two air track gliders. Hint: Use an ultrasound motion detector
or a high-speed digital camera.
• Investigate the force of impact on a bouncing ball.
Resources
11.6 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question go

1. Two identical toy cars are travelling directly towards each other at 5 m s−1 . They have a head on
collision. They are stuck together after the collision. Assume friction is negligible. What is their
combined speed after the collision?
A. 0 m s−1
B. 2.5 m s−1
C. 5 m s−1
D. 10 m s−1
2. Two physics students, Steve and Terri, are standing at rest next to each other on skateboards. They push
against each other and move off in opposite directions. The friction on the floor is negligible. Steve has
a mass of 75 kilograms and was moving at a speed of 5 m s−1 immediately after he lost contact with
Terri. Terri has a mass of 60 kilograms. What is the impulse that Steve exerted on Terri.
A. 15 N s−1
B. 300 N s−1
C. 375 N s−1
D. 6.25 N s−1

3. Trish applies a constant horizontal force of 125 N to push a 95-kilogram rock a distance of 5 metres
horizontally across her lawn. Calculate the work done.
A. 11 875 J
B. 625 J
C. 59 375 J
D. 475 J
4. Emily kicks a football high into the air before she is tackled. The ball strikes the ground at a speed of
25 m s−1 . Assuming that the ball is of regulation size and has a mass of 500 grams, calculate its kinetic
energy the instant before it struck the ground.
A. 12.5 J
B. 156 J
C. 313 J
D. 6.25 J
5. Kate creates a toy for her cats to play with by hanging a fluffy object at the bottom of a spring. The
spring constant is 5 N m−1 . One of the cats is able to stretch the spring by 10 centimetres. How much
energy has the cat stored in the spring?
A. 0.5 J
B. 0.05 J
C. 0.25 J
D. 0.025 J
6. Rohan rides his pushbike home from work. At the end of his journey he has gained 25 metres in
altitude. Assuming that his mass is 80 kilograms, determine how much gravitational potential energy he
has gained over this journey.
A. 2000 J
B. 19 600 J
C. 245 J
D. 784 J
7. Louise stretches a spring, causing it to extend in length by 17 centimetres. The spring constant is
125 N m−1 . Determine the force that Louise has applied to the spring at this extension.
A. 21.25 N
B. 2125 N
C. 7.36 N
D. 736 N
8. To assist them in their studies of motion in physics, Grover and Bailey are riding on a roller coaster.
The combined mass of the two students and the carriage is 369 kilograms. As part of the ride they stop
momentarily at the highest point in the track. The cart then accelerates down a steep slope, dropping
40 metres in vertical height at the end of the slope. What is the total kinetic energy of the cart and
students at the end of the slope.
A. 200 295 J
B. 295 200 J
C. 648 144 J
D. 144 648 J
9. Scott is building a small robot that uses a number of electrical engines to run its wheels and arms. One
of the engines is specified to be 90% efficient. If the engine is provided with 42 J of energy to perform a
manoeuvre, how much useful energy will it output.
A. 34 J
B. 37.8 J
C. 42 J
D. 46.7 J

10. Matt is building a wall out of stone. This requires a lot of stone to be lifted into place. Matt lifts a
3.7-kilogram stone 47 centimetres in 0.8 seconds. What is the average rate that he is doing work on the
stone during this motion?
A. 2130 W
B. 1704 W
C. 21.3 W
D. 17 W

1. John is practising for a tennis tournament by hitting a ball against a wall. The ball strikes the wall at
27 m s−1 and rebounds in the opposite direction at 19 m s−1 . The ball has a mass of 58.5 grams.
a. Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.
b. Calculate the average force exerted by the wall on the ball during this collision.
2. A large car of mass 1980 kilograms travelling at 11 m s−1 collides head on with a small car of mass
970 kilograms. Immediately after they collide, the cars are stuck together and have come to a complete
stop. Calculate the speed of the smaller car immediately before the collision.
3. A teacher applies a constant vertical force 40 N to lift a 4-kilogram box of physics exam papers
0.8 metres directly upwards from the floor onto a bench. Assume that the motion is at a constant speed.
Calculate the work done by the teacher on the box of exam papers.
4. An Airbus A380 of mass 560 000 kilograms lands on a runway at a speed of 250 km h−1 . Determine its
kinetic energy at this instant.
5. As part of a practical investigation a physics student hangs various objects on an ideal spring and
measures its extension. The spring constant is 90 N m−1 . One of the objects that the student hangs on
the spring causes it to extend by 12 centimetres.
a. What upwards force is applied to the object by the spring?
b. What is the mass of the object?
c. How much strain potential energy is stored in the spring?
6. A rock climber climbs a cliff, gaining a vertical height of 185 metres above where they started by the
end of their climb. Assuming that their mass is 72 kilograms, how much gravitational potential energy
have they gained as a result of their climb?
7. A vase of flowers, is at rest 175 metres vertically above the surface of the Earth. It falls freely, smashing
onto the ground below. Assume that it has a mass of 420 grams and air resistance is negligible.
Considering the instant immediately before it smashes on the ground, determine its:
a. kinetic energy
b. speed.
8. A car of mass 1500 kilograms is travelling along a level road at a constant speed of 62 km h−1 . The
driver applies the accelerator and the force on the driven wheels does 550 000 J of work to accelerate
the car to a higher speed. Determine what the new speed of the vehicle is.
9. A softball of mass 180 grams strikes a hard stationary surface while travelling at a speed of 23 m s−1 . It
rebounds in the opposite direction at 10 m s−1 .
a. Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball before and after this collision.
b. Determine the efficiency of the collision.
10. A car travelling at a constant speed of 30 m s−1 on a horizontal stretch of highway experiences a
combined resistance force of 1150 N from the air and the road. Determine the power that the engine of
the car must deliver to the driven wheels to keep it in motion at this constant speed.

Question 1 (1 mark)
As part of a practical investigation, physics students are measuring the energy transformations of
objects sliding down a ramp that they have constructed. A heavy box is allowed to slide down the ramp.
The students find that the kinetic energy gained is less than the change in gravitational potential energy.
Explain why this is the case. Assume that there are no significant errors in their methodology or
measurement.
A runaway tram of mass 26 000 kilograms is travelling at a speed of 54 km h−1 when it collides with a
stationary tram of mass 35 000 kilograms. After an impact of duration 0.40 seconds the two trams are stuck
together and continue to move along the track.
a. Calculate the speed of the trams after the collision. 2 marks
b. Determine the average force acting on the runaway tram during the collision. 1 mark
A physics student is waiting tables at a restaurant. They have been doing this work for some time and have
perfected the ability to carry a tray of drinks across the room in a purely horizontal motion at a constant
speed. Is the student doing work on the tray of drinks during this constant speed motion? Refer to relevant
physics principles in your response.
A new energy storage system is proposed as an alternative to using chemical batteries. It stores energy as
gravitational potential energy instead. A prototype of this system uses an old mine shaft with a 450-metre
vertical drop to reach the bottom. A 2500-kilogram mass is attached to an electrical motor/generator. The
mass is lowered to the bottom of the shaft. When there is electricity available it is used to run the motor
to raise the mass up. When electricity is needed, the mass is dropped and the motor is used to generate
electricity. At peak capacity, the system takes 520 seconds for the mass to travel the entire 450-metre drop.
Calculate the power output of the system.
A physics student is investigating the energy transformations involved in the workings of pinball machines.
In particular they decide to focus on the launch of the ball. The following is a diagram they made of the key
details of the machine.
B
Spring
k = 300 Nm–1 A Change in height
6 cm
Ball
m = 80 g
At the start of the game the spring is compressed by 10 centimetres by the machine and the ball sits
motionless against it at point A. When the spring is released it pushes on the ball, transferring its energy
to the ball and travels up the machine to point B. At point B the ball has gained 6 centimetres in height.
Calculate the speed of the ball when it reaches B. Assume that friction is negligible.

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1
How can motion be described and explained?
OUTCOME 1
Investigate, analyse and mathematically model the motion of particles and bodies.
A 20 20
B 4 20
Total 40
•
Information:
•
•
Resources


A body travels 25 metres north in a time of 8.0 seconds. It stops for 2.0 seconds, then moves 7.0 metres south in a
time of 2.0 seconds.
1. Which of the following is the best estimate of its average velocity?
A. 2.7 m s–1
B. 1.5 m s–1
C. 3.3 m s–1
D. 3.5 m s–1
2. Which of the following is the best estimate of its average speed?
A. 2.7 m s–1
B. 1.5 m s–1
C. 3.3 m s–1
D. 3.5 m s–1

3. A dodgem car was travelling at 5.0 m s−1 south when it collided head-on with another dodgem car, and its
velocity changed to 3.0 m s−1 north over a time interval of 0.80 seconds. What is the average acceleration of
the first dodgem car?
A. 2.5 m s–2 north
B. 2.5 m s–2 south
C. 10.0 m s–2 north
D. 10.0 m s–2 south

The following is a velocity-versus-time graph of a car moving away from a traffic stop.
v (m s–1) 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
4. What is the average acceleration of the car in the first two seconds?
A. 2 m s–2
B. 4 m s–2
C. 6 m s–2
D. 8 m s–2
5. What is the distance covered by the car in the first four seconds?
A. 24 m
B. 32 m
C. 40 m
D. 48 m
6. Consider the following four descriptions for the motion of a body.
i. Velocity is positive and acceleration is positive.
ii. Velocity is positive and acceleration is negative.
iii. Velocity is negative and acceleration is positive.
iv. Velocity is negative and acceleration is negative.
Which of the following best describes the two scenarios in which the body is slowing down?
A. i. and ii.
B. ii. and iii.
C. i. and iii.
D. i. and iv.

A truck travelling on a road changes its velocity from 3.0 m s−1 to 9.0 m s−1 and covers a distance of 24 metres
during this period of acceleration.
7. What is the magnitude of the truck’s acceleration?
A. 0.25 m s–2
B. 0.50 m s–2
C. 1.5 m s–2
D. 4.0 m s–2
8. Which of the following is the best estimate for the time taken to accelerate the truck?
A. 2 seconds
B. 4 seconds
C. 6 seconds
D. 8 seconds
9. A passenger is not wearing a seatbelt in a car moving forward. The car runs head-on into a barrier and the
passenger hits her head against the windscreen in front of her. The best explanation for her motion
immediately after the car hit the barrier is which of the following?
A. She experienced a force that pushed her forward towards the windscreen.
B. She experienced no force on her and kept moving forward.
C. She experienced a force from the barrier that pushed her towards the windscreen.
D. She experienced no force on her by the barrier but one from the car, which pushed her forwards.
10. A man is in a lift travelling upwards at constant speed. He stands on a spring balance that reads 750 N. What
is the magnitude of the force exerted on the man by the floor of the lift?
A. Zero
B. Slightly less than 750 N
C. 750 N
D. Slightly more than 750 N
11. A small car of mass 800 kilograms is accelerating at 2.5 m s−2 . What is the magnitude of the net force on
the car?
A. 320 N
B. 1200 N
C. 1600 N
D. 2000 N
12. A truck of mass 3600 kilograms is carrying a load of mass M. A net driving force of 9600 N causes an
acceleration of 2.0 m s−2 . What is the mass M?
A. 6000 kg
B. 4800 kg
C. 2400 kg
D. 1200 kg
13. A body, J, travelling to the right at a high velocity, collides with a stationary body, K. Which of the following
A. F on J by K = F on K by J
best describes the forces in the interaction between J and K?
B. −F on J by K = −F on K by J
C. −F on J by K = F on K by J
D. F on J by K − F on K by J = 0
14. A window-washer with a mass of 60 kilograms is standing on a platform that is accelerating upwards at a
constant rate of 1.2 m s–2 . What is the force exerted on the platform by the person?
A. 660 N down
B. 660 N up
C. 588 N up
D. 588 N down

A box is at rest on a ramp inclined at 40º to the horizontal, as shown in the following diagram. The force due to
gravity is 98 N.
98 N
40°
15. What is the magnitude of the normal force that the surface of the ramp is exerting on the box?
A. 63 N
B. 75 N
C. 82 N
D. 98 N
16. What is the magnitude of the friction force that the surface of the ramp is exerting on the box?
A. 63 N
B. 75 N
C. 82 N
D. 98 N

A jogger with mass of 80 kilograms is moving east at 7 m s−1 . He then slows down to a velocity of 2 m s−1 east
over a period of 2 seconds.
17. Which of the following best describes the change in momentum of the jogger?
A. 560 kg m s–1 east B. 560 kg m s–1 west
–1
C. 400 kg m s east D. 400 kg m s–1 west
18. What is the magnitude of the average force exerted on the jogger to slow him down?
A. 280 N B. 200 N
C. 160 N D. 80 N
19. A ball of mass 0.42 kilograms is at rest on the field. It is kicked and reaches a maximum speed of 13.5 m s–1 .
What is the work done on the ball when it was kicked?
A. 12 J B. 24 J
C. 38 J D. 77 J
20. A spring has an unstretched length of 0.7 metres. After a mass of 2.5 kilograms is attached to it, its length is
1.2 metres. What is the spring constant of this spring?
A. 20 N m–1 B. 35 N m–1
–1
C. 49 N m D. 98 N m–1

A cyclist is pedalling along a straight stretch of road at a constant velocity of 6.0 m s−1 . She then accelerates at a
constant rate for 4.0 seconds, reaching a final velocity of 14 m s−1 .
a. What is the magnitude of the cyclist’s acceleration? 1 mark
b. How far did she travel during the period that she was accelerating? 1 mark
−1
While travelling at 14 m s the cyclist applied constant braking, coming to a stop over a distance of 24.5 m.
c. What is the magnitude of the cyclist’s acceleration while she was braking? 1 mark
d. How long did the bicycle slow down to a stop? 1 mark

A van with mass 150 kilograms tows a small trailer with mass of 50 kilograms. They are connected by a towing rod
that can be considered to be massless. The driving force is entirely provided by the electric motor on the van. The
total resistive force on the van is 30 N, while the total resistive force on the trailer is 20 N. The van and trailer are
accelerating at 1.9 m s–2 .
150 kg
50 kg
rod
30 N 20 N
a. Calculate the net force acting on the van and trailer. 1 mark
b. Determine the size of the driving force provided by the electric motor on the van. 2 marks
c. What is the size of the tension force of the rod on the trailer? 3 marks
Suzy, an ice skater with a mass of 55 kilograms, is skating at a constant velocity of 4.8 m s–1 east. She collides
with Kai, another ice skater, who is stationary. They move off together at a constant velocity of 3.0 m s–1 east.
The collision may be considered as isolated.
a. What was Suzy’s initial momentum before the collision? 1 mark
b. Considering that the collision is isolated, what is the mass of Kai? 3 marks
A stationary cart, mass 600 kilograms, is at the top of a sloping ramp at point A. It is released and rolls down the
ramp and attains its maximum speed of 14.4 m s–1 at point B.
u = 0 m s–1 m = 600 kg
h
v = 14.4 m s–1
B C
a. Calculate the kinetic energy of the cart at point B. 2 marks

b. Assuming that friction is negligible and there is no energy lost, what is the height, h, of the ramp? 2 marks
c. The cart hits a spring at point C, which compresses and slows the cart down to a stop. The spring
compresses a distance of 7.40 metres. What is the spring constant of the spring? 2 marks

ASSESSMENT TASK — DATA ANALYSIS

In this task, you will be required to investigate,
analyse and mathematically model the motion of
particles and bodies.
• A scientific calculator is permitted. You will need
graph paper for this task.
Total time: 50 minutes (5 minutes reading
and 45 minutes writing)
TRACKING THE POSITION OF ATHLETES

The motion of an athlete can be studied using
a radar system that can track their position on a
course. The data obtained (shown in table 1 below)
gives the position of the runner down a straight
athletics track in half-second intervals for the first
t = 0, the athlete is in the starting blocks and the gun goes off.
three seconds of the race and one-second intervals thereafter. The athlete is training for a 100-metre race. At time
∆x
USEFUL FORMULAE FOR THIS TASK
Average speed: v =
∆t
∆v
Average acceleration: a =
∆t
Momentum: p = mv
Kinetic energy: Ek = 21 mv2
1. Use the data in table 1 to plot a distance-versus-time graph.
TABLE 1 Distance versus time
Time (s) Distance (m)

0.00 0.00
0.50 0.60
1.00 2.40
1.50 5.40
2.00 9.60
2.50 15.0
3.00 21.0
4.00 32.9
5.00 44.7
6.00 56.4
7.00 67.8
8.00 79.0
9.00 89.9
10.0 100.7

2. By taking pairs of data, complete a table for the average speed of the runner for each pair of data points
in table 1.
The first data point, in which the average speed of the athlete in the first interval is 1.2 m s–1 (determined
midpoint in time of the first frame. This will be at t = 0.25 seconds.

through dividing the change in distance by the change in time), has been done for you. It occurs at the
TABLE 2 Average speed versus time
Time (s) Average speed (m s–1 )

0.25 1.20
0.75
1.25
3. Using your data from table 2, plot a graph of the athlete’s average speed versus time.
Now we are going to find the acceleration of the athlete during the course of the race.
4. Complete table 3 for acceleration versus time. Again, your time should be the midpoint between each set of
data points in table 2.
TABLE 3 Acceleration versus time
Time (s) Average acceleration (m s–2 )

0.50

5. Provide a definition of acceleration and explain, using an example from table 3, how you used this definition
to determine the average acceleration between two time frames.
6. Plot a graph of the athlete’s acceleration versus time.
7. Give a detailed summary of the athlete’s motion, making reference to their speed and acceleration during
the race.
8. Use your velocity-versus-time graph to estimate the distance run after 7.0 seconds, showing all workings.
How does your estimate compare to the data in table 1?
9. By appealing to Newton’s Third Law of Motion, explain why the athlete is able to accelerate out of the
starting blocks.
10. The mass of the athlete is 75 kg. Draw a free body force diagram to illustrate the three significant forces
acting on the athlete during the time they are accelerating. (Hint: There is one vertical force, one horizontal
force and one force acting on the athlete that has both horizontal and vertical components.)
11. During the period of acceleration, what is the magnitude of the horizontal component of the net force acting
on the athlete?
12. From your graph of acceleration versus time, approximately when is the net force acting on the athlete zero?
athlete at t = 4.
13. Use your results from one of your graphs to estimate both the momentum and the kinetic energy of the
Resources

“Unit_2_AOS_1_Reviews_print” — 2019/10/21 — 5:56 — page 416 — #9
UNIT 2 | AREA OF STUDY 2 OPTIONS
OBSERVATION OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD

The twelve option topics available for selection in Unit 2, Area of Study 2, are all based on a different
observation of the physical world. The Option topics 12–23 can be accessed through your digital formats,
learnON and eBookPLUS, or you can download a PDF at www.jacplus.com.au.
Students will study only one option topic.
Topic Option Outcome
12 What are stars? Apply concepts of light and nuclear physics to describe
and explain the genesis and life cycle of stars, and
describe the methods used to gather this information.
13 Is there life beyond Earth’s solar system? Apply concepts of light and atomic physics to describe
and analyse the search for life beyond Earth’s solar
system.
14 How do forces act on the human body? Analyse the physical properties of organic materials
including bone, tendons and muscle, and explain the uses
and effects of forces and loads on the human body.
15 How can AC electricity charge a DC device? Construct, test and analyse circuits that change AC
voltage to a regulated DC power supply, and explain the
use of transducers to transfer energy.
16 How do heavy things fly? Apply concepts of flight to investigate and explain the
motion of objects through fluids.
17 How do fusion and fission compare as viable Apply the concepts of nuclear physics to describe and
nuclear energy power sources? analyse nuclear energy as a power source.
18 How is radiation used to maintain Use nuclear physics concepts to describe and analyse
human health? applications of electromagnetic radiation and particle
radiation in medical diagnosis and treatment.
19 How do particle accelerators work? Apply the principles related to the behaviour of charged
particles in the presence of electric and magnetic fields to
describe and analyse the use of accelerator technologies
in high energy physics.
20 How can human vision be enhanced? Apply a ray model of light and the concepts of reflection
and refraction to explain the operation of optical
instruments and the human eye, and describe how human
vision can be enhanced.
21 How do instruments make music? Apply a wave model to describe and analyse the
production of sound in musical instruments, and explain
why particular combinations of sounds are more pleasing
to the human ear than others.
22 How can performance in ball sports Apply concepts of linear, rotational and fluid mechanics
be improved? to explain movement in ball sports.
23 How does the human body use electricity? Explain the electrical behaviour of the human body and
apply electricity concepts to biological contexts.
UNIT 2 Area of Study 2 OPTIONS 417

AREA OF STUDY 2 OPTIONS
12 What are stars?

12.1 Overview
12.1.1 Introduction
Astrophysics is the area of science in which the laws of physics are applied to the universe. It is quite
remarkable that we can learn anything about the universe beyond the solar system as most stars are so
far away that we cannot observe any features on them — they are mere points of light — and we cannot
yet travel to the stars to explore them. If we ever travel to the stars, the journey will take so long that
generations will pass before word of the discoveries comes back to Earth. Yet in the past hundred years,
astrophysics has flourished and revealed much about our universe. Astrophysicists now can determine
what stars are made of, how they generate their energy, their age and distance from us. This topic explores
scientist’s understanding of stars and how they came to gain this knowledge. We have barely left the surface
of the Earth, so how have we gained such understanding?
FIGURE 12.1 Astrophysics is the field of science in which the laws of physics are applied to the universe.
TOPIC 12 What are stars? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Astronomical measurement
• explain the use of electromagnetic radiation in collecting information about the universe
• identify all electromagnetic waves as travelling at the same speed, c, in a vacuum
1
• calculate wavelength, frequency, period and speed of light: c = f𝜆, T =
f
• identify spectroscopy as a tool to investigate the light from stars, and interpret and analyse spectroscopic
data with reference to the properties of stars
• apply methods used for measurements of the distances to stars and galaxies (standard candles, parallax,
red shift) to analyse secondary data
Classification of stars
• describe the Sun as a typical star, including size, mass, energy output, colour and information obtained
from the Sun’s radiation spectrum
• identify the properties of stars, including luminosity, radius and mass, temperature and spectral type, and
explain how these properties are used to classify stars
2
• explain nuclear fusion as the energy source of a star including: E = mc
• distinguish between the different nuclear fusion phenomena that occur in stars of various sizes
Stellar life cycle
• apply the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram as a tool to describe the evolution and death of stars with differing
initial mass
• relate the formation of stars to the formation of galaxies and planets
• describe future scenarios for a star, including white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes
2GM
• explain the event horizon of a black hole and use rs = to calculate the Schwarzschild radius
c2
• describe the effects of the gravitational fields of black holes on space and time
• compare the Milky Way galaxy to other galaxies with different shape, colour or size
• explain and analyse how the chemical composition of stars and galaxies is used to determine their age
• investigate selected aspects of stellar life cycles by interpreting and applying appropriate data from relevant
databases.

Resources

12.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Changing views
of the universe
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Observations of the night sky have changed over time from using just the naked eye to the use of sophisticated
instruments.
12.2.1 Galileo’s telescope

Galileo pointed his telescope at the heavens in 1609, only to
FIGURE 12.2 Galileo was the first
find that they bore an unexpected resemblance to the Earth. person to observe the heavens through
The laws of physics that Galileo had begun to formulate would a telescope.
not only work down here, but out there as well; we were a part
of the universe. On the other hand, as astrophysicists applied
physics to the universe, they discovered that it is a very strange
place indeed. By exploring space we have learnt that our
experience on Earth is somewhat limited.
This topic outlines how we have come to understand so
much about the nature of stars since Galileo’s time.
12.2.2 The universe

By ‘the universe’ we mean all matter, all space and all time.
Anything that you can name or point out is part of the
universe. Stars, planets, galaxies, people, light, even the space
between the stars and the time between events are parts of our
universe. Astrophysicists have found that much of the mass
of the universe, as measured using the laws of physics, is
hidden. So the universe, also sometimes called the cosmos, is
everything that we know exists, and all that is yet to be found.
Ancient peoples’ view of the stars

Imagine living in ancient times. You were often outside at night, under a sky unpolluted by the lights that
have ‘fogged’ our night view in the past century. You saw stars in the sky, some bright and some dim. Some
were clustered together; some were red, while others were white or blue. These differences enabled you to
distinguish one star from another. You named them and grouped stars in an area of the sky to form images
of things important to you: animals, heroes, gods and mythical creatures. We know these groupings as
constellations, and different cultures organised the stars into their own sets of constellations.
The arrangement of stars in a constellation does not noticeably change in a human lifetime, but people
did notice that, as the night went on, the constellations moved across the sky, similar to the Sun moving
across the sky in the daytime. As days passed, people saw that the constellations overhead slowly shifted.
They realised that the same constellations were overhead in the cold months each year, and different ones
were overhead in the warm months. This cycle repeated and people had a way to measure the passing of
time and predict seasons, thus knowing when particular food would be available and, eventually, when to
plant crops. Religious festivals were linked to particular events in this astronomical calendar; we continue
to mark some of these today when we celebrate Christmas and Easter. The movement of the Sun and stars
across the sky also gave important navigational information. It led to our understanding of north, south, east
and west long before magnetic compasses were discovered.

Luckily in Australia, if we have the chance to get away from the lights of the large cities and view the
stars, we can see them almost as our ancient ancestors did.
Different cultures have viewed the universe differently, but until the seventeenth century most people
believed that the Earth did not move, the stars were points of light fixed on a sphere that revolved around
the Earth and the world of the heavens was made of different materials to those on Earth. Many believed it
was the gods who caused things to happen, like the Sun rising and setting.
The ancient Greeks developed several models of the universe; in some the Earth moved but most
philosophers believed it stayed still, consistent with their everyday experience. The stars were fixed points
of light on a sphere that was higher than a mountain top, but maybe not much more distant than that. These
models that place the Earth at the centre of the universe are called geocentric.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo developed new models of
the universe with the Sun at the centre and the Earth revolving around it — that is, heliocentric models.
These models required the stars to be much further away than previously thought; otherwise, their relative
positions would change as the Earth revolved around the Sun. Over the following hundred years, the idea
that the stars were just points of light, all at the same distance from the centre of the universe, ceased.
Stars were seen as suns like our own, at great distances from Earth. What else could be so far away, yet be
so bright?
FIGURE 12.3 (a) One ancient geocentric depiction of the universe (b) Copernicus’s heliocentric model, which had
the planets revolving around the Sun
(a) (b) Saturn
Saturn Jupiter Stars
Mars
Moon Earth
Venus
Venus
Mercury
Sun Earth
Mercury
Jupiter Sun
Moon
Mars
12.2.3 The discovery of galaxies

Apart from the stars and planets, other objects are visible in the night sky, including a bright band known as
the Milky Way. Galileo’s telescopic investigations showed this to be an enormous concentration of stars too
faint for the naked eye to distinguish.
In the southern hemisphere two large fuzzy objects are visible. These are the Large Magellanic Cloud
and the Small Magellanic Cloud, named in honour of the explorer Magellan, although they would have been
observed tens of thousands of years earlier by Indigenous Australians and other peoples of the southern
hemisphere. Another object, fainter than the Magellanic clouds and about the size of the full Moon, was
first recorded in the writings of the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi in 964 BCE. This ‘small cloud’ was in the
constellation Andromeda. With the invention of the telescope, many more of these extended fuzzy objects
were discovered. Due to their appearance they were named nebulae (meaning ‘clouds’).

FIGURE 12.4 An optical image showing part of the Milky Way. It shows an area of extremely dense star clusters
and dark and bright (pink) nebulae. Dark nebulae are formed by clouds of interstellar dust that scatter and
absorb the radiation from stars situated behind them. Bright nebulae are clouds of interstellar gas that is ionised
and illuminated by the ultraviolet radiation of nearby hot and young stars. The Large Magellanic Cloud is the
smudge of light near the bottom right corner and Canopus is the very bright star above that.
In the eighteenth century, William Herschel and his sister Caroline Hershel also shook the ancient
perceptions of the universe. William built the largest telescope of his time and made some very significant
discoveries — the most famous being his discovery of a new planet, Uranus, in 1781. This planet was so far
away that its discovery doubled the size of the known solar system. He also noticed that some stars, called
binary stars, occurred in pairs that orbited a common point. When William analysed their orbits he found
that they obeyed Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation that described how masses attract each other. This was
confirmation that the physical laws that applied on Earth also applied in the far reaches of space.
Herschel also found that the Sun, with its planets, was moving through space. This meant that the Sun,
like the Earth, was not fixed at the centre of the universe. Moreover, the stars did not seem to be evenly
distributed throughout space but were gathered together in an elongated ‘island’ of stars. William and
Caroline also discovered many new nebulae. With their large telescope they noticed that some of these
‘clouds’ appeared to contain distant stars. The large and small Magellanic clouds and the large nebula in
Andromeda were part of this group. Many other nebulae were nearly devoid of stars, and it is these that are
still called nebulae today.

FIGURE 12.5 These two nebulae are just visible to the naked eye and now known to be galaxies: (a) the
Andromeda galaxy (b) the Large Magellanic Cloud.
(a) (b)
Source: (a) Adam Evans / Creative Commons (b) NASA / JPL-Caltech / M. Meixner STScI & the SAGE Legacy Team
Some of the nebulae the Herschels were seeing were

FIGURE 12.6 Astronomers noted that some
actually galaxies. However, a good understanding of the nebulae looked like spirals, but these
of exactly what these objects were came only after were later found to be spiral galaxies. This
another hundred years. The problem was that there photograph shows the large spiral galaxy
was no way of measuring the distance to the nebulae. known as the Whirlpool Galaxy.
In the 1920s, debate raged about the size of the ‘island
of stars’ we live in and whether some of the nebulae
that had been discovered, particularly some in the
shape of spirals, were within Herschel’s island of
stars or outside it. By this time, an accurate method of
measuring distance to these objects had been discovered
using a particular type of variable star, known as a
Cepheid variable. An astronomer by the name of
Edwin Hubble applied this technique to the Andromeda
nebula and found it to lie well beyond our own island
of stars. The implication was that we lived in one
galaxy (island of stars), the Milky Way, while the
Andromeda nebula was an enormous galaxy of stars
in its own right. It is actually a galaxy much bigger
than the Milky Way, and is one of the closest to it at
a distance of over two million light-years. There are
several small galaxies, including the Large and Small
Magellanic Clouds, that are closer than Andromeda.
The closest yet discovered is a small galaxy found
in 2003, named the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy.
The distance to the Andromeda nebula was the
first clear evidence that the universe was not just the
group of stars and gas clouds that form the Milky
Source: S. Beckwith STScI, Hubble Heritage Team,
Way. The universe was clearly much, much larger. STScI/AURA, ESA, NASA
Our understanding of the stars, and their distribution
throughout the universe, was once more dramatically
changed.

12.2.4 Where we live
In the 1920s and 1930s Hubble and other astronomers surveyed the sky in search of galaxies and found tens
of thousands that were roughly evenly distributed throughout the sky. Even the closer galaxies were so far
away that it took the largest telescopes to identify that they were made up of individual stars. However,
through a technique known as spectroscopy scientists were able to distinguish galaxies from clouds of gas
when the stars could not be resolved into individual points of light. This is because stars emit a continuous
spectrum of light, but some of it is absorbed by atoms in their atmospheres to form absorption spectra.
However, the clouds of gas in space — nebulae — can be excited by radiation from nearby stars, which
causes them to radiate light at particular frequencies. As galaxies are composed of stars and gas, they have
spectra that include absorption lines within a continuous spectrum as well as some emission lines. Nebulae,
on the other hand, have spectra dominated by emission lines.
FIGURE 12.7 (a) This spectrum of the Sun shows the characteristic continuous colour spectrum produced by
stars, crossed by absorption lines resulting from the gases in the Sun’s atmosphere. (b) A nebula is revealed by
the emission lines in its spectrum, like this one showing the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
(a) D
KH G F b E
3-1
C B A
h g fe d h c h 4-1 a
390 450 550 650 750

400 500 600 700
Wavelength in nm
(b)
UV IR
λ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 nm
In the 1960s, astronomers conducted more detailed surveys of galaxies,

FIGURE 12.8 The Hubble
mapping over 1 million. These maps showed that not only were stars Ultra-deep Field. How many
clumped into galaxies, but galaxies were clumped into clusters. There are galaxies can you count in
even clusters of clusters, known as superclusters. Today, estimates suggest this photograph of a tiny
that there are a hundred billion galaxies in the universe, each containing section of the sky?
millions, if not billions or hundreds of billions, of stars. The size of the
universe is beyond comprehension.
Source: ESA / H.Teplitz and

M.Rafelski IPAC/Caltech, A.
Koekemoer STScI, R. WindhorstASU,
Z. Levay STScI / NASA

FIGURE 12.9 The solar system is a tiny spot in a vast galaxy that is just one of billions in the universe.
Uranus
But one star of 100 billion in our galaxy
Saturn
Jupiter
Mars
Sun
Earth
Mercury
Venus
But one galaxy of 100 billion thought to exist
The model of the universe as we know it today is vastly different to the universe that people thought they
knew 2000 years ago. It is interesting that most people still think like the ancients. We talk of the Sun rising
and setting, think of the Earth as stationary and that our lives and homes are the centre of the universe! The
universe is in fact so large that if we were anywhere else, even within our own galaxy, the Earth would
barely feature as a speck of dust worthy of investigation. Except, that is, for one thing: Earth is the only
place in the universe currently known to host life. Even if we find that millions of worlds have life, these
places would still make up a tiny fraction of the universe. The more astronomers learn about the universe,
the less significant our place in it can seem. Yet it may also have heightened our sense of how extraordinary
Earth and its inhabitants really are.

12.2.5 Information from the stars
Scientists now have a very good idea about stars — what they are, how they work and what will happen
to them over time. This has been one of the great triumphs of physics. As discussed previously, Galileo
accumulated evidence that what he was discovering about physics on Earth also applied to the physics of
objects in the sky. He saw that the Moon had mountains and craters and that its changing shape was simply
the result of half of it being lit by the Sun and half being in shadow. He saw that other planets were also
spheres and Jupiter had moons orbiting it. This discovery was tremendously important because it showed
that moons could orbit a body that was itself in motion. An argument against the heliocentric model was
that the Moon clearly orbits the Earth and pre-Galilean views of physics dating back to the ancient Greeks
claimed that it was impossible for something to orbit a moving body — it would be left behind! Galileo,
unlike Aristotle, claimed that a body would continue in motion unless a force acted to change its motion.
He found support for this in the motion of the moons around Jupiter.
12.2 EXERCISE
1. How has science changed our understanding of:
(a) the distance to stars
(b) the nature of stars
(c) the number of stars
(d) our position in relation to the stars?
2. What tool did Galileo introduce to the study of stars? What were three discoveries he made with it?
3. What did William Herschel discover about the Sun and its planets?
4. What technique enabled galaxies of stars to be distinguished from nebulae of gas?
5. Identify one piece of evidence that the laws of physics operate beyond Earth in the same way they do on
Earth.
12.3 Using electromagnetic radiation to collect

information
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the use of electromagnetic radiation in collecting information about the universe.
• Identify all electromagnetic waves as travelling at the same speed, c, in a vacuum.
1
• Calculate wavelength, frequency, period and speed of light: c = f𝜆, T = .
f
12.3.1 Collecting information about the universe

Through the telescope he had invented, Gallileo found that the stars, unlike the planets, remained as points
of light. When he pointed his telescope at the band of light across the sky known as the Milky Way, he
could see that it was made from countless stars, too dim to be seen individually with the naked eye.
Galileo’s simple telescope collected light coming from stars and focused it on his eye. Over the next 400
years, successive developments in telescope technology led us to the understanding we have of stars today.
To understand what telescopes do and what they can teach us about stars, we need to understand more
about light.

12.3.2 Electromagnetic radiation and the speed of light
Virtually all of our information about stars comes to us in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The tiny
points of light we see as stars provide so little light that with a clear sky and no moon, the thousands of stars
visible in the sky provide barely any light to see by. However, we can learn so much about a star from the
tiny amount of light that reaches us.
The gap we experience between seeing lightning and hearing thunder shows that sound travels relatively
slowly. Light seems to travel so fast that to us its speed seems infinite; that is, we seem to observe events at
the instant they happen.
Galileo was not convinced of this. He attempted to determine the speed of light by measuring the time
delay between the flash of his lamp to an assistant on a distant mountain and the return flash from his
assistant’s lamp. No detectable delay was observed and Galileo concluded that the speed of light was very
high. A greater distance was needed.
Olaus Roemer was a Danish astronomer born two years after Galileo’s death. He observed that the time
between eclipses of Jupiter’s moons by Jupiter decreased as the Earth moved closer to Jupiter and increased
as the Earth moved away. Roemer reasoned that this was because the distance the light travelled from
Jupiter to Earth from one eclipse to the next became greater as the Earth’s orbit took it further from Jupiter
(see figure 12.10). Roemer used this time and the known diameter of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun to
estimate the speed of light. The value he obtained was 2.7 × 108 m s−1 .
FIGURE 12.10 Measured from Earth, the time between successive eclipses of Jupiter’s moon Io increases as the
Earth moves from A to B. (The diagram is not to scale.)
Io (moon)
Sun
A
Jupiter
Earth’s orbit
Eventually, in the nineteenth century, with stronger light sources and more precise timing devices,
Galileo’s method could be revisited, but the assistant was replaced by a mirror. The values obtained then
for the speed of light were about 3.0 × 108 m s−1 .
Early in the twentieth century, US scientist Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931) used a rapidly rotating
eight-sided mirror. The light was reflected to a distant mirror about 35 kilometres away then reflected back
to the rotating mirror. For some particular rotation rates, this light is reflected by one of the sides of the
rotating mirror directly to the observer. The rotation rate can be used to calculate the speed of light. The
value Michelson obtained was 2.997 96 × 108 m s−1 .

FIGURE 12.11 Light from the source reflects off one of the sides of the rotating mirror towards a mirror
35 kilometres away. The returning beam hits the rotating mirror. If one of the sides of the mirror is in the right
position, the light enters the eyepiece and can be seen by the observer. By measuring the speed of rotation when
the beam enters the eyepiece, the speed of light can be calculated.
Observer
Rotating mirror with Fixed

eight sides mirror
Source of light
35 km
In 1973, a laser beam was used to measure the speed of light at 299 792.4574 ± 0.001 km s−1 . In 1983,
the value was set internationally at 299 792.458 km s−1 and used to define the length of a metre.
In the nineteenth century, it was well established that light in many ways behaved like a wave. James
Clarke Maxwell provided a theoretical description of electricity and magnetism and his formulas predicted
the existence of electromagnetic waves that all travelled at a particular speed. He noticed that this speed was
essentially equal to the speeds experimenters were measuring for light. So he proposed that light was an
electromagnetic wave.
Looking back in time

All of the electromagnetic radiation we use to gather information travels at the speed of light. This means
that all of this information refers to the past. On Earth, the distances are relatively small, so the immense
speed of light means that transmission of information is almost instantaneous. The universe, however,
is vast. Even light from the Moon takes over a second to reach us. Light from the Sun takes more than
8 minutes. Light from the nearest star, Alpha Centauri, takes 4.2 years to reach us. As we look out to this
brighter of the ‘Pointers’ in the southern hemisphere sky, we are seeing it as it was over four years ago. It
does not matter how good our telescopes are, the images and data will still represent Alpha Centauri as it
was when the light left it, 4.2 years ago.
Resources
Weblink The speed of light
12.3.3 Properties of electromagnetic waves

The frequency of a periodic wave is the number of times that it repeats itself every second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz = 1 s−1 . Frequency can be represented by the symbol f.
The period of a periodic wave is the time it takes a source to undergo one complete cycle. This is the
same as the time taken for a complete wavelength to pass a given point. The period is measured in seconds
and is represented by the symbol T.

The period of a wave is the reciprocal of its frequency. For example, if five complete waves pass every
second, that is f = 5 Hz, then the period (the time for one complete wavelength to pass) is 15 = 0.2 seconds.
1 1
In other words, f = . It follows that T = .
T f
The amplitude of a wave is the size of the maximum disturbance of the medium from its normal state.
The units of amplitude vary from wave to wave. For example, in sound waves the amplitude is measured
in units of pressure, while the amplitude of a water wave would normally be measured in centimetres or
metres. In electromagnetic waves, the amplitude represents the intensity of the electromagnetic fields.
The wavelength is the distance between successive corresponding parts of a periodic wave. The
wavelength is also the distance travelled by a periodic wave during a time interval of one period. For
transverse periodic waves, the wavelength is equal to the distance between successive crests (or troughs).
Wavelength is represented by the symbol 𝜆 (lambda).
FIGURE 12.12 Transverse periodic waves in a piece of string
Direction
of wave
Crest Wavelength movement
Amplitude
Amplitude
Position of
Trough Direction of
undisturbed
medium particle motion
The speed, v, of a periodic wave is related to the frequency and period. In a time interval of one period, T,
the wave travels a distance of one wavelength, 𝜆. Thus:
distance 𝜆
speed = = = f𝜆
time T
This relationship v = f𝜆 is sometimes referred to as the universal wave equation.
The frequency of a periodic wave is determined by the source of the wave. The speed of a periodic wave
is determined by the medium through which it is travelling.
Because the wavelength is a measure of how far a wave travels during a period, if it can’t be
measured, it can be calculated using the formula:
v
𝜆=
f

12.3.4 Frequency of light
This periodic wave model can be applied to light, with each colour corresponding to a particular frequency.
Table 12.1 shows some typical values for the frequencies and wavelengths of the colours of the spectrum.
In fact, the frequency and wavelength steadily change across the spectrum but the eye and brain divide
the spectrum into separate colours. Electromagnetic waves do not stop at the values of energies and
wavelengths shown in table 12.1. These are merely the limits of what our eyes are able to detect.
TABLE 12.1 Frequency and wavelength of colours
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
Frequency (× 1012 hertz) 430 480 520 570 650 730
Wavelength (nanometres) 700 625 580 525 460 410
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
When light with a frequency of 5.6 × 1014 Hz travels through a vacuum, what is its:
a. period
b. wavelength (in nanometres)?
The speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m s−1 .
THINK WRITE
1
a. 1. Recall that the period is the reciprocal of the a. T=
frequency. f
1
=
5.6 × 1014
= 1.8 × 10−15 s
2. State the solution. The period of the light is 1.8 × 10−15
seconds.
v
b. 1. Recall the relationship between speed, frequency b. 𝜆 =
and wavelength. f
3.0 × 108
=
5.6 × 1014
= 5.4 × 10−7 m
2. The wavelength of visible light is usually expressed 1 nm = 1 × 10−9 m
in nanometres (nm). 𝜆 = 5.4 × 102 nm
3. State the solution. The wavelength of the light is
540 nanometres.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Find the frequency and period of light with a wavelength of 450 nm.

12.3.5 Electromagnetic waves
At shorter wavelengths we find the higher energy electromagnetic radiation of ultraviolet light, X-rays and
gamma rays. We use these shorter wavelengths in many medical and industrial processes.
The longer wavelengths include infra-red (that we detect as radiated heat), microwaves and radio waves.
These wavelengths are the key to our wireless communications. These frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum are also valuable sources of information from stars as stars radiate across the broad range of
wavelengths.
Special telescopes have been built to detect these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum coming from
space. There are infra-red telescopes, ultraviolet telescopes, X-ray and gamma ray telescopes, usually on
a satellite orbiting the Earth because the atmosphere prevents most of the energy at these wavelengths from
reaching the ground. Radio telescopes can be built on Earth because the radio waves largely pass through
the atmosphere.
FIGURE 12.13 Different telescopes have been built to detect the various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
coming from space.

FIGURE 12.14 Australia’s vast regions with low levels of radio pollution are suitable for radio telescopes,
such as the Australia Telescope Compact Array at the Narrabri Observatory in NSW.
12.3 EXERCISE
1. Describe the role of measuring distance in the discovery of galaxies.
2. Why is light so important in our understanding of the universe?
3. Given that speed equals distance divided by time, why was it so challenging to measure the speed of light?
4. Describe Galileo’s attempt to measure the speed of light. What refinements were made to his experiment
over the next couple of centuries to provide a precise measurement?
5. What type of wave is light and who was the first to propose this?
6. An electromagnetic wave with a period of 2.0 × 10–15 seconds is observed. Use the data in table 12.1 to
determine its colour.
7. An electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 626 kHz is detected. Calculate its wavelength and period. Is
this wave visible to the human eye?
8. The radio wave spectrum ranges in wavelengths from 1 mm to 100 km. Calculate the range of frequencies
of radio waves.
9. Why are X-ray and ultraviolet observatories placed in orbit?
10. At what speed do radio waves travel?
11. It is difficult to learn much about the universe without electromagnetic radiation. Other sources of
information include gravitational waves and something that featured in topic 7. What is it?


12.4 Spectroscopy
KEY CONCEPT
• Identify spectroscopy as a tool to investigate the light from stars, and interpret and analyse spectroscopic
data with reference to the properties of stars.
12.4.1 Extracting information from the light

Isaac Newton (1642–1727) published his book Opticks in 1704. In the first volume he demonstrated that
light from the Sun can be dispersed into its constituent colours. Other theories about why rainbows formed,
why prisms of glass produced a spectrum of colours and why soap bubbles appeared coloured involved
the prism, raindrop or bubble altering the light. However, as Newton demonstrated, the prism, raindrop
or bubble simply disperse the light according to its colour (wavelength), revealing information about the
Sun. Newton’s prisms showed the colour spectrum from the Sun to contain red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet.
FIGURE 12.15 Forms of radiation and their place in the electromagnetic spectrum. The visible portion of the
spectrum is shown enlarged in the upper part of the diagram.
(Nanometres) 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400
Visible spectrum
(white light)
Power Radio waves Microwaves Infra- Ultra- Gamma

and red violet X-rays
telephone AM FM Radar rays rays rays
Electrical Electronic tubes and Klystron Incandescent Lamps, X-ray Cosmic

generator semi-conductor tubes, lamps, heat fluorescent tubes rays,
devices microwave lamps tubes, radioactive
lasers sparks, isotopes
lasers
108 106 104 102 1 10−2 10−4 10−6 10−8 10−10 10−12 10−14
Wavelength in metres
102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022
Frequency in hertz
In 1802 William Wollaston (1766–1828) invented the spectroscope in an effort to explore the spectrum in
more detail. He found the solar spectrum was not continuous but was crossed by a number of black lines. In
1814, Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826) mapped the spectrum in much greater detail, finding 576 black
lines. These have become known as Fraunhofer lines.
John Herschel (1792–1871), William’s son, and W.H. Fox Talbot (1800–1877), a pioneer in photography,
found that when chemical substances were heated in a flame and observed through a spectroscope, each
chemical had a distinctive set of bright bands of colour forming its spectrum. This meant that scientists
could identify chemicals simply by observing their spectra. Other scientists found that when sunlight is
passed through gas before entering the spectroscope, it had extra black lines through its spectrum. This
suggested that the black lines in the solar spectrum were due to light passing through gases in the Sun.
These scientists had identified a method for determining the elements in stars.

FIGURE 12.16 A continuous spectrum produced by a spectroscope
Continuous spectrum
Prism or
diffraction
grating Slits
Light
from
source
In 1859 Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887) with his friend Robert Bunsen (1811–1899) used Bunsen’s burner
to burn elements and clearly describe the cause of these spectral lines. They found that:
• a continuous colour spectrum is produced by glowing solids or dense gaseous bodies like the Sun
• if a gas is between the light source and the spectroscope, light is absorbed from the continuous
spectrum at wavelengths or colours characteristic of the chemical components of the gas
• a glowing gas produces bright lines on a dark background at wavelengths or colours characteristic of
the chemical components of the gas.
One of the first successes with this new tool of astrophysics was the spectroscopic analysis of planetary
nebulae by William Huggins (1824–1910). Working in London in 1864, he found that these nebulae
produced the bright line spectra of glowing gas, showing that they were clouds of gas rather than groups
of very distant stars (see table 12.2). Some of the nebulae documented by Hershel, however, showed that
they were collections of stars, as they emitted continuous spectra interrupted by black lines. Huggins’s
investigations also provided very convincing evidence that the stars in the sky really are distant suns.
TABLE 12.2 Types of spectra and the celestial bodies that produce them
Type of spectrum Generally produced by Celestially produced by
Continuous Hot solids, liquids, gases under pressure Galaxies, inner layers of stars
Emission Incandescent low-density gases Emission nebulae, quasars
Absorption Cool gases in front of continuous spectrum The atmospheres of stars
12.4.2 Helium
In 1868, Joseph Norman Lockyer (1836–1920), detected some Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum that
did not correspond to any known element on Earth. He predicted that there must be an as yet undiscovered
element in the Sun and called it helium, after the Greek helios, meaning Sun. William Ramsay (1852–1916)
confirmed this in 1895, when he isolated the gas helium in the laboratory. Although the second most
common element in the universe, helium is rare on Earth because it has so little mass that, even at normal

temperatures, it has sufficient energy to escape the atmosphere, a property that makes it useful in blimps
and party balloons. Helium is also extremely unreactive with other chemicals so it forms few compounds;
unlike hydrogen, which is even less massive but occurs in many compounds on Earth including water and
organic compounds.
12.4.3 Composition of the Sun

Early in the twentieth century, no one understood what could power the Sun. Chemical reactions did not
produce sufficient energy. Scientists considered that it may have been some form of nuclear reaction that
could release some of the Sun’s mass in the form of energy, as Einstein described in 1905 in the equation
E = mc2 . However, scientists thought the Sun was made largely of iron, the most stable nucleus of all. This
conclusion was based on measurements of tidal effects on the Earth that showed the Earth was mostly made
of iron and on analysis of meteorites from space that showed that they too were composed largely of iron.
Spectroscopic results seemed to confirm the iron content of the Sun. However, reading spectrographs
of the Sun is not easy as many spectra of different elements overlap. In 1925, astrophysicist Cecilia Payne
(1900–79) interpreted the spectra as showing that the Sun was mostly hydrogen, not iron at all. The
scientists had all been reading the Fraunhofer lines incorrectly, which is easy to do when the lines of so
many elements overlap. It was not long before the scientific community accepted that hydrogen was the
main element found in the Sun. Hydrogen not only fitted the spectra, it explained the Sun’s energy, which
iron could not.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Describe how astronomers can determine the elements that are present in the Sun.
THINK WRITE
1. Recall that astronomers use spectroscopes to Astronomers observe the Sun’s light through
disperse the light and observe Fraunhofer lines. a spectroscope.
2. Recall that the Fraunhofer lines are unique for The solar spectrum contains absorption lines
different elements. that are characteristic of the elements found
in the Sun’s atmosphere.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
How was the element helium predicted before it was detected on Earth?
12.4.4 What produces the spectra?

When the atoms are part of a solid, or when the material is very dense, like the gases in a star, the electrons
in the atoms can exist with a range of energies. When the material is heated, the electrons gain energy.
They then re-emit this energy in the form of packets of light energy called photons and fall back to a lower
energy state. This process results in the emission of light with a range of energies or frequencies. We see
this in the light emitted by hot wires in incandescent globes. The light produced has a continuous spectrum
when passed through a spectroscope. The relative intensities of the different wavelengths of the spectrum
determine the colour of the object. The hotter the object, the more the highest intensity wavelengths shift
towards the blue end of the spectrum.

12.4.5 Absorption spectra
Atoms and molecules in gaseous form allow their electrons to have only certain specific energies. When
light with a continuous spectrum passes through a gas, most of the light will pass straight through. This
is because most of the light is not at the specific energies that the electrons in the gas can absorb. The
particular energies that are absorbed are unique to each element and molecule in the gas. When light with
a continuous spectrum passes through a gas, these energies are absorbed and so are removed from the
spectrum. When the light is passed through a spectroscope, it forms an absorption spectrum. The energies
that have been absorbed indicate the elements that the light has passed though.
FIGURE 12.17 An absorption spectrum produced by shining light with a continuous spectrum through a cool gas
Absorption spectrum
Cool gas absorbs certain

wavelengths and re-emits
them in all directions.
This light is
deficient in
certain
wavelengths.
Incandescent
bulb producing
continuous
spectrum
This is important for our understanding of stars, because the hot dense plasma at the centre of a star
produces light with a continuous spectrum. As the light moves out from the centre, the gases in the star’s
cooler atmosphere absorb specific frequencies and produce light with an absorption spectrum. Analysis of
this spectrum on Earth shows us what elements are present in the atmosphere of the star without having to
go there to take samples, which we have no way of doing.
FIGURE 12.18 The absorption spectrum for hydrogen
Absorption lines

12.4.6 Emission spectra
When a gas is heated, the electrons increase their energies to higher energy states. These higher energy
states are temporary and energy can be released at any time by an electron dropping back down to one of
the lower energy states allowed by that element. This process produces light of very specific frequencies —
an emission spectrum.
Sometimes it is difficult to determine what fuzzy light sources in space are. Are they galaxies too distant
to distinguish the individual stars, or are they clouds of gas or nebulae, glowing because they are being
energised by nearby stars? Passing the light through a spectroscope answers this question. If the spectrum
is an absorption spectrum, we know that it is produced by stars. If it is an emission spectrum, we know that
it is produced by diffuse clouds of gas. We have seen how this technique was important in the discovery
of galaxies.
FIGURE 12.19 The spectra of 13 different stars. The stars increase in temperature from bottom to top. The top
star is bright at the blue end of the spectrum, but emits very little light at the red end of the spectrum. It is a blue
star. The star at the bottom emits very little light in the blue wavelengths. It is a cool red star. The absorption lines
are visible in the spectra.
O6.5 HD 12993
B0 HD 158659
B6 HD 30584
A1 HD 116608
A5 HD 9547
F0 HD 10032
F5 BD 61 0367
G0 HD 28099
G5 HD 70178
K0 HD 23524
K5 SAO 76803
M0 HD 260655
M5 Yale 1755
F4 HD 94028
M4.5 SAO 81292
B1 HD 13256
FIGURE 12.20 The spectrum of light from a nebula. Notice that it is an emission spectrum, distinguishing it from
the absorption spectra of stars.
Source: © Shelyak Instruments / Olivier Thizy

12.4 EXERCISE
1. What instrument is used for the analysis of the spectra of light?
2. What information can the frequencies of the absorption lines tell astronomers about stars?
3. What part of stars produces the absorptions lines? Why?
4. Faint light patches in the sky could be glowing clouds of gas or collections of very distant stars. How can
stellar spectra be used to help distinguish one from the other?
5. Spectroscopy helped to explain the Sun’s source of power. Explain.
6. What process is occurring within an atom when absorption spectra are produced?
7. Contrast the processes within an atom that produce absorption spectra and emission spectra.
8. If you needed to determine the elemental composition of a star, what process would you use. Why?
9. What would be different about the process within an atom that produces a blue Fraunhofer line compared
to that which produces a red Fraunhofer line.
10. Absorption lines can be used to determine the proportions of elements in stars. How might that work?

12.5 Measuring distances to stars and galaxies

KEY CONCEPT
• Apply methods used for measurements of the distances to stars and galaxies (standard candles, parallax,
red shift) to analyse secondary data.
12.5.1 Methods used to measure distances

Hubble’s conclusion that the Andromeda nebula was actually a separate galaxy depended on a measurement
of its distance from Earth and knowledge of the size of our galaxy, the Milky Way. How could such
enormous distances be measured? Some of the methods use parallax, moving star clusters and the
relationship between star brightness and distance.
12.5.2 Parallax
Parallax is an effect that is noticed whenever an object is viewed from two different locations. A simple
example is what you see when you stretch your right arm out with the index finger on your right hand
pointing up. Point the index finger of your left hand up in a similar way about halfway between your face
and your outstretched right hand. With one eye shut, move your hands until the finger from your right hand
is hidden behind the finger from your left hand. If you now move your head left or right you will notice that
the fingers are no longer in line. This effect is parallax. Another way of changing the position the fingers
appear to be at is to swap viewing eyes. If the fingers are in line when viewed with one eye, they will not be
if you close that eye and view your fingers with the other eye. Notice that it is the finger closest to your eye
that changes position the most in relation to the background.

FIGURE 12.21 Observing parallax
Parallax angle
when viewed
through the
right eye
If you hold your head very still with one eye closed, there is no parallax, so you will find it very difficult
to judge distances, especially if you are unfamiliar with the objects in your field of view. Using two
eyes, however, we get a slightly different view through each eye. The distance between our eyes is called
the baseline.
Ancient astronomers were unable to discern any change in the relative position of the stars at different
times of the year. This supported the idea that the Earth was fixed in the centre of a sphere of stars.
However, the accuracy of parallax measurements greatly increased with the invention of the telescope
and many astronomers attempted to measure the parallax that must occur if the Earth is in motion. This is
because our view of the sky in six months’ time will be from a position one diameter of the Earth’s orbit
away from where we are today. Surely this very large baseline would be enough to observe changes in the
positions of the stars relative to each other?
In spite of this large baseline, it took until 1838 for the first stellar parallax to be observed by Friedrich
Bessel. He noticed that the star known as 61 Cygni moved about a small ellipse when its position was
measured relative to two adjacent stars. The parallax for a full year meant that 61 Cygni moved a mere
0.3 arc seconds relative to these two stars, which must have been much further away. To get an idea of how
small this angle is, consider that one arc second is one-sixtieth of an arc minute, which is one-sixtieth of 1
degree, and there are 360 degrees in a full revolution. The full Moon has a diameter of about 30 arc minutes
in the sky, so 0.3 arc seconds is roughly one six-thousandth of the diameter of the Moon, or alternatively
the angle marked out by your little finger viewed from 7 kilometres away! No wonder parallax was not
observed sooner.
61 Cygni is one of the closest stars to Earth and the closer the star, the larger the parallax. The closest star
to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which has a parallax of only 0.764 arc seconds. All other stars have smaller
parallaxes than that.

FIGURE 12.22 A nearby star appears to change position relative to distant stars when viewed from different
places in the Earth’s orbit.
Earth — 2nd position
1st apparent position

1 AU
Earth’s
orbit Sun
Close star
2nd apparent position
Earth — 1st position
Modern techniques to measure parallax include taking photographs of the stars through telescopes at
various times during the Earth’s orbit about the Sun. Distant stars will not appear to change position relative
to each other but near stars will. These measurements take years as the true movement of the star relative to
the Sun is usually much more significant than the parallax. The parallax will be observed to come and go
every six months, whereas the motion of the star against the background stars will continue unchanged.
12.5.3 The Gaia spacecraft

Parallax is the only direct method of measuring distances in space; however, it is limited to the nearest stars
only. Variation in the refraction of light through the atmosphere (like heat haze) is one of the reasons it is
difficult to measure parallax. The Hubble Space Telescope, in orbit outside the Earth’s atmosphere, avoids
this problem and has made a significant contribution to measuring the distances of our local neighbourhood
of stars. A satellite called Hipparcos made an enormous contribution, gathering data from 1989–93, which
enabled astronomers to accurately measure the distance to over 2.5 million of the nearest stars.
A new space-based instrument called Gaia
has replaced Hipparcos. This ambitious project
FIGURE 12.23 The Gaia spacecraft
provides data for astronomers to understand much
more about our galaxy’s formation, structure and
evolution. It will survey a billion stars in our galaxy,
which is 1% of the total number of stars in the
Milky Way, greatly expanding the data obtained
from Hipparcos. Gaia will measure the position,
motion, colour and brightness of stars, giving
astronomers precise measurements of distance to
each star, chemical composition and changes in
each star’s brightness over a five-year period.
Much of the work of astrophysicists involves
working with the enormous databases of
information that observatories such as Hubble,
Hipparcos and Gaia collect. Source: ESA / ATG medialab

The formula for small parallax angles, where sinp ≈ p (parallax angles for all stars are small), is:
1
p=
d
where p is expressed in arc seconds and is the parallax angle calculated as half the maximum
parallax measured in one year. That is, the parallax corresponding to a baseline of one
astronomical unit (1 AU); d is the distance to the star in parsecs (pc). This method of parallax
measurement is limited to objects about 100 pc away using ground-based technology. One parsec
is equal to 3.086 × 1016 m.
FIGURE 12.24 When p = 1 arcsec, d = 1 parsec
1 parsec
1 AU
1 arcsec
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
How far is a light-year in metres?
THINK WRITE
8 −1
1. Light travels at 3.00 × 10 m s . 1 year = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 seconds
= 3.15 × 107 s
Distance = speed × time
= 3.00 × 108 m s−1 × 3.15 × 107 s
= 9.46 × 1015 m
2. State the solution. One light-year is a distance of 9.46 × 1015 metres.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
How many light-years are there in a billion metres (1.00 × 109 m)?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
What is the furthest distance that could be measured by parallax with the naked eye, using 1 AU
as the baseline? It is estimated that the smallest parallax angle detectable with the naked eye is
30 arc seconds. Give your answer in parsecs, metres and light-years.

THINK WRITE
1
1. Determine the distance that would result in a p=
parallax angle of 30 arc seconds. d
1
d=
p
1
=
30
= 0.033 pc
2. Calculate the distance in metres and 1 parsec = 3.086 × 1016 m
light-years. 0.033 pc = 1.0 × 1015 m
1 light-year = the distance light travels in 1 year
= speed × time
= 3.0 × 108 × 1 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
= 9.5 × 1015 m
1.0 × 1015
= 0.11 light-years
9.5 × 1015
3. State the solution in all the required units. The maximum distance for which a naked eye
could see parallax is 0.033 pc, 1.0 × 1015 metres
and 0.11 light-years.
This is less than one-fortieth of the distance to
the nearest star.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
The parallax angle of the star Sirius is 0.379 arc seconds. How far is Sirius from Earth in:
a. parsecs
b. metres
c. light-years?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
How many light-years make 1 parsec? One light-year is a distance of 9.46 × 1015 m.
THINK WRITE
1. Convert the parsec to metres. 1 parsec = 3.086 × 1016 m
3.086 × 1016
2. Divide the number of metres in a parsec by the 1 pc =
number of metres in a light-year. 9.46 × 1015
= 3.26 light-years
3. State the solution. 1 parsec is equal to 3.26 light-years.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A star is measured to be 25 pc from Earth. What is its distance from Earth in light-years?
12.5.4 Star brightness and distance

The methods discussed so far are not useful beyond our galaxy, because the huge distances make parallax
unmeasurable. As a result, the discovery that stars are also gathered in other galaxies outside our own
did not occur until the mid-1920s. This discovery required understanding a special type of star, called a
Cepheid variable, that was bright enough to be observed in distant galaxies.
The luminosity of a star is the total energy that the star radiates per second. As this energy moves away
from the star at the speed of light, it becomes spread over a sphere of surface area 4𝜋r2 , where r is the
distance to the centre of the star.
The brightness of a star is defined as the energy per second per square metre at the place where the
star is observed.
L
b=
4πr2
Where:
b = brightness
L = luminosity.
The brightness of a star is measurable from Earth. If we know the luminosity of the star, we can
determine its distance using the formula. But how can the luminosity of a star be determined?
In 1912 Henrietta Leavitt (1868–1921) of Harvard University found that a Cepheid variable (a large
pulsating star) can tell us how luminous it is. When studying Cepheid variables in the two small galaxies
called the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Leavitt noticed that the brightness of Cepheid variables
was proportional to their period of pulsation. She was able to determine this because all of the stars in
each galaxy are approximately the same distance from Earth. She noticed that the brighter the star was, the
longer its period of pulsation.
Harlow Shapley (1885–1972), of the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, recognised that if he could
accurately determine the distance to some Cepheids he would be able to determine how luminous they
were. He achieved this using Cepheid variable stars close enough to measure the distance using parallax.
Once he knew the luminosity of those stars, he could calculate the distance to other Cepheids, too distant
to measure using parallax methods. He used the Sun’s motion through the galaxy to produce a baseline to
determine the distance to some Cepheids as no Cepheid variables were found close enough to use parallax
due to the Earth’s annual motion around the Sun.
It was by using Cepheid variables that Hubble was able to measure the distance to the Andromeda nebula
and determine that it was a galaxy separate from our own.
Other types of stars have also been found that work as ‘standard candles’ of known luminosity, such as
the Cepheid variables. The accuracy of this method depends on the accurate determination of the distance
of nearby examples. As methods and data have improved, the distances to stars and galaxies calculated by
this method have been revised.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
The luminosity of a Cepheid variable star is known to be 8.0 × 1029 W. Astronomers measure its
brightness as 8.6 × 10−10 W m−2 . What is its distance from us?
THINK WRITE
L
1. Write the relationship between luminosity and b=
brightness. 4πr2
√
L
2. Rearrange the formula so that it gives the r=
distance in terms of luminosity and brightness. 4πb
√
8.0 × 1029
3. Insert the values of luminosity and brightness =
in the formula. 4π × 8.6 × 10−10
4. Calculate the distance. = 8.6 × 1018 m
8.6 × 1018
5. Convert the answer to light-years. = (convert metres to light-years)
9.461 × 1015
= 909 light-years
6. State the solution. The Cepheid variable star is 909 light-years
from us.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
The distance to a star cluster has been measured using the Cepheid variable technique to be 4000
light-years. A star in that cluster has a measured brightness of 2.1 × 10−11 W m−2 . What is the
luminosity of that star?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The period of a Cepheid variable star with a brightness of
5.1 × 10−13 W m−2 is measured to be 10 days. What is the 104
Luminosity (Lsun)
distance to this star? The luminosity of the Sun is

3.8 × 1026 W. Use the following graph to determine your 103
answer. (Note the logarithmic scales on the graph axes.)
102
10
0 1 3 10 30 100
Period (days)
THINK WRITE
1. Use the graph to determine the luminosity of a From the graph, a period of 10 days
Cepheid variable with a period of 10 days. corresponds to a luminosity of about 103.4
(or 2.5 × 103 ) times that of the Sun.
2. Calculate this luminosity in watts. L = 3.8 × 1026 × 2.5 × 103
= 9.5 × 1029 W

√
L
3. Use the relationship between distance, r=
luminosity and brightness to determine 4πb
√
the distance. 9.5 × 1029
=
4π × 5.1 × 10−13
= 3.85 × 1020 m
= 4 × 104 light-years
4. State the solution. The Cepheid variable star is 40 000
light-years from us.
A note on reading logarithmic scales: You should notice that the scales on this graph are not linear. It is
known as a logarithmic graph. The scales are equally divided by powers of 10. Halfway between 103 and
104 is 103.5 = 3.2 × 103 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
a. What is the luminosity of a Cepheid variable with a period of 30 days?
b. If this Cepheid variable was located in the Large Magellanic Cloud (at a distance of 157 000
light-years), how much energy would we receive from it per square metre on Earth?
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 12.1 Brightness versus distance (doc-31882)
12.5.5 The red shift method

We learnt in topic 6 that Edwin Hubble had plotted the red shift of galaxies against their distance. For
distant galaxies, he showed that there was a linear relationship between red shift and distance. Hubble’s
work has been extended to very distant galaxies using different standard candles. A type of exploding star
called a Type 1a supernova always emits the same amount of light. These are rare events, but when they
occur, they outshine the light in the rest of the galaxy for a period of time, making it possible to determine
the distance to galaxies far beyond the reach of the Cepheid variable technique.
As a result of this work, we know the relationship between red shift and distance to sufficient precision
that we can determine how far away distant galaxies are by measuring their red shift alone. This is
important when no standard candles like Cepheid variables or Type 1a supernova are observed in the galaxy
we are interested in.
We have learnt about the techniques used to determine the chemical composition and distance to stars
in the sky. In the next subtopic we examine stars more closely. Where better to start than with the star we
depend on the most.

FIGURE 12.25 The relationship between red shift and distance
Increasing
distance
Increasing
red shift
12.5 EXERCISE
1. A star’s parallax is 0.155 arc seconds using a baseline of 1 AU. How far is this star from the Sun in:
(a) parsecs
(b) metres
(c) light-years?
2. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) can measure parallax angles as small as 0.05 arc seconds. What is the
furthest object for which the HST could be used to measure its distance using the method of parallax?
3. What restricts the use of parallax to measure the distance to relatively nearby stars?
4. The orbit of Jupiter has a radius of more than five times that of the Earth. Explain why an observatory at
Jupiter would be able to measure the parallax of more distant stars than those in orbit around Earth.
5. What makes Cepheid variable stars so useful in measuring distances to galaxies?
6. A Cepheid variable star in one galaxy has the same period as a Cepheid variable star in a second galaxy.
However, the first star has a brightness that is eight times that of the second. What can you say about the
distance of the second galaxy compared to the first?
7. Explain why the term ‘standard candle’ is sometimes used to describe stars like Cepheid variables.
8. Brightness and the period of change in brightness of stars are directly measurable from Earth.
(a) Explain why luminosity cannot be directly measured.
(b) Explain why, despite this, astronomers can measure the luminosity of Cepheid variables.
9. What methods can be used to measure the distance to galaxies too distant to observe Cepheid variables?
10. Explain why measuring red shift can be used to determine the distance to more distant galaxies, but not to
galaxies neighbouring our own.


12.6 The properties of stars
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the Sun as a typical star, including size, mass, energy output, colour and information obtained
from the Sun’s radiation spectrum.
• Identify the properties of stars, including luminosity, radius and mass, temperature and spectral type, and
explain how these properties are used to classify stars.
12.6.1 The Sun

We have seen that as scientists moved away from the idea of a geocentric universe, their understanding of
the nature of stars changed. No longer were stars just points of light on a sphere revolving around the Earth.
It seemed highly likely that they were like the Sun. The Sun is a typical star, but the closest to us. It is not
the centre of the universe, just one of billions of stars in a universe that has no centre.
It is easy to think that the Earth is of great significance in the universe, with a few bright objects like
the Sun, Moon and stars passing in the sky overhead. We need to look only as far as the Sun to get a
better sense of perspective. The mass of the Earth may seem huge at 5.97 × 1024 kg, but this is small in
astronomical terms. The Sun’s mass is 1.99 × 1030 kg, or 333 000 times the mass of Earth. The mass of
the Sun is a useful unit for comparing the masses of stars, and is called a solar mass. The total mass of
our galaxy is roughly 100 billion times the mass of the Sun (100 billion solar masses), and there are about
100 billion galaxies in the universe, some smaller than ours and some much larger.
FIGURE 12.26 The Sun
Source: NASA / SDO

FIGURE 12.27 The Earth is very small compared to the Sun.
Sun
Earth
The radius of the Earth is an impressive 6.378 × 106 m, but the Sun has a radius of 109 times this at
6.955 × 108 m.
Nearly all of the energy available to Earth comes from the Sun, whose energy output is 3.86 × 1026 J s−1
(3.86 × 1026 W). This is known as its luminosity. A tiny portion of this energy hits the Earth, heating and
lighting it.
Alpha Centauri, the brighter of the two Pointers is the third brightest star in the sky. Through a small
telescope Alpha Centauri appears as two bright stars, Alpha Centauri A and B, but it is actually a system
of three stars! The third star is a very dim type of star called a red dwarf and is the closest star to our solar
system, hence its name Proxima Centauri. Many red dwarfs can be found in our part of the galaxy but
they are not visible to the naked eye because they have low luminosity. Alpha Centauri A has a luminosity
slightly greater than that of the Sun. From Alpha Centauri the Sun would appear as a star slightly dimmer
than Alpha Centauri is when viewed from Earth.
FIGURE 12.28 Energy from a star radiates in a sphere around it. The star’s brightness is an indication of how
much of the light it emits passes through a square metre each second.
ino
Lum sity
Brightness

SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A star, located 6 light-years away, is equal in luminosity to a star 18 light-years away. How much
light energy from the first star enters the eye of an observer on Earth, compared with the light
energy entering the eye from the second star?
THINK WRITE
1. What is the ratio of the distance to the first star The first star is one-third of the distance
to the distance to the second star? from the observer.
2. Square the ratio. This gives the fraction of light As light intensity diminishes with the
entering the eye from the first star compared to square of the distance, its light will be nine
the second star. times as intense as the light from the
second star. (However, due to the nature of
light sensitivity of the eye, this does not
correspond to a nine-fold increase in how
bright we perceive the star to be.)
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Alpha Centauri A is 267 000 times as far from Earth as Earth is from the Sun. Assuming it is the
same luminosity as the Sun, how bright is it compared to the Sun?
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 12.2 Solar observation (doc-31883)
Investigation 12.3 Cardboard solar observatory (doc-31884)
Weblink The nearest stars applet
12.6.2 The mass of stars

To understand the processes occurring inside a star, we need to know its mass.
The mass of the Sun can be determined from the orbits of the planets around it.
Newton’s laws of gravity and the analysis of the motion of masses in a circle lead directly to a
formula for the mass of the Sun:
4π2 r3
M=
GT 2
Where:
r = the radius of the orbit
T = the period or time to complete the orbit
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 and is the universal constant of gravitation.
This formula applies to all masses orbiting a central body of mass M.

The distance between the Earth and the Sun was measured FIGURE 12.29 The mass–
using parallax by observing a transit of Venus from different luminosity relationship, L ∝ M3.5 .
locations on Earth. A transit of Venus is like an eclipse of the Note that the scales are not
Sun, except that Venus looks much smaller than the Moon when linear. M⊙ and L⊙ are the mass
and luminosity of the Sun, so it is
viewed from Earth. When Venus passes between the Earth and
at (0, 0).
the Sun it can be viewed by projection (never look at the Sun
directly or through binoculars or a telescope) as a small disc
5
passing across the face of the Sun. This method of measuring
the distance between the Earth and the Sun was first suggested
4
by a contemporary of Newton’s, Edmund Halley (1656–1742), in
1716. Transits of Venus are rare but two occurred in the 1760s,
3
after Halley’s death, and the distance to the Sun was measured. It
was on a journey to the Pacific Ocean to measure the second of
Log L / L
2
these transits that Captain James Cook landed at Botany Bay.
The mass of distant stars can be found in a similar way. Many
1
stars, called binary stars, come in pairs and orbit a common centre
of mass. Using the formula above, astronomers can calculate the
0
total mass of the two stars. To work out the individual masses,
they apply centre of mass calculations. These are based on the –1
fact that the heavier body must be closer to the centre of mass
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
than the lighter one by an amount proportional to the masses.
Log M / M
Using this technique, astronomers are able to measure the mass
of many stars. The mass-luminosity relationship
In 1924, Arthur Eddington made a very significant discovery. Source: © Dr. Mike Guidry
When he graphed the masses of stars versus their luminosity he found a clear relationship. The more
luminous the star, the greater its mass. This meant that it was possible to determine the mass of most stars
whose luminosity was known. The luminosity of a star can be determined using the brightness and the
distance from Earth, if it is known. This method works for stars in their hydrogen-burning phase, but not
for white dwarfs or red giants.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The radius of Earth’s orbit about the Sun is 1.5 × 1011 m and the period is 365 days. Calculate
the mass of the Sun.
THINK WRITE
4π2 r3
1. Use the formula for mass of a star and M=
substitute the values for Earth’s orbit GT2
provided. 4π2 (1.5 × 1011 m)3
=
(6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 × (365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s)2 )
= 2.0 × 1030 kg
2. State the solution. The mass of the Sun is 2 × 1030 kg. This agrees
with the accepted value for the mass of the Sun.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
How would you describe the mass of the Sun compared to the masses of the other stars plotted on the
graph in figure 12.29?

12.6.3 Diameters of stars
Stars other than the Sun are too far away to see as discs in a telescope. The Earth’s atmosphere distorts the
images of stars, making the smallest object that can be seen directly much larger than even the nearest stars.
The Hubble Space Telescope can resolve objects one-tenth of the diameter of those resolved by ground-
based telescopes because it does not have to deal with the problems introduced by the atmosphere. It has
been able to image Betelgeuse, a very large red giant over 600 light-years from Earth, as a disc.
FIGURE 12.30 A Hubble Space Telescope photograph of Betelgeuse showing the size of this enormous star
relative to parts of our solar system. Betelgeuse is the bright star at top left in the well-known constellation Orion,
shown in the photograph on the right.
Size of star
Size of earth’s orbit
Size of jupiter’s orbit
Atmosphere of betelgeuse • Alpha orionis

Hubble space telescope • Faint object camera
Source: NASA / A. Dupree CfA, R. Gilliland STScI
Other methods can be used to measure the diameters of

FIGURE 12.31 Stars vary widely
nearby stars; for example, when a star passes behind the Moon in size; Rigel is a supergiant. Most
it fades, very quickly but detectably. Knowing the speed that we stars are smaller than the Sun
should observe it passing behind the Moon, its diameter can be but some of the larger stars are
determined by timing how long the star takes to fade. Another enormous. The Sun is about average
method involves superimposing the light from two mirrors in size.
separated by many metres. An interference pattern is produced
that depends on the diameter of the star.
Rigel
12.6.4 Classifying stars
The information gathered about stars through the light that reaches
our telescopes and spectroscopes can be used to classify stars into
types. Classification helps astronomers to see that not all stars are
the same and prompts the questions that reveal the processes that
Sun
occur in stars.
Luminosity has been found to vary greatly between stars. The
stars that radiate the least energy have a luminosity of around
0.0001 of the luminosity of the Sun. The most luminous stars
are millions of times as luminous as the Sun. The Sun is neither
particularly dim nor particularly powerful in the realm of stars.
So, what gives stars their power, and why are some so much more
luminous than others?

A clue to this might be the range of radii of stars. Stars are known to exist with a radius of around 10% of
the radius of the Sun. That is not much bigger than the planet Jupiter. The largest stars known have a radius
of around 2000 times that of the Sun. In the context of the solar system, the star’s surface would be about
the radius of Saturn. So the largest known star is about 20 000 times the radius of the smallest.
Not surprisingly, the masses of stars also vary tremendously. The star with the smallest radius may not
be much bigger than Jupiter but it has much more mass, about 100 times as much. The least massive known
star has a mass of about 7% that of the Sun, the largest is about 350 times that of the Sun.
When astronomers plot a graph of luminosity versus mass, they observe a very strong correlation for
most of the stars, as shown in the graph in figure 12.32. This suggests that luminosity might be due to the
mass of these stars. There are many other stars that do not follow this relationship. The ones that do are
known as main sequence stars. The radius of these main sequence stars also increases with mass.
FIGURE 12.32 Graph showing that the radius of main sequence stars increases with mass.
10
Radius (solar units)
Sun
0.5 1 2 5 10 20
Mass (solar units)
Stars also vary greatly in temperature. The surface of the coolest stars is around 3500 K and the hottest
over 40 000 K. The Sun, for comparison, is around 5700 K. For main sequence stars, as the temperature
increases, so does the luminosity. Perhaps unsurprisingly, large, more massive stars are hotter and more
luminous on the whole. However, there are exceptions to this main sequence trend.
Stars exist that are hot but small. They are known as white dwarfs. They do not fit the trends of the main
sequence. Also, there are some stars with a large radius and luminosity but average mass. Their temperature
is not as high as found in main sequence stars of that radius, so they appear red. These stars are known as
red giants. Stars that deviate from the main sequence reveal a lot to astronomers about how stars change
over time. This will be explored in a later section.
An important part of the story of classifying stars is the consideration of their spectra. The spectra of
different stars emphasise different absorption lines differently. Using the spectra, scientists in the early
twentieth century classified stars by their spectral type. Annie Jump Cannon was a Harvard University
astronomer who devised a system of spectral class that is used in a modified form today. Stars are
classified as of spectral type O, B, A, F, G, K or M, according to the intensity of absorption lines in their
spectra.

12.6 EXERCISE
1. What provides most of the Earth’s energy?
2. Stars appear as pinpoints of light in the night sky. List evidence that the Sun is also a star.
3. The Sun dwarfs everything else in the solar system. Name two stars that dwarf the Sun.
4. The luminosity of the Sun is 3.86 × 1026 W, the radius of Earth’s orbit is 1.50 × 1011 m and the Earth has a
radius of 6.37 × 106 m.
(a) Find the surface area of a sphere whose surface lies at the Earth’s orbit and is centred on the Sun.
(b) Find the fraction of that surface that is taken up by the Earth.
(c) Calculate the total energy that the Earth receives from the Sun each day.
(d) Calculate the total energy received by one solar panel of area 1 m2 per day (assume the solar panel
receives the equivalent of six hours sunlight directly overhead per day).
5. The volume of the Sun is how many times that of the Earth? (Radius of Earth = 6.378 × 106 m, radius of
Sun = 6.955 × 108 m)
6. Identify five characteristics of stars that can be used to classify them.
7. How is a star’s spectral type determined?
8. What relationship defines stars classified as main sequence stars?
9. Which types of stars are not classified as main sequence stars?

12.7 Nuclear fusion

KEY CONCEPTS
2
• Explain nuclear fusion as the energy source of a star including: E = mc .
• Distinguish between the different nuclear fusion phenomena that occur in stars of various sizes.
12.7.1 The energy source of a star

An understanding of how the Sun generates its energy did not come until well into the twentieth century.
What could be the source of energy that seems to last for millions and even billions of years without any
signs of running out?
All particles exert a force of gravity on other particles, and it is the force of gravity that dominates on
the large scale of the universe. Clouds of hydrogen and helium gas that were present in the early universe
eventually collapsed under the force of gravity. The larger and more massive the cloud, the stronger the
gravitational force that pulled the gas particles in the cloud together.
Temperature is directly linked to the average kinetic energy of atoms. The cloud of gas shrinks because
the force of gravity accelerates the atoms inward, the average speed of the atoms increases, therefore the
temperature rises. The high temperatures in the centre of these collapsing gas clouds ensure that the cloud
remains in a gaseous state and does not condense into liquid or solid. The more the cloud collapses, the
more the gas particles will collide, which eventually provides enough resistance to prevent further collapse.

For some time this was the view of how stars worked — clouds of gas heated by gravitational collapse.
The collisions slow the motion of the gas particles and release energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, in a similar way to billiard balls colliding and producing sound. As particles slow down they are
more easily drawn in by gravity, again increasing the temperature, the rate of collision and the release of
electromagnetic radiation.
Astrophysicists calculated how long the Sun would continue to produce the energy that it does if gravity
were its only source of energy. The answer was about 15 million years. Yet evidence on Earth suggested
that the Sun had been a reliable source of energy for much longer than that. The Earth has been dated to
about 4500 million years old using the radioactive decay of uranium isotopes and other nuclei with long
half-lives. This age is consistent with theories of how the solar system formed, the evolution of life on
Earth and the time required for the geological formations that we see in the Earth’s crust to develop. Fifteen
million years is clearly nowhere near long enough!
Consider the Sun’s composition. Hydrogen makes up about 92% of the nuclei in the Sun. The rest is
mostly helium, about 7.8%. Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are the next most common elements, in total
making up less than 0.1% of the atomic nuclei in the Sun. The Sun is so hot in its centre that the electrons
are not attached to atoms; the nuclei and electrons swarm around separately, forming what is known as
plasma. When talking of hydrogen in stars we usually mean individual protons. Some of these protons will
be attached to one or two neutrons, forming the different isotopes of hydrogen — deuterium and tritium. In
the same way, helium-3 and helium-4 isotopes are formed.
FIGURE 12.33 (a) The proportion of atomic nuclei in the Sun (b) The most common isotopes present
(a) (b)
92% Hydrogen
+ + +
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
Other 0.2% +
+
+
+
Helium 7.8%
Helium-3 Helium-4
Arthur Eddington (1882–1944) was famous for his measurement of the bending of starlight around the
Sun, which helped verify Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Around 1926, Eddington proposed fusion
to be the energy source of the Sun.
The nuclei of atoms are held together by a force known as the strong nuclear force, which acts over only
very short distances within atoms. In the centre of the Sun, the pressure is so great and the temperature so
high that protons are pushed together with enormous force. However, the electrostatic repulsive force that
exists between all positive charges resists this coming together. Eddington calculated that the centre of the
Sun would reach temperatures of about 15 million degrees Celcius simply by contraction due to gravity.
Physicists at the time thought this was not high enough for the protons to get sufficiently close for the
strong nuclear force to overcome the electrostatic force, allowing the protons to fuse.

In 1928, George Gamow solved the problem of how large nuclei can eject alpha particles in alpha decay.
According to pre-twentieth century physics, alpha particles would not have enough energy to escape the
strong nuclear force holding them to the nucleus. However, studies in the new field of quantum mechanics
showed that there was a small probability that the alpha particles would escape certain nuclei. Physicists
realised that if alpha particles were able to ‘tunnel’ their way out of a nucleus, protons would have a
probability of tunnelling their way in. This probability is high only when the protons have a lot of kinetic
energy (which they do when the temperature is very high) and becomes significant at about 15 million
degrees Celsius! Some of the protons come close enough to fuse into a single nucleus, releasing energy in
the process. This fusion of protons does not happen easily, otherwise we would have a wonderful source of
energy to replace fossil fuels and nuclear fission.
Maybe one day a practical fusion reactor will be produced, but so far attempts to achieve controlled
fusion on Earth have used more energy to bring the nuclei together than was released by the fusion. The
thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb is the exception, but it requires a rather large ‘match’ to light the fuse.
These bombs use a fission (atom) bomb to achieve the necessary temperatures. In the Sun, the gases are
pulled closer together by gravity until the temperature is high enough for fusion to occur. The energy
released by the fusion reactions prevents the Sun from contracting any further.
In 1938, Hans Bethe (1906–2005) at Cornell University was trying to understand what happens to
protons when they are forced close together in the Sun. One of the reaction chains that Bethe found
is known as the PP1, or proton–proton chain, in which two protons are forced together. A nucleus of
two protons represents helium, but a nucleus of two protons alone is very unstable. One of the protons
undergoes positive beta decay; that is, it releases a positive beta particle (called a positron or positively
charged electron), another particle called a neutrino and about 1.44 MeV of energy. This can be summarised
in the following nuclear equation:
1
1
H + 11 H → 21 H + 𝛽 + + v + 1.44 MeV
where v is the symbol for the neutrino.

The isotope of hydrogen formed is called deuterium. Deuterium has a chance of undergoing fusion with
another proton in the following reaction:
2
1
H + 11 H → 23 He + 𝛾 + 5.49 MeV
where 𝛾 is a gamma ray.

Two of these helium nuclei can fuse to form the much more stable helium-4 isotope:
3
2
He + 32 He → 42 He + 211 H + 12.9 MeV
This is the most common of several chains of nuclear reactions that occur in the Sun; all of them start
with protons and end up with helium nuclei.
REMEMBER
In nuclear equations the mass numbers on each side of the equation have to balance. The atomic
numbers must also balance.

FIGURE 12.34 The proton–proton chain, PP1
v e+
γ
1 2
H 1
H
1
1
1
H
3
2
He
1 4
H 2
He
1
1
1
H
3
γ
2
He
1
H 2
1
1
H
γ
1
1
H
e+
v
The mass of the products of each of the chains of fusion reactions is less than the total mass of the
protons that undergo fusion in the chain. Einstein’s statement about the equivalence of mass and energy,
described by his famous equation E = mc2 , explains what happens to the ‘missing’ mass. Each reaction
results in a loss of mass as energy is released. The mass loss can be calculated using E = mc2 , where E is
the energy in joules, m is the mass loss in kilograms and c is the speed of light in metres per second.
REMEMBER
The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy that is often used by physicists when dealing with energy
of subatomic particles.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
How can we be sure that this theoretical model of the Sun describes how it actually works? Experiments
with particle accelerators and the hydrogen bomb have shown that fusion of hydrogen does occur and that
a lot of energy is produced in the process. The neutrinos and gamma rays produced in the reactions interact
very weakly with matter and therefore travel out of the Sun into space. Their presence can be detected in
laboratories on Earth and in orbit, but because neutrinos interact so weakly with matter their detection is
difficult. Photons of light take millions of years to make their way from the centre to the surface of the Sun
because of their continual absorption and re-emission. Neutrinos, on the other hand, leave the Sun’s surface
in seconds. If we could see neutrinos during the day we would see them radiating from the Sun. At night we
would see them coming through from the other side of the Earth, as most of them travel straight through it
uninterrupted! The levels of neutrinos predicted by the fusion models agree with what has been detected in
experiment, further validating the already well-established theory of fusion in the Sun.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
When two hydrogen nuclei in the centre of a star fuse, 1.44 MeV of energy is released. How much
mass is lost by the Sun in this reaction?
THINK WRITE
1. Convert the energy released from MeV to joule. 1.44 MeV = 1.44 × 106 eV
= 2.3 × 10−13 J
E
2. Use E = mc2 to calculate the mass equivalent. m= 2
c
2.3 × 10−13 J
=
(3.0 × 108 ms−1 )2
= 2.56 × 10−30 kg
3. State the solution. The Sun loses 2.56 × 10−30 kg in this
reaction.
Note: Both the mass and energy involved in each fusion reaction may seem tiny. However, the Sun
contains in the order of 1057 protons that can fuse in its lifetime to form helium.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
How much mass is lost by the Sun each second if there are 1038 fusions of protons per second?
SOLAR NEUTRINO PROBLEM

When physicists measured the neutrinos arriving on Earth from the Sun they found less than half the number
predicted using the theoretical model of how the Sun works. This became known as the Solar Neutrino Problem.
This problem puzzled physicists for over 30 years but the evidence for the hydrogen fusion model was so
strong that they held on to it. In 2001 the problem was considered solved. The detectors that had been used
detected only one type (flavour) of neutrino, but neutrinos change flavour on their journey from the Sun so
that many of them went undetected. When this was taken into account, the neutrino count agreed with the
theoretical prediction.
12.7.2 What happens next?

After about 10 billion years, most of the hydrogen in the core of the Sun will have fused to form helium.
Once the hydrogen in the Sun’s core is exhausted, it will cool and contract a little. The temperature at the
core’s edge will rise, due to the extra contraction, causing the hydrogen at the edge to undergo fusion. This
fusion closer to the surface of the star will heat its outer layers, causing them to expand and then cool. At
this point the Sun will become a red giant.
The Sun as a red giant will be about 1000 times as bright as it is now and have a radius about 100 times
its current size. Its core will be small and extremely dense and hot, while the outer layers will have very
low density and will be quite cool. After a time, the collapsing core will reach a temperature where helium
begins to fuse. This will produce enormous amounts of energy throughout the whole core. The rapid heating
that occurs in this time is known as a helium flash. The core will reach an enormous 350 million degrees
Celsius, causing the star to expand and cool. Then the Sun will continue burning helium in the core and
hydrogen on the edge of the core.

The helium fusion will involve the following reactions:
4
2
He + 42 He ↔ 84 Be + γ then 84 Be + 42 He → 12
6 C +γ
FIGURE 12.35 The development of a star from the hydrogen fusion stage through to the helium fusion stage
Non-reacting H
Non-reacting H Non-reacting He
Fusing H
Core H runs ou
t
Main sequence star ing

urn
ll b End of main
he
t s ,s s sequence life
ac gin
o ntr be
c
re
Fusing H Co
Fusing H
Hot, non-reacting He
Sh
ell
ex
pa
nd
Fusing H s
Fusing He
ins
g beg
He burnin
Core
Red giant
Hot, non-reacting He
Red giant
(Possible pulsating variable)
The fusion of helium to carbon is known as the triple alpha

FIGURE 12.36 The Ring
process because each helium nucleus is an alpha particle and three Nebula, a planetary nebula
are required to make the carbon-12 nucleus. The double-headed arrow
in the first equation, which indicates that the reaction occurs in both
directions, is included because beryllium-8 is not very stable and tends
to disintegrate into two helium-4 nuclei if it does not fuse quickly with
another helium-4 nucleus.
In contrast, carbon-12 is a very stable nucleus and eventually it will
replace the hydrogen and helium that currently form the Sun’s core.
Helium will continue to fuse on the edges of the carbon core, again
causing the outer layers to expand. The Sun will become a bit unstable
at this time, its size pulsing in and out every 10 000 years or so due
to the sensitivity of the rate of helium fusion to temperature. As the
outer layers expand, the temperature of the Sun drops, causing fusion
to stop. The outer layers then cool and contract until the temperature
again reaches the point where helium fusion can occur. Eventually this
pulsing will throw off the outer layers of the Sun, which will form a Source: NASA
ring of hot gases called a planetary nebula.

The Sun is not large enough to cause carbon to undergo fusion. The mainly carbon remnant is known as a
white dwarf and this gradually cools over a few billion years to form a black dwarf.
All of this happens over billions of years and so has not been observed. However, astrophysicists have
considered what would happen to the Sun over time if it is powered by hydrogen fusion. They have
observed stars at all the stages that they predict the Sun will go through. Red giants, planetary nebulae and
white dwarfs are all present in our galaxy.
12.7 EXERCISE
1. What is the source of energy in a star?
2. What two elements make up the vast majority of the nuclei in the universe?
3. The Sun radiates energy at 3.86 × 1026 J s−1 . Assume that this is the result of the fusion of hydrogen to
helium following the chain of reactions presented in this topic. We can summarise the fusion of these
reactions using the following equation.
411 H → 42 He + 2𝛽 + + v + 𝛾 + 26.76 MeV

(1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J)
(a) How many of these fusion reactions would occur in the Sun per second?
(b) Given that the Sun has about 1057 hydrogen nuclei but only about 10% of those will fuse in the core,
how long do you predict the Sun will continue to fuse hydrogen? (Give your answer to one significant
figure.)
4. One of the reactions that occurs in the Sun is the fusion of helium-3 and helium-4.
(a) Complete the following equation.
3
2
He + 42 He → ___ + 𝛾 + 1.59 MeV
(b) Use the energy released by the reaction to determine the mass difference between the nuclei on the
left- and right-hand sides of the equation in part (a).
(c) Where could the helium isotopes for this reaction have come from?
(d) This is an intermediate reaction in a chain of reactions that occurs in the Sun. What is the final product
of this chain of reactions, given that the Sun is a main sequence star?
5. (a) What are three arguments for the case that fusion is the source of the Sun’s energy?
(b) Why is gravity not a good explanation of the source of the Sun’s power?
6. Explain why, if hydrogen and helium make up the vast majority of the nuclei in the universe, they are
relatively rare on Earth.
7. Research another nuclear reaction chain that occurs in the Sun, other than the proton–proton chain.
8. What is the product of fusion in main sequence stars?
9. In red giants, fusion of larger nuclei occur to form heavier elements. Explain why the radius of the star
grows significantly from its time as a main sequence star.
10. Why do red giants not fit the patterns for surface temperature versus mass and luminosity versus mass
observed for main sequence stars?


12.8 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram as a tool to describe the evolution and death of stars with differing
initial mass.
• Relate the formation of stars to the formation of galaxies and planets.
• Describe future scenarios for a star, including white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.
• Explain the event horizon of a black hole and use to calculate the Schwarzschild radius.
• Describe the effects of the gravitational fields of black holes on space and time.
12.8.1 The temperature of stars

In the 1920s, astronomers like Cecilia Payne determined how stellar temperatures related to their spectrum.
The spectrum of a star is not of equal intensity for all colours. They found that hot stars radiate more
energy at short wavelengths than cooler stars. Short wavelengths correspond to the blue end of the visible
spectrum, while longer wavelengths correspond to the red end of the spectrum.
We are all familiar with this relationship between colour and temperature. In the school laboratory you
have probably used a Bunsen burner. These burners have two settings, one a cool, yellow flame and the
other a hot, blue flame. The flames emit more than just the colours we see. If you hold your hand in the air
about 30 cm from the flame you can feel heat, indicating that the flame is emitting infra-red radiation that
we can feel but cannot see.
Astronomers generally like to use the kelvin FIGURE 12.37 Emission at different wavelengths
temperature scale. Every degree in temperature for objects of different temperatures
difference is the same as the Celsius scale, but 0 K
8000 K
is set at the coldest possible temperature, which
corresponds to −273.15 °C. This means that 0 °C
is 273.15 K.
On a clear night it is possible to see some 6000 K
variation in the colour of stars, but the rods in
the retinas of our eyes that are responsible for
distinguishing colours are not very sensitive to dim
light. A photograph will show the colours much
Intensity
more clearly. We notice that some stars are red and

some are white or blue. The Sun is a yellow star,
indicating that it is neither particularly hot nor cool
in the range of star temperatures. The colour of a star
indicates the area of the spectrum of the star that is
most intense. Some stars are so hot that they emit
most of their radiation at very short wavelengths of
ultraviolet light, making them invisible from Earth. 3000 K
They must be observed using UV telescopes in orbit
because the atmosphere absorbs most UV radiation,
preventing it from reaching ground-based telescopes.
The temperature of a star’s outer layers determines 0 1000 2000 3000
its colour. The core of a star is much hotter than the UV visible IR
outer layers, due to fusion reactions and gravitational Wavelength (nm)
energy.

FIGURE 12.38 A portion of the night sky including the constellation of Orion. Four of the brightest stars in the
sky can be seen. Notice the different colours: Betelgeuse is a red supergiant and Rigel is a blue supergiant.
Source: NASA
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
Describe what happens to the wavelength and intensity of light from a star as its temperature
increases.
THINK WRITE
1. Refer to figure 12.37. The graph shows As temperature increases the wavelength of the
the intensity of different wavelengths for light emitted becomes shorter and the intensity
different temperature stars. increases.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
Describe how astronomers can determine the surface temperature of a star.
12.8.2 Spectral type

When the spectra of stars were first observed in detail in the nineteenth century, it seemed that the spectrum
of every star was different. Gradually, some sense was made of the multitude of lines that crossed the
spectra and stars were classified into spectral types. The system developed by Annie Jump Cannon
(1863–1941) has been used since 1910. It classes stars as O, B, A, F, G, K or M according to the relative
intensity of various absorption lines in their spectra. For example, for type A stars the lines of the hydrogen
spectrum are very clear. The spectral classes are arranged in order of temperature from O, the hottest with a
spectrum peaking in the ultraviolet, to M, the coolest with a spectrum peaking in the infra-red. The Sun is a
type G star and these are yellow. A full description of the spectral classes is given in table 12.3.

TABLE 12.3 Spectral classifications and their corresponding features.
Spectral class Surface temperature (K) Colour Spectral features
O 28 000–50 000 Blue Ionised helium lines

Strong UV component
B 10 000–28 000 Blue Neutral helium lines
A 7500–10 000 Blue-white Strong hydrogen lines

Ionised metal lines
F 6000–7500 White Strong metal lines

Weak hydrogen lines
G 5000–6000 Yellow Ionised calcium lines

Metal lines present
K 3500–5000 Orange Neutral metals dominate

Strong molecular lines
M 2500–3500 Red Molecular lines dominate

Strong neutral metals
Note: In astronomy the term ‘metal’ refers to any element other than hydrogen or helium.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 12.4 The colour of stars (doc-31885)
Investigation 12.5 Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams (doc-31886)
Teacher-led video Investigation 12.4 The colour of stars (tlvd-0830)
12.8.3 Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams

In 1911 in Denmark, Ejnar Hertzsprung
FIGURE 12.39 An H–R diagram showing various star types
(1873–1967) plotted star luminosities
(or equivalently, absolute magnitudes) Temperature (K)
versus their spectral types (or 25000 10000 6000 3000
–10
equivalently, temperatures). In 1913,
Henry Norris-Russell (1877–1957) did Supergiants
–5
the same thing at Princeton. The result 104
Absolute magnitude
is known as a Hertzsprung–Russell
(H–R) diagram. H–R diagrams provide
Luminosity
0 102
a wonderful synthesis of the data that we Giants
have about stars. +5

Main sequence 1
Stars on the left side of the H–R
diagram are hot and those on the right +10 10–2
are cool. Those towards the top of the White dwarfs
diagram are very luminous, while those +15 10–4
towards the bottom are dim. Most stars O B A F G K M
cluster along a diagonal line from the Spectral class
bright and hot down to the dim and cold.
These are the main sequence stars. They are all doing much the same thing, fusing hydrogen in their cores,
just like the Sun. The hotter, brighter stars are more massive than the cooler, dimmer stars.

Many stars do not lie on the main sequence. Above the main sequence are stars that are brighter than
their spectral class would predict for a main sequence star. These stars are very large and are known as
giants and supergiants. Many are red because of their cooler surface temperature, but are still very bright
because they have such a large radiating surface.
Below the main sequence is a cluster of hot, dim stars known as white dwarfs. White dwarfs are made
mainly of carbon and fusion has ceased in their cores. They are simply cooling down.
During World War II Walter Baade discovered that there appeared to be yet another classification of stars.
He called these classes Population I and Population II stars. Population I stars contain a greater variety of
elements, while Population II stars contain little more than hydrogen and helium. Population I stars tend
to be hot and blue, and all fit on the main sequence, whereas Population II stars are much more varied.
Many are red giants and the top left corner of the main sequence in the H–R diagram is nearly empty of
Population II stars. The Sun is a Population I star.
The explanation for these two types of star is that Population I stars are young. They have more heavy
elements in them because they are formed from the remnants of older stars, which produced heavy elements
(helium and heavier) during the processes of fusion. Population I stars are all on the main sequence because
they are still fusing hydrogen in their cores.
The most massive stars are found in the top left corner of the main sequence. This area of the H–R
diagram is nearly empty of Population II stars. Massive stars have a much greater pull of gravity on the
gases that they are made from, so equilibrium between gravitational collapse and the radiation pressure
from the core is reached at much higher temperatures than in the smaller stars. This accelerates the rate at
which fusion occurs and so these stars ‘live fast and die young’. The most massive Population II stars have
had time to complete the fusion of hydrogen in the core and move on to fusing helium. Few Population
I stars, however, are old enough to have completed this stage of their lives. By identifying the two star
populations, Baade had discovered a way for astrophysicists to view star populations at two points in time.
This opens a window of research as stellar evolution takes billions of years, so it is not possible to just sit
and wait to see what happens.
FIGURE 12.40 This H–R diagram shows the ‘path’ of a star of one solar mass throughout its lifetime.
106
Supergiants
104
Possible shell
He burning
Shell H
burning
Core He
102 Main sequence burning,
possible Red
variable giants
1 solar
L (Lsun)
mass
1
10–2 White
dwarfs
10–4
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2500

T (K)

When the hydrogen in the core is exhausted, the star moves off the main sequence as it cools and expands
into a red giant. Fusion of helium in the core begins. Once the helium in the core is exhausted, fusion of
helium around the carbon core will cause the star to expand. In larger stars, fusion of nuclei can continue
up to iron-56, but beyond iron it takes more energy to cause fusion than the fusion reaction produces, so the
cycle stops. While fusion is occurring in shells around the core, the star pulses as a variable star. Due to its
size and temperature it remains high above the main sequence on the H–R diagram. When a star about the
size of the Sun throws off most of the remaining hydrogen and helium to form a planetary nebula, it can no
longer sustain fusion and cools as a white dwarf, now below the main sequence as it is dim but still quite
hot. White dwarfs are only about the size of Earth, but are much denser. They slowly cool, moving to the
right in the H–R diagram as they become cold black dwarfs. These processes are summarised in table 12.4.
TABLE 12.4 Fusion in different star types
Star group Energy-producing reactions
Main sequence Nuclear fusion of H to He in core
Red giants Nuclear fusion of He to C in core, with H fusion continuing in shell
Supergiants Multiple nuclear fusions possible in shells, forming elements up to iron in core
White dwarfs No nuclear fusion reactions occurring
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
A star is observed to have a luminosity 1000 times that of the Sun and a surface temperature of
about 10 000 K. Use an H–R diagram to predict what stage of evolution this star is in.
THINK WRITE
1. Move along the temperature axis of an H–R This star is on the main sequence, so
diagram to 10 000 K. Move up the luminosity axis it is fusing hydrogen in its core.
to 1000 solar luminosities to locate the star on the
H–R diagram. Name which group it is in.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
Two stars have luminosities 10 000 times that of the Sun. One is a main sequence star and the other is
a supergiant. Compare the temperatures, masses and ages of the stars.
More massive stars have a violent end. When fusion ends in these stars, they start to collapse very
rapidly. This process leads to enormously high temperatures and more fusion, including the formation of
elements heavier than iron-56. The outer layers come crashing inwards and bounce off the core in a
supernova, blasting a rich soup of elements into space. A supernova can outshine a whole galaxy for a
period of time. Stars between 8 and 50 solar masses end in this way and are called Type II supernovae. They
are mostly found in the spiral arms of galaxies, where stars form. These massive stars have lifetimes in the
millions of years, rather than the billions of years of solar mass stars. Their death provides the material for
new stars in the galaxy that contain elements other than hydrogen and helium; the stars that could form
planets like those in the solar system.
Type I supernovae are found in all parts of all types of galaxies. They form from old, low-mass stars.
Stars with less than 8 solar masses lose a lot of their mass as they form a planetary nebula following the red
giant phase. They are too small to go supernova at this stage, so begin to cool as white dwarfs. Many

stars, however, are in a binary system. If a white dwarf has a partner that is a red giant in a close orbit, the
white dwarf will accrete hydrogen gas from the giant star. As the hydrogen falls onto the white dwarf, it
undergoes fusion, heating the surface of the star rapidly and causing a nova, where the star glows a million
times as brightly as the Sun. If the white dwarf is able to accrete sufficient hydrogen to have a total mass
of more than 1.4 solar masses, it will collapse. Tremendous heat and pressure is generated, causing fusion
reactions on a massive scale throughout the star and releasing incredible amounts of energy. These Type I
supernovae are thousands of times brighter again than the nova.
With this energy source rapidly depleted, the star collapses. This time the mass is too great for protons
and electrons to remain apart. In reverse beta decay, the electrons and protons combine to form neutrons.
The density of the resulting neutron star is the same as the density of atomic nuclei. The whole star has a
diameter of little more than 10 kilometres, but it has a mass greater than that of the Sun.
FIGURE 12.41 Stellar evolution
Note: M = Solar mass

Main sequence
Red giant
(Number of burning shells
depends on mass)
Planetary nebula Supernova

(Original mass < 8 M ) (Original mass > 8 M )
Leaving Leaving behind a

behind a
White dwarf Neutron star Black hole

(Core < 1.4 M ) (Core < 3 M ) (Core > 3 M )
It is easy to distinguish Type I and Type II supernovae by their

FIGURE 12.42 The Crab
spectra. Type I supernovae have very little remaining hydrogen so the Nebula, the remnant of a
lines for hydrogen are missing from their spectra, while hydrogen supernova observed in 1054;
lines are clear in Type II. Supernovae are rare, occurring at a rate of at the centre a neutron star
only about one per century per galaxy, with the last in the Milky Way sweeps a beam of radiation
recorded by Kepler in 1604. In 1987, a supernova was observed in the past us as it rotates. These
types of neutron stars are
Large Magellanic Cloud. Photos of the cloud before the supernova
called pulsars.
showed the star before the massive explosion. It offered a wonderful
opportunity to study supernovae and featured in the popular press.
If the core of the star that remains following a supernova has a mass
of more than about 3 solar masses, gravity is unstoppable. Without the
energy supply of fusion to hold the star up, no known force can support
the matter against the intense gravity and the remnant collapses to form
a black hole. These exotic objects have a gravitational pull so great that
even light cannot escape.
Source: NASA

FIGURE 12.43 Stars of different masses evolve in different ways.
106
Core
Supergiants burning
Shell burning
10 solar
4
10 masses
Shell He burning
Shell H burning
Core He
102 Main sequence burning,
possible Red giants
variable
Shell H burning
L (Lsun)
1 1 solar
mass
10–2 White
dwarfs
0.1 solar
mass
10–4
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2500

T (K)
12.8.4 Schwartzchild radius

Black holes are the result of sufficient mass being squeezed into a small enough space. You can imagine if
we could squeeze the Earth, we could make it into a ball that has a smaller radius. As we reduce the volume
of the Earth, the mass
( does not
) change, so the density increases. For example, if we halve the radius of the
4 3
Earth, its volume V = 3 πr will be only an eighth of what is now. The same mass squeezed into an
eighth of the volume means that the density would be eight times as great. Gravity on the surface of this
compressed Earth would be four times as strong as we know it. That means that gravity would pull inwards
on the material that makes the Earth much more strongly. We could imagine squeezing the Earth smaller
and smaller so that gravity gets larger and larger. Eventually we would reach the point where electrons
would merge with protons to form an Earth of neutrons. At this point, the Earth would have a radius of
around 200 metres! But what if we kept squeezing so that the neutrons could no longer withstand the
pressure? The gravitational force on the neutrons would be so great that the matter would collapse
completely and form a black hole. The radius at which this collapse occurs is called the Schwartzchild
radius.
The Schwartzchild radius is determined by the formula:
2GM
rs =
c2
Where:
G = the universal constant of gravitation (6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 )
M = the mass of the star
c = the speed of light (3.0 × 108 m s−1 )

The Schwartzchild radius for the Earth is:
2GM
rs =
c2
2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 6.0 × 1024
=
(3.0 × 108 )2
≈ 9 mm
This is a bit unrealistic because there is no clear way of squeezing the Earth into a ball with a radius of
9 mm. What is needed to make this happen is such an enormous mass that gravity itself does the work; that
is what you have when a giant star collapses as a result of consuming all of its nuclear fuel.
The smallest star that would collapse to form a black hole is about 25 times the mass of the Sun.
However, a lot of this material is lost in the supernova that occurs at the end of the star’s life. The remaining
mass would be about three times the mass of the Sun or 6 × 1030 kg.
2GM
rs =
c2
2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 6.0 × 1030
=
(3.0 × 108 )2
≈ 9 km
The Schwartzchild radius for this enormous star is around 9 km. About three times the mass of the
Sun would be within this 9 km radius sphere, and the gravity would be so powerful that no forces could
stop it collapsing. Anything that moved within this radius could not escape. No events inside this radius
can be known to observers outside — they would be over the boundary of the black hole, known as the
event horizon.
12.8.5 Black holes

Black holes are predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. In this theory, Einstein described
changes in gravitational fields as curves in space-time. Space-time is required to locate events. It is
not enough to ask where an event happens, we also need to ask when. Einstein’s theory was that mass
produced curves in space-time and the stronger the gravity, the tighter the curves. The curves explain why
it is difficult to escape a massive body. It is like going uphill on the curves of space-time. Fascinatingly
though, gravity also affects time. Observers see time passing more slowly for objects in an intense
gravitational field.
In the case of a black hole, space-time is affected so much that it is impossible to climb the hill to escape
once inside the event horizon. As you watch something fall into a black hole, perhaps a clock, you would
notice it ticking more and more slowly as it approached the event horizon. The light from the clock finds
it increasingly difficult to reach anyone observing the event and it would appear to never cross the event
horizon. Unfortunately for anyone falling into the black hole, time would pass as normal and tidal forces —
the difference in gravitational pull (or the shape of space-time) between your head and your toes — would
stretch you out in a process fittingly called ‘spaghettification’ and you would rapidly die.
Black holes are difficult to detect because they do not emit light, or any form of electromagnetic
radiation. However, the motion of objects nearby can reveal their presence. A star might be detected
moving as though it was orbiting another star. If that other star is not visible and the strength of its gravity
is sufficient, then it may be a black hole. Black holes also cause material that is falling into them to release
radiation. Once the material has reached the event horizon, no further information of any type can escape.
However, X-rays released by matter in its last moments before disappearing beneath the event horizon can
indicate the presence of a black hole.

Another form of black hole has been found at the centre of some galaxies, including the Milky Way.
These have the mass of millions of stars and are known as galactic black holes.
12.8 EXERCISE
1. (a) Sketch an H–R diagram and circle and label the main sequence.
(b) Is it normal for stars to move along the main sequence during their life spans?
(c) Will the Sun ever become a supergiant?
(d) On the diagram you produced in part (a), circle and label the stars that have mainly fusion of helium and
heavier elements in their cores.
(e) In what circumstances is it possible to have a very massive star positioned at the right-hand side of the
diagram?
(f) What section of the H–R diagram contains remnants of stars that no longer have fusion reactions as a
source of energy?
(g) Andre measures the composition and temperature of two stars to be the same. He expects to place
them in the same region of the H–R diagram. One of the stars is brighter than the other. What does this
tell him about the two stars?
(h) A star lies on the main sequence. What does this tell you about the star?
(i) What colour are stars on the left-hand side of the diagram?
2. Would you expect to find planets like Earth around Population II stars? Explain.
3. Compare and contrast the spectra of type O and type A stars.
(a) A type O star
(b) A type A star
4. The Sun is a yellow star. Estimate its surface temperature and give its spectral class.
5. You are an astronomer with a research project to search for black holes. How will you look for them?
6. Use the internet to identify two black hole ‘candidates’ and explain why astrophysicists believe them to be
black holes.
7. Write a description of the life cycle of a one solar mass star.
8. A massive star sheds a lot of material in a supernova explosion and the remaining mass, equal to four solar
masses, collapses to form a black hole. What is the Schwarzchild radius of this black hole?
9. The black hole from question 8 consumes more mass over time, stripping it from a neighbouring star. What
happens to the Schwarzchild radius?
10. You are in a spacecraft just outside the event horizon of a black hole.
(a) Do you notice anything different about the rate that time passes on the spacecraft?
(b) Later you return to Earth. What do you notice about how you have aged compared with those who
remained on Earth?


12.9 Galaxies
KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare the Milky Way galaxy to other galaxies with different shape, colour or size.
• Explain and analyse how the chemical composition of stars and galaxies is used to determine their age.
• Investigate selected aspects of stellar life cycles by interpreting and applying appropriate data from
relevant databases.
12.9.1 Comparing the Milky Way galaxy to other galaxies

Galaxies come in several forms. Understanding how they came to take these forms is a major area of
research.
Galaxies range in size from hundreds of thousands of stars to hundreds of billions of stars. The Milky
Way, our galaxy, is a large galaxy with approximately 100 to 200 billion stars. Galaxies are classified by
their shape as either spiral, elliptical, irregular or dwarf. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy.
Galaxies are classified by their shape as either spiral, elliptical, irregular or dwarf. The Milky Way is a
spiral galaxy.
FIGURE 12.44 Galaxies are classed as (a) spiral, (b) elliptical, (c) irregular or (d) dwarf,
depending on their shape.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Source: (a) and (b) ESA / Hubble & NASA (c) NASA, ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team STScI/
AURA / NASA

Most galaxies formed in the early years of the universe. A clue to the age of a galaxy, and the stars within
it, comes from its chemical composition. Stars and galaxies that have few ‘metals’ — that is, elements
other than hydrogen and helium — formed from material that is little changed since the beginning of the
universe, where around 75% of the mass of atoms in the universe was hydrogen and 25% helium. Atoms
of higher atomic number were formed in stars that have since exploded as supernovae, which pushed the
elements out into the surrounding space. If a star or galaxy contains elements such as oxygen, carbon and
iron, that are plentiful on Earth, we know they have been formed from material made in earlier stars. The
galaxies containing these elements must be relatively old and the stars containing them relatively new. The
solar system, for example, is understood to be over four and a half billion years old. It contains significant
quantities of elements formed in stars that exploded before it formed. The Milky Way is understood to
be one of the older of the universe’s galaxies, or at least some of its oldest stars are, dating back to when
galaxies first started to form. A method of dating stars is to measure the quantity of beryllium-9. This
isotope does not form in fusion in stars and was not formed in the big bang. It forms from the collision of
cosmic rays (fast-moving protons) with heavier elements. The more beryllium-9 that is found, the older the
star that contains it and the longer it has been exposed to cosmic rays. Some of the oldest stars in the Milky
Way are dated at around 13.6 billion years old using this technique, close to the 13.7 billion years age of the
universe.
Spiral galaxies
A spiral galaxy, like the Milky Way, has arms that spiral around a central ‘bulge’. Young stars are found
within the spiral arms and new stars are continually being formed in some of the interstellar gas clouds in
the arms. New stars are bluer on average than old stars (which are red). This means that the spiral arms
of these galaxies tend to be blue. In contrast, stars in the central bulge are usually old and not much star
formation occurs. As a result, the bulge is redder than the spiral arms.
As we look away from the spiral arms, only old stars are found. Astronomers know they are old, because
their spectra reveal them to be Population II stars. They are found in a sphere or halo around the galaxy,
with many of them grouped in globular clusters. The stars, or clusters of stars, in the halo are so widely
spaced that they have little effect on the appearance of a galaxy, which looks like a flat disc. The fact that
these old stars form a sphere around spiral galaxies suggests that these galaxies collapsed into rotating discs
after the stars were formed. Stars formed from gas clouds once most of the galaxy had collapsed into a
disc would continue to orbit around the centre of the galaxy within the disc, as they have no component of
velocity to move them outside it; however, the early stars must have had a component of their velocities that
took them outside the plane of the galaxy.
Spiral galaxies are flat discs because the stars within them revolve around the centre of mass of the
galaxy, due to the initial motion of the gas cloud from which the galaxy formed. As this gas cloud
contracted, the rotation rate increased in the same way that an ice-skater spins more quickly when she pulls
in her arms. Eventually, the spinning and the gravitational collapse reach a balance, just as there is a speed
where the ice-skater is not strong enough to pull in her arms any further. However, no force acted to create
this balance parallel to the axis of rotation, so the galaxies flattened into discs.

FIGURE 12.45 One model for the formation of a spiral galaxy
(a)
The hydrogen/helium
cloud contracts due
to gravity.
N e t ro t a t i o n
Axis of rotation
(b)
The cloud contracts,

mostly parallel to the
axis of rotation,
R o t a ti o n forming a disc.
(c)
Tidal forces from

nearby galaxies
cause spiral arms
to form.
Elliptical galaxies
Elliptical galaxies contain only Population II stars, unlike spiral galaxies, which contain very old stars as
well as young and still-forming stars. Due to the dominance of old stars, eliptical galaxies tend to have a
reddish tinge. It seems that something about the formation of elliptical galaxies causes a quick burst of
star formation. Elliptical galaxies tend to be found within large clusters of galaxies, in contrast to spiral
galaxies, which formed where the density of galaxies was lower.
Elliptical galaxies are composed of stars that revolve randomly around the centre of mass, so there is no
cause for the galaxy to flatten into a disc. This random motion may have come about because two galaxies
with different planes of rotation collided in the early universe. The interaction caused by the collision could
also explain the sudden burst of star formation early in the existence of elliptical galaxies.
Irregular galaxies
Irregular galaxies tend to be small, like the Magellanic clouds. In contrast to the stars in spiral and elliptical
galaxies, the types of stars found in irregular galaxies do not follow any particular pattern. The irregular
shape is probably due to the gravitational disturbances of large neighbouring galaxies. Collisions between
galaxies are also thought to cause the formation of some irregular galaxies. Irregular galaxies are often
bright and blue due to the star formation occurring within them.
Unanswered questions
It is still not known how galaxies form. Astrophysicists use computer simulations to attempt to discover
why galaxies form particular shapes, such as why spiral galaxies have spiral arms. One attempt at
explaining the spiral arms has been to consider tidal effects. Just as the Moon exerts tidal effects on the
Earth, most notably in the rise and fall of the oceans, satellite galaxies like the Large Magellanic Cloud

exert tidal forces on the Milky Way. The result is that the stars do not revolve about the centre of the galaxy
in circular orbits. It has been suggested that this might cause the stars to bunch together in arms that form
spirals, but why would such a regular feature appear in one galaxy while the other galaxy, in this case the
Large Magellanic Cloud, remains so irregular? Clearer answers to how and when the galaxies formed will
probably be found in the next few decades as data from the many new instruments are analysed.
The Milky Way

Our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains over 100 billion stars. It is a spiral galaxy whose colour appears
to be white. It is difficult to study the Milky Way’s properties because we are inside it. There is no way
of stepping outside to get a view of what it looks like overall, so astronomers need to piece together an
understanding from the information they have. There is a lot of gas and dust clouds that block the views
to parts of the galaxy. This includes our view of the centre of the galaxy where a supermassive black hole is
understood to be. Due to our obscured view, scientists have only been able to produce an image of a black
hole at the centre of a different galaxy, even though the one in our galaxy is relatively much closer.
12.9 EXERCISE
1. There are no photographs of the Milky Way galaxy from the outside. Explain why this is.
2. There are three major types of galaxy: spiral, elliptical and irregular. Which one describes the Milky Way?
3. Describe the colours of different parts of the Milky Way galaxy. What causes these colours?
4. Approximately how many stars make up the Milky Way galaxy? How does this compare to other galaxies?
5. One galaxy is observed to contain a relatively high number of red stars and another has more blue stars.
What does this tell you about the two galaxies?
6. Two red dwarfs are observed. One’s spectrum reveals virtually no elements other than hydrogen and a
small amount of helium. The other contains significant quantities of other elements like oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen. What can you say about these two stars from this information?
7. You observe an enormous blue giant in our galaxy. What would we expect to observe in its chemical
composition?
8. Compare the chemical compositions of galaxies that are relatively nearby to those at the most distant
reaches of observation.
9. Use www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/12lys.html (or a similar database of nearby stars). At the bottom of the
page there is a list of all of the known stars within 12.5 light-years.
(a) How many stars are within this distance?
(b) How many white dwarfs are there?
(c) How many red giants are there?
(d) How many main sequence stars are there?
(e) How many of these stars are in multiple systems (two or three stars)?
10. Use the data on www.atlasoftheuniverse.com, or similar, to plot the closest 20 stars on an H–R diagram.
The vertical axis can be in absolute magnitude if luminosity is not provided. Note, absolute magnitude is a
scale that represents the dimmest stars as a large positive number that diminishes as the stars get more
luminous. The most luminous stars will have a large negative absolute magnitude! The horizontal axis
should be spectral type (class).


12.10 Review
12.10.1 Summary
• The information we have about the universe is gathered from the electromagnetic radiation that has
reached us.
• Spectroscopy can be used to analyse the chemical composition of stars, which provides the key to
determining the age of the star.
• From electromagnetic radiation, astrophysicists are able to determine the temperatures of stars and the
elements that make up the stars.
• Standard candles, such as Cepheid variables whose period of varying luminosity is related to their
average luminosity, enable us to measure distances to distant stars.
• Parallax is the only direct method that astrophysicists have to measure the distance to stars, and it only
works for stars that are relatively nearby due to the small parallax of such distant objects.
• The spectra of more distant galaxies are all red shifted by an amount that increases with distance, so
red shift is a very useful technique for measuring how far away distant galaxies are.
• The Sun is a typical star, enormous by Earth standards, but dwarfed by many larger stars.
• The Sun is made mostly of ionised hydrogen and helium.
• The total energy output of a star is called its luminosity, which varies with the age and mass of the star.
• More massive stars shine more brightly and are hotter than low mass stars; they also pass through their
life cycle more quickly.
• The Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram is a graph of the luminosity of stars against their temperature
or colour.
• In an H–R diagram, most stars are found on a diagonal line called the main sequence, from hot and
luminous down to cool and dim.
• Main sequence stars are fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores.
• Fusion is the source of energy in stars and involves a mass loss in accordance with E = mc2 .
• Stars above the main sequence in an H–R diagram have consumed all of the hydrogen in their cores
and have expanded in size to form red giants due to fusion heating outer layers of the star.
• Stars below the main sequence in an H–R diagram are ending their life cycle; fusion has finished and
most of their material has been shed forming a planetary nebula. They are remnants of stars cooling
down as white dwarfs.
• The event horizon is the name given to the sphere around a black hole beyond which no matter or light
can escape. The radius of the sphere is called the Schwarzchild radius and can be calculated using:
2GM
r= 2 .
c
• To observers at a distance from a black hole, time is measured to pass more slowly for objects near the
black hole.
• Black holes distort the shape of space around them to the point that it collapses on itself.
• The Milky Way, our galaxy, is a large spiral galaxy. Other galaxies vary vastly in size and shape.
Resources

12.10.2 Key terms
When a body, such as a star or a planet, accretes it gains mass as material is attracted to it by gravity.
Amplitude of a wave is the size of the maximum disturbance of the medium from its normal state.
Astrophysics is the area of science in which the laws of physics are applied to the universe.
An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun (1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m).
Baseline is the distance between the two observation points in a parallax measurement.
Binary stars are stars that occur in pairs which orbit a common point.
A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has had time to cool.
A black hole is an object whose gravity is so strong that nothing can escape it.
Brightness is the energy per second per square metre at the place where the star is observed.
A Cepheid variable is a large star, near the end of its life, that pulses at a rate that is related to its luminosity.
A constellation is a group of stars forming recognisable patterns in the sky.
Frequency refers to the number of times of a periodic wave repeats itself every second. Frequency is measured
in hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz = 1 s−1 .
Fusion is the process where two nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus and release energy.
A galaxy is an enormous group of stars held together by gravity.
A geocentric model of the universe is one that has the Earth as its centre.
A heliocentric model of the universe is one in which the Sun is at the centre.
A light-year is the distance that light travels through a vacuum in one year (1 light-year = 9.46 × 1015 m).
Luminosity is the total energy that the star radiates per second.
Main sequence stars are clustered on a diagonal line through an H–R diagram. They are in the phase of their
cycle where they are fusing hydrogen in their cores.
A nebula (plural = nebulae) is a vast cloud of gas in space.
Parallax is an effect that is noticed whenever an object is viewed from two different positions.
A parsec (pc) is the distance to a star that would have a parallax of one arc second using the radius of the Earth’s
orbit about the Sun as a baseline (1 pc = 3.086 × 1016 m).
Period refers tothe time it takes a periodic wave source to produce a complete wave.
A planetary nebula is a ring of gas that has been thrown off a star in the latter stages of its life.
A red giant is a star that has completed hydrogen fusion in its core and swelled to an enormous size. The
expanded surface of the star is cool so it glows red.
Revolving means to move around a body in an orbit.
Solar mass refers to the mass of the Sun.
The solar system is made up of the eight planets, their moons and other smaller bodies in orbit around the sun.
Spectroscopy is the science of examining spectra consisting of a range of electromagnetic radiation
wavelengths.
A supernova is an explosion of a massive star once fusion reactions in its core cease.
A transit occurs when one body passes across the face of another, for example, when Venus passes between
the Earth and the Sun.
Triple alpha process is the process of three alpha particles producing a carbon-12 nucleus.
The universe refers to everything, including all matter, all space and all time.
Wavelength is the distance between successive corresponding parts of a periodic wave.
A white dwarf is the hot remains of a star in which fusion has ceased. It is small and dense and made mostly of
carbon.
Resources

Investigation 12.1
Brightness versus distance
Aim: To model the decrease in brightness of a star with distance
Investigation 12.2
Solar observation
Aim: To observe the Sun and sunspots in a safe manner
Investigation 12.3
Cardboard solar observatory
Aim: To make a safe solar observatory to observe the Sun
Investigation 12.4
The colour of stars
Aim: To model the colour of stars by connecting an incandescent globe
to different voltages
Investigation 12.5
Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams
Aim: To construct a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram using provided secondary data
Resources
12.10 Exercises

1. Which wave does not travel at c, the speed of light?
A. Radio wave
B. Microwave
C. Gamma ray
D. Sound wave

2. What is the only direct method we have of measuring distances to stars?
A. Parallax
B. Standard candles
C. Redshift
D. Spectroscopy
3. The radiation spectrum from the Sun when passed through a spectroscope forms which of the
following?
A. Emission spectrum
B. Absorption spectrum
C. Continuous spectrum
D. Blackbody spectrum
4. What does the absorption spectrum from a star reveal?
A. The chemical composition of the star
B. The mass of the star
C. The radius of the star
D. The luminosity of the star
5. The difference between a nebula and a galaxy can be determined using spectroscopy.
A. A nebula has an emission spectrum and a galaxy an absorption spectrum.
B. A nebula has an absorption spectrum and a galaxy an emission spectrum.
C. A nebula has beryllium in its emission spectrum, a galaxy does not.
D. A galaxy produces a continuous spectrum.
6. The mass of a star can be determined if it has a companion star orbiting it. The more massive the star:
A. the longer the period of orbit of the companion for a given radius of orbit.
B. the shorter the period of orbit of the companion for a given radius of orbit.
C. the smaller the radius of orbit of the companion.
D. the larger the radius of orbit of the companion.
7. What is the major energy producing process in the core of a red giant?
A. Hydrogen is fusing to form helium.
B. Helium is fusing to form carbon.
C. Carbon is fusing to form iron.
D. There is fission of helium to form hydrogen.
8. The more massive the star, the more luminous. This relationship is true for which of the following?
A. All stars
B. White dwarf stars
C. Red giants
D. Main sequence stars
9. Which stars last longest?
A. Blue giants
B. Red dwarfs
C. Yellow stars like the Sun
D. It has nothing to do with colour.
10. In which of the following is fusion taking place?
A. Black hole
B. White dwarf
C. Red dwarf
D. Neutron star

1. Explain the difference between the luminosity and the brightness of a star making use of how they each
change when the observation distance doubles.
2. Light from a star enters a spectroscope with wavelength 550 nm. Calculate its period and frequency.
3. a. Explain how parallax can be used to measure the distance to stars.
b. How can the distance to ’standard candles’ be measured if they are too far away to measure their
parallax?
4. Describe the Sun’s mass and temperature compared with other stars.
5. Explain how protons in the core of the Sun undergo fusion to form helium-4 nuclei. Include the number
of protons required and any other particles produced in the process in your answer.
6. a. Use figure 12.39 to list three types of stars that could have the spectral class G.
b. You observe a star with a spectral type of G. What other measurement needs to be made to
determine which type of star it is?
7. Does the spectral class of a star change in its life cycle? Give an example.
8. What is the main factor determining the life cycle that a star will take? Give two examples to show how
they differ when this factor is different.
9. List the three main types of galaxies and the differences between them.
10. Access a list of the nearest stars such as the list of nearest stars and brown dwarfs.
a. Complete a table showing each spectral type (stellar class) O, B, A, F, G, K and M to determine the
percentage of nearby stars in each class.
b. What proportion of these stars are on the main sequence (indicated by a V in their class)?

What source of data can astronomers use to determine each of the following?
a. The chemical composition of a star 1 mark
b. The distance to a star 2 marks
Question 2 (1 mark)
Figure 12.19 shows the spectra of different spectral type stars. What is the difference between stars of
different spectral types?
a. Use figure 12.29 to predict the luminosity of a main sequence star that is observed to have a mass
1.5 times that of our Sun. 3 marks
b. A star has a companion star orbiting at a radius of 3 × 1012 km. The period of revolution of the
companion is 1 years. Calculate the mass of the star. 2 marks
The oldest stars in the Milky Way tend to be in globular clusters. What difference in chemical composition
of the stars in globular clusters would you notice compared with stars in the rest of the galaxy? Explain
your reasoning.
In spiral galaxies, young stars are much more likely to be found in the spiral arms than in the central bulge.
What colour difference would you see between the spiral arms and the central bulge? Explain.

Test maker

13 Is there life beyond Earth’s

solar system?
13.1 Overview
13.1.1 Introduction
Understanding how life could exist in our universe is the ultimate quest for astronomers. The investigation
of our solar system using spacecraft has revealed much new information and stimulated extensive debate on
the origins of life on Earth and beyond. But how do we investigate outside our solar system? How can we
discover the composition and origin of other planets and stars when they are too far away to
physically visit?
In earlier science studies, you may have discovered that visible light is just a small part of a much bigger
electromagnetic spectrum. This spectrum identifies light through different wavelengths and frequencies —
that is, light modelled as a wave. This model of light is the key to our understanding of the universe, so it is
important to look at what the model tells us.
FIGURE 13.1 Observations from ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array) reveal
extraordinarily fine detail that has never been seen before in the planet-forming disc around a
young star.
Source: ALMA ESO/NAOJ/NRAO / NASA / ESA
TOPIC 13 Is there life beyond Earth’s solar system? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Information from beyond Earth’s solar system
• identify the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation as the basis for all observations of the universe
• explain how emission and absorption line spectra are produced with reference to the transition of electrons
between energy levels of the atom
• identify spectroscopy as a tool to investigate the light from stars, and interpret and analyse spectroscopic
data with reference to information from beyond our solar system
• describe how planets can be identified by using the common centre of mass and the gravitational effect of
a planetary system on a star
Locating extrasolar planets
• compare methods of exoplanet detection including astrometric, radial velocity, transit method and
microlensing, referring to databases that differentiate for size, eccentricity and radius
∆𝜆 v
• explain and apply Doppler shift including spectral shift and ‘wobble’ of planetary systems using: =
𝜆0 c
• investigate how the composition of an exoplanet can be determined using spectral analysis
Conditions for life beyond Earth’s solar system
• explain the presence of liquid water as determining the habitable zones of a star system and the most likely
place for life
• explain the origins of life in the universe as having come from organic molecules in space, or as originating
on Earth or an Earth-like planet through reactions of elements and compounds
Possibility of life beyond Earth’s solar system
• explain the use of the Fermi paradox to question the possibility of life outside Earth’s solar system and
identify its counter arguments
∗
• apply the Drake equation: N = R fp ne f1 fi fc L, as a way of predicting the likelihood of life existing in the
universe by making reasonable assumptions based on evidence and speculation
• distinguish between targeted and untargeted searches for extra-terrestrial intelligence (ETI), and describe
optimising strategies including where to look and how to ‘listen’ with reference to choice of frequency and
bandwidth
• explain why the radio spectrum is the best section of the electromagnetic spectrum to search the sky for
possible ETI signals, including the cosmic radio window and the use of radio astronomy in the search
• explain the nature of information that humans transmit beyond Earth to signal that intelligent life exists
on Earth.
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2016) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

Resources
To access key concept summaries and past VCE exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice

13.2 Spectroscopic analysis of light
KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation as the basis for all observations of the universe.
• Explain how emission and absorption line spectra are produced with reference to the transition of electrons
between energy levels of the atom.
• Identify spectroscopy as a tool to investigate the light from stars, and interpret and analyse spectroscopic
data with reference to information from beyond our solar system.
13.2.1 Electromagnetic radiation

In order to understand how light can be used to detect exoplanets we must first understand what light is and
how it behaves.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation which is a transverse periodic wave that travels at a constant
speed of 3.00 × 108 m s−1 in a vacuum. Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electric component
perpendicular to a magnetic component as shown in figure 13.2.
FIGURE 13.2 A transverse wave model
B
v=c
The frequency of a periodic wave is the number of times that it repeats itself every second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz = 1 s−1 . Frequency can be represented by the symbol f.
The period of a periodic wave is the time it takes a source to produce a complete wave. This is the same
as the time taken for a complete wave to pass a given point. The period is measured in seconds and is
represented by the symbol T.
The period of a wave is the reciprocal of its frequency:
1
T=
f
The wavelength is the distance between successive corresponding parts of a periodic wave. The
wavelength is also the distance travelled by a periodic wave during a time interval of one period.
For transverse periodic waves, the wavelength is equal to the distance between successive crests (or
troughs). For longitudinal periodic waves, the wavelength is equal to the distance between two successive
compressions (regions where particles are closest together) or rarefactions (regions where particles are
furthest apart). Wavelength is represented by the symbol 𝜆 (lambda).
The speed, v, of a periodic wave is related to the frequency and period. In a time interval of one period, T,
the wave travels a distance of one wavelength, 𝜆.
distance 𝜆 𝜆
speed = = = 1 = f𝜆
time T f

This relationship, v = f𝜆, is sometimes referred to as the universal wave equation.
Recall that for light (and all electromagnetic radiation) the speed is a constant in a vacuum.
The colour of light is determined by the frequency (or wavelength). Red light has a lower frequency
than violet light, and therefore a longer wavelength. The frequency and wavelengths of some colours are
summarised in table 13.1.
TABLE 13.1 Frequency and wavelength of colours
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
Frequency ( × 1012 hertz) 430 480 520 570 650 730
Wavelength (nanometres) 700 625 580 525 460 410
REMEMBER
The visible spectrum of light contains red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The spectrum continues
into invisible forms of radiation, including infra-red at lower frequencies than red and ultraviolet at higher
frequencies than violet.
FIGURE 13.3 Forms of radiation and their place in the electromagnetic spectrum. The visible portion of the
spectrum is shown enlarged in the upper part of the diagram.
(Nanometres) 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400
Visible spectrum
(white light)
Power Radio waves Microwaves Infra- Ultra- Gamma

and red violet X-rays
telephone AM FM Radar rays rays rays
Electrical Electronic tubes and Klystron Incandescent lamps, X-ray Cosmic

generator semi-conductor tubes, lamps, heat fluorescent tubes rays,
devices microwave lamps tubes, radioactive
lasers sparks, isotopes
lasers
108 106 104 102 1 10−2 10−4 10−6 10−8 10−10 10−12 10−14
Wavelength in metres
102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022
Frequency in hertz

13.2.2 Production of light
It is important to understand why objects emit light. Think about the sources of light you come into contact
with everyday. Can you explain why they make light?
Electromagnetic radiation is produced when charged particles accelerate. When an object gets hot, the
particles that make up the object gain kinetic energy; that is, they move about. When an object gets really
hot, charged particles such as electrons start to move so much they can oscillate very quickly and sometimes
collide with nuclei or other charged particles around them. Thus, we have charged particles experiencing
acceleration, and so we have light! The hotter the object, the more kinetic energy and the more energetic
movement of the charge, resulting in higher energy light emissions. This is how an incandescent source
emits light. Incandescent light sources use heat (through electrical resistance) to create light; fluorescent
light sources use electrical energy to stimulate transitions of electrons within the energy levels of an atom
(see figure 13.4).
All incandescent sources produce a continuous spectrum. This is because the interactions and collisions
between charged particles are random. This means any size collision is possible and can occur, from a
very small glancing bump to a head-on smash. The size of the acceleration (or deceleration) results in
different types of electromagnetic emissions or wavelengths produced. Cooler objects tend to be red in
colour as red wavelengths represent lower energy emissions. As objects get hotter, their charged particles
experience more frequent, higher energy collisions resulting in higher energy emission and the colours we
see move towards yellow, white and then to blue (figure 13.5). The intensity or brightness of light increases
because there are many more collisions as the object gets hotter, which in turn means more electromagnetic
radiation is emitted.
FIGURE 13.4 An incandescent light source and FIGURE 13.5 When iron such as this iron pipe
fluorescent light source. Both involve the excitement of is heated, the hottest section is the brightest
charged particles within a material. and is yellow in colour. The cooler sections are
less bright and red.
The relationship between heat and the electromagnetic emission of an object is often represented as a
blackbody curve (figure 13.6). This curve enables us to examine the spread of an object’s spectrum as well
as how intense (bright) different parts of the spectrum are.
The blackbody curve shows that as temperature increases, the shape of the curve tends to ultraviolet
and gets more peaked. You can see how the wavelength of maximum brightness moves up and towards the
purple end of the visible spectrum. Remember, all the other parts of the spectrum are still being produced,
this is why the curve slopes down on both sides.

FIGURE 13.6 The blackbody curve
1.0
6000 K
0.5
5000 K
4000 K
3000 K
0
0 5000 10 000 15 000 20 000
Ultraviolet Visible Infra-red
Wavelength (× 10−10 m)
As all stars are very hot, they all emit a continuous spectrum of incandescent light. On a clear night
it is possible to see some variation in the colour of stars but the rods in the retinas of our eyes that are
responsible for distinguishing colours are not very sensitive to dim light. A photograph will show the
colours much more clearly. We notice that some stars are red and some are white or blue. The Sun is a
yellow star, indicating that it is neither particularly hot nor cool in the range of star temperatures. The
colour of a star indicates the area of the spectrum of the star that is most intense.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Describe what happens to the wavelength and intensity of light from a star as its temperature
increases.
THINK WRITE
1. Consider the blackbody curves in figure 13.6. The peak wavelength decreases
and the intensity increases as the
temperature increases.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Describe how astronomers can determine the surface temperature of a star.
13.2.3 Dispersion: producing colour from white light

White light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum and can be separated into colours using a narrow beam
of light and a glass triangular prism. This phenomenon is called dispersion. It was first analysed by Isaac

Newton in 1666, although René Descartes had sought an explanation for rainbows in 1637 by working with
a spherical glass flask filled with water.
As light enters a triangular glass prism, it is bent. It then travels through the prism to the other side where
it is bent again.
The colours spread as they enter the glass and travel on different paths through the triangular prism
(figure 13.7). They are spread even more as they leave the glass. Violet light is bent the most and red the
least. The order of the colours, from the colour that bends least to the colour that bends most, is red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. You would know these colours as the colours of a rainbow. They are also
known as the visible spectrum.
FIGURE 13.7 The colours in white light separate as they enter the glass and separate even more when they
leave. At each edge, violet light is deflected more than red light.
Glass prism
White light
13.2.4 Spectroscopy
By analysing the different spectra of light from distant stars we can determine their temperature, chemical
composition and age. We can tell how fast they are moving and whether they have planets. This process of
examining the spectra of light is called spectroscopy.
The solar spectrum

Isaac Newton (1642–1727) published his book Opticks in 1704.
FIGURE 13.8 A spectrum of
In the first volume he demonstrated that light from the Sun can be colours is produced when white
dispersed into its constituent colours. Other theories about why light is passed through a prism
rainbows formed, why prisms of glass produced a spectrum of
colours and why soap bubbles appeared coloured involved the
prism, raindrop or bubble altering the light. However, as Newton
demonstrated, the prism, raindrop or bubble simply disperse the light
according to its colour (wavelength), revealing information about
the Sun. Newton’s prisms showed the colour spectrum from the
Sun to contain red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
(figure 13.8).
In 1802, William Wollaston (1766–1828) invented the
spectroscope in an effort to explore the spectrum in more detail. He
found the solar spectrum was not continuous but was crossed by a
number of black lines. In 1814, Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826)
mapped the spectrum in much greater detail, finding 576 black lines.
These have become known as Fraunhofer lines.
John Herschel (1792–1871) and W.H. Fox Talbot (1800–1877),
a pioneer in photography, found that when chemical substances
were heated in a flame and observed through a spectroscope, each
chemical had a distinctive set of bright bands of colour forming

its spectrum. This meant that scientists could identify chemicals simply by observing their spectra. Other
scientists found that when sunlight is passed through gas before entering the spectroscope it had extra
black lines through its spectrum. This suggested that the black lines in the solar spectrum were due to
light passing through gases in the Sun. These scientists had identified a method for determining the
elements in stars.
In 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887) with his friend Robert Bunsen (1811–1899) used Bunsen’s
burner to burn elements and clearly describe the cause of these spectral lines. They found that:
• a continuous colour spectrum is produced by glowing solids or dense gaseous bodies like the Sun
• if a gas is between the light source and the spectroscope, light is absorbed from the continuous
spectrum at wavelengths or colours characteristic of the chemical components of the gas. A spectrum
of this type is called an absorption spectrum (figure 13.9)
• a glowing gas produces bright lines on a dark background at wavelengths or colours characteristic of
the chemical components of the gas. A spectrum of this type is called an emission spectrum.
TABLE 13.2 Types of spectra and the celestial bodies that produce them
Type of spectrum Generally produced by Celestially produced by
Continuous Hot solids, liquids, gases under pressure Galaxies, inner layers of stars
Emission Incandescent low-density gases Emission nebulae, quasars
Absorption Cool gases in front of continuous spectrum The atmospheres of stars
FIGURE 13.9 An absorption spectrum produced by shining light with a continuous spectrum through a cool gas
Absorption spectrum
Cool gas absorbs certain

wavelengths and re-emits
them in all directions.
This light is
deficient in
certain
wavelengths.
Incandescent
bulb producing
continuous
spectrum

One of the first successes with this new tool of astrophysics was the spectroscopic analysis of planetary
nebulae by William Huggins (1824–1910). Working in London in 1864, he found that these nebulae
produced the bright line spectra of glowing gas, showing that they were clouds of gas rather than groups
of very distant stars. Some of the nebulae documented by Herschel, however, showed that they were
collections of stars, as they emitted continuous spectra interrupted by black lines. Huggins’s investigations
also provided very convincing evidence that the stars in the sky really are distant suns.
Composition of the Sun

Early in the twentieth century, no one understood what could power the Sun. Chemical reactions did not
produce sufficient energy. Scientists considered that it may have been some form of nuclear reaction that
could release some of the Sun’s mass in the form of energy, as Einstein described in 1905 in the equation
E = mc2 . However, scientists thought the Sun was made largely of iron, the most stable nucleus of all. This
conclusion was based on measurements of tidal effects on the Earth that showed the Earth was mostly made
of iron and on analysis of meteorites from space that showed that they too were composed largely of iron.
Spectroscopic results seemed to confirm the iron content of the Sun. However, reading spectrographs
of the Sun is not easy as many spectra of different elements overlap. In 1925, a young astrophysicist
named Cecilia Payne (1900–79) wrote one of the most highly regarded PhD theses in astronomy on the
spectra of stars. She interpreted the spectra as showing that the Sun was mostly hydrogen, not iron at all.
The scientists had all been reading the Fraunhofer lines incorrectly, which is easy to do when the lines of
so many elements overlap. It was not long before the scientific community believed that hydrogen was
the main element found in the Sun. Hydrogen not only fitted the spectra, it explained the Sun’s energy,
unlike iron.
FIGURE 13.10 The absorption spectrum for hydrogen
Absorption lines
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Describe how astronomers can determine the elements that are present in the Sun.
THINK WRITE
1. Each element has its own unique absorption Astronomers observe the Sun’s light
spectrum. through a spectroscope. The solar
spectrum contains absorption lines
that are characteristic of the elements
found in the Sun’s atmosphere.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
The Sun is a hot ball of gas. Explain why it does not produce an emission spectrum.

13.2.5 Spectral type
When the spectra of stars were first observed in detail in the nineteenth century, it seemed that the spectrum
of every star was different. Gradually, some sense was made of the multitude of lines that crossed the
spectra and stars were classified into spectral types. The system developed by Annie Jump Cannon
(1863–1941) has been used since 1910. It classes stars as O, B, A, F, G, K or M according to the relative
intensity of various absorption lines in their spectra. For example, for type A stars the lines of the hydrogen
spectrum are very clear. The spectral classes are arranged in order of temperature from O, the hottest with a
spectrum peaking in the ultraviolet, to M, the coolest with a spectrum peaking in the infra-red. The Sun is a
type G star and these are yellow. A full description of the spectral classes is given in table 13.3.
TABLE 13.3 Spectral classifications and their corresponding features.
Spectral class Surface temperature (K) Colour Spectral features
O 28 000–50 000 Blue Ionised helium lines

Strong UV component
B 10 000–28 000 Blue Neutral helium lines
A 7500–10 000 Blue-white Strong hydrogen lines

Ionised metal lines
F 6000–7500 White Strong metal lines

Weak hydrogen lines
G 5000–6000 Yellow Ionised calcium lines

Metal lines present
K 3500–5000 Orange Neutral metals dominate

Strong molecular lines
M 2500–3500 Red Molecular lines dominate

Strong neutral metals
Note: In astronomy the term ‘metal’ refers to any element other than hydrogen or helium.
Using the properties of light, astronomers are able to investigate the temperature and chemical
composition of stars. There is one more important tool that is used to investigate the universe. This relates
to the way we model light as a wave.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 13.1 The colour of stars (doc-32317)
Teacher-led video Investigation 13.1 The colour of stars (tlvd-0830)
13.2 EXERCISE
1. Define the following terms: refraction, reflection, dispersion, spectrum, spectroscopy.
2. (a) White light enters a crown glass rectangular prism. Sketch the path of red and deep blue light through
the glass and back into air. How does the direction of the emerging coloured rays compare with that of
the incoming white ray?
(b) Suggest why a glass triangle is used to observe the visible spectrum, rather than a glass rectangle.
3. Explain the difference between absorption and emission spectra.
4. Explain how incandescent light is produced.

5. What type of spectrum does an incandescent source have? Why?
6. Describe how the shape of the emission curve of a black body changes as the object gets hotter.
7. How can we use our understanding of blackbody emission curves to determine the temperature of stars?
8. Explain how the spectra from a star can enable us to determine the chemicals present in the star.

13.3 Locating extrasolar planets (exoplanets)

KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe how planets can be identified by using the common centre of mass and the gravitational effect of
a planetary system on a star.
• Compare methods of exoplanet detection including astrometric, radial velocity, transit method and
microlensing, referring to databases that differentiate for size, eccentricity and radius.
∆𝜆 v
• Explain and apply Doppler shift including spectral shift and ‘wobble’ of planetary systems using: = .
𝜆0 c
• Investigate how the composition of an exoplanet can be determined using spectral analysis.
13.3.1 The search for exoplanets

So how can we use this understanding of light to detect life in our universe? Our quest starts with looking
for other planets: extrasolar planets or exoplanets.
The detection of extrasolar planets or exoplanets has long been heralded as a way to justify the likelihood
that life is not unique to Earth. Since 1995, ground- and satellite-based surveys have detected many planets
orbiting other suns. To date, over 3900 planets have been confirmed with more than 3400 candidates
pending — none an Earth analogue. The planets that have been detected range considerably in orbits and
size.
Finding exoplanets is very difficult. They are near impossible to observe directly due to the fact that
they are tens of thousands of times fainter than the stars they orbit. The three restricting factors to direct
observation are:
1. Planets do not make their own light; they reflect their star’s light.
2. The star they orbit is so bright the planet cannot be seen through the star’s glare.
3. They are very, very far away.
Very early on astronomers realised that directly observing exoplanets was unlikely to give results. Other
methods of detecting needed to be considered using our understanding of how planetary systems behave.
Astronomers used the fact that the gravity of planets orbiting their star would cause the star to ‘wobble’.
13.3.2 The astrometric method

In our solar system, the planets orbit the Sun at different orbits and different rates. The reason they maintain
their orbits is due to the gravitational force between the Sun and the planets. This force acts on both objects
and means that a planet’s motion around a star pulls the star slightly from the centre of the system; as the
planets rotate around the star, the star is pulled ever so slightly towards the planets.
This creates a very regular, simple wobble in the star. Figure 13.11 illustrates this in a single planetary
system. Our solar system, with its eight planets and many other orbiting bodies, has a much more

complicated wobble. However, the shape and size of the wobble is a direct result of the many and varied
orbits of bodies in our planetary system. Knowing this, we can use mathematical processes to breakdown a
complicated wobble to infer the size and orbits of the bodies around a star.
FIGURE 13.11 The orbit of a planet about a star causes the star to wobble because both objects assert a
gravitational force on each other.
Knowing that a star wobbles is only half the process; the biggest hurdle is detecting the wobble.
Observing this wobble directly is very difficult. This process, known as astrometric measurement,
attempts to identify the wobble of a star by measuring tiny variations in the star’s position over time. This
process relies on very accurate instruments and to date no exoplanet has been identified using this method.
This is not to say that planets cannot be detected this way. In the future, with very large telescopes like the
Keck telescopes in Hawaii or proposed space projects such as NASA’s Space Interferometry Mission (SIM),
exoplanets may be identified with this method.
13.3.3 The Doppler effect

On the surface of the Earth, when fast moving objects go by, the sound they make drops in pitch. You can
hear this when trains, fire engines or racing cars speed past you. This is known as the Doppler effect, after
Christian Doppler, who predicted its existence in 1842, before it had been observed. As a result of the
Doppler effect, the pitch of the sounds that we hear depends on the motion of the sound source and the
observer. For example, a siren that has a frequency of 500 Hz will have a frequency higher than 500 Hz
when it is approaching you and a pitch lower than 500 Hz when it is moving away from you.
Sound travels as a wave made up of a series of compressions and rarefactions. The distance between
one compression and the next is the wavelength of the sound. In still air, a sound wave travels at a constant
speed that is independent of the speed of the source. However, if the source is moving towards the listener,
the distance between one compression and the next will be shorter than if the source is at rest, making the
wavelength of the sound shorter. The number of compressions that the listener hears per second will be
greater than if the source was at rest and this higher frequency will be heard as a higher pitch. Similarly,
if the source is moving away from the listener, the motion of the source increases the distance between
compressions. This results in a lower frequency and a lower pitch being heard.
Doppler realised that as light behaved like a wave, it should also experience a Doppler effect. While with
sound the frequency of the wave determines the pitch, with light the frequency determines the colour. When
a light source is travelling away from an observer, the wavelength lengthens and the light appears redder in
colour. This phenomenon is an example of the Doppler effect and is called red shift. Similarly, light that is
travelling towards an observer appears bluer in colour; this is called blue shift.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 13.2 The Doppler effect (doc-31887)

FIGURE 13.12 The Doppler effect: as the source moves to the right, the wavelengths in front of it are smaller than
those behind it.
S = Source
13.3.4 Measuring radial velocity

As we have seen, when an object emitting waves is in motion, the Doppler effect causes a change in the
detected frequency and wavelength. When a star wobbles due to a planetary system, we can observe the
wobble as a red shift (as the star moves away from us) or a blue shift (as the star moves towards us) of the
star’s light. Bigger shifts indicate larger movements of the star.
Variations in the wavelength of a star’s light over a period have enabled the identification of planetary
systems. This form of exoplanet detection is known as the radial velocity (RV) method, a name which
relates to the fact that to observe the change in wavelength the observer must be parallel to the motion, or
the line of sight is along the radius connecting Earth to the star (figure 13.13). The size and complexity of
the Doppler shift can indicate the size of single or multiple planet orbits about a star.
FIGURE 13.13 The RV method uses Doppler shift to detect the

wobble of a star caused by a planetary system. The size and
variation of the shifts over time indicates the size and number
of planets in a system.
Host star
Exoplanet
Source: ESO

Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the Geneva Observatory in Switzerland made the first exoplanet
discovery in 1995 using the radial velocity method. They found a planet orbiting the star 51 Pegasi, 47.9
light-years from us in the constellation Pegasus (figure 13.14). Since then, thousands of stars have been
identified as having planetary systems.
FIGURE 13.14 Data from multiple RV readings of 51 Pegasi illustrated the telltale sine graph indicating
a close orbiting body. With a period of 4.231 days and a mass of just less than half that of Jupiter, it
was the first verified exoplanet to be found.
Source: © Jason Wright / Exoplanet
The speed at which a star wobbles can be determined by the shift in wavelength from a known
(stationary) spectrum.
The wave equation applied to light can be used to determine how fast an object is moving if
we know the change in wavelength:
Δ𝜆 v
=
𝜆0 c
Where:
∆𝜆 = change in wavelength
𝜆0 = stationary wavelength
v = velocity of moving object
c = speed of light.

Astronomers use the lines of the hydrogen spectrum to compare spectra from different stars
(figure 13.15). This is because hydrogen is the most common element in the universe and is the main
constituent of stars. The hydrogen spectrum measured in a laboratory on Earth is compared to that
observed from a star. The shift is measured and then the above relationship is used to determine the speed
of the moving object.
The negative indicates the shift was to a shorter wavelength, that is, a blue shift, suggesting the star is
moving towards Earth.
FIGURE 13.15 The visible spectrum of hydrogen. The positions of the spectral lines are known to high
precision, which enables astronomers to compare them to starlight to identify any shift in the spectrum.
410 nm 434 nm 486 nm 656 nm
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A star is observed to have a wavelength of H𝛼 = 656.280 07 nm, the known H𝛼 for a stationary
source is 656.280 10 nm. Determine the radial velocity at which the star is moving relative to
Earth.
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the change in wavelength. Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 − 𝜆0
= 656.280 07 − 656.280 10 nm
= −0.000 03 × 10−9 m
Δ𝜆 v
2. Rearrange to make v the subject and =
substitute in the known values. 𝜆v c
Δ𝜆c
v=
𝜆0
−0.000 03 × 10−9 × 3.0 × 108
=
656.2 801 × 10−9
= −13.7 m s−1
3. State the solution. The radial velocity at which the star is
moving relative to Earth is –13.7 m s–1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A star has a known wavelength of 484.56 028 nm. When it was observed it was found to have a
wavelength of 484.56 023 nm. Determine the radial velocity at which the star is moving relative
to Earth.
The beauty of the radial velocity method is that the shift in the spectrum of a star due to its wobble is
the same no matter how far away that star is from us. However, the changes in wavelength are very small
because the movements due to planetary systems are small. The Sun moves at about 12.5 m s–1 around the
solar system’s centre. If we observed this change in speed on a spectrum, it would give a shift in wavelength
of about 2.6 × 10–5 nm. This change accounts for our entire solar system, not an Earth-sized planet on its
own. If the Earth were the only planet in our system, the Sun would only move by about 9 cm s–1 . This

means that to detect an Earth-like planet, we need to be able to make detections within 1 cm s–1 . This is a
very high level of precision. The best ground-based telescopes are currently able to achieve a precision of
about 1 m s–1 .
The RV method has been the most successful Earth-based technique to date but it does have several
drawbacks. To identify the variation in the speed of a star, the system is best observed ‘edge on’. Of course,
not all systems are in this position relative to Earth; however, a radial velocity component will be detected
unless a system is ‘flat on’ or perfectly perpendicular to the Earth. This problem means that the RV method
can’t identify an accurate mass of the planets under observation. The RV method can only give a minimum
mass value. This leads to errors where possible planets could in fact be a binary star system. In general,
planets discovered using the RV method tend to be ‘hot Jupiters’ — named because they are large gas
planets that orbit very close to their star — because these types of planets have a greater gravitational effect
on their star, and thus cause a larger wobble.
Precision of Earth-based telescopes is another limit of the RV method. The quest for radial velocity
precision significantly less than 1 m s–1 is being made with the development of the Next Generation
Adaptive Optics (NGAO) system at the WM Keck Observatory and the Echelle SPectrograph for Rocky
Exoplanets and Stable Spectroscopic Observations (ESPRESSO) at the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in
Cerro Paranal, Chile, run through the European Space Agency. It is the hope that both projects will achieve
precisions to a few cm s–1 .
13.3.5 The transit method

Transit photometry, commonly known as the transit method, is the most successful technique for
discovering exoplanets (figure 13.16). This method involves detecting the small variation in brightness
when an exoplanet passes in front of its star. This technique is usually used in conjunction with the RV
method to verify any discovery. This is because the dimming effect observed could also be caused by
other factors. The most significant contributor to the transit method of detecting exoplanets is the Kepler
space telescope, launched in 2009, which has found over 5000 planet candidates. Most detections from
Kepler are termed ‘candidates’ until they are verified by ground-based observations. The Kepler data is
double-checked through a Follow-up Observation Program (FOP) using the Lick, Las Cumbres and Keck
observatories. In addition, an online project known as Planet Hunters enables thousands of online users to
assist in identifying possible exoplanet transits from the thousands of star candidates identified by Kepler.
FIGURE 13.16 A transit
As well as being a good method of detecting an exoplanet, the transit method also gives a much better
picture of the exoplanet. As the planet transits the star, the degree to which the star’s visible light is
diminished can give an indication of the planet’s diameter. During an exoplanet’s transit, additional
absorption lines due to starlight travelling through the planet’s atmosphere can be detected to identify an
atmosphere and its make-up. When the planet moves behind the star, a drop in infra-red light can be used to
determine the temperature of the planet. Space-based transit method observations have revealed broader and
more detailed data on exoplanet properties as technologies improve.
The transit method does have drawbacks. The most significant is that for us to see a transit, the system
must be very close to edge on from our point of view. This means the transits we observe represent a very
small number of the total systems in our universe. A second difficulty is that the time of a transit is only a
very small fraction of the total orbit time of an exoplanet. This means that the likelihood of observing the
transit at all is very low. In addition, multiple transits need to be observed to verify a sighting. Finally, the
transit method can produce false readings where a binary system can be mistaken for a planetary system.

In order to find transits, our telescopes need to be continually observing the sky. This is achieved by
using both space-based and ground-based telescopes. In addition to Kepler, the Spitzer space telescope,
launched in 2003, uses the transit method to gather detailed spectra in the infra-red and has sensitivity three
orders of magnitude greater than any other infra-red observatory. Spitzer’s replacement, the James Webb
Space Telescope (JWST), which is also the optical replacement for the Hubble space telescope, has suffered
delays and funding concerns and is working towards a 2021 launch date.
13.3.6 Microlensing
In 1913 Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity described how light would be affected by gravity. Einstein’s
theory predicted that gravitational effects of large bodies such as stars would cause light to bend around
them. Astronomers realised that they could use Einstein’s theory and the variations of gravity caused by a
planetary system on a star to identify exoplanets.
Stars in our sky move relative to each other, with closer stars appearing to move faster than more distant
background stars. When the light from a distant star travels past a closer star, some of its light is bent
around the closer star, causing the distant light to appear brighter than it actually is. This phenomenon
is called microlensing as the foreground star (known as the lens star) bends the light in the same way a
magnifying glass does (see figure 13.17). If the lens star has a planetary system, it changes the effects of the
lensing in a mathematically predictable way. This method was first proposed to discover binary star systems
in 1992. The first successful exoplanet discovery using microlensing was made in 2002.
FIGURE 13.17 As the lens star and planet move in between Earth and a source
star, the light curve created can be used to identify a planetary system.
Source
Observer
star
Planet
Lens
star
Planet
Lens
Source
Observer star
star
Microlensing has several advantages over the other methods for exoplanet detection. It can identify
planets of much smaller masses and larger orbital radii than the ‘hot Jupiters’ discovered through RV
and transit methods. This means it can detect planets that are rocky and much more like Earth. A second
advantage is that microlensing can detect systems at much larger distances than RV and transit methods.
The biggest drawback of microlensing is that it measures unique events. Unlike RV and transit events that
can be measured and verified by repeat observations, microlensing events occur once, when background and
foreground stars line up in the perfect position to create the lensing effect.
Other methods of detecting exoplanets, such as direct imaging and timing (with pulsars, eclipsing
binaries or stellar oscillations), have achieved a small number of planetary discoveries.

13.3.7 Trends in the data
Looking at the planets discovered so far we might think that Earth and our solar system are very rare and
different to what the rest of the universe holds. However, we need to be careful about how we interpret our
discoveries. Each method of exoplanet discovery tends to favour planets with a particular type of period and
mass. This indicates the limits in our detection methods rather than limits in the types of planets out there.
Exoplanet masses are given as a ratio of Jupiter’s mass because so many of the exoplanets discovered
thus far are very large. The period indicates not only how quickly the planet moves around its star, but also
its orbital radius. Smaller periods indicate planets that are closer to their star.
The distribution of masses, periods, radii and eccentricity of discovered exoplanets have not been what
astronomers expected. The planets and systems do not look like our solar system, nor do they fit simply
into the accretion model, the model used to explain the formation of our solar system. Many exoplanets
discovered have been described as ‘hot Jupiters’. Explaining how and why these planets ended up so close
to their star became a very important task for astronomers, as it was so unexpected. It is now understood
that the systems we are observing are much older that our solar system. Astronomers believe that over time
the large gas planets have migrated (drifted very slowly) towards their star. Smaller, rocky planets like our
Earth, may have already fallen into their sun or been knocked out of orbit through the gravitational effects
of such migration. This migration model also supports another oddity of so many exoplanets discovered:
their highly eccentric orbits.
FIGURE 13.18 Exoplanet mass (in Jupiter masses) versus period in years by detection method. The clusters
illustrate how the various detection methods seem to bias particular types of exoplanets. This scatterplot was
generated using data from www.exoplanet.eu. The data from microlensing appears limited here as many of the
discoveries do not have periods and as such do not appear on this plot.
100
28.5
10
Orbital period (years)

1.5
1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 Imaging
Transit
0.1 Radial velocity
Microlensing
Pulsar
0.01
TTV
Astrometry
Mass (Jupiter masses)
0.001 Our solar system
0.0001
0.00001
13.3.8 Finding the right star

In the search for life-sustaining exoplanets, the stars themselves are the first target of interest. To find an
Earth analogue, we would first seek stars like our Sun; that is, a main sequence star of spectral type F, G or
K. A main sequence star is a star that can be described as in mid-life. These stars have featured strongly
in exoplanet searches because they are numerous and their properties suit the RV method. They have
had long lives, which would enable enough time for a biosphere to form and they have not experienced
the cataclysmic events of a post–main sequence star that would sterilise any life. Type M stars have not
featured widely in past exoplanet searches, mainly due to their lower luminosities and more complicated

spectral emissions. However, type M stars are numerous and space-based observatories and advancement in
instrumentation means they are now considered excellent candidates for RV or transit methods.
13.3 EXERCISE
1. Why is finding exoplanets so difficult?
2. How does our understanding of gravity help us find exoplanets?
3. Using the last line on the spectrum in the following image calculate the radial velocity of objects A and B.
Standard spectrum
400 500 600 700 (nm)

Object A
400 500 600 700 (nm)

Object B
400 500 600 700 (nm)
4. Would you expect the velocities calculated in question 4 to be due to the movement about a star or
something else? Justify your answer.
Use figure 13.18 to answers questions 5 to 8.
5. Why is the mass of the exoplanets measured in Jupiter masses?
6. What is the relationship between the period of an exoplanet’s orbit and its radius?
7. Why would we conclude that certain methods of detection favour particular types of planets?
8. Does the data in figure 13.18 support the idea that our solar system is unique and we will never find another
one like it? Justify your answer.

13.4 Conditions for life beyond Earth’s solar system

KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the presence of liquid water as determining the habitable zones of a star system and the most likely
place for life.
• Explain the origins of life in the universe as having come from organic molecules in space, or as originating
on Earth or an Earth-like planet through reactions of elements and compounds.

13.4.1 Life based on carbon
The molecules that make up life on Earth are carbon based, thus, these compounds are called organic
molecules. The extraordinary thing about carbon is that it is able to form long chains and intricate
structures. This property enables a huge array of molecules, some of which perform complex, self-
regulating chemical reactions. The constituents of organic molecules — carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
oxygen, with trace elements of sulfur and phosphorus — are readily abundant in the universe. With this
abundance and the versatility of carbon to bond into complicated structures, many scientists believe life’s
origin lies in organic chemistry.
Organic molecules are not unique to the Earth or our solar system. Spectroscopy of planetary nebula,
interstellar dust and circumstellar envelopes (gas and dust around stars) shows organic molecules. Hundreds
of organic compounds have been discovered FIGURE 13.19 Carbonaceous chondrite
throughout our galaxy, and their presence within
stellar nurseries suggests that at least some of the
organic compounds found on Earth may have
already existed when the solar system was created.
Spectroscopy is not the only evidence of
organic molecules beyond Earth. Meteorites
known as carbonaceous chondrite, believed
to be leftover from the formation of our solar
system, have also been found to contain organic
molecules.
FIGURE 13.20 Many organic molecules can be found in space. This image shows infra-red
spectroscopic data of the Orion Nebula from the European Space Agency’s Herschel Space
Observatory.
Sulphur
Hydrogen sulphide dioxide
Methanol
Carbon monoxide
Formyl cation Water
Dimethyl ether
Deuterium cyanide Water
Methanol Sulphur dioxide Formaldehyde
Methanol
Hydrogen
cyanide Acrylonitrile
Sulphur Methyl formate

dioxide
HIFI spectrum of water and © ESA, HEXOS and the HIFI consortium
organics in the orion nebula E.Bergin

13.4.2 The importance of water
The other molecule important to life that is found throughout the universe is water. Most water in space
is not liquid, but ice. Ice is a main constituent of interstellar dust, but when that dust condenses in stellar
nebular, temperatures can rise to a level that enables pockets of liquid water within the dust grains.
Liquid water, even in miniscule amounts, enables organic chemicals to interact to form more complicated
molecules.
On Earth, liquid water is integral to life. It is the major constituent of living tissue, accounting for
around 70% of tissue mass. Water’s polar nature means that it is an excellent solvent of many minerals and
compounds, which in turn enables chemical processes to occur. Water is required for metabolic processes
within the cell. Most scientists agree that without liquid water, life on Earth would not have evolved. So the
question becomes, how could organic molecules form life?
To date, no experiment in a laboratory has created life from organic molecules. However, many
experiments have been able to produce complex organic molecules. By replicating the conditions of
primordial Earth, scientists have been able to create molecules such as nucleic acids, which are the building
blocks of molecules such as RNA and DNA. In addition, experiments on organic molecules found in
meteorites have demonstrated their ability to form more complex molecules when exposed to liquid water
(figure 13.21).
Water is crucial to life on Earth, so when we are searching for exoplanets, the existence of liquid water is
a key search parameter.
FIGURE 13.21 Organic molecules, when extracted from carbonaceous chondrite, such as the Murchison,
meteorite and then exposed to water form self-assembled vesicular structures that could be a precursor to
living cells. (Magnification 400x)
Source: (a) David Deamer
13.4.3 The habitable zone

Liquid water will only exist on the surface of a planet if the right conditions exist. The main requirement
is a temperature at which water remains a liquid. Astronomers can calculate the region in which a planet
needs to orbit a star to ensure liquid water is possible. This region is known as the habitable zone (HZ), or
sometimes the ‘Goldilocks zone’, and it varies depending on the type of star.
The habitable zone is a significant factor for any life-sustaining exoplanet. This zone describes the
distance from the sun that an exoplanet needs to be if it is to have liquid water on its surface. The size
of this zone is approximated using the size and temperature of the star, which is limiting because albedo
(how reflective the planet is), greenhouse effect, eccentricity, obliquity, rotation rate and geologic age all
contribute to the surface temperature of a planet. To determine HZ, astronomers make assumptions about
these other factors.

The HZ is a clear focus for searching for life-sustaining exoplanets. One of the problems in our quest
to find a habitable planet is that so many of the exoplanets found so far have highly eccentric orbits. This
means their orbits are far from circular. An eccentric orbit often results in the planet moving in and out
of the predicted habitable zone. The likelihood of an exoplanet sustaining life is determined by its ability
to maintain liquid water on its surface. However, moving in and out of the HZ may not prevent life. If an
atmosphere is thick enough, and depending on the period of orbit, a planet may be able to maintain liquid
water on its surface while outside the HZ.
Astronomers analyse the amount of time eccentric orbiting exoplanets spend within and outside the HZ
in attempt to identify better targets for further examination. These studies use models to estimate the surface
temperatures and atmospheric conditions of exoplanets. In the search for habitable exoplanets, these studies
are imperative to reduce the number of candidates that are examined directly.
13.4.4 Planet size

The last property to consider when examining a viable candidate for life on another planet is mass. The
very existence of large planets orbiting close to their suns makes the prospect of finding smaller terrestrial
planets in the same system unlikely. As the vast majority of exoplanets discovered are more similar in mass
to Jupiter than Earth, we may need to consider the prospects of life outside terrestrial planets. If there is a
possibility of life forming on these giant planets, and certainly many are within their habitable zones, it may
not resemble life as we know it on Earth.
A planet with a minimum mass of more than Jupiter would have gravitational effects and pressures like
nothing comparable on Earth. This does not rule the possibility of life out; life on Earth is found in very
extreme environments.
Microbiological life on Earth is found in many different environments. Extremophiles, which are
organisms found in extreme environments, can survive and sometimes thrive in environments of extreme
temperature by Earth standards (–75 °C to 113 °C), radiation, salinity, pH, pressure (up to 130 MPa),
vacuum, variations in oxygen and other chemical extremes. It is very difficult to predict the environments
that exoplanets could provide for life, but with the variability of life on Earth, it is not unimaginable that life
could evolve on planets such as hot Jupiters.
The prospect of finding Earth analogues is unlikely if we focus on the data collected so far. However,
missions such as Kepler are increasing the number of candidate exoplanets exponentially, giving a much
broader picture of the types of systems that exist and moving towards discovering smaller terrestrial planets.
The likelihood of life existing in some manner somewhere in the universe and us finding it seems high.
13.4 EXERCISE
1. What are the chemical constituents of life?
2. How do we know that these constituents are relatively abundant in the universe?
3. How do meteorites help us understand the origins of life?
4. Why is liquid water so important in the search for life?
5. What factors influence the habitable zone of a star?
6. What is an eccentric orbit, and why is this an issue for life on an exoplanet?
7. Other than the habitable zone, what factors affect the prospect for life on another planet?


13.5 The search for extraterrestrial intelligence
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the use of the Fermi paradox to question the possibility of life outside Earth’s solar system and
identify its counter arguments.
∗
• Apply the Drake equation: N = R fp ne f1 fi fc L, as a way of predicting the likelihood of life existing in the
universe by making reasonable assumptions based on evidence and speculation.
• Distinguish between targeted and untargeted searches for extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI), and describe
optimising strategies including where to look and how to ‘listen’ with reference to choice of frequency and
bandwidth.
• Explain why the radio spectrum is the best section of the electromagnetic spectrum to search the sky for
possible ETI signals, including the cosmic radio window and the use of radio astronomy in the search.
• Explain the nature of information that humans transmit beyond Earth to signal that intelligent life exists on
Earth.
13.5.1 The Fermi paradox

The most fantasised and romanticised search for life in our universe is the search for intelligent life. Science
fiction writers have for many years deliberated on the possibility that we are not the only intelligent form
of life. By just considering the sheer number of stars and galaxies out there, many conclude we cannot
be alone.
Scientists and philosophers have also considered the question of life and intelligent life in our
universe. Many would like to believe that we are not the only civilised beings, that there has to be many
technologically advanced beings out there, some of which, must be more evolved than us and be able to
travel between the stars. When this idea was put to physicist Enrico Fermi in a 1950 interview, he asked that
if intelligent life is common in the Milky Way, and given the millions of years another life form may have
had to evolve their technology, then why are we not inundated with space ships and visiting aliens?
This is called the Fermi paradox, and in essence it demonstrates the contradiction between the probability
of intelligent life in the universe and our lack of contact with that life. Of course, it is only a paradox if you
accept its two premises:
1. Life in our universe is not rare.
2. Intelligent life and technological advancement are an expected outcome of billions of years of
evolution.
Neither of these premises seem implausible given this is what happened on Earth. So was Fermi right?
There are several arguments that attempt to explain the Fermi paradox; some considerably more radical
than others:
• Life on Earth is the first to evolve in the universe.
• Intelligent life on Earth is the first to evolve in the universe.
• Other intelligent civilisations may have risen and fallen in the billions of years the universe has
existed.
• Other intelligent civilisations may have risen, but the technology to travel or communicate between
the stars is impossible.
• Other intelligent civilisations may have risen and have the technology to travel or communicate
between the stars, but we don’t understand them.
• Other intelligent civilisations may have risen and have the technology to travel or communicate
between the stars, but choose not to.
• The aliens have made contact, but no one believes me.

13.5.2 The Drake equation
Several of these ideas were formulated into an equation by radio astronomer Frank Drake. In 1961, Drake
developed an equation that tried to estimate the number of civilisations that exist in our galaxy with the
means to communicate with us.
Drake stipulated that the number of such civilisations, N, could be determined as:
N = R∗ f p ne f l f i f c L
Where:
R* = the rate at which suitable stars are formed in our galaxy
fp = the fraction of those with planets
ne = the number of planets in each planetary system capable of bearing life
fl = the fraction of those life-bearing planets on which life actually evolves
fi = the fraction of planets whose life forms evolve intelligence
fc = the fraction of those intelligent life forms who choose to communicate
L = the length of time for which communicating life forms exist on a planet.
Clearly this equation could not be solved with any kind of accuracy, but Drake’s equation clarified
the many factors involved in searching for intelligent life in our universe, which in turn has significantly
contributed to the design of targeted search projects.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Given that the Milky Way galaxy is estimated to have 300 billions stars and the oldest known star
in the galaxy is 13.6 billion years old, give an estimate for the rate at which stars might form in
our galaxy.
THINK WRITE
number of stars 300 billion
1. State the formula for the rate of star formation. =
age of oldest known star 13.6 billion years
= 22 stars per year
2. State the solution. The rate at which stars might form in
our galaxy is 22 stars per year.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
The Andromeda galaxy is estimated to have 1 trillion stars, with the oldest star in the galaxy
approximately 8 billion years old. Estimate the rate at which stars might form in this galaxy.
13.5.3 The search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI)

The search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) outside our solar system has been conducted in earnest
since the 1960s. Frank Drake was one of the pioneers of applying our scientific understanding in a
systematic and targeted search to find evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence. He used radio astronomy as
his tool, and this remains the main tool used by SETI today.

13.5.4 Radio telescopes
Optical telescopes extend our vision by capturing more light and magnifying images. But many
astronomical objects emit electromagnetic radiation outside the visible range. It has been said that to view
the stars only in the visible part of the spectrum is like listening to a symphony with an ear that can hear
only middle C and the two notes either side of it.
The first telescopes to observe frequencies outside the visible range were radio telescopes. In 1931 Karl
Jansky was trying to remove the noise that was interfering with early radio transmissions when he realised
that some of the noise was coming from space. The first radio telescope was made in 1937 when Grote
Reber, a radio enthusiast, built one in his back yard. It was a parabolic dish nearly 10 metres in diameter
that could be directed at different parts of the sky. Reber spent five years using his telescope to locate radio
sources in the sky before publishing his work. He found that the Sun emitted radio waves, as did many
stars. He also found that some sources of radio waves could not be seen in optical telescopes, making radio
astronomy a particularly exciting prospect.
You cannot look through a radio telescope and see a picture in the way that you can through an optical
telescope. The information comes in the form of numbers, which show the intensity of the radio sources
at different wavelengths. Modern radio telescopes use computers to turn the numbers into pictures that are
easier for people to analyse and appreciate.
In 1957, using materials from World War II
FIGURE 13.22 The Parkes radio telescope
battleships, the giant 76 m radio telescope at Jodrell
Bank in England was completed. It was ready just in
time to track the first spacecraft, the Russian Sputnik
1. The science of radio astronomy took off and in 1961
the Parkes radio telescope (featured in the film The
Dish) was built in New South Wales (figure 13.22). In
1963 in Puerto Rico, the Americans built the enormous
305-metre diameter Arecibo radio telescope. It is fixed
to the ground and relies on the rotation of the Earth to
point in different directions. One of the main purposes
of the Arecibo dish was to explore the chemistry and
dynamics of the atmosphere. It has also discovered
the first planet around a star other than the Sun, determined the rate of rotation of Mercury, mapped the
distribution of galaxies in the universe, found ice at the poles of Mercury and made many other major
astronomical discoveries in the past five decades.
Radio telescopes can be made to send out radio signals as well as receive them. In 1974, astronomers
searching for intelligent life in the universe used the Arecibo dish to send radio signals into space hoping to
hear a signal in return, like the one featured in the 1997 film Contact. This was very controversial, largely
because people were concerned about a small group of scientists speaking to unknown beings on behalf of
the whole planet. Whether we deliberately transmit radio signals or not may make no difference. If there
are technologically advanced beings on other planets in our part of the galaxy, they will be able to detect
the many transmissions we send to each other that are continually leaking away from the planet at the speed
of light.
Radio telescopes can also be used as radar telescopes. This involves sending out radio waves to nearby
objects such as the Moon, Mars, Mercury and Venus. The radio signal is reflected back to the radio
telescope, providing a very accurate measurement of the distance of these objects. This has enabled a very
accurate measurement of the solar system. The surfaces of the planets have also been mapped in this way.
Radar is particularly useful for mapping the surface of Venus because of the thick clouds that cover that
planet. The radio waves pass through the clouds while light simply reflects off.
Much of the sky is invisible to optical telescopes because of clouds of gas and dust, or nebulae, in the
universe. Some radio frequencies pass through these clouds, enabling radio telescopes to detect objects that
will never be visible with an optical telescope.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A radio telescope is used to measure the distances to nearby planets. In one test a reflected pulse
is received by the telescope 12 minutes after the initial radio transmission. How far away was
the planet?
3.0 × 108 m s−1

THINK WRITE
1. Recall the speed of light.
2. As it is a reflected pulse received, it has The radio signal has travelled to the planet and
travelled to the planet and back. returned in 12 minutes, so it took 6 minutes to
d = vt
reach the planet. Six minutes is 360 seconds.
= 3.0 × 108 × 360

3. Recall the equation to calculate distance
with a known velocity and time. Substitute
= 1.08 × 1011 m
in known values with the correct units.
4. State the solution. The planet is 1.08 × 1011 m from the Earth at
the time of the measurement. (This is
and the Sun, 1.5 × 1011 m.)

comparable to the distance between the Earth
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Give two examples of situations in which a radio telescope reveals information that is not detectable
with optical telescopes.
One of the uses of radio telescopes is to map the occurrence of neutral hydrogen atoms in the sky
(figure 13.23). They are able to do this because hydrogen atoms emit radio waves of 1420 MHz when the
proton and electron switch from spinning in the same direction to spinning in opposite directions. Hydrogen
in hot stars is largely ionised, so tuning radio telescopes to 1420 MHz enables them to detect clouds of
cool hydrogen without detecting stars. As these clouds do not emit light, radio astronomy is a great way
of detecting where they are, thus improving our knowledge of the galaxy. All types of astronomical bodies
can be studied using radio telescopes.
FIGURE 13.23 A radio view of hydrogen atoms in the universe
Source: NASA / J. Dickey UMn, F. Lockman NRAO, SkyView

Radio telescopes need to be much larger than optical telescopes to achieve equivalent resolution. One
method of improving their resolution is to link them to produce a telescope that has a much greater effective
size. A series of radio antennas connected in this way is called an interferometer and can resolve much
smaller objects than a single telescope. The Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, where 27 dish
antennas each 25 metres in diameter are laid out in a Y shape, is an example. These can be used together
to achieve the resolution of a single 36-kilometre antenna. The Australia Telescope Compact Array in
New South Wales is another example (figure 13.24). It uses six 22-metre dishes at Narrabri on a 6 kilometre
long railway track. It can also link up with the 64-metre Parkes dish and another 22-metre dish near
Coonabarabran to form the Australian Long Baseline Array.
FIGURE 13.24 The Australia Telescope Compact Array
Source: John Masterson / CSIRO Science Image
The SKA, or Square Kilometre Array, is a huge radio telescope planned by many different teams in
countries around the world, including Australia. With the collecting power of this telescope, astronomers
hope to be able to analyse radiation emitted when galaxies were forming, discover planets around other
stars and gain a greater understanding of the early universe. It will have 100 times the sensitivity of any
existing radio telescope.
Why radio?
Since it was first discovered, radio has been recognised as a medium for communication. SETI’s focus
on the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum comes from several important properties of the radio
emission. Radio waves are low energy, so they require less power to be produced by an extraterrestrial

civilisation trying to communicate. Radio waves experience much less galactic absorption from the
interstellar medium, and most stars are quiet in the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so the host
star (or our Sun) would not interfere with a transmission. There is a natural radio window that allows a
large range of radio frequencies through the Earth’s atmosphere, and some significant naturally occurring
frequencies lie within the radio window.
The radio window illustrated in figure 13.25 is very large (1–10 GHz), which is wonderful because so
many different wavelengths are able to reach Earth’s surface to be analysed. The challenge of such a large
window is that it becomes extremely difficult to pinpoint one specific broadcast frequency, and it is highly
unlikely that an alien race, however advanced, would have the power required to broadcast a broadband
signal across even one tenth of this spectrum. In 1959, physicists Guiseppe Cocconi and Phillip Morrison
suggested, as many others have since then, that the frequency of 1420 MHz would be a likely candidate for
a narrowband alien broadcast.
FIGURE 13.25 The cosmic radio window between 1 GHz and 10 GHz is a gap in the radio spectrum that enables
clear signal to be measured from Earth.
1000 k
Atmospheric
window
Galactic noise
100 k
H OH
10 k
Quantum noise
3K Background
0 Hz 1 GHz 10 GHz 100 GHz 1 THz

Source: SETI League image (www.setileague.org), used by permission.
Also known as the 21-centimetre line, the 1420 MHz frequency represents the emission made by neutral
hydrogen when its electron ‘flips’. Similar emissions are measured for the hydroxyl radicals (OH) at
1612 MHz, 1665 MHz, 1667 MHz and 1720 MHz. Combined with the neutral hydrogen frequency this
describes a window (termed the water hole), which has been the focus of much SETI work. The modern
SERENDIP program and SETI@home projects focus on the neutral hydrogen frequency.
The first dedicated search for extraterrestrial intelligence, Project Ozma, was conducted by Drake in
1960 with a targeted search of the Sun-like stars Tau Ceti and Epsilon Eridani at the 1420 MHz (21 cm)
frequency.

FIGURE 13.26 The magnetic energy between the two states of an electron and proton in hydrogen-1 results in
the emission of a photon at the 21-centimetre wavelength when the electron ‘flips’ to the lower energy state.
Transition from the

higher energy state
of an electron in a
hydrogen atom to
the lower energy
state releases a
photon at 1420 MHz.
Resources
Weblink Gallery of radio telescopes with links
13.5.5 Deciding where and how to search

There are two types of signal we would look for as evidence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe:
1. unintentional signal, which is the noise created by a technologically advanced civilisation
2. intentional signal, which assumes the extraterrestrial intelligent life forms are trying to reach us.
There are many difficulties with searching for unintentional signals. The most significant is that
because the signals are not directed at us they will be weak and difficult to identify. The weakness of
any indirect signal means that only very close stars would be worth investigating, which gives a very
small target group. Searching for an intentional signal is considered a more likely way of identifying
extraterrestrial intelligence. To some extent, this is based on our ability to communicate. At present we have
the technology to send a narrow beam and bandwidth signal into the centre of the galaxy. So we assume
that a civilised alien race could do likewise. However, this assumption also has its issues. Firstly, deciding
which bandwidth to search. We would assume an intentional signal would be broadcast on a wavelength
that is common to the universe. It is this reasoning that led to the focus on the 21-centimetre line. Secondly,
a narrow signal is very difficult to identify in our very large sky. Surveys of significant areas of sky are
needed.
There are two main search methods in astronomy:
1. untargeted search that sweeps large portions of the sky
2. targeted search that focuses on selected stellar candidates.
Throughout the 1960s, the Soviets also developed SETI projects; however, their searchers spanned
large areas of the sky, assuming several advanced civilisations would be attempting to contact us with
enormously powerful transmissions. The significance of the Russian search was that in their attempts
to eradicate the significant interference from omnidirectional searches, they started using a process of
correlating signals from different antennae. In the 1970s, NASA joined the SETI community through the
Ames Research Centre in California, starting with Project Cyclops, a proposed telescope array of 1000
dishes. The project was never funded but the analysis of the technical and scientific issues involved became
a significant reference for further SETI projects and was often referred to as the ‘SETI bible’. NASA was
forced to abandon its involvement in SETI due to funding cuts, and since 1989 SETI projects have been
primarily privately funded.

The SERENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Radio Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent
Populations) project was initiated at University of California, Berkeley in 1976, originally using the
26-metre Hat Creek antenna and the 64-metre Goldstone antenna in California. The project moved to the
92-metre antenna at Greenbank in 1986. In 1992, it moved again to the 302-metre Arecibo telescope,
the world’s largest single-dish radio telescope, in Puerto Rico. The initial project used a 100 channel
receiver, when it moved to Greenbank the receiver was capable of 65 000 channels. The move to the
Arecibo telescope has seen three upgrades, the latest is a 128 million channel digital spectrometer covering
200 MHz of bandwidth. This receiver uses the 7-beam, Arecibo L-band Feed Array (ALFA), piggybacking
the telescope while it is being used for other projects. It is able to do real-time spectrometry over the
200 MHz bandwidth, searching for narrow band signals.
FIGURE 13.27 Arecibo is the largest radio telescope in the world, with a diameter of 305 metres. It is built into
the hills of Arecibo, Puerto Rico and is the most sensitive Earth-based radio telescope.
Source: Photo courtesy of the NAIC - Arecibo Observatory, a facility of the NSF
Piggybacking involves mounting a receiver onto a telescope permanently and then making use of the
observation plan set for other projects. The data collection equipment is autonomous and silent (does not
interfere with the ongoing data of the host project). This enables the collection of large amounts of high-
quality data at a lower cost. Piggyback systems do have several disadvantages, the main one being that there
is no control over where in the sky observations are made. This makes it difficult to get full and uniform sky

coverage. In addition, not all astronomers are convinced that the piggyback equipment is silent, and it will
often be switched off if they suspect it of interfering with the host project.
13.5.6 Dealing with the data

The amount of data generated from sky surveys is huge. The process of sorting through signal data to find
possible extraterrestrial signals is bigger than the collection of data itself. In 1997, a team at UC Berkeley
proposed using the personal computing power of 100 000 home users to perform the massive computational
task of analysing a continuous recording of a 2.5 MHz bandwidth signal centred on the 21 centimetre-line.
The signal was tapped off the SERENDIP receiver and SETI survey operating at Arecibo. Since its initial
launch in 1999, SETI@home has had over 5.2 million users, and at the time of writing had 1.525 million
current users. The latest version of the BOINC (Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing)
software was developed for SETI@home by UC Berkeley and is now used in over 100 projects ranging
from searching for a cure for Alzheimer’s to predicting global temperatures.
In May 2011, UC Berkeley announced they would be using the SETI@home community to analyse data
collected from a targeted search of 86 Earth-like exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space observatory.
Using the Robert C Byrd Green Bank radio telescope, data was collected on 86 planets identified by Kepler
to be within the habitable zone of their stars. This was the first time that SETI@home users were part of a
targeted SETI survey.
SETI@home has been hugely successful as a large scale multi-user platform and has led the way
for many other projects requiring large-scale processing. It has not yet been successful in detecting
extraterrestrial intelligence, but has made significant contributions to radio astronomy through the wealth
of technological developments and scientific understanding that have been pioneered for the project. SETI
has developed a long history of scientific endeavour and human ingenuity.
13.5.7 Shouting out

If we expect extraterrestrial intelligent life to send messages to us, we need to send messages out as well. In
1974, Frank Drake and Carl Sagan sent a signal from the Arecibo telescope. Its target was the M13 globular
cluster. It was sent in binary code and contained information on human DNA, the Earth’s population at the
time and the atomic numbers of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus. Several scientists at the time
questioned the wisdom of the act, and Drake and Sagan did not ask permission of any governing body
before sending the signal. Most of the scientific community were not concerned as they understood the
message would take 25 000 years to reach the cluster.
The ‘Cosmic Call’ messages were a set of messages created by Canadian scientists Yvan Dutil and
Stephane Dumas, sent from the RT-70 radio telescope in Ukraine in 1999 and 2003. They repeated the
message sent previously from Arecibo, but also included text, audio, video and other image files submitted
by everyday people from around the world. The messages were sent to five different star clusters and will
start to arrive from 2036 through to 2059.
Throughout history humans have sought new knowledge and understanding of our purpose. The search
for life outside our solar system continues that quest. Although imagined many times by science fiction
writers, nothing will prepare us for the moment when a signal of life is confirmed.

FIGURE 13.28 The Pioneer spacecrafts included messages to any potential extraterrestrial intelligent life who
happened to find them. The prospect of them being found is ridiculously small, and yet it was considered
important to include them.
13.5 EXERCISE
1. Explain the Fermi paradox.
2. If the Drake equation is impossible to calculate accurately, why is it valuable?
3. Why is the radio part of the spectrum thought to be the best frequency to use in SETI?
4. What part of the spectrum is defined as radio?
5. Show why the 1420 MHz frequency of neutral hydrogen is called the 21-centimetre line.
6. What are the wavelengths for the hydroxyl radicals at 1665 MHz and 1720 MHz?
7. Describe two types of search methods employed in SETI.
8. Why is processing the data from sky surveys difficult and how is this problem solved?
9. Do you think it is a good idea to be ‘shouting out’ to the universe by sending messages into space?


13.6 Review
13.6.1 Summary
• Our understanding of the composition of the universe is based on our ability to interpret the light
from stars.
• The electromagnetic spectrum describes the range of energies light can have.
• White light can be separated into its constituent colours through the process of dispersion.
• Spectroscopy is the process of analysing the dispersion of light.
• Spectra can be continuous or discrete, absorption or emission.
• Spectra are used to determine the chemical composition of stars by observing the distinct lines that
signify particular elements.
• Electromagnetic radiation is produced when electrons accelerate.
• Incandescent sources of light make their light through heat and have a continuous spectrum.
• A blackbody curve can be used to determine the temperature of stars, which are then classified into
spectral types.
• The Doppler effect enables astronomers to determine how fast stellar objects are moving in relation
to Earth.
• The search for exoplanets uses several methods including radial velocity, transit, direct imaging and
microlensing.
• The exoplanets found so far challenge our understanding of planet formation; many are very large gas
giants orbiting very close to their suns and with eccentric orbits.
• The way in which exoplanets are discovered can be biased towards particular types of planets.
• The search for life on other planets is based on a search for liquid water, which can be found in the
habitable zone around a star.
• The Fermi paradox and the Drake equation both express the probabilities associated with the search for
intelligent life in the universe.
• The search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) is based in radio astronomy due to the signature of
the 21-centimetre neutral hydrogen line and the ground-based radio window.
• Multiple projects using targeted and untargeted methods have, to date, not revealed intelligent life
outside of Earth.
Resources
To access key concept summaries and past VCE exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice
13.6.2 Key terms
Amplitude of a wave is the size of the maximum disturbance of the medium from its normal state.
Astrometric measurement is a technique for finding exoplanets by observing the minute periodic motion of a
star caused by the gravitational effects of an orbiting body.
Blue shift is the decrease in wavelength that results from a light source moving towards an observer.
A continuous spectrum is a light spectrum that is smoothly spread over a wide range of wavelengths.
Dispersion is the separation of light into different colours as a result of refraction.
Frequency refers to the number of times of a periodic wave repeats itself every second. Frequency is measured
in hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz = 1 s−1 .
An incandescent source isproduced by heating a solid or gas under high pressure.
Longitudinal waves are those for which the disturbance is parallel to the direction of propagation.

Microlensing refers to when a foreground (lens) star bends the light in the same way a magnifying glass does.
Period refers tothe time it takes a periodic wave source to produce a complete wave.
Periodic waves are disturbances that repeat themselves at regular intervals.
A radar telescope sends out radio waves and bounces them off surfaces of nearby planets to measure
distances and map surface features.
The radial velocity (RV) method is a technique to find exoplanets that measures the Doppler shift of a star’s
spectrum to identify the gravitational effects of an orbiting body.
A radio telescope detects faint, low-frequency electromagnetic radiation from the sky.
Spectroscopy is the analysis of light by dispersion.
The transit method looks for dips in a star’s brightness over time, which indicates a body moving in front of
the star.
Transverse waves are those for which the disturbance is at right angles to the direction of propagation.
A wave is a transfer of energy through a medium without any net movement of matter.
Wavelength is the distance between successive corresponding parts of a periodic wave.
Resources
Investigation 13.1
The colour of stars
Aim: To model the colour of stars by connecting an incandescent

globe to different voltages

Investigation 13.2
The Doppler effect
Aim: To observe the effects of wind on the frequency of sound
Resources
13.6 Exercises
1. What is it called when light is bent due to travelling from one medium to another medium of different
density?
A. Dispersion
B. Reflection
C. Refraction
D. Diffraction

2. Which colour bends the most when white light is passed through a triangular prism?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Yellow
D. Violet
3. What can an absorption spectra reveal about a star?
A. Its intensity
B. Elements in its atmosphere
C. Its temperature
D. Its frequency
4. When observing a star, what is blue shift?
A. When the star is moving towards us
B. When the star is stationary
C. When the star is spinning fast
D. When the star is moving away from us
5. Which colour light travels the fastest in air?
A. Yellow
B. Red
C. Violet
D. They all travel at the same speed.
6. Which of the following are not one of the chemical constituents of life?
A. Hydrogen
B. Helium
C. Carbon
D. Nitrogen
7. Which of the following frequencies fit in the spectrum defined as radio?
A. 5.2 × 1014 Hz
B. 4.8 × 102 Hz
C. 6.9 × 106 Hz
D. 1.5 × 1011 Hz
8. What do astronomers use the Doppler effect to determine?
A. The speed of a stellar object
B. The colour of a stellar object
C. The distance of a stellar object
D. The temperature of a stellar object
9. The electromagnetic spectrum (see figure 13.3) increases from right to left in relation to which of the
following?
A. Wavelength
B. Frequency
C. Amplitude
D. Height
10. An excited state of an atom is a state where its potential energy is which of the following?
A. Equal to the ground state
B. Higher than the ground state
C. Lower than the ground state
D. Zero

1. What is the main element found in the Sun?
2. What is the hotter part of a star? The core or the outer layer? Explain.
3. Which physics principle was used to explain the movement of Sirius (the brightest star in the sky)?
Using this principle explain what was discovered.
4. What is an exoplanet?
5. What units are used to describe the mass of exoplanets and why?
6. In searching for life-sustaining exoplanets, what do we first search for and why?
7. What is the habitable zone?
8. How has the Hubble Space Telescope contributed to the discovery of many exoplanets?
9. If a radio telescope sends out a signal to a planet and receives the signal back 18 minutes later, how far
away is the planet?
10. List three methods used to find exoplanets.

A star is observed to have a wavelength of 356.978 66 nm. The known wavelength for a stationary source is
356.978 72 nm. Determine the redial velocity at which the star is moving relative to Earth.
A radio telescope sent out two separate signals, one to planet A and the other to planet B. The planet B
signal takes 13 minutes to return while the planet A signal takes 21 minutes to return. How much further
is planet A from Earth than planet B?
Question 3 (1 mark)
A star emits visible colour at 550 nm. If the star is moving away from a stationary observer, which of the
following cannot be the wavelength observed?
A. 555 nm
B. 580 nm
C. 530 nm
D. 575 nm
Give reasoning for your response.
Comparing blue light and yellow light:
a. Which has the greatest frequency? 1 mark
b. Which has the greatest wavelength? 1 mark
c. Which travels faster in air? 1 mark
List five factors that affect the prospect for life on another planet.

Test maker

14 How do forces act on the

human body?
14.1 Overview
14.1.1 Introduction
We work, we play, we move. Lift an object and you feel it pull on your arm. Throw or catch a ball and
you feel it push on your hand. You should also feel something happening inside your body. Perhaps you’ll
feel a particular muscle when pushing off to run or when jumping to catch a ball. Forces generated by our
muscles enable our bones to move relative to each other; that’s how we move (figure 14.1). This happens
when we bend, run or sit, whether we are exercising vigorously, sitting down or turning around to look over
our shoulder. Even when we are standing still our muscles work to help us keep our balance. Humans must
be strong enough to create these internal forces and safely respond to the external forces that act on us. Try
to think of your body as a structure made of bone, tendons, muscles and skin. To find out what the body is
capable of, we will look at the forces and loads on these structures.
FIGURE 14.1 Forces generated by our muscles enable our bones to move relative to each other.
TOPIC 14 How do forces act on the human body? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Forces in the human body
• identify different types of external forces including gravitational forces, that can act on a body to create
compression, tension and shear
x1 m1 + x2 m2 + ... + xn mx
• apply centre of mass calculations to a body or system: xm =
m1 + m2 + ... + mn
( )
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically translational forces and torques 𝜏 = r⊥ F in simple lever
models of human joints under load
Materials in the human body
• calculate the stress and strain resulting from the application of compressive and tensile forces and loads to
F ∆l
materials in organic structures including bone and muscle using: 𝜍 = and 𝜀 =
A l
• compare the behaviour of living tissue under load with reference to extension and compression, including
𝜍
Young’s modulus: E =
𝜀
• investigate how the behaviour of living tissue under load compares with common building materials,
including wood and metals
• investigate the suitability of different materials for use in the human body, including bone, tendons and
muscle, by comparing tensile and compressive strength and stiffness, toughness, and flexibility under load
• calculate the potential energy stored in a material under load (strain energy) using area under stress versus
strain graph
• investigate the elastic or plastic behaviour of materials under load, for example skin and membranes
Materials used to replace body parts
• investigate the development of artificial materials and structures for use in prosthetics, including external
prostheses for the replacement of lost limbs, and internal prostheses such as hip or valve replacements
• identify the difficulties and problems with implanting materials within the human body
• compare the performance of artificial limbs with natural limbs with reference to function and longevity.
Resources

14.2 Forces in the human body
KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify different types of external forces, including gravitational forces, that can act on a body to create
compression, tension and shear.
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically translational forces and torques 𝜏 = r⊥ F in simple lever
models of human joints under load.
x1 m1 + x2 m2 + ... + xn mn
• Apply centre of mass calculations to a body or system: xm = .
m1 + m2 + ... + mn
14.2.1 Equilibrium — staying in place

The net external force acting on a
FIGURE 14.2 Force diagram for a person standing still
stationary object must be zero because
its acceleration is zero.
Whether we are stationary or moving,
the primary external force we experience
is caused by gravity. For us to stand still,
the gravitational force acting on us, mg,
mg
must be balanced by the force from the
ground, R, which is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to our weight
(figure 14.2).
Resolving forces vertically:
ΣF = 0
R − mg = 0
∴ R = mg R
When suspended from the horizontal

FIGURE 14.3 Force diagram for a person hanging from a bar
bar, as shown in figure 14.3, the
person is balanced. The force, T, in
each of the arms can be calculated 60º 60º
using the principles of equilibrium.
T T
Resolving forces vertically:
mg
ΣF = 0
2Tsin 60∘ − mg = 0
mg
T=
2sin 60∘
T = 0.58 mg

14.2.2 Rotational equilibrium
If an object is in equilibrium, the torque caused by one force must be balanced by the turning effect of one
or more other forces; that is, the sum of the torques acting on the object must equal zero.
The effect of torque can be seen if you stand with your heels touching a wall (figure 14.4a). Keeping your
legs straight and without moving your feet, try to bend forwards to touch your toes or ankles. You will lose
your balance and fall forwards.
Now stand clear of the wall and any furniture or other objects (figure 14.4b). While keeping your legs
straight, bend forwards to try and touch your ankles. This time you should be able to keep your balance.
FIGURE 14.4 When your centre of gravity is not above the normal force it creates a torque, which causes you to
lose balance.
(a) (b)
mg
mg
R
When you stood against the wall, two forces were acting on you: your weight, mg, and the reaction from
the floor, R. Although translational equilibrium was satisfied, that is, R + mg = 0, with your straight legs
and heels touching the wall, the force, mg, could not act along the same line as R. Rotational equilibrium
was not satisfied and the pair of forces caused a rotation, meaning you lost your balance.
In contrast, when you were not restrained by the wall, you could adjust your body position so that
your centre of gravity was over your feet. You were able to keep your balance when your weight and the
reaction from the floor acted along the same vertical line. Under these conditions, rotational equilibrium
was satisfied.
14.2.3 Centre of mass

When applying Newton’s laws, it is often convenient to consider the mass of an object to be concentrated
at a single point, and that the net force acting on the object acts through that single point. We refer to
that concentration of mass as the centre of mass (CM). The centre of mass of a symmetrical object with
uniformly distributed mass is at the centre of the object. For example, the centre of mass of an orange is at
its centre. If the object is symmetrical in two dimensions, the CM will be at the intersection of the two lines
of symmetry, as shown in figure 14.5.
A symmetrical object behaves as if its mass were concentrated in the middle, where its lines of symmetry
intersect.
If you support an object under its centre of mass, it will balance. Applying a force through the CM of an
object will not cause rotation.

FIGURE 14.5 Centre of mass occurs at the intersection of the lines of symmetry.
Line of
symmetry
CM Line of
symmetry
AS A MATTER OF FACT
When an object is hung from a single point, the CM will be on the same vertical line as the support. The CM of an
object like a table tennis bat can be found by hanging it successively from more than one position and using the
gravitational field and a plumb bob as shown in figure 14.6. The CM is where the lines intersect.
FIGURE 14.6 Using a plumb bob to find the centre of mass of a table tennis bat
(a) (b)
Pivot Previous
construction line
Pivot
CM
The CM is
where the
lines intersect.
CM lies somewhere
Plumb Plumb
on this line.
bob bob
Try using this method to find the CM of a map of Victoria or Australia.

The CM for certain shapes are shown in figure 14.7. The CM for some objects, such as a boomerang or a
doughnut, are not within the object.
FIGURE 14.7 The centre of mass of these objects may occur within, or outside of the object.
CM CM
CM
CM
CM
CM
The position for the CM can be determined mathematically by

FIGURE 14.8 The CM of the plate
using the equation for rotational equilibrium, ∑𝜏 = 0. Rotational
can be found using the formula for
equilibrium has been used to locate the CM of the tray and contents rotational equilibrium.
being carried by the waiter in figure 14.8.
R
∑F = 0
4N + 2N + 2N − R = 0
R = 8 N upwards
The force from the waiter’s hand acts along the same vertical line
as the CM of the tray and its contents.
2N 2N
∑𝜏 = 0 take torques about the CM:
4N
2 N × (0.2 + d)m + 2 N × d m − 4 N × (0.2 − d) m = 0

8 × d = 0.4 m
d = 0.05 m = 5 cm
To balance the tray, the waiter should place his hand 5 centimetres d
from the centre of the tray. 0.2 m 0.2 m
The location of the CM of a system of two or more objects can be found using the formula:
x1 m1 + x2 m2 + … + xi mi
xCM = (where i is the number of objects)
m1 + m2 + … + mi

14.2.4 Centre of gravity
Centre of gravity (CG) is the point at which gravity
FIGURE 14.9 Centre of mass of a standing person
acts on an object. Unlike centre of mass, it is not
constant and depends on the gravitational field acting
on it. For most objects on or near the Earth’s surface,
it is reasonable to assume that the CG is at the same
point as the CM.
Even though each part of our body — torso, head,
arms and legs — contributes its own weight to our
total weight, it is usually convenient to consider the
total weight of a person as acting through a single CM CM
point, our CG, which corresponds to our CM.

When looked at from the front, the standing person
in figure 14.9 is symmetrical about the vertical line
passing through the middle of their body, and their
CM is at approximately waist level. Looked from the
side, a standing person is not symmetrical, but their
CM is still approximately at waist level and in the
middle of their body.
When we move a limb or bend, as shown in
figure 14.10, we change our body shape and there is a corresponding change in our centre of mass. Moving
a limb moves our CM in the same direction. When we tuck during a dive, curl up to pole vault or arch our
backs during a high jump we change the location of our centre of mass. Bend far enough and our CM will
move to a point outside our body. This enables us to move in different ways.
FIGURE 14.10 The centre of mass moves around as a person moves their limbs and body. Bending into a tuck,
the diver performing a somersault relocates their CM to outside their body. The change in position of the CM
enables the diver to rotate about their centre of mass. Before entering the water, the diver straightens their body
and stops the somersault.
CM
CM

14.2.5 Lever models of human joints
Systems of muscles, bones and tendons in our body work together to enable us to move. They also work to
keep us balanced when we are stationary.
When Jo is standing and stationary, two forces are acting on him: his weight, mg, and the reaction from
mg
the ground, R. The force in each leg is equal to half his weight, , and acts downwards. However, what
2
happens when Jo stands on his toes? The external forces, his weight and the reaction from the ground have
not changed, but he can feel his calf muscles stretch and he will eventually tire.
Let’s look at the forces in Jo’s feet in isolation from the
rest of his body. Using a diagram to consider the equilibrium FIGURE 14.11 Force diagram of a person
of his feet, all of the forces acting on his feet need to be standing on their toes
shown, whether the forces are known or unknown. While T B
it might not be initially clear whether an unknown force
is pushing or pulling, this will become apparent after the
calculations have been completed.
There is a force caused by the rest of Jo’s body pushing
down on his ankles, primarily through his talus, the bone
in his ankle at the base of his leg. This force is shown in
figure 14.11 as force B. Jo’s calf muscles are pulling
upwards through the Achilles tendon at the back of
his ankle, shown as force T, acting upwards. There
is also the reaction from the ground, R, which also
acts upwards.
Considered as isolated objects, Jo’s feet are in mg
R=
equilibrium, so the net force acting on his feet must be zero. 30 mm 120 mm
2
For translational equilibrium to be satisfied B − T − R = 0.
mg
We know that on each foot R = .
2
Taking torques about the line of effort of one of the unknown forces, in this case B, and assigning
clockwise torque as positive and anti-clockwise torques as negative, we find:
0.120 mg
0.030T − =0
2
0.120 mg
T=
0.060
T = 2.00 mg in each leg
By substitution, the force in the talus, B, can be calculated.
B=T+R
mg
B = 2.00 mg +
2
B = 2.50 mg in each leg
Jo’s feet act as levers with their fulcrum at the ball of his feet. To stand on his toes, Jo creates a force in
his muscles, and his tendons pull upwards at the back of his ankles. This in turn increases the magnitude of
the force in the bones in Jo’s legs.
In this example, the force needed to lift Jo’s legs is less than the force in the bones of the leg. The levers,
his feet, are said to have provided a mechanical advantage, which is fundamental to our walking and being
able to quickly accelerate when running.

There are many other muscle, tendon and bone
systems in our bodies forming levers that might FIGURE 14.12 (a) A first-class lever (b) A
second-class lever (c) A third-class lever
be necessary to stabilise us, enable us to move
(a)
— sometimes quickly or through relatively large
distances — or to perform fine movements as might Load Force
be required by a neurosurgeon. Of the three types of

levers shown in figure 14.12, examples of each can be
found in the human body. Fulcrum
In a first-class lever, the load and force are either

(b) Load
side of the fulcrum. In a second-class lever, the load is
Force
between the fulcrum and the force and in a third-class
lever, the force is between the fulcrum and the load.
When we nod up and down, as shown in the figure
Fulcrum
14.13, our head rotates about the top of our spine.
This is an example of a first-class lever in which our (c)
skull is the lever. The centre of mass of our head is Load
forward of our spine and the muscles at the back Force
of our neck provide the force to counter the head’s
weight, rotating about the top of the spine. This lever Fulcrum
mechanism is important as it stabilises our head
and neck.
FIGURE 14.13 Nodding your head is an example of a first-class lever.
mg
Pivot
Force from
muscles at
back of neck

Splinting is another example of a first-class lever that is used to support parts of our body. The wrist
splint in figure 14.14 might be used to protect a wrist following a fracture or sprain, while also enabling
functional use of the hand. With the fulcrum at the heel of the palm of the hand, a force acting up on the
hand, U, is resisted by the force R at the end of the splint to the right.
FIGURE 14.14 A splint is an example of a first-class lever that helps to stabilise a joint.
Fulcrum
Jo standing on his toes was an example of a second-class lever in which the force he created was able to
lift a larger force, therefore, providing him with a mechanical advantage.
Third-class levers are more common in our body. If you lie face down and then flex your knee to raise
your foot, your lower leg, knee joint and hamstring act as a third-class lever, as shown in figure 14.15. In
such cases, the muscle is not necessarily pulling at right angles to the bone. The efficiency of the force
generated by the muscles depends on the angle of its insertion to the bone. The efficiency also changes as
you flex your knee because the perpendicular distance from your knee to the centre of gravity of your lower
leg decreases.
FIGURE 14.15 An example of a third-class lever action. Efficiency of the movement decreases as the CM gets
closer to the knee.
E
E
mg mg
Although the force needed by your hamstrings is large compared to the weight of your lower leg, this
type of lever enables fast and extensive movement of your leg. Contracting your muscles a small amount
will cause a larger movement in your leg.
Combinations of lever actions

While the fundamental principles of levers can be applied to a system, identifying which muscles are acting
can be complex, particularly as an apparently simple action might involve more than one muscle, or group
of muscles, at different stages of the movement. For example, when using your forearm to lift a cup you
might engage two different muscle groups, the brachialis (biceps) and the brachioradialis (see figure 14.16).
Using your brachialis muscles is an example of a third-class lever with your elbow as the fulcrum. However,
when engaging the brachioradialis you create a second-class lever.

FIGURE 14.16 Lifting your arm using the (a) brachialis or bicep and (b) brachioradialis (right)
(a) (b)
Humerus Humerus
Brachialis
Brachioradialis
Radius Ulna Radius Ulna
Whereas one group of muscles might provide the force necessary to produce or resist movement, another
muscle group might control the movement by opposing it. For example, while the biceps might act to lift
an object, the triceps might control the action by resisting the biceps. An analysis of these lever systems
depends on a knowledge of both anatomy and the principles of mechanics as it applies to human movement.
14.2.6 Types of forces

Tension and compression
When standing on your toes, the tendons at the
FIGURE 14.17 Tension in arterial walls
back of your ankles are pulled. The muscles and
tendons are in tension, whereas the bones in the
leg are in compression.
Objects respond to compressive and tensile
forces by deforming. This is evident in objects
such as springs and rubber bands when under T
load. How much an object deforms depends T
on the magnitude of the applied force and the
physical properties of the material it is made
from. T
The bones, muscles and tendons in our bodies
also respond to forces by deforming. A change
in length of our muscles and tendons is more
noticeable than changes in our bones, except
when a bone fractures. However, our bones do T
compress and bend in response to the forces that
act on them.
T T
Tension is also created in the walls of our
arteries from the blood being circulated around our body (figure 14.17). The blood travelling along our
arteries is like water travelling in a hose. Under pressure, the blood pushes out against the wall of the artery,
causing circumferential tension.
The skin is the largest organ in the human body. Push on your skin and it will depress and stretch. When
you pushed on your skin you caused a multidirectional tensile force in it (see figure 14.18). This is a special
example of tension in that the primary deformation is transverse to the force you applied. This might be

likened to a tight rope stretching when walked on,
FIGURE 14.18 Pressing something with your finger
the difference being that the skin is a membrane creates multidirectional tension forces.
and the resulting tension will occur in several
directions.
Bending and shear

There are forces that cause deformations different
to those caused by tensile and compressive T T
forces. Bending and shear are two such forces.
When bending, an object tends to curve. Some
sections of the object move closer together T T
and other sections move further apart, causing
compression on one side and tension on the other
side, as shown in figure 14.19. When you stand T T
in the middle of a plank that is supported at both
ends, it bends and you might feel it sag. When it T
is bent, the top of the plank is compressed and the
underside is stretched and is in tension.
FIGURE 14.19 An object is bent, resulting in compression on the top and tension on the bottom.
C
C
C C
C
T T
T T
Shear forces create a tendency for part of an object to slide over itself; the effect is similar to a sideways
force acting on a thick book, shown in the figure 14.20. The top of the book displaces sideways, the bottom
remains stationary, and there is a proportional displacement of the pages in between as they slide over each
other.
FIGURE 14.20 A shear force acts on a book.

When a person grinds their teeth, they create shear forces that erode the surface of the tooth and
sometimes cause the tooth to fracture. The famous tennis player, Roger Federer, in figure 14.21 is also
creating shear forces in their foot when they slide across or try to push off the court surface, risking injury
to their ankle.
FIGURE 14.21 Roger Federer creates a shear force as he slides on a clay court surface.

14.2 EXERCISE
1. A 65-kilogram gymnast is completing a vertical handstand. To make the degree of difficulty greater they
have their arms spread at an angle of 60°. Calculate the force through each arm.
2. The skull shown in the figure on the right acts as a 30 mm 50 mm
lever with its fulcrum at the top of the spine.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the force in the muscles
at the back of the neck.
During a car crash, the shoulders of a person are
restrained by a seatbelt. However, their head continues
moving forward, to be resisted only by the CM
muscles in the back of the neck.
(b) On a diagram of a skull, show the forces that are 75 mm
now acting. mg Force from
(c) Calculate the force in the muscles at the back muscles at
of the neck when the acceleration is 4g backwards. back of neck
(d) What is the force in the spine when the acceleration is
4g backwards?
3. Your jaw acts as a lever when you eat, hinging at the temporomandibular joint. If the force needed to bite a
carrot is 120 N, what force is required from the muscles shown in the following figure?
Temporomandibular
joint
120 N
90 mm 30 mm
4. When holding an arm horizontally and to the side as shown in the following figure, Ben’s arm acts as a lever
that rotates at the shoulder joint.
Deltoid muscle
De
B lto
id
Shoulder joint 16o Elbow Centre of hand
(pivot point) B
mg mg
170 mm
170 mm
400 mm 400 mm
680 mm 680 mm
(a) If the mass of Ben’s arm is 4 kilograms with its centre of mass at 400 millimetres from his shoulder joint,
what force is needed at B to keep his arm horizontal?
The deltoid muscle group, which is the primary muscle group acting, inserts at the bone at approximately
16° to the horizontal.
(b) What force must be provided by the deltoids?
(c) When Ben also holds a 2-kilogram mass in his hand, what force must be provided by his deltoids?

5. (a) For the circus routine shown in the
following figure, draw a diagram
that shows the forces acting on the
performer.
(b) The performer’s mass is 64 kilograms.
Calculate the direction and magnitude
of the force in each arm. (Assume the CM
vertical forces are equally distributed 1m
between each arm.)
1.6 m

14.3 Stress and strain

KEY CONCEPTS
• Calculate the stress and strain resulting from the application of compressive and tensile forces and loads to
F ∆l
materials in organic structures including bone and muscle using 𝜍 = and 𝜀 = .
A l
• Compare the behaviour of living tissue under load with reference to extension and compression, including
𝜍
Young’s modulus: E = .
𝜀
To survive a bungee jump, people rely on the suitable choice of bungee cord. The cord must stop the freefall
before the jumper hits the ground, and must cushion the fall by absorbing the deceleration. An unsuitable
choice of a cord could be fatal. If the bungee jumper is heavier, instinct and experience would suggest that a
thicker cord should be used. The thicker cord will be stronger and have a greater resistance to deformation.
If a person is jumping from a greater height, then a longer cord will be needed, but the longer cord will also
stretch further.
Similarly, it is important that our muscles and tendons do not break, or stretch too much, when resisting
external forces. They also need to tolerate the internal forces necessary for balance and movement. There
are many factors that make some materials strong or flexible, and the physical quantities stress and strain
are helpful in classifying and predicting the behaviour of materials, including those in our body. To compare
meaningfully the performance of different sized forces on different sized objects, we measure stress and
strain.

14.3.1 Stress
We use stress to compare the strength of materials — a strong material will sustain a larger stress than a
weak material. Stress is defined as the force per unit area of cross-section supporting a force and is a vector
quantity.
force F
𝜎 = stress = =
area A
Stress is measured in pascals, where 1 Pa = 1 N m−2 . However, for many materials such as those used in
the construction of buildings, it is more convenient to use megapascals, MPa, where 1 MPa = 1 × 106 Pa.
FIGURE 14.22 The force, F, acts on the cross-sectional area, A.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The femur in the following figure must support 340 N.
340 N
340 N
Assuming that the femur is homogenous and at mid-length is cylindrical with a diameter of
26 millimetres, what is the stress in the bone?

THINK WRITE
F
1. Recall the relationship between stress and area. 𝜎=
A
2. Using the)formula for the area of a circle A = 𝜋 × 132 mm2
A = 𝜋r2 , calculate the area of the mid-point of
(
= 530 mm2
the femur.
= 5.3 × 10−4 m2
F
3. Substitute the force and area into the equation to 𝜎=
find the stress. A
340 N
=
5.3 × 10−4 m2
= 6.4 × 105 Pa
= 0.64 MPa
4. State the solution. The stress in the bone is 0.64 MPa.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A person is doing a push-up and in doing so they are applying 220 N through the ulna. Assuming the
ulna is homogeneous and at mid-length it is cylindrical with a diameter of 1.6 centimetres, what is the
stress on the ulna?
14.3.2 Strain
When a stress is applied to a material, it changes shape. Strain is a measure of the magnitude of this
deformation. The amount a material deforms depends on its initial length in the direction of the force. For
example, when pulling on a short piece of fishing line, you could not stretch it as far as when applying the
same force to a longer piece of the same fishing line. Similarly, when under the same stress, the change in
length of a shorter tendon would be different from that of a longer piece of the same tendon. For this reason,
we use strain to compare the fractional change in length of materials.
Strain, 𝜀, is the ratio of the change in length to the original length.
∆l
𝜀=
l
Where:
∆l = the change in length measured in metres
l = the original length measured in metres.
Note: Strain does not have any units; it is dimensionless!
In many materials strain is so small that it is hardly noticeable, but it is always there in response to stress.
The strain of a material when it breaks is often expressed as a percentage and called the percentage
elongation.
Strain affects every material. Every solid material will deform, even though the deformation is often
so small that it is not visible. Excessive or permanent deformation could make an object unserviceable.
Fortunately, many objects recover their original shape when the force is removed.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Camille’s Achilles tendon is 200 millimetres long.
a. When Camille stretches her tendon to 208 millimetres, what is the strain?
b. Camille ruptured her Achilles tendon when the strain reached 10%. How much had the tendon
stretched when it ruptured?
THINK WRITE
Δl
a. 1. Recall the formula for strain. a. 𝜀=
l
2. Find l. Δl = 208 − 200
= 8 mm
Δl
3. Substitute the values into the formula. 𝜀=
l
8
=
200
= 0.04 or 4%
4. State the solution. The strain when Camille stretches her
tendon to 208 millimetres is 0.04, or 4%.
Δl
b. 1. Recall the formula for strain. b. 𝜀 =
l
2. Rearrange to make l the subject. Δl = 𝜀 × l
3. Substitute the values into the formula. Δl = 𝜀l
= 0.1 × 200
= 20 mm
4. State the solution. The tendon had stretched 20 millimetres
when it ruptured.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Noah is stretching before his basketball game. His Achilles tendon is 212 millimetres long naturally
and 223 millimetres long when he stretches it.
a. What is the strain on Noah’s Achilles tendon when he is stretching it?
b. Noah can injure his Achilles tendon if the strain reaches 15%. How much would the tendon
need to stretch for him to injure his Achilles tendon?
14.3.3 Stiffness
When a force deforms a material, it does work against internal forces. Whether it is a bone being
compressed or a tendon stretching, work is done by moving tissues and cells either closer together or
further apart. If the material is stiffer, the amount of work required to deform it will be greater. Knowing
the stiffness of materials enables us to predict their behaviour when acted on by a force.
Stress and strain are used to compare the properties of materials because they are independent of the size
and shape of the material. Scientists and engineers gather this information by conducting laboratory tests on
small samples of materials. Information from these tests enables engineers to choose the most appropriate
material, and the required amount of material, for a particular use.

Tension tests are typically carried out on small bars that are stretched until the specimen breaks.
Compression tests are performed by crushing blocks or cylinders. The stress applied and the subsequent
deformation of a material may be displayed as a stress–strain graph.
The strength of a material is the largest stress applied before it fails and is often available
from the stress–strain graph.
Tensile tests can be undertaken using apparatus similar

FIGURE 14.23 A tensile testing apparatus
to that shown in figure 14.23. These tests assume that the
composition and behaviour of the material being tested are
the same throughout; that is, the material is homogenous. It
is also assumed that the material is isotropic — its properties
are the same in each direction. While the assumptions of
homogeneity and isotropy might not apply to biological
materials, such as skin, the tensile tests can still be used to
inform us of their mechanical properties.
The mechanical properties of skin (figure 14.24) vary
according to many factors, including where on the body the
skin comes from, its age, level of hydration and how quickly
the force is applied to the test sample.
In the case of living tissue such as that found in the human
body, medical scientists might obtain stress and strain
information by testing in vivo — alive and on the body — or
in vitro — after removing the material from the body. An
understanding of the behaviour of different materials,
including those occurring naturally in the human body, has
helped develop artificial devices to help people with
implants, prostheses and orthoses.
FIGURE 14.24 Stress–strain relationship for a FIGURE 14.25 The shape of the stress–strain graph
skin sample for some different materials
25 500
Mild steel
Stress (MPa)
20 400
Stress (MPa)
15 Glass
300
10 200 Aluminium
Rubber
5 100
0 0 Strain
10 20 30 40 50 60
Strain (%)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
a. Which of the two materials in the following graph is stronger?
b. Which elongates the most before breaking?
Material 1
Stress
Material 2
0 Strain
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the definition of strength. a. Strength = maximum stress before
breaking
From the graph determine which material is
2. Material 1 is stronger because a
stronger. greater stress was needed to break it.
b. 1. Recall that strain is the measure of how far a b. Strain = distance stretched
material has stretched.
2. From the graph determine which material Material 2 elongated more before
stretched more. breaking.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
a. Which material in the following graph is stronger?
b. Which material is more ductile?
Material 2
×
Stress
Material 1
×
0 Strain

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Consider the two materials represented in the following stress–strain graph. Of the two
materials, which would be more difficult to stretch?
σ1 × Material 1
Stress
×
σ2 Material 2
0 ε
Strain
THINK WRITE
1 Recall that strain is the measure of how far a Strain = distance stretched
material has stretched.
2 From the graph determine which material Material 2 stretches further than material 1
stretches further under the same stress. under the same stress. Therefore, material 1
would be more difficult to stretch.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Which material in the following stress–strain graph would be more difficult to stretch?
Material A
σA ×
σB
Stress
×
Material B
0
Strain

14.3.4 Young’s modulus of elasticity
For many materials, the stress–strain graph for a tensile test
FIGURE 14.26 Young’s modulus of
is straight, or nearly straight, near the origin. Here, the stress elasticity can be calculated from the
in the material is proportional to the strain and the constant gradient of a stress–strain curve.
of proportionality is called the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, E.
200
Fracture
×
Young’s modulus is calculated from the gradient of the

𝜎
stress–strain curve, E = . This relationship is an
Stress (MPa)
∆σ = 180 MPa
𝜀
expression of Hooke’s Law and can be written in the 100
form 𝜍 = E × 𝜀.
A material with a higher Young’s modulus is stiffer;

it is more resistant to deformation as shown by the
steeper gradient of the stress–strain curve. Steel is used
in large and small structures because it is stiff and needs 0
a large stress to change its shape. Materials that 1 2 3 4
have a low Young’s modulus would not be suitable ∆ɛ = 3 ×10–3

for buildings because they would deform too much.
Strain (× 10–3)
The modulus for most materials is large, so it is usually
expressed in gigapascals, where 1 GPa = 109 Pa.
For the material represented graphically in figure 14.26:
𝜍 TABLE 14.1 Some typical values of E
E=
𝜀 Material Young’s modulus (GPa)
∆𝜍
= Skin 2 × 10−4
∆𝜀
Tendon 2
180 MPa
= Polyethylene 7
3 × 10−3
Bone 7–30
= 6 × 104 × MPa
Wood 14
So for this material, E = 60 GPa. Concrete 18

Some typical values of E are listed in table 14.1. Aluminium 70
Our bones are not homogenous. They comprise a hard outer Glass 100
layer called cortical bone and a spongy interior named Titanium 100
trabecular bone. Before it breaks, the bone exhibits a linear Copper 110
stress–strain relationship (shown in the figure 14.27).
Steel 210
∆𝜍 Carbon fibre 410
E=
∆𝜀 Diamond 1200
120 MPa
=
0.009
= 1.3 × 104 MPa
So, for this sample of bone E = 13 GPa.

FIGURE 14.27 The stress–strain graph of a bone sample. The stress–strain graph is linear and Young’s modulus
can be calculated from the graph.
150
Stress (MPa)
100
50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Strain (%)
Even in materials that do not exhibit a linear stress–strain relationship, the slope of the curve is often
used to describe the stiffness of the material. For the skin sample shown in figure 14.28, the slope of the
linear part of the graph provides an estimate of Young’s modulus — a measure of the stiffness of the skin
within its elastic range.
FIGURE 14.28 Stress–strain graph of a skin sample
0.02
Stress (MPa)
0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Strain (%)

From the graph, Young’s modulus can be calculated. For example, when subject to larger stress:
∆𝜍
E=
∆𝜀
0.02 MPa
=
(0.80 − 0.70)
= 0.2 MPa
So, for this sample of skin E = 0.2 MPa = 200 kPa.

Note that the skin initially deforms without carrying much stress. After it deforms, it behaves more
stiffly. When under stress the skin will deform, something which is important if the body is to accommodate
movement at joints. The ability of the skin to stiffen and resist larger stresses then protects other parts of the
body, such as vital organs, from penetration.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Using the test data in the following table, plot a stress–strain curve and calculate Young’s
modulus for each material. Which material is stiffer? Which is stronger?
Material A
Stress (MPa) 0 35 70 110 140 145 150
Strain (× 10−3 ) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.5
Material B
Stress (MPa) 0 30 60 90 110 130 140
Strain (× 10−3 ) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0
THINK WRITE
1 Place strain on the x-axis and stress on
the y-axis and plot the points to form
Material A
the graph. 150
Material B
120
Stress (MPa)
90
60
30
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
–3
Strain (x 10 )

2 Use the straight region of the graphs to Material A:
calculate Young’s modulus. Δstress
E=
Δstrain
140
=
2.0 × 10−3
= 7 × 104 MPa
= 70 GPa
Material B:
Δstress
E=
Δstrain
90
=
1.5 × 10−3
= 6 × 104 MPa
= 60 GPa
3 Recall that stiffness is measured by the From the graph, it can be seen that the slope of
gradient of the stress–strain curve. the curve for A is steeper than that for B;
therefore, A is stiffer than B.
4 Strength is defined as the maximum stress The maximum stress that material A can sustain
reached before a material breaks. before fracture is greater than that for material B:
150 MPa compared with 140 MPa. Therefore,
material A is stronger than material B.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Using the experimental data in the following table, plot a stress–strain curve and calculate Young’s
modulus for each material. Which material is stiffer? Which material is stronger?
Material 1
Stress (MPa) 0 20 40 60 80 100 110
–3
Strain (×10 ) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Material 2
Stress (MPa) 0 16 32 48 64 85 100
Strain (×10–3 ) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.8
14.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the value of Young’s modulus for the polymer in the following stress–strain graph?

Stress (MPa)
5
0
1.0 2.0
–3
Strain (x 10 )
2. What stress would create a strain of 0.0005 in a bone with a Young’s modulus of 18 GPa?
3. At its mid-length, Belinda’s femur is approximately circular in cross-section with a diameter of 22 millimetres.
If her mass is 56 kilograms, calculate the stress in her femur.
4. (a) What stress will cause a strain of 0.04 in a tendon with a Young’s
Force (kN) Length (mm)
modulus of 0.25 GPa?
(b) If the original length of the tendon was 200 millimetres, how much 0 50.80
has it stretched under this load?
5. A 2-millimetres diameter steel cable 5 metres long lifts a 15 kN load. 72.4 50.90
Assuming Young’s modulus for the steel is 200 GPa, how much 108.6 50.95
will the cable stretch?
6. A 12.7-millimetres square bar 50.8 millimetres in length is loaded in 144.8 51
tension. The data collected are shown in the following table. 181.0 51.05
(a) Convert the data to stress and strain.
(b) Plot the data and calculate Young’s modulus. 189.5 51.10
(c) What stress would cause a strain of 0.5% in the 12.7-millimetre
square bar?
7. Estimate the stiffness of the material described in the following graph.
100
× Fracture
80
Stress (MPa)
60
40
20
0
0.001 0.002 0.003
Strain


14.4 Elastic and plastic behaviour of materials
KEY CONCEPTS
• Calculate the potential energy stored in a material under load (strain energy) using area under stress versus
strain graph.
• Investigate the elastic or plastic behaviour of materials under load, for example skin and membranes.
14.4.1 Strain energy

Bungee cords are selected for their good energy-absorbing characteristics. Otherwise, a bungee jumper
would stop too quickly, which might cause injury. Similarly, our tendons, muscles and cartilage absorb large
amounts of energy to help avoid injury. The energy is absorbed during deformation caused by the forces
doing work on that part of the body. We use strain energy to describe the energy stored in a material when
it is deformed.
Strain energy is equal to the work done to deform a material.
In general, the strain energy per unit volume stored in a material for any strain can be
determined from the area under the stress–strain graph up to that particular strain.
The strain energy per unit volume is usually measured in joules per metre cubed. The unit J m−3 is
equivalent to N m−2 , as:
1 J m−3 = 1 N m m−3
= 1 N m−2
If a material returns to its original shape when the force is removed, the energy that was stored is called
elastic strain energy.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
The stress–strain characteristics of a particular
material are shown in the following graph. 280 ×
a. Calculate how much energy per unit volume
240
is needed to strain the material 0.2% (2 × 10−3 ).
b. The test specimen was 200 mm long and 12 mm
Stress (MPa)
200
in diameter. If the specimen fractured at a strain of
3 × 10−3 , estimate the energy required to fracture it.
100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

THINK WRITE Strain (%)
1
a. 1 The energy per unit volume is found a. × 2 × 10−3 × 240 × 106
from the area under the curve up to a 2
strain of 2 × 10−3 . As the shape is a = 2.4 × 105 J m−3
triangle use the formula for the area of a
triangle.

2 State the solution. The energy per unit volume needed to strain the
material is 2.4 × 10 Jm−3 .
1 1
b. 1 Energy per unit volume found between b. ≈ × 2 × 10−3 × 240 × 106 + (240 + 280)
2 × 10−3 and 3 × 10−3 is given by the 2 2)
×106 × 3 × 10−3 − 2 × 10−3
(
area between 2 × 10−3 and 3 × 10−3 .
As the shape is roughly trapezoidal use = (2.4 + 2.6) × 105
the formula for the area of a trapezoid. = 5.0 × 105 J m−3
2 Calculate the volume of the specimen. Volume = 𝜋 × (0.006)2 × 0.200 = 2.26 × 10−5
3 Total energy = energy per unit volume Total energy = 5.0 × 105 × 2.26 × 10−5
× volume ≈ 11.3 J
4 State the solution. The energy required to fracture the specimen at a
strain of 3 × 10−3 is 11.3 J.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
The stress–strain characteristics of a particular material are shown in the following graph.
a. Calculate how much energy per unit volume is needed to strain the material 0.8%.
b. The test specimen was 150 millimetres long and 16 millimetres in diameter. If the specimen
fractured at a strain of 1.2%, estimate the energy required to fracture it.
×
100
Stress (MPa)
80
60
40
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Strain (%)
14.4.2 Toughness
We use the term toughness to describe the ability of a material to store energy up to the point of fracture.
A material with a greater strain energy up to fracture is said to be tougher than one requiring less energy.
Toughness can be determined from the total area under the tensile stress–strain curve for a material up to
the fracture strain.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Consider the following stress–strain graph of
two materials.
×A
Which material is:
a. tougher
×B
b. stronger
Stress
c. stiffer?
0 Strain
THINK WRITE
a. Toughness = total area underneath a. Material B has more area under its stress–strain curve,
the stress–strain curve thus, is tougher.
b. Strength = maximum stress before b. Material A reaches a higher stress before breaking than
breaking material B, thus, is stronger.
c. Stiffness = gradient of the c. Material A has a greater gradient in its stress–strain
stress–strain curve curve than material B, thus, is stiffer.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
Material 1
Consider the following stress-strain graph of ×
100 ×
two materials. Which material is: Material 2
a. stiffer
Stress (MPa)
80
b. tougher
60
c. stronger?
40
20
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Strain (× 10–3)
14.4.3 Elastic behaviour

A cyclist pulls on shorts to stretch them over the hips, but the deformation of the shorts is not permanent.
When the cyclist stops pulling, the shorts assume the shape of the body. If they did not, the shorts would fall
down. This is an example of reversible deformation that occurs in many materials, including metals used in
structures like bridges and buildings. When the force stops acting, the material returns to its original shape
(figure 14.29). Deformation that disappears when the stress is removed is called elastic deformation.
The maximum stress for which a material behaves elastically is called the elastic limit or yield stress.
When stretched beyond its elastic limit, a material will not return to its original shape.

Visco-elastic behaviour
Naturally occurring materials in our body — blood vessels, skin, tendons and bones — exhibit another type
of elasticity. The stress–strain graph of skin in figure 14.28 shows that skin does not strain linearly when
stress is initially applied; the strain is time dependent. As the stress increases, the skin assumes linear elastic
properties. This time-dependent behaviour is largely attributed to the response of elastin fibres in the skin.
When a load is removed and the skin or other material returns to its original shape, the energy might not
be returned, which shows up as a loop on in figure 14.30. This loop is called a hysteresis loop, which is a
characteristic behaviour for tendons and skin. The unreturned energy is typically used to do work within the
system, and might be evident in the form of heat.
For some materials loaded and unloaded within the elastic range, the energy absorbed during loading
may not be completely recovered. This is called hysteresis and the discrepancy appears as a hysteresis loop
on a stress–strain graph.
FIGURE 14.29 The stress–strain

behaviour of a test specimen. When the
load was removed, the specimen FIGURE 14.30 Stress–strain graph
behaved elastically, recovering its containing a hysteresis loop
original shape.
Unload
Stress
Stress
Unload
Load
Load
0 Strain 0 Strain
14.4.4 Plastic behaviour

Deformation that does not completely recover when the force is removed is called plastic deformation.
The panels of a car, dented in an accident, have undergone plastic deformation. When you pull on a piece
of chewing gum it stretches, but the deformation is not reversible. We also plastically deform aluminium
foil and cling wrap to the shape of various containers. The plastic properties of materials are very useful
for manufacturing and shaping items, including some prosthetics. For example, wire is bent into shape
for dental braces without breaking, and polymers are used to form complex shapes when making a
hand splint.
Ductile
Materials that deform plastically before they fracture are said to be ductile. Most metals and polymers are
ductile. The steel tensile test piece shown in figure 14.31 started as a uniform shape. As it was loaded, it
elongated and the cross-sectional area decreased. When unloaded, the test piece did not return to its original
shape because it had been loaded beyond its elastic limit; it had deformed plastically.

FIGURE 14.31 The test specimen was loaded beyond its elastic limit, then there was some elastic recovery but
the energy used to stretch the specimen was not fully recovered.
Elastic
limit
Unload
Stress
Plastic Elastic
deformation strain
(permanent) recovery
Strain
Necking is the noticeable thinning that occurs before fracture of many metals, and occurs where the
material is weakest. After ductile fracture, the broken pieces do not fit together well. The percentage
elongation of a material at fracture is often used as a measure of its ductility.
Brittle
Materials that are not ductile are called brittle. Brittle materials experience little or no plastic deformation
before fracture — less than about 5% strain. In general, the surface of a brittle failure is flat and the broken
pieces could be fitted back together to resemble the original item. The glass in figure 14.32 is an example
of a brittle failure. Note that the pieces can be put back together to look like the original object. Concrete,
plaster and glass are examples of brittle construction materials.
FIGURE 14.32 Although brittle materials are usually not as

tough as ductile materials, the maximum stress to fracture
may be large. Consequently, brittle materials are sometimes
strong.
Source: Jef Poskanzer / Flickr

14.4 EXERCISE
To answer questions online and to receive immediate
feedback and sample responses for every question
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. ×A
1. The stress–strain characteristics for two different materials,
A and B, tested to fracture are shown.
×B
(a) Which material has the greater Young’s modulus?
Stress
(b) At the elastic limit, which material has the greater strain?
(c) Which material is tougher?
(d) Which material is more ductile?
(e) Which material is stronger?
2. The results of a tensile test are given in the following table.
𝜍 (MPa) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0
Strain
𝜀 (%) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝜍 (MPa) 22 20 19 20 20 20 18
𝜀 (%) 15 30 50 80 110 160 210
(a) Plot the stress–strain graph for this material.

(b) Is the material brittle or ductile? Explain.
(c) Calculate Young’s modulus for the material.
(d) How much energy is stored in the material when it is stretched to twice its original length?
3. Grant states that strain energy exists only when a material is in the process of being deformed. Is Grant
correct? Discuss your reasoning.
4. Gaby is testing the properties of materials. Based on her observations, explain the properties of the
following materials.
(a) Material A has a large strain value.
(b) Material B breaks before reaching its elastic limit.

14.5 Materials for prostheses

KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate how the behaviour of living tissue under load compares with common building materials,
including wood and metals.
• Identify the difficulties and problems with implanting materials within the human body.
Steel is used in large and small structures such as buildings and bridges because it is stiff and needs a large
stress to change its shape. Similarly, metals and ceramics are used in orthopaedic and dental prostheses
because of their strength, stiffness and bearing properties. When producing a prostheses, it is important to
select materials with similar mechanical properties to the body part it is going to replace. These materials

must also be biocompatible, non-toxic and not susceptible to decay or changes in temperature. They must
also be readily secured mechanically or chemically to hold them in place.
14.5.1 The behaviour of living tissues

Nature successfully uses materials with appropriate properties for a variety of purposes. For example, an
eggshell is strong enough to withstand the compressive stresses caused by the weight of brooding parents.
However, a hatching chick can easily break the shell. This is because the shell is brittle. Once the chick has
pecked a hole in the shell, cracks spread easily throughout the brittle material, causing it to break.
Similar to the shell of an egg, our skull must be strong in compression and be hard enough to resist
penetration. However, because it must resist larger forces, the skull needs to be both stronger and tougher
with a larger elastic limit than the brittle eggshell.
14.5.2 Common artificial materials

The materials that we use for construction can be classified as coming from one of four groups — metals,
ceramics, polymers or composites; composite materials are composed of two or more different materials.
Strength and stiffness are two important properties necessary for structures, whether they are for a
building or for an artificial limb.
Typical strength and stiffness values of these groups of materials are shown in figure 14.33.
FIGURE 14.33 The range of strength and stiffness for different materials
Stiffness Ceramics
Metals
Polymers
Composites
10–3 10–2 10–1 1 101 102 103

Elastic moduli (GPa)
Strength Ceramics
Metals
Polymers
Composites
10–1 1 101 102 103 104 105

Yield strength (MPa)

Another useful way to display this information is by grouping the typical range of values of two
properties of materials together. This type of chart is often referred to as an Ashby chart (figure 14.34).
Materials with identical chemical composition do not always behave in the same way. Their behaviour
might depend on other factors such as ambient temperature, the duration and frequency of loading, and the
environment in which the material is used.
FIGURE 14.34 An Ashby chart showing strength and stiffness of different groups of materials
1000
Ceramics
Metal alloys
100
Young’s Modulus E (GPa)
10
Composites
Polymers
0.1
0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Strength (MPa)
14.5.3 Metal in prosthetic limbs

Limb prostheses are functional replacements for a missing limb. Records show that steel and iron were used
in the manufacture of prosthetic arms as far back as the sixteenth century. Prior to that, wood and copper are
known to have been used for leg prostheses. The strength and stiffness of steel make it a good substitute for
bone, but it is significantly heavier for the user.
Stainless steel, aluminium and titanium are metals that are now used for manufacturing prosthetic limbs
and joints. These metals are readily available, although titanium is more expensive. Both stainless steel and
titanium can equal bone for strength and stiffness when acted on by axial forces as well as when bending or
in torsion. The ductility of these metals is an important consideration given the cyclic loading and unloading
that occurs in our body. However, the weight of metal prosthetics is larger than bone, and therefore they
require more energy to use, causing the user to tire sooner. For this reason, aluminium might be preferred
over stainless steel and titanium when considering large components such as the pylon in a leg prosthesis.
The development of materials such as carbon fibre and Kevlar, both strong and durable, has enabled lighter
prostheses to be built.

In general, limb prostheses include FIGURE 14.35 An above-knee leg prosthesis
a socket to join the prosthetic to the
body, an attachment mechanism
and, for a dynamic prosthetic, a
control mechanism. For a lower leg
prosthesis like that shown in figure
14.35, the pylon is the main internal
structure, preferably made from carbon
fibre, titanium or aluminium. Metals
are commonly used when joining
components, particularly if they are
designed to move relative to each other.
Some wood might be used to structure
the foot, but plastics and foams are
suitable for the rest of the prosthesis.
14.5.4 The effect of temperature on materials

The properties of materials depend on temperature. For example, a decrease in temperature might cause a
ductile material to become brittle. At high temperatures, materials can deform plastically even when the
stress is less than the material’s elastic limit determined at room temperature.
FIGURE 14.36 The mechanical properties of polymethyl methacrylate vary with temperature.
80
4°C
60
Stress (MPa)
20°C
40
40°C
20
60°C
0
0.1 0.2 0.3
Strain

The temperature-dependent behaviour of materials
FIGURE 14.37 Splints can be shaped at high
can be used as an advantage, as in the shaping of some temperatures to fit the shape of a person’s body.
metals and plastics. A splint such as that shown in
figure 14.37 was shaped to the profile of the person’s
hand while the thermoplastic was warm. As the
thermoplastic cooled, it became stiffer and stronger.
14.5.5 Limitations of ductile materials

Repetition of low-stress movements
Materials subjected to cyclic loads can fail at lower
stresses than their yield strength. This failure is
common in metals and is called fatigue. For example,
a paperclip can be broken by repeatedly bending and
straightening it in opposite directions. The maximum
magnitude of the force you apply does not change, but the cyclic loading and unloading causes cracks
to spread and eventually fractures the clip. Similarly a tooth that is repeatedly subjected to compressive
stresses might eventually fracture.
Cyclic loads are important to consider when selecting materials for joint replacements. When metal — a
ductile material — is used in an implant, it is more prone to fatigue than the biological material it replaces.
In their early years, metal-on-metal hip implants were known to last up to two years. The current generation
of hip implants uses other materials and the hips can be reasonably expected to last more than 10 years.
Given enough time

Creep is the time-dependent and permanent
FIGURE 14.38 Typical strain–time curve for a material
deformation of a material under a constant showing creep under constant stress and temperature
load. Both the temperature and the size of
the applied stress affect the rate at which
Fracture
creep occurs. The visco-elastic materials in
our body, particularly our skin, exhibit creep.
The strain increases with time even when the
stress is constant. When stretched and kept at
a constant deformation, the stress in our skin
will decrease over time and it is said to have
Strain
relaxed.
Creep is evident in most materials at
higher temperatures; however, lead and
some polymers will readily creep at room
temperature. Although some materials take
years to show significant signs of creep, some
soft metals and polymers show signs of creep 0 Time
in a short time.
Instantaneous deformation

14.5 EXERCISE
1. Name the four groups that materials we use for construction can be classified as.
2. Which of the four classified materials demonstrates the greatest strength?
3. Which of the four classified materials displays the least stiffness?
4. Why might aluminium be preferred for a leg prosthesis over stainless steel or titanium?
5. Explain what creep is.

14.6 Performance of artificial limbs

KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate the suitability of different materials for use in the human body, including bone, tendons and
muscle, by comparing tensile and compressive strength and stiffness, toughness, and flexibility under load.
• Investigate the development of artificial materials and structures for use in prosthetics, including external
prostheses for the replacement of lost limbs, and internal prostheses such as hip or valve replacements.
• Compare the performance of artificial limbs with natural limbs with reference to function and longevity.
When choosing materials to make a prosthesis, it is necessary to consider the stresses each component
must resist. Will each component be subject to an axial tensile or compressive stress? Bending or torsion?
Does the component move, rendering it susceptible to wear and tear from frictional forces? The properties
of the available materials also need to be determined according to their function. For example, the pylon
in a below-knee prosthetic must be strong in compression and able to resist some bending and torsion.
It should also be stiff, ductile and preferably with a weight similar to that of a natural leg. Consideration
should also be given to how the pylon can be made. Can it be readily cast or machined? In contrast, a cover
over the pylon is most likely cosmetic and other materials such as polyurethane foam and plastic might be
appropriate because of their low weight and the ease with which they form irregular shapes.
14.6.1 Composite materials

Composite materials are materials made by combining two or more different materials to create a single
material with enhanced performance characteristics, such as stiffness, strength and toughness.
Fibre reinforced composites (FRCs) such as carbon fibre have become competitive substitutes for
traditional materials, not just because of their weight, but also for the shapes that they can create. Fibre
composites can also exhibit good energy absorbing and storage properties.

PROSTHETIC ADVANTAGE
Could someone with lower leg prostheses have an advantage over
athletes with natural legs? FIGURE 14.39 An athlete using
This question was asked when Paralympic athlete Oscar Pistorius a composite prosthetic leg
applied to compete at the 2012 London Olympics. When running
and responding to impact forces, Pistorius’s prosthetic leg deformed,
primarily about the curve at the bottom, and absorbed the stress. In
an athlete with a natural leg, the stress would also be absorbed but in
the joints of their body: ankle, knee, hip and lower back. However, it
was alleged that unlike an athlete with natural legs, the carbon-fibre
prostheses would rebound off the ground, returning a larger portion of
the stored energy, to the advantage of the runner. Is this possible?
COMPOSITES
Both timber and bone are naturally occurring composites. Timber consists of hollow cellulose fibres bound
together in a matrix of lignin. Bone comprises a hard outer layer, cortical, which surrounds and protects a softer
inner region, trabecular.
Perhaps the earliest artificial composites developed for construction were mud bricks in which straw was
mixed with clay. The composite mix reduced cracking that occurred as the bricks dried and shrank. Reinforced
concrete is an artificial composite widely used for the past century in the construction industry.
Cellular reinforcement, such as honeycombs and foams, is used in the construction of aircraft and train
carriages, but most structural composites are a plastic matrix with fibre.
14.6.2 Arm prostheses

Like our legs, our arms need to resist large forces when lifting objects or withstanding impacts. Our arms
must do this while also enabling the hands to perform delicate and complex tasks such as cleaning our teeth
or playing a musical instrument.
Prostheses that need to move about a joint might be operated by cables or even small motors to do the
job that muscles and tendons in a natural arm would perform. A dynamic hand splint may use external
metal cables to transfer forces across the joints of the hand and fingers to assist in the rehabilitation of an
injured hand. Traditionally, the body of the splint would be made from plaster. Now it is more likely to be a
thermoplastic or fibre reinforced composite such as fibreglass.
14.6.3 Joint replacements

Sometimes people need a replacement joint or other internal body part because of a congenital issue, injury,
disease such as osteoarthritis, or wear and tear from overuse or ageing. Stainless steel and titanium are used
for implants such as hip and knee replacements. These metals are also commonly used in dental work for
braces and implants. Stainless steel and titanium are generally biocompatible, hard and can be prepared so
that they can integrate into bone.
There are different types of hip implants. However, as a ball and socket joint, they typically comprise a
tapered metal peg inserted into the head of the femur, to which is attached a ball to facilitate movement of
the joint, and a socket and cup fixed to the pelvis (figure 14.40).

FIGURE 14.40 A disassembled prosthetic socket joint. Metals are well suited for attachment to the femur
because their mechanical properties are comparable to healthy bone. Typically the femoral peg is stainless steel
or titanium and the other components are mostly made from ceramics or hard polymers. The peg and cup might
be mechanically fixed or cemented in place. These parts are often coated with materials such as hydroxylapatite
to facilitate the growth of bone and the eventual integration of the replacement part with the existing bone.
As with all joint implants, the surgical insertion of a hip replacement comes with risks and complications.
The risks can include fracture of the femur, particularly if the bone is not healthy, and loosening of the peg
or cup where they are attached to the bone. As it is subject to frequent and heavy loads, the movement of
the replacement hip can also cause wear of the ball and socket. If debris created from wear and tear is not
biocompatible, this can cause complications. In Britain in 2010, blood poisoning was reported from certain
metal-on-metal implants that had worn and deposited potentially toxic metal into the bloodstream. Ceramic
and polymer ball-and-socket joints now provide an alternative wearing surface to earlier metal-on-metal
implants. However, these materials also create their own debris from wear and tear, which the body must
deal with.
14.6.4 Materials in dentistry and stents

The advantages of the ductility of metals is also evident in their use in dental braces and in stents, which are
inserted into arteries (figure 14.42). Shaped like a tube, stents are placed in diseased arteries to keep them
open and to facilitate blood flow. Usually made of metal mesh, a stent is implanted in the artery. A synthetic
balloon already within the stent is then inflated, deforming the stent to its intended size. The balloon is then
removed to enable a healthier blood flow.

FIGURE 14.41 X-ray of a hip replacement
The malleability of metals is a useful behaviour that makes them tolerant to compressive forces. Softer
metals such as lead and gold can be easily pushed and hammered into shape. Dentists use materials that can
be easily shaped to fill cavities in teeth. Once in place, a filling must be resistant to biochemical attack from
bodily fluids. Gold has been used for more than a century for filling tooth cavities. It is malleable, but is
now used less frequently in part because of its cost. Amalgam (an alloy of mercury, silver, tin and copper) is
a more cost-effective mixture of metals, which forms a malleable putty at time of mixing. After shaping in
situ by the dentist, the amalgam sets and becomes a hard, strong and stiff filling for tooth cavities.
The properties of ceramics have also made them suitable for some dental work including caps. Ceramics
are typically hard, resistant to corrosion and can usually withstand high temperatures. Some ceramics are
naturally occurring and some are artificial substances.
There have been significant advances in the materials used in the manufacture of prostheses, particularly
with the development of composite materials for the structural components and electronic systems for
controlling movement. The human body is not built to last forever; however, will prostheses ever be as
desirable as a natural body part?

FIGURE 14.42 A stent is inserted, expands into its place and then allows blood to run freely through the artery.
Coronary artery Plaque Narrowed artery Plaque
Artery cross-section
Catheters Closed stent
Expanded balloon Expanded stent
Widened artery Compressed plaque Increased blood flow Widened artery

14.6 EXERCISE
1. Explain why composite materials are used in so many different types of prosthetics.
2. When a prosthetic needs to move about a joint what is used to replace muscles and tendons?
3. What characteristic of a metal is beneficial when used for braces and stents?
4. The dental implant shown in the following figure
comprises a titanium alloy replacement for the
tooth root inserted into the jaw. An abutment is Implant
inserted
then added to which a ceramic crown is fitted. into bone
(a) What are the properties of the titanium alloy Abutment
and the ceramic tooth that make them
suitable for this use in the human body? Crown
(b) What factors might affect the success of
this implant?
5. To manufacture a 30-millimetre diameter pylon
for a below-the-knee limb prostheses,
three potential materials are being examined.
The mechanical properties of each material
are shown in the following table.
Lower jaw
Material Density (kg m−3 )−3 Strength (MPa) Young’s modulus (GPa)’
Bone 2000 200 20
Material A 4430 970 110
Material B 1400 190 30
Material C 2200 140 20
List and describe the advantages and disadvantages of each of the materials being considered relative to
natural bone.


14.7 Review
14.7.1 Summary
• A structure is in equilibrium if the net force acting on it is zero and the net torque acting on it is zero.
• Each part of a stationary structure must be in translational and rotational equilibrium.
• A force that pulls on something is called a tensile force.
• A force that pushes on something is called a compressive force.
• When a force is applied to a material, the material deforms. The amount of deformation depends on
the size of the force and the stiffness of the material.
• When a material is bent, part of it is in compression and part is in tension.
• Deformation that is reversed when the load is removed is called elastic deformation.
• Deformation that is not completely reversed when the load is removed is called plastic deformation.
• Stress, 𝜍, is the force per unit area of cross-section under load.
• Strain, 𝜀, is the ratio of the change in length, ∆l, to the original length of the material under load, l.
• When the stress–strain curve is a straight line, the gradient is called Young’s modulus, E. The
relationship between stress and strain is an expression of Hooke’s Law and is written in the form
𝜍 = E × 𝜀. Young’s modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
• The strain energy of a material is equal to the work done to deform it. The area under the stress–strain
curve measures the strain energy per unit volume of material.
• Toughness is a measure of the energy required to fracture a material and is determined from the total
area under the stress–strain curve up to the fracture point.
• Brittle materials show little or no plastic deformation before breaking.
• Ductile materials show plastic deformation before breaking.
• Composite materials are made by combining two or more different materials to create a single material
with enhanced characteristics.
Resources
14.7.2 Key terms
A brittle material experiences little or no plastic deformation before it fractures.

The centre of gravity is the point at which gravity acts on an object.
The centre of mass of an object is the average position of the object’s mass. We often consider forces acting
through an object’s centre of mass.
Creep is the time-dependent and permanent deformation of a material under a constant stress.
A ductile material deforms plastically before it fractures.
Deformation that disappears when stress is removed is called elastic deformation.
Necking is a noticeable thinning in a material that occurs when it is under tension.
Deformation that does not completely recover when stress is removed is called plastic deformation.
Stiffness is a measure of how much work is required to deform a material.
Strain is the amount by which a material is deformed by a force.
Strain energy is the energy stored in a material that is deformed. It is equal to the work done to deform
a material.
Stress is a measure of the strength of a material. It is defined as the force per unit area.
Torque is the turning effect of a force.
Toughness describes the ability of a material to store energy up to the point of fracture. A material that holds a
large amount of strain energy before fracturing is said to be tough.
Young’s modulus, E, is the ratio of stress to strain in a material.

Resources
14.7 Exercises
1. What is the normal reaction force supplied by the ground to an 80-kilogram person standing still?
A. 80 N
B. 80 Kg
C. 784 N
D. 712 N
2. A bricklayer is supporting several bricks on his head as he is hanging by his arms from a construction
frame. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. His neck joint is in compression; his arm bones are in compression.
B. His neck joint is in compression; his arm bones are in tension.
C. His neck joint is in tension; his arm bones are in compression.
D. His neck joint is in tension; his arm bones are in tension.
3. A basketballer slides slightly before coming to a stop once their shoes grab the court. Which of the
following statements best describes the type of deformation the rubber sole of the shoe undergoes?
A. The particles of the rubber sole will undergo shear.
B. The particles of the rubber sole will undergo tension.
C. The particles of the rubber sole will undergo compression.
D. The particles of the rubber sole will undergo rotation.
4. A bone with a cross-section of radius 1.2 centimetres is supporting a load of 420 N. Which of the
following values is the best estimate of the stress in the bone?
A. 9.28 × 104 Pa
B. 9.28 × 105 Pa
C. 9.28 × 101 Pa
D. 1.1 × 104 Pa
5. A prosthetic leg is made from aluminium of length 50 centimetres and a diameter of 40 millimetres. If
this prosthetic leg is placed under tension with stress of 350 MPa, what force was applied to the leg to
provide this stress?
A. 1.8 × 106 N
B. 1.8 N
C. 4.4 × 103 N
D. 4.4 × 105 N
6. A tendon of length 12 centimetres stretches 8 millimetres under load. Which of the following values is
the best estimate of the strain in the tendon?
A. 66.7
B. 0.67
C. 0.07
D. 15
7. If a material is stretched sufficiently, it does not return to its original length when the stress is removed.
Which of the following statements does not correctly describe the behaviour of this material?
A. It has become permanently deformed.
B. It has shown ductile failure.
C. It has exceeded its elastic limit.
D. It has shown plastic behaviour.

8. The following stress–strain graph represents two
polymers. The full scale is not shown. Which
statement concerning the properties of the polymers
60 * Acrylic
is true?
Stress (MPa)
A. Acrylic is tougher than polyethylene.
40
B. Acrylic is more brittle than polyethylene.
C. Acrylic is more flexible than polyethylene.
D. Acrylic breaks more easily than polyethylene. Polyethylene
20
*
0
2 4 6 8 10 500
Strain (%)
9. A test specimen is stretched to the point P, as

shown on the following stress–strain graph, and
then released. Which value is the best estimate of 5 P
the permanent strain on the test specimen?
A. 4.0 × 10−2 4
Stress (x 106 Pa)

B. 2.0 × 10−2
C. 1.5 × 10−2
3
D. Zero
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (x 10–2)
10. A test specimen, with Young’s modulus equal to 2.0 × 1010 Pa, is deformed within its elastic region, up
to a strain of 0.50%. Which of the following values is the best estimate of the energy stored, per cubic
metre of specimen?
−3
A. 2.5 × 105 Jm
−3
B. 5.0 × 107 Jm
8 −3
C. 1.0 × 10 Jm
−3
D. 2.5 × 109 Jm

1. A 30-kilogram student is hanging from the monkey bars at school with each arm making an angle of 70°
from the horizontal monkey bar. Calculate the tension in each arm. (Assume both arms are straight.)
2. A person is lifting a 15 kilogram weight at the gym. When the arm is 30° from the horizontal, calculate
the torque.
Weight
cm
35
30o
B
Elbow

3. A stress–strain graph of a sample material in the elastic region has a strain of 0.6% when a stress of 180
MPa is applied.
a. Calculate Young’s modulus.
b. Calculate the energy stored in the sample material.
4. a. Determine the loads that each of the following is most likely to experience: tension or compression.
i. Strings of a tennis racquet
ii. Human bone
iii. A lift cable
iv. Bicycle tube
v. Human tendon
vi. Sole of a shoe
vii. Kitchen cling wrap
viii. The leg of a table
5. A dental technician is stretching a 40-millimetres long piece of stainless steel wire 1.2 millimetres in
diameter. Stainless steel has the following mechanical properties:
• E = 195 GPa
• yield strength (stress applied before permanent deformation) = 215 MPa
• tensile strength (stress applied before failure occurs) = 505 MPa.
a. What is the minimum force needed to deform the wire permanently?
b. How much must the wire be stretched to create a permanent change in length?
c. What is the minimum force required to break the wire?
6. The data sheet provided by a manufacturer for its fibre product stated that it had a Young’s modulus of
75 GPa and an ultimate strength of 90 MPa. If the stress–strain curve for the fibre is linear, by how much
would a 1 metre long fibre elongate before fracture?
7. A 0.5 metre long piece of wire stretched 0.4 millimetres when a 6 kN force was applied. The wire had a
diameter of 3 millimetres. Assuming that it was behaving in a linear elastic manner, what was:
a. the maximum stress
b. the maximum strain
c. the Young’s modulus
d. the strain energy
e. the total energy absorbed by the wire?
8. An aluminium bar with diameter of 12.5 millimetres was tested in tension. The bar fractured at a length
of 55.13 millimetres. The following table shows the data collected up to the point of fracture.
a. Convert the data to stress versus strain.
Load (kN) Length (mm)
b. Plot the stress–strain graph.
c. On the graph, label: 0 50.00
i. elastic limit
4.5 50.02
ii. breaking strength.
d. Calculate: 13.4 50.07
i. elastic limit 22.3 50.13
ii. breaking strength.
31.2 50.18
33.4 50.75
35.2 52.00
35.7 53.00
35.7 54.00
33.8 55.13

9. The stress–strain relationship for skin is shown in the following graph.
XH
σ
0 ɛ
a.Describe how the skin will behave when it is acted on by a force from zero to H.
The stress–strain relationship for another material, A, is shown in the following graph.
X
H
0 ɛ
b. If material A was used to make synthetic skin, what would happen as it was loaded from zero to a
stress H?
c. Would you consider this an adequate substitute for skin?

The human jaw acts as a lever when you eat, hinging at the temporomandibular joint. If the force needed to
bite a mint is 180 N, what force is required from the muscles shown in the following figure?
Temporomandibular
joint
180 N
80 mm 25 mm
At its mid-length, Zali’s femur is approximately circular in cross-section with a diameter of 18 millimetres.
If her mass is 66 kilograms, calculate the stress on her femur.

Which material on the following stress–strain graph:
a. has the greatest Young’s modulus 1 mark ×A
b. is more ductile 1 mark
c. is tougher 1 mark ×B
Stress
d. is stronger? 1 mark
Strain 0
Brad, who is 75 kilograms, is hanging from the gymnastic horizontal bar before his routine. Calculate the
tension in each of his arms.
60º 60º
T T
mg
Use the stress–strain graph to calculate the value of the
following ratio. 300
Tensile Stress (x 106 N m–2)
Young’s modulus of material A

200 × Material A
Young’s modulus of material B
× Material B
100
0
0.01 0.02 0.03
Strain

Test maker

15 How can AC electricity

charge a DC device?
15.1 Overview
15.1.1 Introduction
We live in a world surrounded by electronic devices. Many of us feel the need to be connected constantly
to the internet and the telephone network. To be connected we need mobile communication devices such
as smart phones, tablets and laptops. These devices need batteries to provide electrical energy. Rather than
using batteries that are thrown away and replaced, these devices are fitted with rechargeable batteries that
need to be recharged from the mains power network.
The mains power network supplies electricity to houses and buildings at 230 V AC (previously, in
Australia, this was 240 V AC). Batteries are charged by providing a reverse voltage of 6 V DC.
This topic looks at how to convert a 230 V AC voltage to a DC voltage to charge your devices and keep
you connected. It also looks at the use of transducers to transfer energy in long distance
telecommunications systems.
In this topic you will investigate the processes involved in transforming the alternating current delivered
by the electrical supplier into low-voltage direct current for use with small-current electrical devices. You
will investigate a variety of circuits to explore processes including transformation, rectification, smoothing
and regulation. You will then investigate how data is transferred from one point to another using optical
fibre networks.
FIGURE 15.1 Smartphones are charged using a reverse voltage of 6 V DC.
TOPIC 15 How can AC electricity charge a DC device? 1

This involves transducer circuits that:
• transform energy, such as heat and light, into electrical signals
• transform electrical signals into light signals that can be transmitted along optical fibres
• transform light signals back into electrical signals.
In this topic, you will design, build and test a low-voltage AC to DC regulated voltage power supply
system that could be used to charge a device.
To help you achieve this goal, you will study theory relating to:
• using diagnostic equipment such as a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) and a multimeter
• converting an AC voltage signal to a DC voltage signal (voltage rectification) using diodes
• smoothing the output of a rectifier using a capacitor
• selecting and using a voltage regulator that will give a constant voltage output. (The voltage rectifier
will do this even though there are changes to the voltage provided by the rectifier and there are
changes to the load.)
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• analyse the role of the transformer in the power supply system including the analysis of voltage ratio:
N1 V1
= (not including induction or its internal workings)
N2 V2
• explain the use of diodes in half-wave and full-wave bridge rectification
• explain the effect of capacitors with reference to voltage drop and current change when charging and
discharging (time constant for charging and discharging, 𝜏 = RC) leading to smoothing for DC power
supplies
• describe the use of voltage regulators including Zener diodes and integrated circuits
• analyse systems, including fault diagnosis, following selection and use of appropriate test equipment
• interpret a display on an oscilloscope with reference to voltage as a function of time.
• apply the use of heat and light sensors such as thermistors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs) to trigger
an output device such as lighting or a motor
• evaluate the use of circuits for particular purposes using technical specifications related to potential
difference (voltage drop), current, resistance, power, temperature and illumination
• compare different light sources (bulbs, LEDs, lasers) for their suitability for data transfer
• explain the use of optical fibres for short and long distance telecommunications.

Resources
exam question booklet (doc-sonr-0040).

15.2 Voltage, current and resistance
KEY CONCEPTS
• Interpret a display on an oscilloscope with reference to voltage as a function of time.
• Analyse the role of the transformer in the power supply system including the analysis of voltage ratio:
N1 V1
= (not including induction or its internal workings).
N2 V2
15.2.1 AC voltage and current

An AC current is one that periodically changes direction. Figure 15.2 shows a graph of how voltage varies
with time for an AC voltage signal. Note that the voltage is sinusoidal, which means that the graph has the
same form as a sine curve.
FIGURE 15.2 The variation of voltage with time for a sinusoidal AC signal
Vpeak
VRMS
Vpeak Vp–p
Voltage
T 2T t
–Vpeak
An AC signal is described in terms of:

• period, T (
1
)
• frequency, f f =
T
• amplitude. If the voltage cycle is centred on 0 V, the voltage amplitude is Vpeak . Similarly, if the
current cycle is centred on 0 A, the current amplitude is Ipeak
• VRMS . This is the value of the DC voltage that generates the same power as the AC voltage when
placed across a resistor.
Vpeak
VRMS = √
2
Similarly, IRMS is the value of the DC current that generates the same power when it flows through
a resistor.
Ipeak
IRMS = √
2
The maximum variations in the voltage and current are called the peak-to-peak voltage, Vp-p , and the
peak-to-peak current, Ip-p , respectively.

Figure 15.3 shows how the current through a resistor varies with time when an AC voltage is placed
across it.
FIGURE 15.3 The variation of current with time for a sinusoidal AC signal
Ipeak
IRMS
Ipeak Ip–p
Current
T 2T t
–Ipeak
15.2.2 Cathode ray oscilloscope

A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument that shows how voltage drop across a device varies with
time. A cathode ray consists of a beam of electrons that strike a phosphorescent screen at the front of the
instrument, creating a spot. The beam can be made to sweep across the screen at different speeds and the
voltage across the device affects the vertical position of the beam.
By adjusting the controls, a picture, called a trace, of how voltage varies with time is displayed. The
trace is identical to a graph where the y-axis gives the voltage and the x-axis gives time. The scales for the
x- and y-axes may be altered using the controls. This is explained in the next section.
How to use a cathode ray oscilloscope

Figure 15.4 shows (a) the basic controls of a single
FIGURE 15.4 (a) The front panel of a single trace
trace CRO and (b) how to connect it to a device — CRO (b) Connecting a signal source to a CRO
in this case a signal generator that you may use
when studying sound. The ground terminal of the (a) Focus knob Intensity knob
CRO is held at 0 V. The other terminal (marked Screen Locate

‘input’) samples the voltage of the signal generator
output. Horizontal deflection knob
Before connecting the CRO to the device, turn it Vertical deflection knob
on and use the focus and intensity knobs to adjust
on–off Timebase control
the trace. The horizontal and vertical deflection switch Input Trigger Vertical amplifier
knobs are used to position the trace at the centre of (b)
the screen. on–off
CRO
The screen has a centimetre grid marked on it to

assist in centring the trace and in interpreting the
values that the trace represents. • x1 Output
• x10
• x100
• x1000
Time scale Frequency Ground
The timebase control is adjusted so that at least Input Ground (0 V)
one complete waveform is displayed on the screen.

This enables the period of the signal to be read. The period is the time it takes for the signal to complete one
cycle. Measure the length of one complete cycle of the trace from the screen and multiply this value by the
factor indicated on the timebase control.

Voltage scale
The vertical scale of the trace is set by the vertical amplifier. This should be set so that the top and bottom
of the trace fall within the screen grid. The amplitude of the trace is then multiplied by the factor indicated
by the vertical amplifier control.
Dual trace CROs

A dual trace CRO has two inputs, each with separate vertical deflection controls, that enable the signal at
different parts of a circuit to be compared.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
What are the period, frequency and amplitude of the trace shown if the following timebase and
voltage settings are used?
a. Timebase 5 ms cm−1 , voltage 1 V cm−1

b. Timebase 0.1 ms cm−1 , voltage 5 mV cm−1
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Each line on the CRO represents 1 cm. a. Each line represents 5 ms on the
horizontal axis and 1 V on the vertical
axis.
2. Period is four lines in length. T = 4 × 5 = 20 ms
The period is 20 milliseconds.
1
3. Frequency is the inverse of period. f=
2.0 × 10−2 s
= 50 Hz
The frequency is 50 Hz.
4. Amplitude is two lines high. A = 2 × 1 = 2V
The amplitude is 2 V.
b. 1. Each line on the CRO represents 1 cm. b. Each line represents 0.1 ms on the
horizontal axis and 5 mV on the
vertical axis.
2. Period is four lines in length. T = 4 × 0.1 = 0.4 ms
The period is 0.4 miliseconds.

1
3. Frequency is the inverse of period. f=
4 × 10−4 s
= 2.5 × 103 Hz
The frequency is 2.5 × 103 Hz.
4. Amplitude is two lines high. A = 2 × 5 mV = 10 mV
The amplitude is 10 mV.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
With a time base and voltage setting of 2 ms cm–1 and 5 mV cm–1 respectively, what are the period,
frequency and amplitude for each of the following traces?
a. b.
15.2.3 Using a multimeter

The cathode ray oscilloscope discussed in the preceding section is a
FIGURE 15.5 Switched
benchtop diagnostic tool. It is a good device for measuring the period and range multimeter
amplitude of AC signals, or the output of voltage rectifiers. A multimeter
is a hand-held diagnostic device. It is useful for analysing DC circuits that
you might construct. Multimeters have a digital display of the quantities
being measured. A multimeter can be used as an ammeter or a voltmeter
in either DC or AC circuits, or as an ohmmeter. Figure 15.5 shows the
front of a typical multimeter. This type is known as a ‘switched range
multimeter’ because you can select its function and range of readout by
rotating the central control dial.
Always switch off the circuit’s power supply before connecting a
multimeter to a circuit.
You must never use a multimeter to measure mains voltages. This will
blow the fuse, damage other internal circuitry and could injure or kill you.
Choose the voltage, current or resistance you wish to measure with the
selection knob. Estimate the magnitude of the reading you expect to find
and select the appropriate range. If you have absolutely no idea what the
reading might be, start on the greatest range — for example, the 10 A
range for current. This will reduce the risk of damaging the multimeter.
Figure 15.6a shows a simple DC circuit consisting of a power source,
a switch and two resistors. We will now consider how to use a multimeter
to analyse this circuit.
When using a multimeter as an ammeter to measure current through a component or branch of a circuit,
the ammeter must be part of the circuit. The ammeter must therefore be connected in series with the circuit
components whose current is to be measured. It is necessary to break the circuit at an appropriate point and
connect the meter, as shown in figure 15.6b. In this mode, the multimeter has very little resistance so that it

has a minimal effect on the current flowing through that branch of the circuit. The resistance of the ammeter
will cause a slight reduction in the current.
FIGURE 15.6 (a) The original circuit. Connecting the multimeter as (b) an ammeter, (c) a voltmeter and
(d) an ohmmeter
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R1 R1 R1 R1
Ω
R2 R2 R2 V R2
If there is no current detected flowing through the circuit branch you are testing check for breaks, loose
connections and open switches. If there is still no current detected after doing this try using a lower range
on the multimeter.
When using a multimeter as a voltmeter to measure the voltage drop between points in the circuit, the
voltmeter is connected across the two points (see figure 15.6c). If measuring the voltage drop across a
component, the multimeter is connected in parallel with the component. In this mode the multimeter has
a very high resistance, of the order of half a million ohms. A negligible current will still flow through the
multimeter.
When using a multimeter to measure current or voltage in a DC circuit, connect the common terminal of
the multimeter to the part of the circuit closest to the ground or negative terminal of the power supply.
The ohmmeter is not used when the circuit is connected to the power supply. It uses the internal battery
of the meter to send a current through the desired part of the circuit and shows the resistance by analysing
the current (see figure 15.6d). If the ohmmeter indicates that there is an infinite resistance in that part
of the circuit, it means there is either a break in the circuit, a faulty connection or that a switch is open.
Ohmmeters are difficult to use with circuits that have already been constructed because it is not always
apparent when other components are connected in parallel with the component being tested.
Transformers
A transformer is a device that increases or decreases the voltage
FIGURE 15.7 Circuit symbol for a
from an AC supply. transformer
A transformer consists of two coils of wire linked by a soft
iron core. The two coils have different numbers of turns of wire
wrapped around the core. If there are more turns of wire on
the input side than the output side of the transformer, the input
voltage will be greater than the output voltage. This type of
transformer is called a step-down transformer.
The input and output voltages (V1 and V2 ) are related to the
number of turns of wire on the input and output sides (N1 and N2 )
by the relationship:
N1 V
= 1
N2 V2
Transformers operate using AC voltages. The input and output voltages are alternating currents.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A transformer is used to step down a 230 V voltage to 6 V. What is the ratio of the input turns to
output turns of wire in this transformer?
THINK WRITE
1. The initial voltage is 230 V and the final voltage V1 = 230
is 6 V. V2 = 6
2. Recall the relationship between the number of turns N1 V1
of wire on the input and output sides with the input =
N2 V2
and output voltages.
3. Substitute the voltages to find the ratio of turns in the N1 230
wires. = = 38.3̇3̇
N2 6
4. State the solution. The ratio of the input turns to output turns
of wire in this transformer is 38.3̇3.̇
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
What is the ratio of input turns to output turns on a transformer used to step down a voltage of
110 V to 2.5 V?
15.2 EXERCISE
1. The variation of voltage drop with time for a 100 Ω resistor is shown here.
5
Voltage drop (V)
0 t (ms)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
–5
What is the value of the following quantities?

(a) Vpeak
(b) Vp-p
(c) VRMS
(d) T
(e) f
(f) IRMS

2. The following trace was obtained on a CRO with the voltage scale set at 1 V cm–1 and the timebase set at
1 s cm–1 .
Calculate the:
(i) period
(ii) frequency
(iii) peak voltage
(iv) RMS voltage.
3. A signal generator is connected to a CRO as shown in the following figure. The CRO trace obtained is also
shown. The timebase setting is 5 ms cm−1 and the voltage setting is 1 V cm−1 .
(a) (b)
x1
x10
x100
x1000
Signal generator
Input
ground
CRO
(a) What are the values of the following quantities?

i. T
ii. f
iii. Vpeak
iv. VRMS

(b) Sketch the CRO trace obtained if a 1.5 V cell is connected between the signal generator and the CRO as
shown in the following figure.
x1
x10
x100
x1000
Signal generator
Input
ground
CRO
(c) Sketch the CRO trace obtained if the cell in part (b) were reversed.
4. (a) Describe how you would use a multimeter as a voltmeter.
(b) Why must you never use a hand-held multimeter to measure the mains voltage?
5. For a transformer, the ratio:
number of turns on the transformer secondary 21
=
number of turns on the transformer primary 1200
If the input voltage is 120 V AC, what is the output voltage?
6. A transformer is used to provide an AC voltage of 6 V from a mains supply of 230 V AC. What is the value of
the following ratio?
number of turns on the transformer secondary
number of turns on the transformer primary


15.3 Converting AC to DC
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the use of diodes in half-wave and full-wave bridge rectification.
• Explain the effect of capacitors with reference to voltage drop and current change when charging and
discharging (time constant for charging and discharging, 𝜏 = RC) leading to smoothing for DC power
supplies.
Many electronic devices such as tablets and mobile phones require a DC supply to operate. Electric power
is usually supplied to buildings in AC form. It is therefore necessary to convert or ‘rectify’ the voltage
supplied to the electronic circuits inside many appliances from AC to DC.
Many portable digital radios operate using four 1.5 V cells in series as a power supply. This means that
the circuits inside the radio are designed to run from a 6 V supply. When the player is plugged into the
mains, the voltage must be converted from 230 VRMS AC to 6 V DC. The first step in such a conversion is
to use a transformer to reduce the AC voltage to a suitable level. At this stage the current is still AC. What
is needed next is a device that allows current to pass through it in only one direction. Such a device is called
a diode.
15.3.1 Diodes
A diode is a device that allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Diodes act like a valve
in a car tyre. They effectively provide little resistance to a current flowing in one direction, but a very
large resistance to a current flowing in the other direction. The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in
figure 15.8a, with different types of diode commonly used in electronics shown in figure 15.8b. Diodes are
usually made from two semi-conductor materials fused together as two layers, the most common materials
being silicon and germanium that have been doped with atomic impurities. The doping of these materials
facilitates the movement of charge in one direction. Diodes have a positive connection, the anode, and a
negative connection, the cathode. The anode is connected to a p-type semi-conductor and the cathode to a
n-type semi-conductor.
FIGURE 15.8 (a) Circuit symbol for a diode (b) Different types of diode
(a) (b)
Bar
Anode Cathode
A diode conducts current in the direction indicated by the arrow in the circuit diagram. The bar indicates
that current will not flow in the opposite direction. The ends of a diode are known as the cathode and the
anode. Current flows from the anode to the cathode. Diodes are marked with a band around the cathode.
This corresponds to the bar on the circuit symbol.
The characteristic curve of a device is a graph showing how a particular device behaves electrically. The
characteristic curve for a typical silicon diode is shown in figure 15.9.

Note that the scales on the graph are different on the FIGURE 15.9 The current-versus-voltage
positive and negative sides of both axes. When the voltage characteristic of a typical silicon diode
across the diode is positive, the diode is said to be forward
Current (mA)
biased. Before a silicon diode starts to conduct, or behave
like it has low resistance, it has to have a voltage of about
20
0.7 V across it.
When a negative voltage is placed across a diode, it is 10
said to be reverse biased; a small leakage current of only Voltage (volts)
Reverse voltage (volts)
a few microamperes will flow. If the negative voltage is 0
0.5 1.0
large enough, the semiconductor will break down and a –100 –50
large current will flow. –100

Diodes are usually placed in series with other circuit
elements such as resistors. –200
In the circuit shown in figure 15.10a, when the Note: The scales are different
Reverse current (μA)
voltage from the supply is increased from 0 V to 0.6 V, on both sides of both axes.
little current flows and the voltage drop is almost entirely across the diode because it has a very large
resistance. As the voltage of the supply is further increased, the voltage drop across the diode stays at about
0.7 V, and the rest of the voltage drop is across the resistor. The size of the current through the circuit is
then largely determined by the resistor.
Note that when a diode is reverse biased, as shown in figure 15.10b, very little current flows through the
diode and the resistor. The voltage drop across the resistor will be negligible and all the voltage drop will be
across the diode. Diodes have ratings for voltage and current that should be observed to avoid damage to the
diode and other elements in a circuit. Three special types of diodes, Zener, LED (light emitting diodes) and
photodiodes will be dealt with later in the topic.
FIGURE 15.10 (a) A forward-biased diode connected in series with a variable voltage supply and a resistor.(b) The
voltage drop across a reverse-biased diode
(a) (b) 6.0 V
R
6.0 V 0V
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A diode and resistor are connected in series with a power supply. If the emf of the supply is 10 V,
and the value of the resistor is 100 Ω, estimate the current flowing through the diode.
THINK WRITE
1. The diode can be assumed to have a voltage drop of Voltage drop across the resistor:
about 0.7 V across it. 10 − 0.7 = 9.3 V

V
2. The current through the resistor can be found using I=
Ohm’s Law. R
9.3
=
100
= 0.093 A, or 93 mA
I = 93 mA
3. State the solution. As the diode and resistor are in series, the
current through the diode is also 93 mA.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A forward-biased diode and a 600 Ω resistor are connected in series with an 18 V power supply.
Estimate the current flowing through the diode.
15.3.2 Capacitors
Capacitors are devices comprising parallel metal plates that store
FIGURE 15.11 An RC circuit
electric energy. They are used to produce a DC voltage and deliver
a more constant voltage when there is a variable output. Switch
The value of a capacitor, it’s capacitance, is measured in farads,
where 1 farad equates to one coulomb of charge being stored by
one volt, 1 F = 1 C V−1 . As the farad is a large unit of measure, R
smaller units such as mF and nF are typically used.
It is important to understand what happens when capacitors E
charge and discharge, something we will do by looking at an RC C
circuit, one that contains a resistor and capacitor in series.
When the switch in the RC circuit is closed, a current flows
through the circuit. As charge builds up on the capacitor, the current decreases until the voltage across the
plates is equal to the emf of the cell. Remember that a current flows from a high voltage point to a low
voltage point. When the voltages of the cell and the capacitor are equal, the current ceases.
The magnitude of the current is affected by the
FIGURE 15.12 How voltage varies with time
resistance of the resistor. The bigger the resistance, the when charging a capacitor
smaller the current and the slower the capacitor will
charge. Voltage (V ) across capacitor
The amount of time it takes to fully charge the E
capacitor depends on the capacitance of the capacitor and
the resistance of the resistor. The greater the capacitance,
the more charge can be stored on the plates per unit 0.63 E
voltage across the plates. Figure 15.12 shows how the 0.5 E
voltage across the capacitor varies with time.
The time constant, 𝜏 or t, for an RC circuit is the time
in seconds it takes for the capacitor to reach 63% (or
approximately two-thirds) of its final voltage, E, when
t
charging. The time constant can be calculated by finding 0 1𝜏 2𝜏 3𝜏 4𝜏 5𝜏 6𝜏
the product of the resistance in ohms and capacitance in
farads for the RC circuit.
𝜏 = RC

When a voltage source is removed from a fully charged RC circuit the capacitor will discharge back
through the resistor. The circuit shown in figure 15.13a will discharge the capacitor when the switch is
closed. The way voltage varies with time for discharging the capacitor is shown in figure 15.13b. In this
case, the time constant is the amount of time it takes for the voltage across the capacitor to fall to 37% of its
original value.
A capacitor is considered to be fully charged or discharged after five time constants have elapsed.
FIGURE 15.13 (a) A circuit for discharging a capacitor (b) How voltage varies with time when discharging a
capacitor
(a) Switch (b)

V0
R
C
0.37 V0
𝜏 = RC t
AS A MATTER OF FACT
An electronic heart pacemaker is an example of an RC circuit. Pacemakers provide regular voltage pulses that
start and control the frequency of the heartbeat. They can be worn externally or implanted beneath the skin.
Pacemakers contain a resistor and a capacitor with electrodes implanted in or near the heart. The charge on
the capacitor builds up and then discharges through the electrodes. Then it starts to build up again. The time
between pulses depends on the values of R and C.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A camera flash charging circuit consists of a 100 𝜇F capacitor in series with a 220 kΩ resistor
as shown.
C = 100 μF
E = 1.5 V
R = 220 kΩ
The emf of the cell is 1.5 V. Approximately how long will it take for the voltage across the
capacitor to reach 1 V?
THINK WRITE
1. The time constant for a circuit is equal to: 𝜏 = 220 × 103 × 100 × 10−6
resistance × capacitance, 𝜏 = RC = 22 seconds
2. Referring to figure 15.13b, one time constant is the
time it takes to the capacitor to reach approximately
two-thirds of the final voltage.
2
3. One volt is two-thirds of the final voltage (1.5 V). 1.5 × = 1V
3

4. State the solution. The capacitor will reach 1 volt at
approximately one time constant, that
is, 22 seconds.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
How long will it take the RC circuit in Sample problem 4 to fully charge the capacitor to 1.5 V?
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Charging a capacitor (doc-0039)
15.3.3 Half-wave rectification

A rectifier is a circuit element that is connected to the output of a transformer and converts the AC voltage
into a DC voltage. The AC voltage from the transformer gives a sine wave when graphed against time.
A half-wave rectifier uses a diode to pass only one direction of the AC voltage from the transformer
onto another part of the device that is sometimes called the load. The remaining part of the voltage signal
is across the diode, since the diode has a very large resistance when reverse biased. A half-wave rectifier
circuit is shown in figure 15.14a, and how the input voltage varies with time is shown in figure 15.14b.
Since the load has an effective resistance, it is represented as a resistor.
FIGURE 15.14 (a) A half-wave rectifier circuit (b) How the input voltage varies with time
(a) (b) Vin (V)
9
Vin (from a transformer) Rload t (ms)
0
20 40 60
–9
If the input voltage from the transformer has a peak voltage of +9 V, the maximum voltage drop across
the load resistance will be +8.3 V, because silicon-based diodes have a voltage drop of 0.7 V when they
are forward biased. When the input voltage is negative, the diode effectively prevents current from flowing
through the load resistance and the voltage drop across the load will be zero. The load now has only a
positive voltage drop across it and the current, which is now said to be clipped, flows through the load in
only one direction. A DC voltage has been achieved but this voltage is far from being steady. This rectifier
is called a half-wave rectifier because only one-half of the sine wave has been allowed to pass through it.
Capacitor smoothing
Most electronic circuits require a steady DC voltage to operate effectively. FIGURE 15.15 A half-
The process of converting the DC voltage into a steady DC voltage is wave rectifier with a
called smoothing. Smoothing is achieved by placing a capacitor in parallel smoothing capacitor
with the load resistance as shown in figure 15.15.
When the positive part of the transformer voltage passes through the
diode, it produces a voltage drop across the load resistance and charges +
Vin C Rload
the capacitor. When the diode blocks the negative part of the transformer _
voltage, the capacitor discharges through the load. The voltage drop across
the load is shown in figure 15.16.

The voltage drop shown in figure 15.16 is still not constant. The variations in voltage are called ripples.
The size of the ripples depends on the capacitance of the capacitor, the load resistance and the frequency of
the waveform from the transformer. The bigger the time constant when the capacitor is discharging through
the load, the smoother the voltage drop across the load. It is for this reason that good quality DC power
supplies require smoothing capacitors that have large capacitance.
FIGURE 15.16 The voltage drop across the load for a half-wave rectifier with a smoothing capacitor
Voltage drop across load
8.3
Voltage drop (V)
0 Time (s)
Discharging Charging
Resources
Digital document Investigation 15.1 Constructing a half-wave rectifier (doc-31889)
15.3.4 Full-wave rectification

A half-wave rectifier makes use of only half the input AC current or voltage. A full-wave rectifier makes use
of both half-cycles of an AC waveform to supply a current that flows in one direction through a load.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier uses four diodes to produce full-wave rectification. Figure 15.17 shows a circuit diagram
for a bridge rectifier with input and output signals.
FIGURE 15.17 A bridge rectifier
Vout
Vin Vout
0
t Vin
0
Figure 15.18 shows the pathway taken by the current through the load of a bridge rectifier.
Remember that there will be an approximate voltage drop of 0.7 V across each diode that the current
passes through. Each half of the AC cycle passes through two diodes in a bridge rectifier. This means that

the peak voltage from a bridge rectifier will be approximately 1.4 V less than the peak voltage of the AC
signal.
FIGURE 15.18 Direction of current through the load of a bridge rectifier when the AC current (e.g. from the
transformer) is (a) positive and (b) negative
(a) Vout
+ RL
Vin
(b) Vout
– RL
Vin
Capacitor smoothing
Full-wave rectifier output signals can be smoothed in the same way as half-wave rectifier signals (see figure
15.19a). The main difference is that for a given RC combination, the capacitor has less time to discharge
before it is recharged by the output signal, as shown in figure 15.19b.
FIGURE 15.19 Capacitor smoothing of a bridge rectifier: (a) circuit diagram and (b) comparison of signals
(a)
VL C Vout
RL
Vin
(b) Vin (V) VL (V) VL (V)
8.6 V 8.6 V
10 10 10
8 8 8
6 6 6
Smoothed
4 4 4 signal
2 2 2
0 t 0 t 0 t
–2 Input signal –2 Rectified signal
–4 (without –4 (without capacitor)
–6 capacitor) –6
–8 –8
–10 –10

Centre-tap full-wave rectifier
The centre-tap full-wave rectifier uses only two diodes. The diodes are
FIGURE 15.20 Centre-tap
connected to either end of the secondary coil of a transformer. The centre rectifier circuit diagram
of the coil is connected (tapped) to the earth. The arrangement is shown
in the figure 15.20.
In this case there is also an approximate voltage drop of 0.7 V across
each diode that the current passes through. Each half of the AC cycle
passes through only one diode in the centre-tap rectifier. This means that
RL
the peak voltage from a centre-tap rectifier will be approximately 0.7 V
less than the peak voltage of the AC signal. The output of a centre-tap
rectifier can also be smoothed using a capacitor, as shown in figure 15.21.
FIGURE 15.21 Capacitor smoothing of a centre-tapped rectifier: (a) circuit diagram and (b) comparison of signals
(a) (b) Vin (V)
10
Input
8
signal
VL 6
4
2
0 t
–2 Input signal
–4 (without
–6 capacitor)
–8
–10
VL (V) VL (V) with capacitor
9.3 V 10
8
6
4
Smoothed
2
signal
0 t 0 t
Rectified signal
(without capacitor)
Resources
Weblink Rectifiers
15.3.5 Ripple voltage

Ripple voltage is the periodic variation in a DC voltage that results from the rectification of an AC voltage.
The peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage is:
Vr(p−p) = Vmax − Vmin

The value of the peak-to-peak ripple voltage depends on the following factors:
• the maximum value of the voltage (Vmax ) supplied by the diode(s) of the rectifier
• the period (T) of the unsmoothed voltage supplied by the diode(s) of the rectifier. This is half the
period of the input AC voltage supplied to a full-wave rectifier, or the same as the period of the input
AC voltage supplied to a half-wave rectifier. In Australia, the frequency of the AC power supply is
50 Hz. This means that the AC power supply has a period of 0.020 seconds
• the time constant (𝜏) of the capacitor and load resistance: 𝜏 = RC.
Vmax T
Vr(p−p) =
RC
15.3 EXERCISE
1. Convert the following capacitances to farads.
(a) 0.1 𝜇F
(b) 220 𝜇F
(c) 100 pF
(d) 140 nF
2. (a) Define the term ‘time constant’ for an RC circuit.
(b) A capacitor is charged to 10 V. What will be the voltage drop across the capacitor after one time
constant if it is discharged through a resistor?
3. Calculate the time constants for the following RC combinations.
(a) 390 Ω, 100 𝜇F
(b) 33 kΩ, 100 𝜇F
(c) 68 kΩ, 10 𝜇F
(d) 470 kΩ, 0.47 𝜇F
4. The variation of voltage across a capacitor with time for an RC circuit is shown in the following graph.
V (V)
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 t (ms)
(a) What is the voltage drop across the capacitor when t = 1 ms?
(b) What is the time constant for this RC circuit?
(c) If R = 100 Ω, what is the value of C?
(d) If C = 0.1 𝜇F, what is the value of R?
5. Define rectification.
6. Describe the output of a half-wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage.
7. (a) What is the maximum voltage drop possible across a silicon diode?
(b) How many diodes are needed for half-wave rectification?

8. (a) Describe the effect of placing a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor of a half-wave rectifier.
(b) Why does this effect occur?
(c) What happens to the output voltage as the value of the capacitor is increased?
9. (a) Sketch the circuits of a bridge rectifier and a centre-tap rectifier.
(b) If the peak voltage entering the bridge and centre-tap rectifier is 12 V, calculate the peak voltage of the
output of each rectifier.
10. Calculate the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of a voltage signal if the maximum voltage is 6.3 V and the
minimum voltage is 5.8 V.
11. A full-wave rectifier has an output with a peak value of 12.5 V and a frequency of 100 Hz. Calculate the
ripple voltage when the following combinations of load resistance and smoothing capacitor are used.
Load resistance (kΩ) Smoothing capacitor (𝜇F)

a. 10 100
b. 3.3 100
c. 10 5.0
d. 25 20
e. 100 25

15.4 Voltage regulators

KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the use of voltage regulators including Zener diodes and integrated circuits.
• Analyse systems, including fault diagnosis, following selection and use of appropriate test equipment.
Most electronic circuits operate using a steady DC voltage. This voltage

FIGURE 15.22 Attaching
generally needs to remain constant. There might be variations in the input a load resistor in parallel
voltage — for example, from the AC voltage supplied to your house by with the resistor of a half-
the power lines or from a battery that is slowly ‘going flat’. There might wave rectifier reduces the
also be variations in the effective resistance of the load circuit. Most digital effective resistance of the
logic circuits and processors require a 5 V DC power supply. rectifier.
The diode- and capacitor-based rectifier circuits discussed so far do
not provide a steady DC voltage. Attaching a load across the output of
a rectifier, as shown in figure 15.22, will reduce the effective resistance
of the rectifier and therefore affect the time constant of the smoothing
capacitor. The solution to this problem is to use a voltage regulator. Vin C R RL
1 = 1 + 1
Reff R RL
A voltage regulator is an integrated circuit (IC) device that delivers a
steady terminal voltage despite variations in the input voltage or variations
in the current drawn by the load. In contrast, the voltage drop across the
output terminals of a school power supply varies as its current changes.

Many DC power supplies used in school laboratories consist of a transformer connected to a rectifier
circuit. Changes to the input AC voltage of the transformer can alter the magnitude of the output voltage
of the supply.
Voltage regulators are usually integrated circuits that are placed between the power supply and the
load. Figure 15.23 shows a 7805 three-pin voltage regulator and a circuit diagram showing how a voltage
regulator can be used in a practical situation. Note that voltage regulators provide an output voltage that is
less than their input voltage.
FIGURE 15.23 (a) A 7805 voltage regulator (b) How a voltage regulator is placed in a circuit to give a constant
output voltage
(a) (b)
Output 8 V to 20 V
Common Input Output
Input Poorly +5 V
regulated 7805
power Common
supply
0V
Resources
Digital document Investigation 15.2 Constructing a voltage regulator (doc-31890)
15.4.1 Internal resistance

Students are often required to carry out experiments to verify that when resistors are connected in parallel,
the voltage across them remains constant. When they do the practical work, students usually find that
adding extra resistors in parallel results in the voltage across them falling.
The drop in voltage occurs because power supplies are not ideal. They also offer resistance to the current
drawn from the supply. This resistance is known as ‘internal resistance’. Even though a student connects
resistors in parallel, they are also in series with the internal resistance of the power supply. When the
student adds an extra resistor to the parallel array, the total resistance of the circuit is reduced. The current
through the power supply increases and the voltage drop across the ‘internal resistance’ increases. This
results in the terminal voltage of the supply decreasing.
USING VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Voltage regulators are used in portable sound systems. The amplifying circuits need a constant voltage so that
sound is reproduced accurately. Voltage regulators are used because the output voltage of batteries and dry cells
falls as their internal resistance increases. (That is, the batteries go flat!)
Voltage regulators, such as the 7805, are available in three-pin integrated circuit (IC) packages. One pin
connects to the unregulated input voltage, one pin provides the regulated output voltage and the other pin
connects to the ground. There are two types of IC voltage regulators. A fixed regulator gives a set output
voltage, and an adjustable regulator can give a range of output voltages.

15.4.2 Choosing a suitable voltage regulator
Voltage regulators come in different types and sizes. They are able to operate with different input and output
voltages as well as current ranges. If you are going to use a voltage regulator in a circuit, you will need to
choose the best one for your requirements. You can choose a voltage regulator by studying data sheets.
Another way to choose a voltage regulator is to examine the current-versus-voltage characteristics of
the regulators. These are graphs that show how the regulator’s voltage varies as its output current changes.
Figure 15.24 shows the characteristics for a 7805 voltage regulator.
FIGURE 15.24 The current-versus-voltage characteristic curve for a 7805 voltage regulator
Iout = 0 A
Output voltage (V)
4
Iout = 500 mA
Iout = 1 A
2
0
2 4 6 8 10
Input voltage (V)
If you required a steady supply voltage of 5 V operating from a 12 V supply, you would choose a
7805 voltage regulator because it is designed to give a steady 5 V DC output. A 7809 voltage regulator is
designed to give a steady 9 V DC output from an unregulated supply with an output voltage greater than
10 V.
15.4.3 Voltage regulator using a Zener diode

A Zener diode is a diode that breaks down at a specific voltage when it is
FIGURE 15.25 Circuit
reverse biased. This means that a Zener diode will stop a reverse current from diagram symbol for a
flowing through it until the reverse voltage applied across it reaches a fixed value Zener diode
known as the breakdown voltage. Zener diodes are designed to break down in a
reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a
fixed voltage across their terminals.
Zener diodes are used to provide a stable output voltage from an unstable source. One application is to
provide a stable voltage from the storage battery of a solar cell array. The output of such a battery might
vary depending on the amount of charge stored. Zener diodes are also used in circuits to maintain a fixed
voltage across a load.
Figure 15.26 shows the Zener diode’s voltage versus current characteristics and figure 15.27 shows how it
can be connected to an unstable source. The resistor is placed in series to limit the current from the unstable
source.

FIGURE 15.26 Zener diode FIGURE 15.27 Circuit diagram
voltage-versus-current diagram of a Zener diode
Current R
+
Forward Unstable D Stable

current voltage voltage
IN OUT
Breakdown –
voltage
V
0 Voltage
Leakage current
Avalanche
current
Reverse
voltage
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code

FIGURE 15.28 A Zener
and breakdown voltage, which are printed on them. Zener diode codes diode is placed in parallel
begin BZX or BZY. Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place with a resistor.
of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7 V. The minimum voltage Zener diode
available is 2.7 V.
If a Zener diode is placed in parallel with one of the resistors in a voltage R1
divider circuit (see figure 15.28), no current flows through the Zener diode Vin
when the voltage across the resistor is less than the breakdown voltage.
When the voltage is equal to the breakdown voltage, some current passes R2
Vout
through this resistor, the rest passes through the diode. The result is that the
voltage across the diode and the resistor R2 remains constant.
If the input voltage increases, the current through the voltage divider
increases and any increase in voltage happens across the other resistor, R1 .
15.4.4 Power dissipation

In electric and electronic circuits, power is the rate at which electrical energy is transformed into other
forms of energy, usually heat. When this happens, power is said to be dissipated.
The amount of power dissipated in a circuit element can be calculated using the relationship:
P = VI
Where:
V = the potential difference (or voltage drop) across the circuit element
I = the current flowing through the element.
If the circuit element has a fixed resistance, R, the above formula can be expanded to include the
resistance using Ohm’s Law:
V = IR
So, if you only know the current I and the resistance R, you can use the relationship:
P = I2 R

If you only have the potential difference V and the resistance R, you can use the relationship:
V2
P=
R
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A 100 Ω resistor in series with a diode carries a current of 5 mA. Calculate the power dissipated
in the resistor.
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for power dissipation. P = I2 R
2. Substitute the values for current and resistance into P = (5 × 10−3 )2 × 100 = 2.5 × 10−3 W
the formula.
3. State the solution. 2.5 × 10−3 W is dissipated in the
resistor.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A 5 kΩ resistor is connected in series with a diode. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor
when there is a 2 mA current flowing through it.
15.4.5 Controlling voltage in circuits

It is often necessary to control the voltage at various points in the electronic circuits that make up electronic
systems.
The electrical potential, or voltage, is defined as the amount of electrical potential energy at a point
in a circuit per unit charge. The potential difference, or voltage drop, across a device is the difference in
potential on either side of the device.
The SI unit for voltage is the volt (V). A voltage of 1 volt at a point in a circuit means that every coulomb
of charge passing that point has the ability to transfer 1 joule of energy to the rest of the circuit.
The electrical potential energy is provided to a circuit by a source of electromotive force (emf). Emf is
also measured in volts. An emf of 1 volt means that the source of emf provides the circuit with 1 joule of
energy for every coulomb of charge passing through the source. Examples of sources of emf include cells,
batteries, generators, photovoltaic cells and thermocouples.
The source of voltage is sometimes represented in circuit diagrams by two horizontal lines known as
supply rails. These indicate the voltage that the source supplies to the circuit. They are shown in figure
15.29a. Figure 15.29b shows the traditional way of showing a DC source. Supply rails are used in circuit
diagrams when the actual nature of the source is not important, other than being a DC supply of a particular
value.
The voltage drop, or potential difference, across a device in a circuit is a measure of the amount of energy
transformed in that device by the source of emf for every coulomb of charge that passes through it. If a
resistor has a voltage drop of 4.5 V across it, 4.5 J of energy are transformed by the source of emf for every
coulomb of charge passing through the resistor.
The current flowing in the circuit is the means by which energy is transferred from the source of emf to
the devices in the circuit.

FIGURE 15.29 (a) Supply rail circuit (b) Equivalent traditional circuit
(a) (b)
+5 V
5V
0V
15.4.6 Basic voltage dividers

When two resistors are placed in series with a supply, the supply voltage is
FIGURE 15.30 The
shared, or divided, between the resistors. The way that the voltage is divided basic voltage divider
depends on the resistance values of the resistors. Such an arrangement of Vin
resistors, as shown in figure 15.30, is known as a voltage divider and is used
when it is necessary to provide a useful voltage to a part of the circuit that is R1
smaller than the supply voltage.
Vin
The effective resistance of the voltage divider is R1 + R2 . The current flowing
through each resistor is: R2 Vout
Vin
I= 0V
R1 + R2
Therefore, the value of Vout is the current times the resistance:
R2 Vin
Vout =
R1 + R2
When using voltage dividers, it is assumed that the resistance of the part of the circuit being provided
with the output voltage (Vout in figure 15.30) will be so great that it will not affect the current flowing
through R2 and the calculated value of Vout . This is because when a resistance is placed in parallel with
another resistor, the effective resistance is reduced.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Variable resistors are often used in voltage dividers to +5.0 V
give an adjustable output voltage. Reducing the size of one
of the resistances increases the current flowing through R1 = 2.2 kΩ
the divider and therefore increases the voltage drop

across the other resistor.
Calculate the output voltage in the following voltage
R2 = 3.3 kΩ Vout
divider circuit.
0V
THINK WRITE
R2 Vin
1. Recall the formula for voltage drop over one part of Vout =
a voltage divider. R1 + R2

3.3 × 5.0
2. Substitute the values into the formula. =
2.2 + 3.3
= 3.0 V
3. State the solution. The output voltage is 3 V.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Calculate the output voltage in the following voltage divider circuit.
9V
1.5 Ω
3.0 Ω Vout
0V
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
What would the resistance of the variable resistor have to be to give an output voltage of 4 V in
the following circuit?
+5.0 V
R1
R2 2.2 kΩ Vout = 4.0 V
0V
THINK WRITE
R2 Vin
1. Recall the formula for voltage drop over one part of Vout =
a voltage divider. R1 + R2
R2 Vin
2. Rearrange the formula to make R1 the subject. R1 = − R2
Vout
2.2 × 5.0
3. Substitute the values into the formula. = − 2.2
4.0
= 0.55 kΩ
4. State the solution. The resistance of the variable resistor
to give an output voltage of 4 V is
0.55 kΩ.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
For the following circuit what size resistor is needed to give an output voltage of 5 V?
9V
12.5 kΩ Vout = 5.0 V
0V
Resources
Digital document eModelling: Voltage divider (doc-0036)
15.4 EXERCISE
1. A simple RC circuit is shown here.
(a) How long does it take for the voltage drop across the
capacitor to reach approximately 1 V after
R = 1 MΩ
the switch is closed?
(b) How long will it take for the capacitor to be fully charged?
(c) What will be the voltage drop across the capacitor when it 1.5 V
is fully charged? C = 0.1 μF
(d) When the voltage drop across the capacitor is 1 V, what
is the voltage drop across the resistor?
2. A half-wave rectifier circuit using (a) a silicon diode with (b) an input voltage signal is shown in the following
figure.
(a) (b)
Vin (V)
4
2
Vin 1 kΩ Vout 0
10 20 30 40 t (ms)
–2
–4
(a) What is the peak output voltage for this circuit?

(b) Sketch the output voltage for this circuit.
(c) Sketch the output voltage if the following capacitors are placed in parallel with the load resistor:
i. 10 𝜇F
ii. 100 𝜇F.

3. A half-wave rectifier circuit is shown. The capacitor can be engaged by closing the switch. The input
voltage to the rectifier is 9 V (RMS) at 50 Hz.
Vout
Vin R = 500 Ω C = 20 μF
(a) What is the peak input voltage?

(b) What is the period of the output voltage waveform when the switch is open?
(c) Sketch the waveform of Vout when the switch is open, paying attention to the maximum voltage and the
period. (Assume that the maximum voltage drop across the diode is 0.7 V.)
(d) Sketch the waveform of VD , the voltage across the diode, when the switch is open.
(e) What is the time constant if the capacitor discharges through the resistor?
(f) Sketch the waveform of Vout when the switch is closed.
(g) List two changes that would give a smoother output voltage.
4. A square waveform of period 2 seconds is fed into a resistor capacitor circuit as shown in the
following figure.
(a) (b)
Vin (V)
20 kΩ VR
10
Vin
10 μF VC
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t (s)
(a) What is the time constant for this RC combination?

(b) Will the capacitor fully charge before the input voltage falls to zero? Justify your answer.
(c) Sketch the waveform for VC , the voltage drop across the capacitor.
(d) Sketch the waveform for VR , the voltage drop across the resistor.
5. List three factors that affect the variation in the output of DC power supplies.
6. (a) What is meant by voltage regulation?
(b) Why are voltage regulators necessary in circuits?
(c) Where are voltage regulators placed in circuits?
(d) Compare the output voltage of a voltage regulator with its input voltage.
7. Find the output voltage for the voltage divider shown in the following circuits.
(a) (b)
R1 = 2.2 kΩ R1 = 2.2 kΩ
Vin = 6.0 V Vin = 9.0 V
R2 = 2.2 kΩ Vout R2 = 4.4 kΩ Vout
8. Find the value of R2 in the following voltage divider that would give an output voltage of 2 V.
R1 = 3.0 kΩ
Vin = 6.0 V
R2 Vout = 2.0 V

9. Describe a circuit containing a Zener diode that can provide a constant voltage across a load from a
rectifier.
Use the following circuit diagram to answer questions 10 and 11.
R1
+
Vin RL
10. R1 is 4 kΩ, RL is 10 kΩ and the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode is 30 V. The input voltage ranges
between 70 V and 100 V.
(a) What is the range of voltage drops across R1 ?
(b) Calculate the maximum and minimum currents through R1 ?
(c) What is the current in the load resistor?
(d) Calculate the maximum and minimum currents through the Zener diode.
11. The voltage drop across RL is 12 V, Vin has values between 20 V and 35 V. The minimum current through RL
is 100 mA, and the minimum current through the Zener diode is 8 mA.
(a) What is the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode?
(b) What is the minimum voltage drop across R1 ?
(c) What is the minimum current through R1 ?
(d) Calculate the value of RL .
(e) Calculate the value of R1 .

15.5 Transducers and diodes

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply the use of heat and light sensors such as thermistors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs) to trigger
an output device such as lighting or a motor.
• Evaluate the use of circuits for particular purposes using technical specifications related to potential
difference (voltage drop), current, resistance, power, temperature and illumination.
Transducers are devices that transform energy from one form to another. They are used in electronic
communications, instrumentation and control systems. Transducers are the interface between the
environment and the electronic system. There are two types of transducer: input and output.
In electronic systems, a transducer that changes non-electrical energy into electrical energy is called
an input transducer. For example, photocells or solar cells convert light energy into electricity. They are
used for automatic exposure control in cameras. Microphones transform sound energy into an electrical
signal. Another example of an input transducer is a thermocouple, which consists of two different metals
such as copper and iron that are joined together. They are used in electronic thermometers because the size
of the voltage they produce is related to the temperature. Input transducers are used in sensing devices in
household and industrial systems.

15.5.1 Thermistors
A thermistor is an input transducer made from a mixture of semiconductors. The resistance of a thermistor
varies with temperature. Thermistors are considered to be input transducers because they convert thermal
energy into a voltage when they are used in potential dividers.
Thermistors are used in fire alarms, temperature circuits in car engines, electronic thermometers and
thermostats for controlling the temperature in household and industrial equipment. They are also included
in protection circuits used to protect equipment from sudden current and voltage surges. You can investigate
the way in which the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature by doing Investigation 15.3.
Figure 15.31a shows the circuit symbol for a thermistor. Figure 15.31b and c are examples of graphs
showing how the resistance of different thermistors varies with temperature. Note that in figure 15.31c the
graph shows the characteristic curves for three separate thermistors and the vertical scale is logarithmic.
Each vertical line represents the next whole number multiple of the previously stated power of ten. For
example, on the vertical scale the lines above that labelled 10 are 20, 30, 40, and so on. Similarly, the lines
above that labelled 100 are 200, 300, 400, and so on.
FIGURE 15.31 (a) Circuit symbol for a thermistor (b) and (c) Resistance-versus-temperature characteristics for
different thermistors
(a) (c)
100 000
10 000
Resistance (Ω)
1000
100
(b)
Resistance (kΩ)
10
1
0 0
20 40 60 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
Thermistors are produced in two forms. The most common is the negative
FIGURE 15.32 The
temperature coefficient thermistor, which has a resistance that decreases as the two common forms of
temperature increases. This type has a resistance-versus-temperature graph thermistor
like that shown in figure 15.31b and c. Thus, an increase in temperature leads
to an increase in the current in a temperature-sensing circuit.
The other type of thermistor is the positive temperature coefficient
thermistor, which has a resistance that increases as the temperature increases.
For positive coefficient thermistors, an increase in the temperature will lead to
a decrease in the current in a temperature-sensing circuit.
Thermistors are usually connected to variable resistors in voltage dividers.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A thermistor has the temperature-resistance characteristic shown by the bottom curve in figure
15.31c. It is placed in the following voltage divider.
a. Is this a positive or negative coefficient thermistor?
b. What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 150 °C?
c. What is the value of the variable resistor if the temperature is 200 °C and Vout is 6 V?
+9.0 V
R1
R2 = thermistor
Vout
0V
THINK WRITE
a. Recall that a positive coefficient thermistor has a a. Since this thermistor’s resistance
resistance that increases as the temperature decreases as the voltage increases it is a
increases. negative coefficient thermistor.
b. Use the graph to find the resistance when the b. When the temperature is 150 °C the
temperature is 150 °C. resistance is 20 Ω.
c. 1. From the graph, when the temperature is 200 °C, c. Vin = 9 V, Vout = 6 V, R2 = 10 Ω
the resistance is 10 Ω. Substitute the known RV
Vout = 2 in
values into the formula for voltage drop across a R1 + R2
voltage divider. 10 Ω × 9 V
6V =
R1 + 10 Ω
6 × R1 + 60 = 90
6 × R1 = 30
R1 = 5 Ω
2. State the solution. The value of the variable resistor if the
temperature is 200 °C and Vout is 6 V
is 5 Ω.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A thermistor has the temperature-resistance characteristic shown by the top curve in figure 15.31c.
It is placed in the following voltage divider.
4.5 V
R1 = thermistor
R2 Vout
a. What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 200 °C?
b. What is the value of the variable resistor needed to give an output voltage of 1.5 V when the
temperature is 200 °C?
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 15.3 Thermistors (doc-31888)
THERMISTORS IN FIRE ALARMS AND THERMOSTATS

Fire alarm sensors are used in areas where smoke detectors
are not suitable, for instance, in smoky or dusty environments. FIGURE 15.33 A fire alarm sensor
They use a sensing circuit that employs a thermistor that is in
contact with the air and is placed on the ceiling of the room. The
circuit gives a voltage output that is related to the temperature
of the air because the resistance of the thermistor varies with
temperature. When the air temperature reaches a predetermined
value, a control system is activated. This may sound alarms, turn
on sprinklers and cause a light-emitting diode to flash.
The thermistor is used as an input transducer that transforms
thermal energy into electrical energy.
A thermostat is a device that controls the heating or cooling of
an object in order to keep it at a constant temperature. It consists
of a temperature-sensing device connected to a switching device.
As in fire alarm systems, thermistors are used in thermostats
as transducers to convert thermal energy into electrical energy.
They are used in voltage dividers so that when a predetermined
temperature is reached, the voltage output from the divider causes
a switch to be triggered. This activates a heating or cooling device.
Thermostats are used in ovens, hot-water systems, space-heating systems and refrigerators.

15.5.2 Photonics
Photonics is the branch of science that studies or uses the manipulation of photons (the basic unit of light)
to manipulate, encode, transmit, decode and/or store information. It involves:
• using electronic systems to convert information into light (or other electromagnetic radiation) energy
signals
• transmitting the light — for example, through optical fibres
• converting the light signal back into useful information — for example, sound
• storing information using light — for example, by burning CDs (compact discs) or DVDs (digital
video discs).
Photonics does not just involve the use of visible light. It also involves infra-red and ultraviolet sections
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A television remote control transmits information to the television set using infra-red radiation. An
integrated circuit chip detects when you press a button on the remote. It then produces a coded signal that
is something like Morse code. There is a different code for each button. The coded signal is amplified and
sent to an infra-red LED that sends invisible radiation into the room. The code varies the intensity of the
radiation. This varying of intensity is known as modulation.
On the television set there is a photodetector that converts the FIGURE 15.34 Block diagram of a
infra-red radiation back into an electric signal. The detector television remote control system
might be a photocell — such as a photovoltaic (solar) cell —
or a photodiode or phototransistor. The magnitude of the current Code
Amp.
generator
produced by the photodetector is proportional to the
intensity of the infra-red radiation.
The infra-red LED is an example of a transducer that
transforms electrical energy to electromagnetic radiation. The
infra-red radiation is the carrier of the signal. The photodetector
is an example of a transducer that transforms electromagnetic
radiation to electrical energy. This photonic system is illustrated Television
Photodetector control
in figure 15.34. system
Resources
Weblink Photonics resources for teachers
15.5.3 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

You will have seen light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on many electronic devices. An LED is a small
semiconductor diode that emits light when a current passes through it. LEDs are used in electronic displays.
They can be made to emit any colour (red, green and yellow are the most common) by the choice of
impurities added to the base semiconductor used in their construction. They are used on amplifiers to
indicate the amplitude of the sound signal. They also appear in cash register displays and as indicators on
modems and routers.
Light-emitting diodes have the following advantages over incandescent light globes:
• LEDs are very durable and can be used in situations where excessive vibrations would damage the
filaments of ordinary light globes — for example, in aircraft cockpits, in the space shuttle and on the
control panels of vibrating machinery.
• LEDs emit light using very low voltages, so they are useful indicator lights for electronic systems.
• An LED will operate for over 500 000 hours (depending on the operating current and temperature)
compared with about 1000 hours for a light globe.

• LEDs are much faster to respond than light globes. A light globe takes many milliseconds to turn on
and off, while red or yellow LEDs take about 75 nanoseconds to turn on and off.
• LEDs consume much less power than light globes.
Before considering how LEDs operate, you should revise the information on diodes covered previously in
the topic.
The structure of LEDs

An LED consists of a small semiconductor chip mounted on, and in electrical contact with, a metal base.
The base is reflective to ensure much of the radiation is projected forwards through the top of the LED.
The cathode lead is connected to the metal base. A fine wire is connected to the upper surface of the chip
and leads to the anode lead of the LED. This assembly is covered with an epoxy resin that acts as a lens to
intensify the light passing through the top of the LED. This structure is shown in figure 15.35a. The circuit
diagram symbol for an LED is shown in figure 15.35b. The colour of the LED determines the voltage at
which the LED reaches saturation or the maximum voltage across the LED when it is conducting a current.
The current-versus-voltage characteristic curve for a red LED is shown in figure 15.35c.
FIGURE 15.35 (a) The structure of a typical LED (b) The circuit diagram symbol for an LED (c) current-versus-
voltage characteristic curve for a red LED
(a) LED chip (b) (c)

Magnifying
epoxy lens + Anode 30 mA
Flat edge on Radiation

cathode side
Cathode 5 mA
Anode – Cathode
–
+ VLED
0 1.58 V 1.66 V
Commercial LEDs are designed to release visible light or infra-red radiation. The chip is based on a
semiconducting material made from a gallium–arsenic–phosphorus compound. Adjusting the ratio of
phosphorus to arsenic enables different wavelengths (and colours) of light to be emitted.
As with other diodes, the chip of an LED is made by fusing a p-type semiconductor to an n-type
semiconductor. The p-type material forms the anode and the n-type material forms the cathode. An LED
will emit light when a current passes through it; that is, when it is forward biased. It is important that the
current is not too high, as the LED might be damaged, or not too low as not enough light will be emitted.
The forward bias voltage drop across an LED is between 1.6 V and 2.8 V, depending on the colour of the
LED and the current through it.
A red LED has a forward bias voltage drop of approximately
FIGURE 15.36 Limiting resistor in series
1.6 V, whereas for a green or yellow LED the value is with a forward-biased LED
approximately 2.3 V. To ensure that the current passing
through the LED is suitable, the LEDs are protected by being Limiting resistor
placed in series with resistors (known as limiting resistors).
The value of the resistor is calculated to reduce the potential 0V
+5 V
drop across the LED to the required value. This arrangement is
shown in figure 15.36.
Anode Cathode

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The following LED has a voltage drop across it of 1.8 V and I = 20 mA
carries a current of 20 mA.
a. What is the voltage drop across the limiting resistor?
b. What is the value, R, of the limiting resistor? 6.0 V R
1.8 V
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The emf of the source equals the sum of the a Voltage drop = 6 − 1.2 = 4.8 V
voltage drops around the circuit.
2. State the solution. The voltage drop across the limiting resistor
is 4.8 V.
b. 1. The current over the resistor is equal to the b V = IR
current over the LED. Use Ohm’s Law to V
R=
find the resistance. I
4.2
=
0.020
= 210 Ω
2. State the solution. The value of the limiting resistor is 210 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
When an LED is connected in series with an unknown limiting resistor to a 9.0 V battery, a current
of 30 mA flows and there is a voltage drop of 2.4 V across the LED. What is the value of the limiting
resistor?
LED NUMBER DISPLAYS

The seven-segment number display is
used in clock radios, microwave ovens FIGURE 15.37 The seven-segment number display
and many other appliances. Figure 15.37
Surface of
shows a unit with the number seven
segment
activated. Each segment of the display
consists of an LED and a lens. When the
LED conducts a current, it emits light that Connecting
passes through the top of the lens. By pins
activating different segments, different
numbers can be formed.
Plastic outer
Each segment
contains Diffusing plastic
an LED chip.

Infra-red LEDs emit electromagnetic radiation with a longer wavelength than that of visible light. They
are used widely in optical communications, especially in television and audio system remote controls.
Laser diodes are made by polishing the ends of suitable p–n junction crystals. They are used in DVD
players and laser pointers.
HOW DO LEDS PRODUCE LIGHT?

When an electron at the bottom of the conduction band of a semiconductor falls into a hole at the top of
a valence band, an amount of energy, Eg , is released, where Eg is the energy gap width. In silicon-based
semiconductors this energy is transformed into thermal energy in the vibrating lattice of the atoms. In some
semiconducting materials, the released energy can appear as electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of this
radiation can be calculated using the formula:
c hc
𝜆= =
f Eg
Where:
𝜆 = wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation
c = speed of light
f = frequency of the radiation
h = Planck’s constant.
AS A MATTER OF FACT
Optical-fibre telecommunication systems usually use LEDs and laser diodes that operate in the infra-red region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Laser diodes produce a much smaller range of wavelengths than LEDs. Certain
wavelengths of infra-red radiation are used because they travel better through the optical fibres than visible light.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 15.4 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (doc-31891)
Teacher-led video Investigation 15.4 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (tlvd-0836)
Weblink LEDs
15.5.4 Light-dependent resistors (LDRs)

Photonic transducers that transform light energy to electrical energy can be used in electronic circuits to
produce current or voltage signals.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a semiconductor device that has a resistance which decreases with
the amount of light falling on it. Figure 15.38b gives an example of a graph that shows the relationship
between resistance and light intensity for an LDR. Note that in this example, the scales on both axes are
logarithmic.
LDRs are used in cameras and in a wide range of automatic devices controlled by light. They are often
found in voltage dividers in conjunction with variable resistors; the output voltage is used to switch another
device on or off. The variable resistor is used to control the light intensity at which the switching device is
activated.

FIGURE 15.38 (a) Circuit symbols for an LDR (b) Resistance-versus-light intensity graph for an LDR (c) An LDR
(a) (b) (c) Cadmium

10 000 sulfide track
or
LDR resistance (Ω)

1000
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Illumination (lux)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
A shop minder circuit consists of a beam of light that shines onto the following voltage divider
circuit. The LDR has the same characteristic curve as that shown in figure 15.38b.
+
12 V
R1
–
Switching
Buzzer
device
Vout
R2 = LDR
a. What is the resistance of the LDR when the light intensity is 1 lux?
b. If the variable resistor is set at 500 Ω, calculate the value of Vout when the light intensity is 1 lux.
c. What is the value of the variable resistor if the light intensity is 0.1 lux and Vout is 6 V?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the graph to find the resistance when the a. When the intensity is 1 lux, R2 = 1 kΩ.
light intensity is 1 lux.
R2 Vin
b. 1. R1 = 500 Ω b. Vout =
R1 + R2
R2 = 1000 Ω 1000 × 12
Use the formula to find Vout . =
500 + 1000
12 000
=
1500
= 8.0 V
2. State the solution. When the variable resistor is set at 500 Ω,
the value of Vout when the light intensity
is 1 lux is 8 V.

R2 Vin
c. 1. When the light intensity is 0.1 lux, R2 = 10 kΩ. c. Vout =
Use the formula to determine R1. R1 + R2
10 000 Ω × 12 V
6V =
R1 + 10 000 Ω
6 × R1 + 60 000 = 120 000
6 × R1 = 60 000
R1 = 10 000 Ω
2. State the solution. When the light intensity is 0.1 lux and Vout
is 6 V the value of the variable resistor is
10 000 Ω.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
An outdoor sensor light switches on when the light intensity drops below 1 lux. The circuit comprises
a voltage divider in which the input voltage is 12 V and the switch is triggered by the output voltage
across the LDR. The LDR has the same characteristics as shown in figure 15.38b.
The light switches on when the voltage across the LDR is 1.5 V.
a. What is the value of the resistor that is in series with the LDR?
b. To make the light switch on when there is more light would you need a resistor with a
smaller or larger resistance? Explain your answer.
LDRS IN CAMERAS
To get the best results from a camera
it is necessary to control the amount FIGURE 15.39 LDRs are used in camera lenses
of light that falls on the detector. This
is achieved by changing the aperture
of the lens diaphragm and the shutter
speed. High shutter speeds are
necessary when photographing fast-
moving objects. If you use a high
shutter speed you have to use a wide
aperture opening so that enough light
falls on the detector to get proper
resolution. Similarly, in dull conditions
you need a wide aperture opening so
that enough light enters the camera.
Many professional-level
cameras have a light meter so that
photographers can adjust the shutter
speed and aperture opening. These
meters are either connected to a
photocell that converts light directly
into an electric current or they are connected to a voltage divider that has an LDR in it. In a camera that uses a
voltage divider, part of the light passing through the lens system is reflected onto the LDR by a small mirror. The
output voltage of the voltage divider is fed to the meter that converts the reading to the appropriate units for light
intensity. It is then up to the photographer to make the necessary adjustments.

Resources
Digital documents Investigation 15.5 Light-dependent resistor (doc-31892)
Investigation 15.6 Light-dependent resistor: voltage divider method (doc-31893)
15.5.5 Photodiodes
Photodiodes are used to detect light and to convert light energy to electrical energy. A photodiode consists
of an active p–n junction that is operated in reverse bias. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes an
electron in the junction, the photon transfers its energy to the electron allowing the electron to escape the
crystal lattice. This creates a free electron and a hole that move in opposite directions under the influence of
the electric field provided by the source of electromotive force.
The intensity of light depends on the number of photons present. The current produced by a photodiode
is therefore proportional to the intensity of light incident on the photodiode. Figure 15.40 shows a circuit
with a reverse-biased photodiode and a response characteristic curve.
FIGURE 15.40 Photodiode: (a) circuit symbol, (b) reverse biased and (c) sample characteristic curves
(a) (b) (c) I (μA)
125 L4
light intensity
Increasing
100 L3
75
L2
50
25 L1
Dark
0 10 20 40 60 80 V
Photodiodes are fast to respond to light. It takes only a few nanoseconds (10−9 s) for a photodiode to
produce a current after the photons arrive. This makes them useful for converting light signals from fibre-
optic communication systems back into electrical signals. Although the response time of a photodiode
seems to be extremely rapid, it does limit the bandwidth (amount of information carried per second) of an
optical-fibre communications system. The response time determines both the minimum duration of pulses
and the maximum number of pulses that can be transmitted down the fibre each second.
Different types of photodiode have different optimum wavelengths of light to which they respond.
Silicon-based photodiodes operate best with wavelengths between 700 nm and 900 nm. Germanium-based
photodiodes operate best with wavelengths between 1400 and 1500 nm.
15.5.6 Phototransistors
A phototransistor is similar to an ordinary transistor except that incident light
FIGURE 15.41
on the p–n junction controls the response of the device. Phototransistors have a Phototransistor circuit
built-in gain and are more sensitive than photodiodes. symbol
A phototransistor is usually an n–p–n transistor. The base region is large
and usually does not have a terminal attached to it. The circuit symbol for a
phototransistor is shown in figure 15.41.
The collector–base junction is sensitive to light in the same way as a
photodiode. In fact, the collector–base junction is also a reverse-biased p–n
junction, just like a photodiode. When light shines on it, a base current flows.
The base current is proportional to the light intensity and produces a collector
current that is also proportional to the light intensity.
Phototransistors are more sensitive than photodiodes because transistors
amplify the collector–base current. They are not as quick to respond to light
as photodiodes. This reduces the bandwidth of photonic systems that use
phototransistors rather than photodiodes.
Optical-fibre systems that have a bandwidth of 43 Tbps (terabits per second) have been trialled. This means that
the system can transmit up to 43 × 1012 bits of data per second. By comparison, coaxial cable, which is used to
carry telephone calls between cities and is also used to transmit data over shorter distances, has a bandwidth of
up to 100 Mbps.
15.5 EXERCISE
1. A thermistor has the following characteristic curve.
6
Resistance (kΩ)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)
(a) What is the resistance of the thermistor at:

i. 20 °C
ii. 80 °C? +9 V
(b) What is the temperature when the thermistor has resistance of:
i. 4 kΩ R
ii. 1.5 kΩ?
2. The thermistor from question 1 is placed in a voltage divider as shown.
(a) If the variable resistor is set at 4 kΩ and the temperature is 40 °C,
Vout
what is the output voltage?
(b) An output voltage of 6 V is required when the temperature is 80 °C.
What must the value of the variable resistor be?
3. A temperature sensing system in an oven consists of a thermistor connected into a voltage divider as
shown in the following figure (a). The thermistor has the characteristic curve shown in figure (b).
(a) What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature in the oven is 100 °C?
(b) What is the temperature in the oven when the resistance of the thermistor is 400 Ω?
(c) Calculate the resistance of the variable resistor when the temperature in the oven is 200 °C and the
output voltage, Vout , is 8 V.

(a) 12.0 V
To sensor
Vout
(b)
100 000
10 000
Resistance (Ω)
1000
100
10
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)
4. The following is a current-versus-voltage characteristic curve of a diode.
60
50
Current (mA)
40
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Voltage (volts)

The diode is placed in the following circuit.
12 V
1.0 kΩ
Calculate the current flowing in the circuit. Express your answer in mA.
5. What is a transducer?
6. Explain the relationship in a light-dependent resistor (LDR) between the resistance and the amount of light
falling on the LDR.
7. What is the role of LDRs in cameras?
8. An LDR is used in a voltage divider circuit as shown in the following figure (a). The characteristic curve of
the LDR is given in figure (b).
(a) (b)
+ 6.0 V
10 000
LDR
LDR resistance (Ω)
1000
3000 Ω Vout
0V
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Illumination (lux)
(a) What is the illumination when the LDR has a resistance of 2 kΩ?
(b) Calculate Vout for this illumination.
(c) Describe what happens to Vout as the illumination increases.
9. (a) What is the meaning of the terms ‘forward biased’ and ‘reverse biased’?
(b) Draw circuit diagrams to show how to:
i. forward bias an LED
ii. reverse bias an LED.
10. Give three examples of a situation where an LED would be preferable to an ordinary light source. Analyse
each case to justify your choices.
11. Why is it that not all diodes emit light?
12. Why are limiting resistors placed in series with LEDs?
13. Consider the circuit shown in the following figure (a). The characteristic curve of the LED is shown in
figure (b).
(a) (b) I (mA)

A
6
5
6.0 V 4
R 3
2
1
V (V)
–6.0 –3.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) If the current is measured to be 4 mA:

i. What is the voltage drop across the LED?
ii. What is the voltage drop across the resistor?
iii. What is the resistance of the resistor?

(b) The LED is now reversed, as shown in the following figure.
A
6.0 V
R
i. What is the voltage drop across the LED?

ii. What is the current flowing in the circuit?
iii. What is the voltage drop across the resistor?
14. A student carries out a practical activity on an LED. She initially sets up the circuit shown in the following
figure (a). She is able to measure the voltage drop across the diode and the resistor as well as the emf
supplied by the variable DC supply. This enables her to construct the current-versus-voltage characteristic
curve for the diode, as shown in figure (b).
(a) (b)
A Current (mA)
60
R = 500 Ω
40
20
Voltage (V)
–6 –3 0 1.0 2.0
When the current in the circuit is 60 mA, calculate the:

(a) voltage drop across the diode
(b) voltage drop across the resistor
(c) emf of the supply.
15. If the student from question 14 reverses the polarity of the supply, very little current flows through the
circuit.
(a) Explain why this occurs.
(b) If the emf of the supply is −2.5 V, what is the voltage drop across the diode? Justify your answer.
16. The following LED has a voltage drop across it of 1.8 V and carries a current of 40 mA.
I = 40 mA
9.0 V R
1.8 V
(a) What is the voltage drop across the limiting resistor?

(b) What is the value, R, of the limiting resistor?
17. Describe the purpose of a photodetector.
18. (a) Describe the operation of a photodiode.
(b) Describe the operation of a phototransistor.
(c) Which device has the fastest response time?
(d) Which device is the most sensitive?
(e) Describe the effect of response time on bandwidth.


15.6 Data transfer

KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare different light sources (bulbs, LEDs, lasers) for their suitability for data transfer.
• Explain the use of optical fibres for short- and long-distance telecommunications.
15.6.1 Communication carriers

There are different types of communication carriers involved in carrying telephone calls and data between
users. Most houses are still connected to the telephone network by twisted pairs of wires.
Twisted-pair copper cable

Bundles of copper cables are commonly used throughout all telecommunications networks. Each pair of
cables carries one call.
A twisted-pair copper cable consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one another.
One wire carries the signal while the other wire is grounded and absorbs signal interference. Twisted-pair
cables are used by older telephone networks. They are the least expensive type of local area network (LAN)
cable. Most networks still contain some twisted-pair cabling at some point along the network.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable consists of a centre wire surrounded by insulation and then a grounded shield of braided wire.
The shield minimises electrical and radio frequency interference. It was once the main cable used in the
trunk network. It carried calls between major cities. Each cable could carry up to 2700 calls at a time.
Coaxial cabling is widely used in the cable television industry and computer networks. It is much less
susceptible to interference than twisted-pair cable and can carry much more data. Coaxial cables are
gradually being replaced by optical fibres and microwave systems.
Optical-fibre cable
An optical fibre is a thin filament of glass or plastic that has a central core and a cladding with a lower
refractive index, so that total internal reflection will happen.
FIGURE 15.42 Light reflections in an optical fibre
n2 < n1 Cladding
n1 θθ Core
n2 < n1 Cladding

An optical-fibre cable consists of several optical fibres in a common package. A strength member, such
as a steel wire, supports the fibres. This protects the delicate optical fibres from stretching. A single optical
fibre can carry 30 000 telephone calls at a time or hundreds of television signals. Some optical-fibre systems
in development have demonstrated a capacity of over 40 million telephone calls.
FIGURE 15.43 Communications carriers: (a) twisted pair (b) coaxial cable and (c) optical fibres
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of power of a signal along a communicating channel. Attenuation is measured in
decibels (dB).
Telephone systems that use electrical signals travelling through copper cables experience attenuation.
The strength of the signal decreases with the distance travelled. These systems use amplifiers to increase the
power of the signals. One reason for the attenuation of signals in metal wire carriers is the skin effect.
The skin effect is the uneven distribution of current carriers throughout the cross-section of a conductor
when it is carrying an alternating current. The current density becomes greater at the surface than it is at
the centre. The skin effect is caused by electromagnetic effects, and it becomes more significant as the
frequency of the alternating current increases. One consequence of the skin effect is that the effective
resistance of a conductor is greater when it is carrying an alternating current than its true or direct current
resistance.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time. For digital devices,
the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second. For analog devices, the
bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz).
The bandwidth of an information system is essentially the highest frequency or rate at which the data can
be transmitted.
System bandwidth is the range of frequencies that are carried by the transmission system. In practice, a
commercial quality speech transmission system need carry only frequencies between 300 Hz and 3400 Hz.
This is a bandwidth of 3400 Hz because the maximum frequency it can carry is 3400 Hz.
Fibre-optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can carry
more data. The transmission rate of optical fibres is in the order of 1 trillion bits (1 terabit) per second
per fibre. The transmission rate of telephone wire pairs is in the range of 16–100 million bits per second
(16–100 Mbps).

15.6.2 Modulation
Modulation is the changing of one wave train caused by another wave. An example of this is amplitude
modulation (AM) used in radio transmission systems. In this case, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
changed by superimposing the waveform of a sound such as music or voice.
FIGURE 15.44 Amplitude modulation of a radio signal
Information to be transmitted, e.g. speech or music
Carrier radio signal of higher frequency
Carrier wave amplitude modulated by speech or music information
Time
Optical intensity modulation in photonic communications systems involves varying the output intensity
of a carrier light source (for example, an LED or laser diode) by using the electric signal from a sound-to-
electricity transducer such as a microphone, or from a sound playback device. Figure 15.45 shows an analog
modulation system where the output from an LED is modulated using a microphone and amplifier.
FIGURE 15.45 (a) Optical intensity modulation system block diagram (b) Adding the signals
(a)
Information
Driver
Source
(b) Bright
Dim
Information
Encoding
process
Intensity
modulated
carrier
Carrier
The output of the amplifier is an amplified version of the information signal. The carrier is the light from
the LED or laser. This light is very close to being monochromatic. Monochromatic light has a constant

wavelength. The output of the amplifier makes the light produced by the output transducer brighter or
dimmer. The output transducer can respond to variations in intensity very rapidly.
LEDS IN DATA TRANSMISSION

LEDs are widely used in data transmission systems to transmit data at rates below 270 Mbps (2.7 × 108 bits per
second). This means they can be switched on and off at this rate. Laser diodes are used when faster transmission
rates are required.
15.6.3 Decoding signals

Once the modulated signal has been transmitted through the carrier system, it needs to be changed back to
its original form so that it can be used. The first step in this process is known as demodulation.
Demodulation
Demodulation is the process whereby the transmitted signal is converted back into an electrical signal.
This can then be amplified and used to drive a loudspeaker (for example, in an AM radio) or used by
a controlling system to control another device (for example, a television set). In photonic systems, the
light signal falls on a transducer called a detector. The most common devices used as detectors are the
photodiode or phototransistor. The detector produces an electrical current whose magnitude is proportional
to the intensity of the light. This produces an identical electrical signal to that which modulated the light
carrier waveform.
FIGURE 15.46 (a) Optical intensity demodulation system block diagram (b) Restoring the electrical signal
(a) Amplifier Output circuit
Detector
(b)
Demodulation
system
Original
information signal
Modulated carrier
15.6 EXERCISE
1. (a) What is the bandwidth of an information system?
(b) State the bandwidth of a communications system that can carry a maximum frequency of 15 000 Hz.
(c) Compare the bandwidths of metal wires and optical fibres.
(d) Why does the skin effect occur?

2. (a) What is optical intensity modulation?
(b) Describe how an analog signal — for example, the electrical output signal from a microphone — can be
used to alter the intensity of light produced by a light-emitting diode.
3. The following diagram shows part of an optical-fibre telephone system.
Driver Amplifier
Waveguide
Microphone Modulator Modulator Speaker
(a) Explain the terms ‘modulation’ and ‘demodulation’ as they apply to the transmission of sound by
this system.
(b) State a device that could be used as a modulator in this system.
(c) State three devices that could be used to demodulate the light signal.

15.7 Review
15.7.1 Summary
• A cathode ray oscilloscope shows how voltage varies with time.
• A multimeter is a diagnostic tool that can be used as an ammeter, an AC or DC voltmeter, or an
ohmmeter.
• DC currents flow in one direction; AC currents periodically change direction.
• A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to pass through it in one direction only.
• Capacitors store charge.
• The time constant (𝜏) of a resistor–capacitor (RC) circuit is the time it takes the voltage across the
capacitor to reach 63% of its final value when charging, or to fall to 37% of its original value when
discharging.
• A rectifier converts alternating currents to direct currents.
• A half-wave rectifier uses one diode to allow half an AC signal to produce a DC signal.
• A full-wave rectifier uses an array of diodes to make both directions of an AC signal flow in one
direction.
• Capacitors are used to smooth the outputs of rectifiers.
• A voltage regulator is a device that keeps the terminal voltage of a voltage supply within required
limits despite variations in the input voltage or the load.
• A Zener diode breaks down at a specific voltage when reverse biased. It can be used as a voltage
regulator.
• Ripple voltage is the periodic variation in a DC voltage that results from the rectification of an
AC voltage.
• A voltage divider consists of two or more resistors arranged in series to produce a smaller voltage
at its output.

• The output of a basic voltage divider can be calculated using the equation:
R2 Vin
Vout =
R1 + R2
• A transducer is a device that can be affected by, or affect, the environment.
• An input transducer transforms non-electrical energy into electrical energy.
• A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies with temperature.
• The resistance of a negative coefficient thermistor falls as the temperature increases.
• The resistance of a positive coefficient thermistor rises as the temperature increases.
• The relationship between resistance and temperature for a thermistor is usually shown graphically.
• Photonics involves the use of photons to manipulate, encode, transmit, decode and/or store
information.
• A photonic transducer transforms light energy into electrical energy, or electrical energy into light
energy.
• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when a current passes
through it.
• A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a semiconductor device that has a resistance that decreases as the
amount of light falling on it increases.
• The relationship between resistance and light intensity for an LDR is shown graphically.
• Photodiodes produce a current when they are reverse biased and light falls on the junction. The current
is proportional to the intensity of the light.
• Phototransistors generally have two terminals. A photosensitive collector–base junction provides the
base current.
• Photodiodes are faster at responding to light than phototransistors, but phototransistors are more
sensitive.
• An optical fibre can carry 30 000 telephone calls at a time.
• Attenuation is the loss of power of a signal along a communicating channel.
• The bandwidth of an information system is essentially the highest frequency or rate at which the data
can be transmitted.
• Optical intensity modulation in photonic communications systems involves varying the output
intensity of a carrier light source by using the electric signal from a transducer.
Resources
15.7.2 Key terms
Attenuation is the loss of power of a signal along a communicating channel.

Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time without the
signals becoming so distorted that the data cannot be recovered.
A characteristic curve is a graph that shows how one quantity varies against another quantity — for example,
voltage and current — for an electric or electronic component.
The current-versus-voltage characteristics graph shows how voltage varies with output current for voltage
regulators.
A decibel is the standard unit used to express gain or loss and relative power levels.

A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to pass through it in one direction.
A half-wave rectifier uses one half only of an AC signal to produce a DC signal.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a small semiconductor diode that emits light when a current passes through it.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a device which has a resistance that varies with the amount of light falling
on it.
Modulation is the process by which a characteristic of one wave (a carrier) is modified by another wave (the
signal).
A multimeter is a hand-held diagnostic device that can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter or ohmmeter.
A photodetector is a device that produces an electric current when subjected to infra-red, visible or ultraviolet
A photodiode is a p–n junction diode designed such that when light interacts with the junction, it greatly
increases the reverse bias leakage current. Photodiodes are used in fibre-optic systems to convert light signals
into electric signals.
A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor whose response is controlled by the intensity of incident light on
its base.
An RC circuit consists of a resistor and a capacitor.
A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into a DC signal.
Ripple voltage is the periodic variation in a DC voltage that results from the rectification of an AC voltage.
Ripples are change in the amplitude of a rectified signal. Ripples can be observed using a CRO.
Smoothing is the process of reducing or removing variations in the amplitude of a rectified signal.
A supply rail is a wire or line in a circuit that is connected to the positive or negative terminal of a voltage supply.
Circuit elements are connected between the supply rails.
A thermistor is a device that has a resistance that changes with temperature.
The time constant for an RC circuit is the amount of time it takes for the circuit to either discharge to 37% of the
original voltage across the capacitor, or to charge to 63% of the final voltage across the capacitor.
The timebase control affects the speed at which the trace moves across the screen.
Trace is the visible path of a moving spot on the screen of a CRO.
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. It can be affected by, or can affect, the
environment.
The vertical amplifier controls the number of centimetres the trace is detected vertically for every volt of input
signal.
A voltage divider is a series arrangement of two or more resistors connected across a voltage source. A desired
or smaller voltage is obtained at a junction of the resistors.
A voltage regulator a device that keeps the output voltage of a power supply relatively constant for a range of
operating conditions.
Zener diode breaks down at a specific voltage when it is reverse biased.
Resources
Investigation 15.1
Constructing a half-wave rectifier
Aim: To investigate the output waveform using half-wave rectifiers and capacitors
Investigation 15.2
Constructing a voltage regulator
Aim: To connect a voltage regulator to a rectifier circuit to produce a steady-value voltage supply

Investigation 15.3
Thermistors
Aim: To construct a resistance-versus-temperature characteristic for a thermistor
Investigation 15.4
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
Aim: To determine how an LED behaves when it is forward and reverse-biased, and to
explore the relationship between current and voltage in an LED
Investigation 15.5
Light-dependent resistor
Aim: To examine the way in which the resistance of a light-dependent resistor varies with light intensity
Investigation 15.6
Light-dependent resistor: voltage divider method
Aim: To produce a graph and examine how the resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity and distance
Resources

15.7 Exercises
Use the following input signal to answer questions 1 and 2.
The oscilloscope has a vertical setting of 5 V cm–1 and a horizontal setting of 4 ms cm–1 .
1. What is the VRMS of this signal?

A. 0 V
B. 11 V
C. 15 V
D. 30 V
2. What is the signal frequency, f ?
A. 1 Hz
B. 25 Hz
C. 63 Hz
D. 83 Hz
3. An oscilloscope connected across the output of a transformer traces the voltage as shown in the
following figure.
The oscilloscope has a vertical setting of 4 V cm–1 and a horizontal setting of 1 ms cm–1 . A multimeter
is used to measure the voltage. Which of the following is the reading on the multimeter?
A. 8 V
B. 12 V
C. 17 V
D. 24 V

4. A student builds a transformer which they will connect to a 24 VRMS AC power. If 800 turns are wound
on the primary side, how many turns must there be on the secondary side to deliver 1.5 VRMS ?
A. 16
B. 50
C. 12 800
D. 28 800
5. A camera lamp is connected to a battery and a capacitor as follows.
S1 S2
Flash lamp
Which of the following describes what happens in this circuit?

A. When switch 1 is closed and switch 2 is open the capacitor charges.
B. When switch 1 is open and switch 2 is closed the lamp flashes.
C. The brightness of the flash will diminish over time.
D. All of the above
6. The following graph shows the voltage of a capacitor over time while it is charging.
Voltage (V)
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t ( × 10–5 s)
Which of the following describes the characteristics of the capacitor?

A. It’s time constant, 𝜏 = 5 𝜇s.
B. When discharging the capacitor, the voltage after 5 𝜇s would be 4.4 V.
C. The capacitor is fully charged after 25 𝜇s.
D. All of the above
7. Which of the following best explains why Zener diodes can be used as voltage regulators.
A. Zener diodes stop reverse currents flowing until the voltage reaches a known fixed value.
B. With a forward current flowing through it there is typically a fixed 0.7 V drop across a Zener diode.
C. Zener diodes break down when subject to a reverse current.
D. Zener diodes only allow current to flow in one direction.

8. A 120 Ω resistor and a 2700 Ω resistor load are connected in series with a 9 V battery. A Zener diode
with a breakdown voltage of 6 V is then connected with a reverse bias and in parallel with the 2700 Ω
resistor load. What is the current through the Zener diode?
A. 0 mA
B. 2 mA
C. 23 mA
D. 25 mA
9. To reduce the ripple voltage supplied to a load the following circuit is connected across the output of a
bridge rectifier.
R
Which of the following would best reduce the ripple voltage?

A. A Zener diode with a larger cut-off voltage
B. A resistor with a larger resistance
C. A capacitor with a larger capacitance
10. When a handheld remote control is used to switch on a television, the diode on the television changes
colour and the TV switches on. Which of the following explanations are most likely true?
A. The TV has a built-in motion sensor that switches on when you move the remote control.
B. A photodiode in the remote control senses light that is emitted by an LED in the TV.
C. A voltage divider circuit with an LDR switches on the TV when it detects the signal from the
remote control.
D. The LED in the TV is faulty.

1. A capacitor is connected in series with a resistor and a switch as shown.
60 Ω
12 V

To charge the capacitor should the switch be open or closed? Explain your answer.
a.
When fully charged the capacitor is then discharged and its voltage plotted against time as shown.
12
Capacitor voltage (V)

9
0
0.01 0.02 0.03
Time (S)
b. What is the value of the capacitor in 𝜇F?

c. What current will flow through the resistor after 0.03 seconds?
2. The resistor in the RC circuit in question 1 is replaced with a 500 Ω resistor. A different capacitor is
then charged in the circuit.
During charging, the voltage is plotted and graphed as shown.
V
12
10
t (s)
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
a. What is the value of the capacitance in 𝜇F?

b. When the capacitor is initially being charged, what current will flow through the 500 Ω resistor?
Explain your answer.

3. A diode with the following characteristics is connected in series with a 10 V battery and a 200 Ω
resistor.
I(mA)
200
100
–3.0 –2.0 –1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 V
a. What current will flow through the resistor?

A 50 Ω resistor is now added to the circuit as shown.
200 Ω
10 V 50 Ω
What current will now flow through the 200 Ω resistor?

b.
4. In the following circuit, Vin is 40 V, R1 is 50 Ω, RL is 100 Ω and the breakdown voltage of the Zener
diode is 20 V.
R1
40 V
RL
What is the voltage drop across the load resistance, RL ?

a.
Calculate the current through the load resistor, RL .
b.
c. What is the voltage drop across R1 ?
d. Calculate the current through R1 .
e. What is the current through the Zener diode?
5. Consider the circuit and character following figure.
(a) A (b) Current (mA)

30
6.0 V
20
R
10
–6.0 –3.0 0 1.0 2.0

Voltage (V)

When the current is 15 mA:
a. What is the voltage drop across the diode?
b. What is the voltage drop across the resistor?
c. What is the resistance of the resistor?
d. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor.
6. The diode in the circuit in question 5 is now reversed.
a. What is the voltage drop across the diode?
b. What is the current flowing in the circuit?
c. What is the voltage drop across the resistor?
7. A stair light connected to a sensor circuit turns on when it is dark. The circuit, which is shown,
comprises an LDR with the characteristics shown in the graph.
R
12 V
1.5 V
Switch Stair
light
106
105
104
R (Ω)
103
102
10
0 0.1 1 10 102 103 104
Illumination (lux)
The switch for the stair light turns on when the voltage across the LDR is 1.5 V.
a. If the stair light must turn on when the light level is 40 lux or less, what value of resistance, R, is
needed in this circuit?
b. To switch the stair light on when the light level is larger than 40 lux, should the value of R be
increased or decreased? Explain your answer.

8. A light bank is connected in series with a 6 V battery supply and a 50 Ω resistor. The light bank is built
using four LEDs, each with current-versus-voltage characteristics shown in the following figure.
I (mA)
100
50
0 V
–1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
If the light bank is built with the four LEDs in series, what current will flow through the 50 Ω
a.
resistor?
b. If the light bank is built with the four LEDs in parallel, what current will flow through the 50 Ω
resistor?
c. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the options described in parts (a) and (b).
9. An environmental monitoring station transmits data back to base using an optical fibre. Measurements
are taken by sensors that trigger voltages when regulation limits are exceeded. Using the voltages from
the sensors as input signals, explain the electronic process for delivering and interpreting the
information at base.
10. An AC supply is connected to an electronic circuit with unknown components. A CRO shows the
following trace when connected across the output from the circuit.
3V
–3 V
Explain what electronic components have most likely have been used in the circuit and show how they
would be connected.

A capacitor is connected in series with a resistor as shown.
9V 200 Ω
1000 μF
After the capacitor is fully charged it is discharged.

a. What will be the value of the voltage drop over the capacitor 0.2 seconds after discharge has
commenced? 1 mark
b. What is the minimum time taken for the capacitor to fully discharge? 1 mark
c. On a set of axes sketch a curve showing the capacitor voltage versus time. 1 mark
A student is asked to measure the output of a transformer that is connected to a 240 VRMS AC supply.
a. If there are 4800 turns on the primary, how many turns must there be on the secondary to provide
12 VRMS . 1 mark
–1
An oscilloscope set with a vertical scale of 5 V cm and a horizontal scale of 5 ms cm is used to trace the
voltage output on the secondary.
b. Use the grid to draw the trace to scale, showing the value of the maximum and minimum voltages.
Assume the frequency of the current is 50 Hz. 3 marks
c. The student is given four diodes to build a bridge rectifier. Draw a circuit that shows how the four diodes
should be connected. 1 mark
The rectifier is then connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer and the oscilloscope connected
to the output of the rectifier.
d. Use the following grid to draw the trace the oscilloscope will now show. 1 mark
e. The student is given a capacitor to add to ‘smooth’ the circuit. On a circuit diagram show where the
capacitor should be connected. 1 mark

f. Use the following grid to draw the trace the oscilloscope will show when the capacitor is included in the
circuit. 1 mark
g. Explain the effect of decreasing the value of the capacitor in this circuit. 1 mark
h. When one of the four diodes in the bridge rectifier fails it does not allow current to pass through it. Use
the grid below to draw the trace that the oscilloscope will now show. 2 marks
You are given a thermistor with the characteristics shown in the following graph.
3000
2500
Resistance (Ω)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
5 10 15 20 25 T (°C)
a.What is the resistance of the thermistor when the temperature is 24 °C? 1 mark
You have been asked to build a circuit that will activate a switch when the ambient temperature is 24 °C or
more. The switch is activated when the input is 3V, starting a cooling fan.

b. Draw a circuit diagram to show how the thermistor could be connected in a circuit with a 9 V battery to
provide a 3 V output to the switching circuit. On this diagram show the value of any components you use
in your circuit. 2 marks
c. What modifications would be needed in your circuit if the fan is to be switched on at a higher
temperature? Explain your answer. 3 marks
Chris and Jo have been asked to build two different electronic circuits that can be used to convert a 230 V
AC supply to a 6 V DC output. One circuit must be built using the least number of components possible,
and the other circuit built to provide the most constant output. With the assistance of circuit diagrams,
describe two circuits that would satisfy these criteria. For each circuit also explain the effect of varying the
value of the components in these circuits.
In some intranet systems computers are linked using an optical network. Explain the key steps involved in
transferring information from electrical impulses to light signals and then to electrical signals, and the type
of devices that might be used.

Test maker

16 How do heavy things fly?

16.1 Overview
16.1.1 Introduction
The science and technology of flight originated over 2000 years ago, when the Chinese began making and
experimenting with kites. The idea of people taking to the air was just a dream until the early sixteenth
century, when Leonardo Da Vinci produced detailed drawings of flying machines. However, his machines
were not built or tested.
The first recorded flight driven and controlled by an engine took place in 1903, by the Wright brothers.
That first flight followed many experiments with gliders and using a wind tunnel.
This topic deals with the study of aeronautics — the science of flight through the Earth’s atmosphere. It
includes the study of the forces that enable flight through the air, aircraft design and jet propulsion.
FIGURE 16.1 The Wright Flyer, 1903 — the first controlled powered aircraft to carry a person
TOPIC 16 How do heavy things fly? 1

Resources
Weblink Timeline of aviation
KEY KNOWLEDGE
After completing this topic, you will be able to:
Aerodynamics
• model the forces acting on an aircraft in flight as lift, drag, the force due to gravity and thrust
• identify aerodynamic forces as arising from the movement of fluid over an object
• explain the production of aerodynamic lift with reference to:
• Bernoulli’s principle and pressure differences
• conservation of momentum and downwash
• compare contributions to aerodynamic drag, including skin friction, form and lift-induced
• explain the changes in aerodynamic behaviour at supersonic speeds, including compressibility, shock wave
formation and increase in drag
• explain the production of thrust with reference to Newton’s laws of motion
• investigate how it is possible for an aircraft to generate lift when flying upside down
Manipulating flight
• calculate lift and drag forces acting on an aircraft:
1 2
• lift: F L = 2 CL 𝜌v A
1 2
• drag: F D = 2 CD 𝜌v A
• investigate theoretically and practically the variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack, including
identification of stall
• model aerodynamic forces as acting at the centre of pressure and the force due to gravity as acting at the
centre of mass
• calculate the torque applied by a force acting on an aircraft: 𝜏 = r⊥ F
• describe the roles of the rudder, elevator and ailerons as the primary control surfaces on an aircraft
• apply balance of forces and torques with reference to Newton’s laws of motion to:
• controlling an aircraft in roll, pitch and yaw
• stages of flight, including takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, landing and manoeuvres
• explain the possible advantages and difficulties in designing an unconventional aircraft, such as a
flying wing
Applications of flight
• apply aerodynamics principles beyond conventional aircraft to investigate practically and/or theoretically at
least one of:
• strategies to improve the efficiency of cars by reducing drag area (CD A)
• the design and use of aerofoil shapes to produce forces in propellers, wind turbines, racing cars
or submarines
• improving lift in boomerangs, kites or helicopters
• the production of thrust using propellers, jet engines and rockets.


Resources
16.2 Forces acting on an aircraft

KEY CONCEPTS
• Model the forces acting on an aircraft in flight as lift, drag, the force due to gravity and thrust.
• Model aerodynamic forces as acting at the centre of pressure and the force due to gravity as acting at the
centre of mass.
16.2.1 Forces in flight

The main forces acting on an aircraft in level flight (shown in the figure 16.2) can be identified as vertical
and horizontal pairs. The vertical force pair is lift and force due to gravity. The horizontal force pair is
thrust and drag.
Lift acts upwards and at right angles to airflow direction. The lift force is generated over the entire wing,
although it can be modelled as acting at one position along a wing. This position is known as the centre of
lift or the centre of pressure (CP).
The wing is the primary source of lift on a conventional aircraft; however, the fuselage and tail also
contribute to the total lift generated. In figure 16.2, the total lift force is represented as a single arrow.
FIGURE 16.2 The forces acting on an aircraft in level flight and with constant speed. For the sake of simplicity, all
forces are shown as acting through the centre of gravity.
Lift (FL)
Thrust (FT) Drag (FD)
Force due to gravity (FG)

The force due to gravity acting on an aircraft is considered to act through the centre of gravity. This
is the point at which all the aircraft’s mass can be considered to be concentrated. It is also the point of
balance — if an aircraft were hung from a cable attached to its centre of gravity, it would hang level and in
perfect balance. The location of an aircraft’s centre of gravity depends upon two factors: the load it carries
(for example, fuel, passengers and cargo) and the positioning of the load within the aircraft. In steady level
flight, the lift force and the force due to gravity are equal in size and opposite in direction.
The thrust force that causes an aircraft to move through the air comes from the propeller blades or
jet engines pushing the air backwards (an action). The air pushed backwards therefore pushes the plane
forwards with a force of equal magnitude (a reaction).
As an aircraft moves through the air in flight, it experiences air friction or drag. The faster the aircraft
moves, the greater the resulting drag force. In figure 16.2, the arrow that represents drag is the result of all
the drag forces that act on every part of the aircraft. There are several different types of drag force that act
when an aircraft flies.
If the net force acting on an aircraft in flight is zero, it maintains a constant velocity. If the net force
acting on the aircraft is not zero, the magnitude and direction of the net force determine:
• the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the aircraft
• the rate of change of momentum of the aircraft.
16.2.2 Newton’s laws of motion
1. The velocity of an object can change only if there is a non-zero net force acting on it.
2. The relationship between the acceleration of an object, the net force acting on it, and the object’s mass
can be expressed as Fnet = ma. The relationship can also be expressed in terms of momentum. The net
m∆v
force acting on an object is proportional to the time rate of change of momentum; that is, Fnet = .
∆t
3. When an object applies a force (an action) to a second object, the second object applies an equal and
opposite force (called a reaction) to the first object.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 16.1 Power and thrust (doc-31894)
16.2 EXERCISE
1. Explain the difference between the centre of pressure and the centre of gravity.
2. Describe the resulting motion, if an aircraft has the following forces acting on it in flight.
(a) Lift = 6000 N, drag = 500 N, force due to gravity = 5900 N, thrust = 500 N
(b) Lift = 4000 N, drag = 600 N, force due to gravity = 4000 N, thrust = 500 N
(c) Lift = 7000 N, drag = 300 N, force due to gravity = 6800 N, thrust = 310 N
(d) Lift = 6600 N, drag = 450 N, force due to gravity = 6800 N, thrust = 460 N
3. A business jet is travelling at a constant speed of 200 m s−1 while its engines provide a total thrust of 25 kN.
(a) If it is in level flight, what is the magnitude of the total drag on the jet?
(b) Assuming that all of the energy delivered by the engines is used to provide thrust, what is the power
output of the engines?


16.3 Aerodynamic lift
KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify aerodynamic forces as arising from the movement of fluid over an object.
• Explain the production of aerodynamic lift with reference to:
• Bernoulli’s principle and pressure differences
• conservation of momentum and downwash.
• Investigate how it is possible for an aircraft to generate lift when flying upside down.
• Apply aerodynamics principles beyond conventional aircraft to investigate practically and/or theoretically:
• the design and use of aerofoil shapes to produce forces in propellers, wind turbines, racing cars
or submarines
• improving lift in boomerangs, kites or helicopters.
• Investigate theoretically and practically the variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack, including
identification of stall.
16.3.1 Movement of fluids

Aeronautics is principally concerned with the motion of aircraft through gases and, in particular, the air.
All liquids and gases are fluids. Fluids, like solid objects, are composed of small particles. However, the
particles that make up fluids do not behave in the same way as those that make up solid objects because
they are able to move more freely.
The Equation of Continuity

In the early 1700s, Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli
FIGURE 16.3 Daniel Bernoulli
developed the Equation of Continuity: ‘All material that enters
a pipe will leave the pipe’. This statement is based on Newton’s
mechanics and the idea that mass cannot be created or destroyed.
The Equation of Continuity can be expressed as:
Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2
Where:
Q = flow rate, measured in cubic metres per second
(m3 s−1 )
v = fluid speed, measured in metres per second (m s−1 )
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe, measured in
square metres (m2 ).
If, as illustrated in figure 16.4, A2 is smaller than A1 , v2 must be

greater than v1 . In order to increase the velocity of the fluid through
the pipe, work must be done on the fluid travelling through the pipe
to increase its kinetic energy. This can occur only if the pressure of Source: Wellcome Library, London
the fluid entering the pipe is greater than the pressure of the fluid
leaving the pipe. In short, it means that faster moving fluids have
lower pressure.

FIGURE 16.4 The flow of fluid through changing cross-sectional areas within a pipe
A2
V2
A1
V1
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Air flows into a house through an open window. The airspeed is a gentle 30 cm s−1 . It is a sliding
window of dimensions 1200 mm × 400 mm. Inside the room, the far door is opened 10 cm. The
door is a standard height of 2050 mm. What is the speed of the air as it flows through the door?
THINK WRITE
1. Find the area of the window. Window area = A1
= 1.2 × 0.4
= 0.48
2. Find the fluid speed through the window. Fluid speed through the window = v1
= 0.30 m s−1
3. Find the area of the door. Door area = A2
= 0.10 × 2.05
= 0.205 m2
4. Recall that the rate of air flow is a constant. Flow rate in through the window = flow
rate out through the door
v1 A1 = v2 A2
0.30 × 0.48 = 0.205 × v2
v2 = 0.70 m s −1
5. State the solution. The air flows through the door at a speed
of 70 cm s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
a. Water flows into one end of a pipe at a speed of 1 m s−1 . The radius of the pipe at the point
of entry is 5 cm. The pipe narrows so that the water leaves through an opening that is only
2 cm in radius. With what speed does the water flow out of the pipe?
b. If a fluid flows at a speed of 1.2 m s−1 through a pipe of cross-sectional area 0.45 m2 , at what
speed will it flow when the cross-sectional area:
i. narrows to only 0.32 m2
ii. widens to 0.60 m2 ?

16.3.2 Fluid speed and pressure
By applying the Law of Conservation of Energy to fluid flow, Bernoulli derived the following equation.
1 2
𝜌v + 𝜌gh + P = constant
2
Where:
𝜌 = the fluid density (measured in kg m−3 )
v = the speed of the fluid (measured in m s−1 )
g = acceleration due to gravity (measured in m s−2 )
h = the vertical displacement of the fluid (measured in m)
P = the static pressure of the fluid (in N m−2 or Pa).
According to this principle, the total energy of the fluid is constant throughout the flow. In simplest terms,
this energy comprises the kinetic energy due to motion, the gravitational potential energy due to changes
in height and the potential energy associated with the pressure of the fluid. This equation does not apply to
aircraft moving at supersonic speeds due to changes in the behaviour of the fluid and significant heating of
the wing.
In 1738, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler derived an equation that related the speed of a fluid
to its static pressure. He found that an increase in speed, created when a liquid flows through a narrower
section of a pipe, produced a decrease in static pressure. Likewise, a decrease in speed (by enlarging the
pipe) produced an increase in static pressure.
16.3.3 The Bernoulli principle

The statement that the pressure of a fluid decreases as its velocity increases is known as the Bernoulli
principle, in honour of Euler’s mentor, Daniel Bernoulli. Euler applied Bernoulli’s equation to a fluid at
a constant height, producing the equation:
1 2
𝜌v + P = constant
2
The cross-section of an aircraft wing forms a shape known as an aerofoil. This shape is designed so that
air travelling over it will speed up. According to the Bernoulli principle, this reduces the air pressure above
the wing. The opposite happens on the lower surface, with a lower speed resulting in an increased pressure.
The result is an upwards force known as the lift force.
FIGURE 16.5 How lift is developed by an aerofoil
Lift
High speed, reduced pressure
Aerofoil
Direction of motion Low speed, increased pressure

Formula One racing cars are fitted with aerofoils at the front and back, called the front and rear ‘wings’.
They are actually inverted wing shapes that help push the tyres onto the road and hence increase their
grip. This also increases the drag force on the car, but the improved handling outweighs the effect of the
increased drag.
The descriptions of the movement of smooth surfaces in air can be extended to surfaces travelling
through other fluids such as water. Ships must not pass within several metres of each other as they will be
drawn together and may collide. Boats approaching a wharf may experience the same effect if they come in
too fast.
FIGURE 16.6 Aerofoils are not always used to provide lift. In racing cars, aerofoils are used to oppose lift and
increase the car’s grip on the track.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 16.2 Bernoulli effects (doc-31895)
Teacher-led video Investigation 16.2 Bernoulli effects (tlvd-0840)
16.3.4 Aerofoil characteristics

There are two key factors in the ability of an aerofoil to generate lift.
The first is its shape. The front of the aerofoil is called the leading edge. This is usually quite rounded
so it deflects the airflow above and below the wing. The rearmost point of the aerofoil is called the trailing
edge. At the trailing edge, the upper and lower surfaces of the wing come to a sharp point to reintroduce the
two airstreams with minimal disturbance. The theoretical line directly between the leading and trailing edge
is called the chord line. Many simple aerofoils are symmetrical about the chord line. However, the majority
of aerofoil shapes used today are not symmetrical and feature a curvature that is called camber, which is
represented by the camber line.

FIGURE 16.7 Terminology used to describe the shape of an aerofoil
Chord line
Camber line
Upper surface
Leading edge
Lower surface
Trailing edge
The second factor in an aerofoil’s ability to generate lift is its orientation to the undisturbed airflow. This
is known as the angle of attack and is measured as the angle between the undisturbed airflow and the chord
line of the wing. Simple symmetrical aerofoils only generate lift when placed at an angle to the airflow,
whereas a cambered aerofoil can generate lift at an angle of attack of zero degrees.
FIGURE 16.8 The angle of attack is the angle between the wing of an aircraft and the direction of airflow.
Trailing edge
Angle of attack
Direction of airflow across aerofoil
As the angle of attack is increased from zero degrees, the difference between the pressure on the upper
and lower surfaces increases and more lift is generated. This is accompanied by an increase in drag due
to the greater disturbance in the airflow. At large angles of attack, the airflow on the top of the wing can
separate and a swirling pattern of turbulence can be created. This reduces the lift and increases the drag and
is commonly referred to as stall.
FIGURE 16.9 The effect of increasing the angle of attack; if the angle of attack becomes too great, turbulence is
created, lift decreases and the drag increases.
Lift
Lift Lift Direction of

airflow
Direction of Drag
Direction of
Drag airflow
Drag airflow
Aerofoil Turbulence

WIND TURBINES
The design of a wind turbine is very similar to an aircraft propeller engine, but
in reverse. The wind moves over the blades of the turbine, generating a force FIGURE 16.10 Wind
that causes the blades to rotate around the central hub. Within the hub this turbines create energy
rotation is transformed into electrical energy using a generator. from wind.
16.3.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

The mechanism by which aerofoils and wings generate lift can also be explained using Newton’s third
law. The overall effect of the movement of the wing through the air is to push the air downwards, creating
what is called downwash. This can be thought of as an action, with the wing pushing the air downwards.
The Newton’s third law reaction pair of this is the air pushing the wing upwards, or in other words the
generation of lift. This is not an additional source of lift, but rather another approach to understanding the
generation of lift by a wing.
FIGURE 16.11 Newton’s third law can be used to explain the lift force on a wing.
Force on wing by air

Direction of airflow
Force on air by wing
16.3.6 Flying upside down

The wing of an aircraft is specifically designed to be efficient and effective in steady level flight as well as
a range of manoeuvres. It did not take long in the history of aviation before pilots extended normal flight
to flying aircraft upside down. In a very simple design with a symmetrical aerofoil for the wing, the lift
produced is directly related to the angle of attack, so once such an aircraft has been manoeuvred into an
upside down position, it can still generate lift, provided it is oriented correctly. This requires the aircraft
controls and engine to be capable of operating in such an orientation — and the same must be said of the
pilot.
The design of efficient modern passenger aircraft has produced more complex aerofoil shapes that cannot
simply be flipped upside down and expected to respond in the same way to a change in angle of attack. Not
to mention the thrust required to manoeuvre into an upside down position and the associated loading on an
aircraft structure. This is one of many reasons that specialised aircraft designed for acrobatics are used by
those intending to fly upside down.

FIGURE 16.12 A stunt plane is able to fly upside down due to the design and manoeuvrability of its wings.
16.3 EXERCISE
1. What basic difference between fluids and solids causes them to behave differently in terms of their motion?
2. If a fluid flows through a pipe of cross-sectional area 61 cm2 at a speed of 9.3 cm s−1 , what must the
cross-sectional area be to make it speed up to 13 cm s−1 ?
3. If a fluid flows at a speed of 2.1 m s−1 through a pipe of diameter 0.15 metres, what speed will it flow at
when the pipe widens to a diameter of 0.45 metres?
4. Air flows through a wind tunnel with a circular cross-section.
(a) How would you change the cross-sectional area of the wind tunnel in order to double the speed of the air
passing through it?
(b) By what factor would the radius of the wind tunnel change to achieve the doubling of airspeed?
5. Assuming that everything else remains constant, what change in diameter of a wind tunnel would produce a
10-fold increase in the speed of the air moving through it?
6. Describe what happens to the pressure in a fluid as its speed increases.
7. Explain in terms of Bernoulli’s principle how an aerofoil develops lift.
8. On the following aerofoil:
(a) Draw and label an arrow to represent the lift force
acting on the aerofoil.
Direction of airflow
(b) Draw and label the angle of attack.
(c) Label the trailing edge of the aerofoil.


16.4 Thrust and drag
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the production of thrust with reference to Newton’s laws of motion.
• Compare contributions to aerodynamic drag, including skin friction, form and lift-induced.
• the production of thrust using propellers, jet engines and rockets.
16.4.1 Producing thrust

In order to move through the air, an aircraft must produce thrust. This is generally done with one or more
propellers, or with jet engines. A propeller-driven aircraft is actually pulled through the air. The propeller
itself is an aerofoil turned by the engine and each blade of the propeller generates its own ‘lift’ force. A
large component of the ‘lift’ force on the propellers is in the direction of motion of the aircraft and provides
the thrust.
Regardless of the specific design of the engine, the production of thrust can also be understood simply in
terms of Newton’s third law. The engine has the effect of pushing the air backwards, and in response the air
pushes the engine and, therefore, the aircraft forwards.
The power output, P (in W), when a force, F (in N), is applied to an object causing the
object to move with a speed, v (in ms−1 ), is given by the equation:
P = Fv
The thrust and speed of an aircraft can be related to the mechanical power output of the engines using
the same equation. Thus, for an aircraft:
mechanical power output = thrust × speed

16.4.2 Types of drag
There are several types of drag that are created when an aircraft moves through the air; the two main types
are induced drag and parasite drag.
Induced drag
Induced drag occurs due to the three-dimensional nature of an aircraft wing. At the tip of the wing the
difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces draws air around the tip towards the upper
surface, creating a large whirl of air called a vortex. This changes the effective angle of attack across a
significant length of the wing span, resulting in a proportion of the lift force acting to oppose the forward
motion of the aircraft. This component of the lift is called induced drag.
DESIGNING WINGS TO REDUCE DRAG FIGURE 16.13 A winglet

Modern passenger aircraft commonly feature a vertical surface at the wing on a commercial plane
tip known as a winglet or wing tip fence. This is designed to decrease the
interaction between the upper and lower surfaces, reducing the size of the
vortex and in turn reducing the induced drag. This reduced drag leads to lower
fuel consumption and decreased operating costs.

Parasite drag
Parasite drag is the name given to the combined effect of skin friction drag and form drag. Neither of
these forces, in contrast to induced drag, contributes towards the lift force, so they are given the collective
name of parasite drag. Skin friction drag arises from the friction force caused by the contact between air and
the surface of the aircraft, and it can be reduced by keeping the surface of the aircraft clean and polished.
Form drag is the drag due to the shape or ‘form’ of a surface. Improving the streamlining of an aircraft (or a
car, truck or train) reduces the amount of form drag it experiences. Smooth covers called fairings are used to
enclose, or partially enclose, shapes such as wheels or joints between different parts of an aircraft.
Parasite drag increases roughly proportionally to the square of the speed. For example, if the airspeed
is doubled, the parasite drag will increase by roughly a factor of four. It is therefore in the best interests of
aircraft designers to create aircraft that are as aerodynamically streamlined as possible.
FIGURE 16.14 A wide body airliner with vortexes and condensation above the wing
16.4.3 Lift-to-drag ratio

In the final analysis, it is the total drag on an aircraft that determines the necessary thrust required for it to
achieve a given airspeed. If we try to get more lift from an aircraft by increasing its speed, for example, we
usually get more drag. For every aircraft, there is a particular airspeed that generates the minimum drag, and
this is also the airspeed that will produce the maximum lift-to-drag ratio. The higher the lift-to-drag ratio,
the less power is required from the engine.
The ratio of lift to drag can be found from the ratio of horizontal distance travelled (glide distance) to loss
of altitude when gliding. This is known as the glide ratio. The glide ratio and the lift-to-drag ratio have the
same value. A gliding aircraft with a glide ratio of 9:1 can fly 9 units of distance forward through the air for
every 1 unit of height lost. Some modern gliders used for long distance racing have a glide ratio of more
than 50:1. Large commercial passenger planes have glide ratios of about 10:1.
The lift-to-drag ratio changes with the angle of attack. As the angle of attack increases from zero, the
lift-to-drag ratio increases. Once the angle reaches about 15–20°, turbulence occurs — the lift decreases
and the drag increases. When a plane slows down, the lift decreases. The pilot can restore the lift, and the
lift-to-drag ratio, by slightly increasing the angle of attack.

FIGURE 16.15 For a gliding aircraft, the lift-to-drag ratio is equal to the glide ratio.
Drag
The two right-angled triangles are similar.

lift glide distance
Force due Therefore, = = glide ratio
to gravity Lift drag loss of altitude
Loss of
altitude Glide path
θ
Glide distance
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
After the engines of an aircraft fail, it glides in a straight line to a safe landing in a field
5.6 kilometres from the point directly below where the engines failed.
The glide ratio of the aircraft is 12:1.
a. How much altitude is lost by the aircraft for every 1 kilometre of ground distance covered?
b. What was the altitude of the aircraft when its engines failed? Assume that the ground over
which the aircraft glides is level and that there is insignificant thermal activity in the air.
c. What is the lift-to-drag ratio while the aircraft is gliding?
THINK WRITE
glide distance
a. 1. Recall the formula for glide ratio and rearrange a. Glide ratio =
to make loss of altitude the subject. loss of altitude
glide distance
Loss of altitude =
glide ratio
1000
=
12
= 83 m
2. State the solution. The aircraft loses 83 metres of altitude for
every 1 kilometre of ground distance
covered.
glide distance
b. 1. Recall the formula for glide ratio and rearrange b. Loss of altitude =
to make loss of altitude the subject. glide ratio
5.6 × 103
=
12
= 4.5 × 102 m
2. State the solution. The aircraft had an altitude of
450 metres when its engines failed.
c. 1. Recall the lift-to-drag ratio is equal to the c. Lift-to-drag = glide ratio
glide ratio. = 12:1
2. State the solution. The lift-to-drag ratio while the aircraft is
gliding was 12:1.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
a. A glider loses 120 m in altitude over a ground distance of 2.5 kilometres during an exhibition
of straight line flight.
i. What is the glide ratio of the glider?
ii. What is the lift-to-drag ratio of the glider?
b. During a safety drill, a pilot must glide a small plane in a straight line to a safe landing from
an altitude of 500 metres after the engines are switched off. The glide ratio of the plane is
24:1. What ground distance should the pilot allow for the landing after switching off the
engines?
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 16.3 Investigating gliders (doc-31898)
Investigation 16.4 Turbulence (doc-31896)
16.4.4 Faster than sound

As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, the behaviour of the airflow over the aircraft changes. The air
becomes compressible, rendering the standard theories of fluid flow behaviour outlined in the preceding
sections inadequate. At such high speeds, the rate at which the aircraft is disturbing the air forms shock
waves. A shock wave is a propagating disturbance associated with abrupt changes in temperature, pressure
and density. The formation of a shock wave on the surface of a wing creates significant turbulence in its
wake, which leads to a dramatic increase in drag.
The Mach number is the ratio of speed of an aircraft to the speed of sound.
vaircraft
Mach number =
vsound
The speed of sound is approximately 343 m s–1 or 1235 km h–1 ; an aircraft travelling at this speed is said
to be moving at Mach 1. The speeds at which aircraft travel are broken into four broad areas:
• Subsonic speeds are significantly less than Mach 1. The effects of compressibility can be ignored.
• Transonic speeds are around Mach 0.8 to 1. The entire aircraft is moving slower than the speed of
sound; however, as the air speeds up over the top of the wing it may exceed the speed of sound,
causing shock waves to form and significantly increasing drag.
• Supersonic speeds are Mach 1 to 5. The majority of air interacting with the aircraft is travelling faster
than the speed of sound. Shockwaves are present and drag is significantly increased. Heating becomes
increasingly prominent at higher speeds.
• Hypersonic speeds are Mach 5 and above. In addition to the supersonic effects, it becomes necessary
to consider the chemistry of the air molecules.
The majority of passenger aircraft travel at subsonic speeds to avoid the significant increase in drag
associated with speeds in the transonic region and above. Aircraft designed to travel at supersonic speeds
require a thinner and more swept back wing, significantly more thrust capability, carefully designed control
surfaces, and specialised engine intakes and outlets. Supersonic travel remains elusive to the general
public due primarily to much higher costs from higher fuel consumption and limited flight paths due to the
disruption caused by sonic booms affecting populated areas.

16.4 EXERCISE
1. The Airbus A380 has four jet engines, each capable of producing a maximum thrust of 370 kN. If the aircraft
is travelling at 270 km h–1 and each engine is running at maximum thrust, what is the total mechanical power
output of the aircraft?
2. What is the cause of wing-tip vortices?
3. The following graph shows how the parasite drag and induced drag acting on a particular aircraft change as
the airspeed changes.
Parasite drag
Induced drag
Drag (N)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Air speed (km h–1)
(a) On the graph, draw and label the curve representing the total drag (that is, the sum of the parasite and
induced drags).
(b) At what airspeed does the maximum lift-to-drag ratio occur?
(c) Explain the importance of a high lift-to-drag ratio.
(d) Which region of the graph represents the conditions under which a stall is likely to occur?
(e) Explain what happens to the air around an aircraft wing when a stall occurs.
4. An aircraft has a glide ratio of 9:1 and is at an altitude of 1200 metres when its engine cuts out.
(a) How far could it travel before landing, assuming minimal thermal activity?
(b) What is the lift-to-drag ratio for this aircraft while it is gliding?
5. A glider loses 800 metres in altitude while it covers a ground distance of 12 kilometres. Calculate its:
(a) glide ratio
(b) lift-to-drag ratio.
6. A glider with a glide ratio of 40:1 glides in a straight path over a ground distance of 3.6 kilometres to make a
perfect landing. What was its initial altitude?


16.5 Manipulating flight
KEY CONCEPTS
• Calculate lift and drag forces acting on an aircraft:
1 2
• lift: F L = 2 CL 𝜌v A
1 2
• drag: F D = 2 CD 𝜌v A.
• Calculate the torque applied by a force acting on an aircraft: 𝜏 = r⊥ F.
• strategies to improve the efficiency of cars by reducing drag area (CD A).
16.5.1 Lift and drag coefficients

The lift coefficient (CL ) and drag coefficient (CD ) are used by aircraft designers to provide a comparable
measure of the amount of lift and drag generated by a particular shape as it moves through the air.
The lift coefficient and drag coefficient are defined as:

F F
CL = 1 L2 and CD = 1 D2
2
𝜌v A 2
𝜌v A
Where:
CL = the lift coefficient
CD = the drag coefficient
FL = the lift force generated (measured in N)
FD = the drag force generated (measured in N)
𝜌 = the fluid density (measured in kg m–3 )
v = the speed of the fluid (measured in m s–1 )
A = the reference area in m2 . (For lift this is the area of the wing viewed from above, for drag this is
the area of the wing viewed from the front.)
The values of the lift and drag coefficients for different designs are determined by varying the
shape, angle of attack and speed, and taking measurements of the forces generated. This can be done
experimentally in a wind tunnel or using computer-based analysis tools.
The lift and drag coefficient formulae can be rearranged to give the following formulae for
calculating the lift and drag forces.
FL = CL 12 𝜌v2 A and FD = CD 21 𝜌v2 A
These relationships can be very useful for estimating the effect that a change in the design or
configuration of an aircraft will have on the lift and drag forces produced. For example, it can be seen that
doubling the velocity of the aircraft will quadruple the lift and drag force generated.
AERODYNAMICS OF CARS FIGURE 16.16 A Tesla Model

Reducing the drag force is crucial for designing energy efficient cars. S car being charged
To minimise drag, it is necessary to design for the lowest value of drag
coefficient multiplied by frontal area (commonly referred to as drag area)
or CD A. The frontal area can be minimised by designing more compact
vehicles, and the drag coefficient can be reduced by streamlining the
vehicle shape to reduce disruption to the airflow. Modern vehicles have
drag coefficients between 0.25 and 0.35, with the Tesla Model S setting
the benchmark at 0.24. The drag area of the first mass-produced electric
car, the General Motors EV1, was 0.37 m2 compared to 2.47 m2 for the
Hummer H2. The Tesla Model S has a drag area of 0.57 m2 .

Wind tunnels
A great deal of research into the effects of airflow is done
FIGURE 16.17 A scale model is used in a
in wind tunnels. Models of aircraft (and cars, trucks, trains, wind tunnel to assist in aircraft design.
and so on) are fixed in the wind tunnel. A large fan creates
an artificial airflow that is effectively the same as if the
air were still and the aircraft was moving. Sensors can be
used to measure lift and drag and special cameras can detect
variations in the airflow caused by changing the position or
dimensions of the control surfaces.
Advances in computer technology have led to significant
advances in aerodynamic modelling using computational
fluid dynamics (CFD); however, due to the complex nature
of aerodynamic behaviours there is still widespread use of
wind tunnels alongside simulations.
Simple wind tunnels can now be built, leased or even
bought in kit form. Plans for building your own wind tunnel Source: NASA
can be downloaded from the internet. Simulations of wind tunnel investigations are also available on the
internet.
FIGURE 16.18 A replica of the wind tunnel built and used by the Wright brothers in 1901 to help in the design of
the gliders they built before their first powered flight in 1903. The data obtained from their 1901 wind tunnel was
used in the design of the propellers for their powered Flyer.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 16.5 DIY wind tunnel (doc-31899)
Weblink Online wind tunnel simulation
16.5.2 Turning effect of a force

For an aircraft to maintain level, steady flight — that is, constant speed at a constant altitude — the vertical
force pair of lift and the force due to gravity must be balanced, and the horizontal force pair of thrust and
drag must also be balanced. This results in the whole aircraft being balanced or in equilibrium. However, it
is not only the size of the forces that must be taken into account, but also the distance between the line of
action of the force and centre of gravity of the aircraft.

The location where the lift force on the wing acts, commonly called the centre of pressure (CP), is not
in the same location as the centre of gravity of the aircraft. If unbalanced, this would cause the aircraft to
rotate. Similarly, the drag and thrust forces do not necessarily act along the same line, which can also cause
an aircraft to rotate. This tendency for the aircraft to rotate is due to the turning effect of the forces. The
turning effect of a force is called a torque, or moment. In this topic, the term torque will be used.
The magnitude of the torque created by a force about a given pivot point can be calculated by:
𝜏 = F × r⊥
Where:
𝜏 = magnitude of the torque, measured in units of newton metres (N m)
F = magnitude of the force, measured in units of newton (N)
r = perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the pivot or reference point,
measured in metres (m).
When an object is not rotating, it is said to be in rotational equilibrium. In order to achieve rotational
equilibrium about an axis, the clockwise torques must be balanced by the anticlockwise torques. In other
words, the net torque, 𝜏 net , must be zero.
Imagine two children sitting on opposite sides of a seesaw, as shown in figure 16.19. If they want to be in
rotational equilibrium they each must sit at a distance from the centre of the seesaw such that the net torque
is zero. Thus, 𝜏 clockwise = 𝜏 anticlockwise .
FIGURE 16.19 Two children sitting on opposite sides of a seesaw
Child 1 Child 2
m2 g
m1 g d2
1.5 m
They would normally find the right distances by trial and error, but if they felt inclined to use calculations
they would take torques about the centre of the seesaw. The only forces that need to be considered are the
respective force due to gravity on the children. The normal force applies no torque because it acts at the
pivot point.
So if child 1 was 1.5 metres from the centre, the equation becomes:
m2 g × d2 = m1 g × 1.5 m
The distance d2 can be calculated as long as their masses are known.

When an aircraft flies normally in a straight line, the net torque on it about any axis is zero. It is in
rotational equilibrium.
Although the forces on an aircraft are ideally kept in balance, it is always advisable to have an extra
force available that can be called into action when required to correct any out-of-balance occurrence.

In a conventional aircraft design this force is provided by the tail plane. The tail assembly of an aircraft
comprises a vertical tail fin and a horizontal tail plane, called the vertical and horizontal stabilisers,
respectively. The tail plane provides a downwards force called the tail lift. The balance of the aircraft can
be corrected by adjustments to the tail plane to make the net torque equal zero.
The load in an aircraft must be ‘balanced’ to achieve level flight. When luggage is loaded on commercial
aircraft the location of the total mass has been carefully considered. Luggage is weighed at passenger
check-in to allow accurate calculation of location of baggage. The mass and location of the fuel for the
flight must also be considered. It must be positioned so that it doesn’t produce an unwanted turning effect.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
An aircraft in level flight has a total wing lift of 3.6 × 106 N. The centre of pressure is 12 metres
from the centre of gravity and the tail is a distance of 45 metres from the centre of gravity as
shown in the following figure. Calculate the tail lift.
FLW
dW
dT Tail fin
Tail plane
Centre of gravity FLT
THINK WRITE
1 In level flight there must be no rotation about the 𝜏 net = 0
centre of gravity. Take torques about the centre of 𝜏 clockwise = 𝜏 anticlockwise
gravity. Recall that the centre of pressure is the LT × dT = Lw × dw
point at which the lift is considered to be acting on Where: Lw = wing lift
the wings. LT = tail lift
(The torque due to the weight is zero
because the weight acts through the
centre of gravity.)
2 Substitute in the known values. LT × 45 = 3.6 × 106 × 12
LT = 9.6 × 105 N
3 State the solution. The tail lift is equal to 9.6 × 105 N in
a downwards direction.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
a. Calculate the tail lift required to balance the wing lift of 480 000 N for a light plane in which
the wing distance, dw , is 3 metres behind the centre of gravity and the tail distance, dT , is
8 metres behind the centre of gravity. The plane is in level flight.
b. A tail lift of 2 × 105 N balances a wing lift of 6.5 × 105 N for a plane in level flight. The centre
of pressure is 4 metres behind the centre of mass. How far is the tail from the centre of
mass?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Excess baggage of mass 120 kilograms is loaded into a plane. The turning effect of the excess
baggage is balanced by loading extra fuel into a tank located 2.4 metres in front of the centre of
gravity of a plane before it takes off. The excess baggage has been loaded 1.6 metres behind the
centre of gravity. What mass of extra fuel must be added? Assume that g = 9.8 N kg−1 .
THINK WRITE
1 Take torques about the centre 𝜏 net = 0
of gravity. 𝜏 fuel = 𝜏 baggage
mfuel g × dfuel = mbaggage g × dbaggage
mfuel × 9.8 × 2.4 = 120 × 9.8 × 1.6
120 × 9.8 × 1.6
mfuel =
9.8 × 2.4
= 80 kg
2 State the solution. A mass of 80 kilograms of extra fuel must be added to
the tank.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. Unexpected cargo of 600 kilograms is loaded onto a plane in a hold 2.8 metres in front of the
centre of mass of the plane. In order to compensate for the turning effect of this cargo, the
pilot loads extra fuel into a reserve tank located 4.2 metres behind the centre of mass. What
mass of extra fuel should the pilot add?
b. Two containers with masses of 2000 and 3000 kilograms must be loaded onto a cargo plane
so that they have no net turning effect. The lighter container is placed 6 metres in front of
the centre of mass. Where must the heavier container be placed?
16.5 EXERCISE
1. The lift equation is given as:
F L = CL 21 𝜌v2 A
What would be the overall effect of the lift produced by an aircraft in each of the following scenarios?
(a) Decreasing the wing area by a factor of 1.5 by retracting the flaps
(b) Increasing the aircraft speed by a factor of 2
(c) Increasing the lift coefficient by a factor of 2 by deploying the flaps
(d) Halving the aircraft speed
2. An aircraft in level flight has a wing lift force of 15 000 N. The centre of pressure is 1.1 metre behind the
centre of gravity. The tail lift acts at a distance of 9.3 metres from the centre of gravity.
(a) What is the size and direction of the tail lift?
(b) Why is it not necessary to know the mass of the plane to answer part (a) of this question?
3. If the tail lift in question 2 was reduced while the wing lift remained the same, the centre of gravity of the
aircraft would need to be shifted. How can this be achieved?

4. A cargo plane is loaded with two large containers. The first container, which has a mass of 10 000 kilograms,
is loaded into a hold located 12 metres behind the plane’s centre of gravity. The second container, which has
a mass of 15 000 kilograms, is loaded so that it compensates for the torque applied by the first container.
Where should the second container be located?
5. A passenger plane’s rear fuel tank has been filled to allow for the usual amount of baggage in the rear hold,
which is located 3.6 metres behind the plane’s centre of mass. The rear fuel tank is 4 metres behind the
centre of mass. However, an extra 200 kilograms of cargo has been placed in the hold. What mass of fuel
must the pilot release from the rear tank before taking off to compensate for the turning effect of the extra
baggage?

16.6 Controlling an aircraft

KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply balance of forces and torques with reference to Newton’s laws of motion to:
• controlling an aircraft in roll, pitch and yaw
• stages of flight, including takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, landing and manoeuvres.
• Describe the roles of the rudder, elevator and ailerons as the primary control surfaces on an aircraft.
• Explain the possible advantages and difficulties in designing an unconventional aircraft, such as a flying
wing.
16.6.1 Flight controls

The primary control surfaces on an aircraft are called the elevator, rudder and ailerons. These components
can be moved in either direction to change the camber and angle of attack of the aerofoil. This changes the
size, and sometimes the direction, of the force generated, which in turn generates a torque that causes the
aircraft to rotate in a particular direction.
Movement around the lateral axis is known as pitch and is controlled by moveable areas on the rear edge
of the horizontal tail plane called elevators. Raising the elevators decreases the camber of the tail, creating
more downwards force, in turn raising the nose of the aircraft. Moving the elevators down produces the
opposite effect.
Movement about the vertical axis is known as yaw and is controlled by a single moveable area along
the rear edge of the vertical tail known as the rudder. This controls the direction, left or right, in which the
aircraft is pointing.
Movement about the longitudinal axis is known as roll, which is controlled by moveable areas on the
trailing edges of both wings, known as ailerons. The ailerons work in opposite directions, one up and the
other down. The aileron that moves up reduces the lift, so that the wing will drop. The aileron that moves
down causes more lift, so that the wing will rise. The resultant turning effect causes the plane to roll, or
bank.

FIGURE 16.20 Pitch, yaw and roll
Yaw
Longitudinal
Pitch
Roll
Centre of Lateral
gravity
Vertical
16.6.2 Stages of flight

The typical flight of an aircraft contains a number of stages, each of which require a difference balance
between the forces on the aircraft.
• During takeoff the thrust must be significantly greater than the drag so that the aircraft will accelerate
down the runway. Once the aircraft reaches the appropriate speed, the pilot will use the elevator to
raise the nose, increasing the lift. Once the lift is greater than the force due to gravity the aircraft will
accelerate upwards.
• During climb the aircraft will be flying upwards at an angle (figure 16.21a). As a consequence of this
incline, a component of the force due to gravity acts to oppose the motion of the aircraft, requiring
greater thrust to balance this out.
• The cruise stage is where aircraft are designed to spend most of their operating life. During this stage
the forces are in balance; lift equals force due to gravity and thrust equals drag. Minimising drag in this
configuration will minimise fuel consumption.
• When an aircraft makes a turn or manoeuvre to the left or right you’ll notice that it also rolls ‘into’ the
turn (figure 16.21b). This is to re-orient the lift force so that a component of it provides the required
force left or right to cause the aircraft to change direction.
• During the glide or descent phase of flight the nose of the aircraft is pointing slightly downwards
(figure 16.21c). At this angle a component of the force due to gravity acts in the direction of motion of
the aircraft, allowing the thrust to be reduced.
• In preparation for landing the pilot will decrease the speed of the aircraft by reducing the thrust. The
required lift is maintained using moveable devices on the rear of the wing called flaps that increase the
area and camber of the wing, producing more lift at a lower speed.
FIGURE 16.21 Forces during climb, turn and glide
(a) (b) Lift (c)

Lift
Lift
Thrust
Drag
Component of Component Component of
force due to of lift to create force due to
gravity opposing turn gravity in direction
motion of motion
Drag
Thrust
Fg Fg Fg

Unconventional aircraft
The basic configuration of the majority of aircraft in service today is fundamentally the same as almost
a century ago: a cylindrical fuselage, a wing attached towards the front of the fuselage, and a tail with
horizontal and vertical stabilisers at the rear. A number of alternate configurations have been trialled with
varying success. The primary challenge faced by many alternate approaches is creating an aircraft that is
stable and can be controlled. In recent years the development of sophisticated computer-based flight control
systems has made it possible to consider aircraft designs that would never have been viable with manual
controls.
A canard configuration aircraft has the horizontal stabiliser and control surface, called a canard, in front
of the wing. This was the configuration of the Wright Flyer. The primary advantage of this configuration
is that both the canard and the wing can contribute to the lift generated, whereas a typical horizontal tail
opposes the lift of the wing. The interaction between the canard and the wing is complex and was not well
understood in the early decades of aviation.
FIGURE 16.22 A canard in flight
Source: © Brandon Thetford
A flying wing has no fuselage and is in effect a very large wing with all payload carried inside it.
There is potential for a very streamlined and aerodynamically efficient design, however, with significant
complexities in stability, control and engine placement.

FIGURE 16.23 A flying wing aircraft
Source: Transferred from the US Air Force
A v-tail aircraft has two rear surfaces in a v-shape. Advantages of this configuration include reduced
drag as well as enabling different engine placement. This is currently rarely used in passenger aircraft but is
quite common in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
FIGURE 16.24 A v-tail aircraft

Additional alternate configurations that have been explored include: pivoting oblique wings, lifting
bodies, blended wing and body, joined or box wing, multiple fuselage aircraft and wing-in-ground effect
vehicles. Most have been explored in the quest to improve performance, payload or efficiency. With future
pressures to make aviation more efficient and transition to zero emissions transport, it will be interesting to
see if more unconventional configurations come to the fore in future decades.
FIGURE 16.25 Boeing’s X-48B uses blended wing–body technology.
Source: Tony Landis for NASA
High-lift devices
The design of an aircraft is a series of tradeoffs. A typical passenger aircraft spends most of its time at
cruise, and this dominates the basic configuration. When landing, an aircraft needs to travel much slower,
so needs to generate a lot more lift at a lower speed. To do this, aircraft use a range of high-lift devices that
alter the shape and operation of the wing, significantly increasing lift. This also increases drag, however,
this can be overcome by engine thrust and is only for a relatively small period of time.
Flaps are moveable areas at the rear of the wing that increase the wing area and change its camber. This
significantly increases the lift coefficient of the wing.
Slats and slots are devices at the front of the wing that improve the stall performance of the aircraft,
meaning it can fly slower or at higher angles of attack.
FIGURE 16.26 An Airbus A380 preparing to land at Melbourne Airport. To generate enough lift
at the slow speeds required for landing it has its high lift devices extended.
Source: Michael Rosenbrock

16.6 EXERCISE
1. A pilot wishes to raise the nose of an aircraft. What is the name for this type of motion and what is the
primary control surface they will need to use to achieve this?
2. Referring to the balance of forces on an aircraft, explain why aircraft require more thrust during takeoff.
3. Explain how the movement of a control surface causes a change in the motion of an aircraft.
4. Explain what flaps do to the characteristics of the wing in order to provide an increase in lift upon landing.

16.7 Review
16.7.1 Summary
• The primary forces acting on an aircraft in flight are lift, the force due to gravity, thrust and drag.
• The force due to gravity acting on an aircraft is thought of as acting at one position, the centre of
gravity.
• When a force acting on an aircraft in flight is drawn as an arrow, the arrow represents the resultant of
all the component forces that contribute from various parts of the aircraft.
• The Equation of Continuity can be expressed as:
Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2
• The Bernoulli principle was expressed as an equation and states:
1 2
𝜌v + 𝜌gh + P = constant
2
• Another way to express the Bernoulli principle in the context of flight is that ‘faster moving fluids have
lower pressure’.
• The generation of lift by a wing can also be explained using Newton’s third law. The wing pushes the
air downwards and the air pushes the wing upwards.
• There are several types of drag that are created when an aircraft moves through the air. The two main
types are induced drag and parasite drag.
• Parasite drag is the combined effect of skin friction drag and form drag.
• The total drag acting on an aircraft in flight determines the necessary thrust required for the aircraft to
maintain a given airspeed.
• The behaviour of airflow changes when travelling at or beyond the speed of sound. This can lead to the
formation of shockwaves and significant increases in drag.
• Torque is the turning effect of a force about a pivot or reference point.
• An aircraft in flight can move around three different axes: the lateral (known as pitch), the longitudinal
(known as roll) and the vertical (known as yaw).
• The primary control surfaces on an aircraft are the elevator, rudder and ailerons.
• There are six main stages of flight: take-off, climb, cruise, turn, glide and landing. The balance of
forces on the aircraft is different in each stage.

• Wind tunnels are used extensively to test the aerodynamics of aircraft designs.
• An aircraft’s performance can be judged from its lift-to-drag ratio, also known as the glide ratio.
Resources
16.7.2 Key terms
An aerofoil is any surface that extends into the air so as to create a useful force. An aircraft’s wing is an aerofoil
so are the blades of a propeller and an aircraft’s tail surfaces.
The angle of attack is the angle between the undisturbed airflow and the chord line of the wing, which allows an
aerofoil to generate lift.
The Bernoulli principle states that the pressure of a fluid decreases as its velocity increases.
A canard aircraft has a small wing in front of of the main wing.
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight can be considered to act.
The centre of pressure (CP) or centre of lift is the point on an aircraft’s wing at which the lift forces are
considered to be acting.
Control surfaces are moving parts on the surface of an aircraft that are used to change the direction of motion of
the aircraft.
Drag is the rearward-acting force that resists the motion of an aircraft through the air.
Flaps are moveable areas at the rear of the wing that increase the wing area and change its camber.
Fluids are substances that can flow. All liquids and gases are fluids.
Force due to gravity is the force applied to an object with mass due to gravitational attraction.
Form drag is the drag due to the shape or ‘form’ of an object.
A flying wing aircraft does not have a separate fuselage or horizontal tail.
Glide ratio is the ratio of horizontal distance travelled (glide distance) to loss of altitude when gliding.
Induced drag is the component of lift that opposes the motion of the aircraft. It arises from wing tip vortices
which alter the effective angle of attack of the wing.
Lift is the upward-acting force created by a wing moving through the air.
Mach number is the ratio of speed of an aircraft to the speed of sound.
The mechanical power output of a device is the rate at which it does work on an object.
Parasite drag is the name given to the combined effect of skin friction drag and form drag (drag due to the
shape or ‘form’ of a surface).
Pitch refers to the rotation of an aircraft in flight about the lateral axis. It makes the nose move upwards or
downwards.
Roll refers to the rotation of an aircraft in flight about the longitudinal axis. This rotation is commonly referred to
as banking.
Rotational equilibrium is when an object is not rotating.
A shock wave is a propagating disturbance associated with abrupt changes in temperature, pressure and
density.
Skin friction drag is the drag produced by contact between the air and a surface.
Slats and slots are devices at the front of the wing that improve the stall performance of the aircraft.
Stall occurs when the angle of attack is very large. When this happens, turbulence is large, lift decreases and
drag increases.
Static pressure is the pressure caused by the random motion of molecules in a fluid.
Thrust is the forward force that drives an aircraft through the air.
Torque (or moment ) is the turning effect of a force.
A v-tail aircraft has two tail surfaces in a v-shape in place of a conventional horizontal and vertical tail.
A vortex (plural vortices) is a roughly circular whirlpool in a fluid, often occurring in regions of separated flow.
Cyclones and tornadoes are examples of very large vortices.
Yaw refers to rotation of an aircraft in flight about the vertical axis. This rotation points the nose of the aircraft to
the left or right.

Resources
Investigation 16.1
Power and thrust
Aim: To explore the relationship between the power delivered to a propeller driven by a small electric motor, and the
thrust the propeller delivers to a model plane
Investigation 16.2
Bernoulli effects
Aim: To investigate how Bernoulli’s principle applies to moving air

Investigation 16.3
Investigating gliders
Aim: To construct simple gliders to investigate and model various forces associated with flight
Investigation 16.4
Turbulence
Aim: To examine the impact of the velocity and size of an object on causing turbulence
Investigation 16.5
DIY wind tunnel
Aim: To construct a simple wind tunnel and explore fluid flow, lift and drag
16.7 Exercises
1. What is the name given to the location where the lift force acts?
A. Centre of gravity
B. Centre of lift
C. Centre of pressure
D. Centre of wing

2. The air flowing down through a constriction in a wind tunnel decreases to one-quarter its initial speed.
By what factor does the cross-sectional area of the wind tunnel increase by?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 12
D. 16
3. If the speed of an airflow is increased by a factor of three, according to the Bernoulli principle, what
will happen to the pressure?
A. Increase to three times the original value
B. Increase to nine times the original value
C. Decrease to one-third of the original value
D. Decrease to one-ninth of the original value
4. Which type of drag is related to the formation of vortices at the tops of the wings?
A. Parasite drag
B. Form drag
C. Induced drag
D. Skin friction drag
5. In which of the speed regions can the effects of compressibility be reasonably ignored?
A. Hypersonic
B. Subsonic
C. Supersonic
D. Transonic
6. Which of the following would not cause an increase in lift?
A. Extending the flaps
B. Increasing the angle of attack
C. Increasing the air speed
D. Decreasing the thrust
7. In a conventionally configured aircraft where the centre of gravity is forward of the centre of pressure
of the wing, which direction must the force on the horizontal tail be acting to ensure that the aircraft
remains in rotational equilibrium?
A. Forwards
B. Backwards
C. Upwards
D. Downwards
8. What is the balance of forces required during climb?
A. Thrust = drag
B. Thrust < drag
C. Thrust > drag
D. The balance of forces is irrelevant during climb.
9. Which of the primary flight controls on the aircraft is used to control yaw?
A. Elevator
B. Flaps
C. Ailerons
D. Rudder
10. According to the lift force equation, FL = 12 CL 𝜌v2 A, what will happen to the lift force generated if you
halve the speed of the aircraft?
A. Increase to double its initial value
B. Increase to four times its initial value
C. Decrease to half its initial value
D. Decrease to one-quarter its initial value

1. A fluid flows at 6.2 m s–1 in a pipe of diameter 0.48 metres, calculate the speed it will it flow at if the
diameter of the pipe is constricted to 0.12 metres?
2. Above a certain angle of attack, an aerofoil will experience a stall.
a. What happens to the airflow over the top of the aerofoil when stall occurs?
b. What happens to the lift and drag forces acting on the aerofoil once stall occurs?
3. Explain briefly how induced drag is caused and identify one solution used by aircraft designers to
address this issue in modern passenger aircraft designs
4. What can be done to reduce the parasite drag acting on an aircraft?
5. The lift force can be calculated as FL = 12 CL 𝜌v2 A.
a. Which factor in this equation depends on the environmental conditions and cannot be controlled
directly by the pilot or changed by design?
b. Which factors in this equation can be influenced by the design of an aircraft?
c. Which factors in this equation can be controlled by a pilot during flight? Explain how they are
controlled.
6. An aircraft experiences a total drag force of 38 kN while cruising at a speed of 168 m s–1 . Assuming
that all of the energy delivered by the engines is used to provide thrust, what is the total power output of
the engines of the aircraft?
7. A conventionally configured aircraft has the centre of pressure of the wing 5 metres behind the centre
of gravity and the centre of pressure of the tail 16 metres behind the centre of gravity. When it is
cruising in steady level flight, the total upwards lift generated by the wing is 1.45 × 105 N. What is the
magnitude and direction of the force provided by the horizontal tail to keep the aircraft in rotational
balance?
8. The elevator of a conventionally designed aircraft is typically part of the horizontal tail. Compare the
role of the elevator to that of the horizontal tail.
9. An aircraft is flying at a speed of 728 m s–1 .
a. Calculate the Mach number associated with this speed?
b. What speed region is it flying within?
c. What effects, if any, of faster-than-sound travel would you expect to occur at this speed?
10. A glider covers a ground distance of 1.2 kilometres in a straight line while losing 45 metres in altitude.
Determine its glide ratio and lift-to-drag ratio.

The use of external air flowing through a house is a common means of providing ventilation and cooling. In
one such design, air flows in a door opening that is 820 millimetres by 2040 millimetres in size, at a speed
of 3.2 m s–1 . It crosses the house and flows out a window with an opening of dimensions 600 millimetres by
600 millimetres.
a. Will the velocity of the air be slower or faster through the window? Justify your prediction. 2 marks
b. Calculate the velocity of the air through the window. 2 marks
Use your knowledge of either the Bernoulli principle or Newton’s third law to explain in brief and simple
terms how an aerofoil shape can generate lift.
Explain how the ailerons on an aircraft cause it to roll.

An aircraft has been designed in a canard configuration with a single horizontal stabiliser and control
surface ahead of the main wing. The total lift generated by the main wing during cruise is 250 kN. The
force due to gravity on the aircraft is 275 kN.
a. What must the upwards force on the canard wing be for the aircraft to be in translational
equilibrium? 2 marks
b. The distance between the centre of pressure of the main wing and the canard is 9 metres. Assuming that
the aircraft is in rotational equilibrium, determine the location of the centre of gravity. 3 marks
c. Identify one advantage of this canard configuration over a conventional aircraft. 1 mark
Designers in many industries work to reduce the drag experienced by objects such as aircraft, cars, boats
and trucks. Picking one example, explain why this is important, and identify at least two things which can
be addressed in design that can reduce drag.

Test maker

17 How do fusion and fission

compare as viable nuclear
energy power sources?
17.1 Overview
17.1.1 Introduction
We use energy every day of our lives. As such, the need for sustainable sources of energy is continually
growing. Fission and fusion are two ways of extracting energy from the nucleus of atoms. While the
sources of nuclear energy, such as uranium, are classed as non-renewable, they can produce large quantities
of energy from very small fuel quantities, making them fairly sustainable.
This topic investigates the following methods of nuclear energy production:
1. A heavy nucleus splits into two medium-sized nuclei. This nuclear reaction is called fission.
2. Two very light nuclei are forced together to form one nucleus. This reaction is called fusion.
After studying this topic you will be able to compare the two reactions and their associated technologies,
understanding the benefits and risks associated with nuclear energy production.
FIGURE 17.1 The underwater core of the Reed Research Reactor, Reed College, Oregon, USA
Source: United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
TOPIC 17 How do fusion and fission compare as viable nuclear energy power sources? 1
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Energy from the nucleus
• explain nuclear fusion reactions of proton-proton and deuterium-tritium with reference to:
• reactants, products and energy production
• availability of reactants
• energy production compared with mass of fuel
235 239
• explain nuclear fission reactions of U and Pu with reference to:
• fission initiation by slow and fast neutrons respectively
• products of fission including typical unstable fission fragments and energy
• radiation produced by unstable fission fragments
238 239
• describe neutron absorption in U, including formation of Pu
• explain fission chain reactions including:
• the effect of mass and shape on criticality
• neutron absorption and moderation
Nuclear energy as a power source
• compare nuclear fission and fusion with reference to:
• energy released per nucleon and percentage of the mass that is transformed into energy
• limitations as a source of energy for electricity production
• environmental impact
• analyse fission and fusion with reference to their viabilities as energy sources
• describe the energy transfers and transformations in the systems that convert nuclear energy into thermal
energy for subsequent power generation
• explain the risks and benefits for society of using nuclear energy as a power source.

Resources

17.2 Nuclear fusion
KEY CONCEPT
• Explain nuclear fusion reactions of proton-proton and deuterium-tritium with reference to:
• reactants, products and energy production
• energy production compared with mass of fuel.
17.2.1 Proton–proton and deuterium–tritium fusion reactions

As previously mentioned in topic 8, the Sun’s core has a temperature of more than 15 million K, which
is perfect for fusion to occur. Inside the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium. As helium is
more stable than hydrogen, the excess nuclear energy is released. This energy is emitted from the nuclei
as gamma radiation and is eventually received on Earth as light and heat. A part of this process is referred
to as proton–proton fusion, where two protons fuse, then usually the pair instantly break apart, but in
some instances one of the protons is transmuted into a neutron. The resulting proton–neutron pair is call
deuterium (a form of hydrogen). Then another proton collides with deuterium to create helium-3. When
two helium-3 nuclei collide, helium-4 is created plus two extra protons. The equations that demonstrate this
process are:
1 1 2 0
1H + 1H → 1H + 1e + v
2 1 3
1H + 1H → 2H e + 𝛾
3
2H e + 32H e → 42H e + 11H + 11H
Another fusion reaction is a deuterium–tritium fusion reaction, this is a reaction where two atomic nuclei
(deuterium and tritium) are brought so close together that they fuse. They are both positively charged so to
fuse they must overcome this mutual repulsion. This requires them to travel at high speeds, which is only
achieved at high temperatures of about 100 million degrees. This fusion process is:
3
1H + 21H → 42H e + 10n + energy
( 21H is deuterium and 31H is tritium)

The amount of energy required to overcome the strong nuclear forces is known as the binding energy.
This was covered in topic 8 and is revised in the next section.
17.2.2 Binding energy

The amount of energy needed to overcome the strong nuclear force and pull apart a nucleus is known as the
binding energy. This is the amount of energy that has to be added to a nucleus to split it into its individual
nucleons — that is, to reverse the binding process. For example, it would take 2.23 MeV of energy to split a
‘heavy’ hydrogen nucleus into a separate proton and neutron.
Each isotope has its own specific binding energy. Nuclei with high binding energies are very stable as it
takes a lot of energy to split them into separate protons and neutrons. Nuclei with lower binding energies
are easier to split. Of course, it is difficult to supply sufficient energy to cause a nucleus to split totally apart.
It is much more common for a nucleus to eject a small fragment, such as an 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle, to become
more stable.
To compare the binding energies of various nuclei, and therefore their stability, it is necessary to look at
the average binding energy per nucleon. The average binding energy per nucleon is calculated by dividing
the total binding energy of a nucleus by the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
It can be seen from figure 17.2 that iron-56 has one of the highest binding energies per nucleon. This
means it is one of the most stable nuclei. In order to become more stable, other nuclei tend to release some
of their energy. Releasing this energy would decrease the amount of energy they contained, and therefore
increase the amount of energy that must be added to split them apart.
FIGURE 17.2 This graph of binding energy versus mass number peaks at nickel-62, although the much more
common iron-56 is very close behind.
9
14
7N 56
Average binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
8 26 Fe
141 238
4 56 Ba 92 U
2He
7
6
6
3 Li
5
3
3
2 He
2
2
1 1H
1
1H
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Mass number
The binding energy is not only the amount of energy required to separate a nucleus into its component
parts, but also the amount of energy released when those parts are brought together to form the nucleus; that
is, when a proton and a neutron collide to form a ‘heavy’ hydrogen nucleus, 2.23 MeV of energy is released
(twice the binding energy per nucleon).
The curve of the graph in figure 17.2 indicates that if two nuclei with low mass numbers could be joined
together to produce a single nucleus, then a lot of energy would be released. Similarly, if a nucleus with a
very high mass number could split into two fragments with greater binding energy per nucleon, then once
again a lot of energy would be released. These two possibilities were realised in the 1930s. The released
energy can be calculated from Einstein’s equation E = mc2 , where m is the difference between the total
nuclear mass before and after the event, and c is the speed of light.
The joining of two nuclei is nuclear fusion and the splitting of a single nucleus is nuclear fission.
17.2.3 Fusion reactors

Stars are giant fusion reactors, and many people have proposed that fusion reactors could be the answer to
our energy needs. The fusion of hydrogen isotopes to form helium releases a large amount of energy, which
is a result of the large difference in their respective binding energies as seen in figure 17.2.
The practicalities of a fusion reactor, however, are proving difficult. To initiate fusion of hydrogen, the
forces of repulsion between the positive nuclei must be overcome. One way to do this is to give the nuclei
large amounts of kinetic energy by heating them to extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees). It is
incredibly difficult to contain material at such temperatures. Currently, scientists are using magnetic fields

to contain the hydrogen, while laser beams are used to heat it. This method has proved successful, but for
only very short periods of time. Viable production of energy using a fusion reactor is still many years away.
A fusion reactor could not feasibly use the same reactions as the Sun. A reactor on Earth would have to
use a different reaction, preferably a one-step reaction with only two reactants. Three possible reactions for
a terrestrial fusion reactor are:
2
1H + 31H → 42H e + 10n
2
1H + 21H → 31H + 11H
2
1H + 63L i → 42H e + 42H e
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Use data from the following table.

1
Neutron 0
n 1.674 746 × 10–27
2
Hydrogen-2 1H or 21D 3.344 132 × 10–27 2.224 573
3
Hydrogen-3 1H or 31T 5.007 725 × 10–27 8.481 821
4
Helium-4 2H e 6.645 758 × 10–27 28.295 673
6
Lithium-6 3L i 9.987 263 × 10–27 31.994 564
For the third reaction of a terrestrial fusion reactor 21H + 63L i → 42H e + 42H e calculate the:
a. difference between the binding energy of the products and reactants
b. difference between the sum of the masses of the products and the reactants
c. energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV
d. energy released per nucleon in MeV.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Sum the binding energies of the a. Binding energy of reactants = 2.224 573 + 31.994 564
reactants. = 34.219 137 MeV
2. Sum the binding energies of the Binding energy of products = 2 × 28.295 673
products. = 56.591 346 MeV
3. Calculate the difference in the Difference = 56.591 346 − 34.219 137
binding energies. = 22.372 209 MeV
products and reactants is 22.372 209 MeV
b. 1. Sum the masses of the reactants. b. Mass of the reactants = 3.344 132 × 10−27
+ 9.987 263 × 10−27
= 1.333 1395 × 10−26 kg
2. Sum the masses of the products. Mass of products = 2 × 6.645 758 × 10−27
= 1.329 1516 × 10−26 kg
3. Calculate the difference between the Difference = 1.333 1395 × 10−26 − 1.329 1516 × 10−26
two masses. = 3.9879 × 10−29 kg
4. State the solution. The difference between the sum of the masses of the
products and the reactants is 3.9879 × 10–29 kg.
c. 1. Use the equation E = mc2 to c. E = mc2
calculate the energy difference. )2
= 3.9879 × 10−29 × 2.997 924 58 × 108
(
= 3.584 146 × 10−12 J

3.584 146 × 10−12
2. Convert to eV by dividing by In eV =
1.602 176 × 10−19 . 1.602 176 × 10−19
= 22 370 487 eV
22 370 487
3. Convert to MeV by dividing by In MeV =
1.0 × 106 . 1.0 × 106
= 22 370 487 MeV
3.584 146 × 10–12 J or 22.370 487 MeV.
22 370 487
d. 1. Calculate the energy per nucleon by d. Energy released per nuleon =
dividing by the number of nucleons. 8
= 2.796 311 MeV
2. State the solution The energy released per nucleon is 2.796 311 MeV.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Use data from the following table.

1
Neutron 0
n 1.674 746 × 10–27
2
Hydrogen-2 1H or 21D 3.344 132 × 10–27 2.224 573
3 3
Hydrogen-3 1H or 1T 5.007 725 × 10–27 8.481 821
4
Helium-4 2H e 6.645 758 × 10–27 28.295 673
For the first reaction between a deuterium and a tritium nucleus, which forms a helium nucleus
and a neutron, calculate the:
a. difference between the binding energy of the products and sum of the binding energies of the
reactants
b. difference between the sum of masses of the products and the reactants
c. energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and MeV
d. energy released per nucleon of reactants in MeV.

FIGURE 17.3 The stars in Omega Centauri, like all other stars, are giant fusion reactors.
Source: Gordon Mandell / NASA
Resources
Weblink Fusion basics
17.2.4 Availability of deuterium and tritium

Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one proton and one neutron. In nature, only about one in
every 6400 hydrogen atoms is a deuterium atom. However, being twice as heavy as normal hydrogen it is
quite easy to separate. In steam, water molecules with two deuterium atoms have a molecular weight of 20
compared to 18 for most water molecules. This 11% difference in mass means that the heavier molecules on
average travel slower and can be separated in a distillation process.
Water that was almost exclusively deuterium oxide could be made in large quantities by the 1930s. It was
predominately used as a moderator in nuclear reactors. It can be easily extracted from sea water, but most
industrial processes use glacial ice or mountain water.
Tritium is radioactive. It beta decays into helium-3, with a half-life of 4500 days. It is extremely rare;
very small amounts are produced by cosmic rays hitting atoms in the atmosphere. It can be produced inside
nuclear reactors by using the neutrons to bombard targets such as lithium-6.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
a. How many protons and neutrons are in deuterium?
b. What is the difference in mass of deuterium compared to normal hydrogen?
THINK WRITE
a. Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen. a. Deuterium has one proton and one
neutron.
b. Deuterium has one proton and one neutron, both b. Deuterium is twice as heavy as
of which have very similar masses. normal hydrogen.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
a. What is the decay equation for tritium?
b. What is the product formed from bombarding a lithium-6 nucleus with a neutron?
17.2.5 Fusion reactor designs

The key difficulties for fusion reactors are to confine the mixture of deuterium and tritium at a high enough
temperature, at a great enough density and for a long enough time for fusion to occur on a sustainable basis.
Magnetic confinement
In a doughnut-shaped machine a mixture
FIGURE 17.4 A photo of the Alcator C-Mod tokamak at
of deuterium and tritium is constricted MIT. The tokamak (the large upright cylinder at the centre) is
by a magnetic field. An electric current encased within boron-doped concrete for neutron and X-ray
is passed through the gas, heating it up shielding.
to beyond 10 million degrees Celsius.
At these temperatures, electrons are
stripped from atoms, and the gas becomes
a plasma of ions. An example of magnetic
confinement is the tokamak, which is a
Russian-designed fusion reactor concept.
Laser fusion
Over 190 laser beams simultaneously
emit a strong pulse of light on a small
pellet of frozen deuterium and tritium.
About 1.8 million joules of energy hits
the pellet in billionth-of-a-second pulses
and causes fusion.
Source: Jim Irby, Head of Operations, MIT Plasma Science and Fusion
Center

17.2 EXERCISE
1. (a) Define the terms fusion and fission.
(b) Which of these reactions occurs in our Sun?
2. Why does the splitting of uranium-235 nuclei release energy, but the joining of hydrogen atoms also releases
energy?
3. Why is energy released in the process of fusing two small nuclei together?
4. In what form does the energy released from a nuclear fusion reaction appear?
5. Use data from the following table.
Nucleus Symbol Mass (Kg) Total binding energy (MeV)

1 1
Proton 1
p or 1
H 1.673 351 × 10 –27
2
Hydrogen-2 2
1H or 1D 3.344 132 × 10–27 2.224 573
3
Hydrogen-3 3
1H or 1T 5.007 725 × 10 –27
8.481 821
For the reaction:

2
1H + 21H → 31H + 11H
(a) What is the difference between the sum of binding energies of the products and the binding energies of
the reactants?
(b) What is the difference between the sum of masses of the products and the reactants?
(c) What is the energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and in MeV?
(d) Calculate the energy released per nucleon of reactants in MeV.

17.3 Nuclear fission

KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain nuclear fission reactions of 235 U and 239 Pu with reference to:
• fission initiation by slow and fast neutrons respectively
• products of fission including typical unstable fission fragments and energy
• radiation produced by unstable fission fragments.
• Describe neutron absorption in 238 U, including formation of 239 Pu.
• Explain fission chain reactions including:
• the effect of mass and shape on criticality
• neutron absorption and moderation.
17.3.1 Fission fragments

Topic 7 described three different fission reactions of uranium-236. The reactants in each case are a neutron
and a uranium-235 nucleus, but there are many combinations of products. In topic 8 you saw three different
reactions with six different products, but about 30 different elements can be produced, two at a time with
about 100 isotopes among those 30 elements.
FIGURE 17.5 Fission of uranium-236; distribution of fission fragments by mass number
9%
8%
7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
0%
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160
Mass number
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
One of the fragments of the fission of uranium-236 has an atomic mass number of about 137.
What is the species produced?
THINK WRITE
Use a periodic table to determine which The element with the mass number of 137
element has a mass number of 137. is barium, which has a relative atomic
mass of 137.3.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
a. From the graph in figure 17.5, what is the mass number of the most common fragment of
uranium-236 fission?
b. Look up the periodic table to find the most likely atomic number of this fragment.
c. Uranium-236 has 92 protons. Determine the atomic number of the other fragment in the
most common fission reaction.

17.3.2 Fission chain reactions
There were also two or three neutrons emitted with each fission reaction. This allowed the possibility of a
chain reaction with one fission producing two or three others, and so on.
FIGURE 17.6 This is what happens if every free neutron goes on to produce another fission. A situation such
as this quickly releases an enormous amount of energy. It is called an uncontrolled chain reaction and is what
happens in a nuclear bomb.
Reless of
energy
Neutron
Fission
products
Resources
Digital document: Investigation 17.1 Chain reaction with dominoes (doc-31900)
Teacher-led video: Investigation 17.1 Chain reaction with dominoes (tlvd-1074)
17.3.3 Achieving a chain reaction

There are three factors that make achieving a chain reaction very difficult.
1. Uranium has two main naturally occurring isotopes: uranium-235 (0.7%) and uranium-238 (99.3%).
The isotopes’ responses to an incoming neutron are different and depend on the speed of the neutron
(see table 17.1).
2. The high speed of the ejected neutrons: they have kinetic energies about 1 MeV, equivalent to speeds
of 1.4 × 107 m s−1 .
3. If a chain reaction could be achieved, there needs to be a way of controlling or stopping it.
TABLE 17.1 Reactions of uranium isotopes to incoming neutrons
235 238
Neutron speed and energy U U
Very fast neutrons (5 MeV) Few nuclei fission Most nuclei fission
Fast neutrons (1 MeV) Many nuclei fission Very few nuclei fission
Slow neutrons (200 eV) Most nuclei fission Nearly all nuclei absorb neutrons
Very slow neutrons (0.03 eV) All nuclei fission All nuclei absorb neutrons
A high-speed neutron from the fission of a uranium-235 nucleus is travelling too slowly to cause a
uranium-238 nucleus to split. By the time successive collisions slow the neutrons down to a speed to cause
most of the uranium-235 to split, the neutrons will have been gobbled up by the uranium-238 nuclei, which
outnumber the uranium-235 nuclei by about 140 to 1 in naturally occurring uranium. Therefore, a chain
reaction cannot occur in a block of pure natural uranium.
Solutions have been developed for each of the three difficulties mentioned.
1. Increase the proportion of the uranium-235 isotope. This process is called enrichment.
2. Slow down the neutrons very quickly. This is done using a moderator.
3. To control the chain reaction, use a material that readily absorbs neutrons and takes them out of the
reaction, and that can be quickly inserted at a moment’s notice. This is done with control rods.
17.3.4 Enriched uranium

Natural uranium cannot be used for nuclear bombs or power plants because it contains only small amounts
of fissionable uranium-235. The uranium-238 absorbs free neutrons and prevents a sustainable chain
reaction from occurring. Enrichment must be carried out to increase the percentage of uranium-235 in the
ore. Because uranium-235 and uranium-238 isotopes are chemically identical, the process of separating
them is difficult. A number of enrichment methods have been developed, but all are complex and costly.
Enriched uranium for nuclear power plants must contain between 1% and 4% uranium-235. For nuclear
bombs the percentage of uranium-235 must be closer to 97%, because an uncontrolled chain reaction is
required.
FIGURE 17.7 One centrifuge cylinder
Depleted uranium
(increased 238U)
Liquid uranium hexafluoride
Enriched uranium (increased 235U)
Rotating cylinder
Motor

One enrichment method, called the centrifuge system, uses a rotating cylinder that sends the heavier
isotope (uranium-238) in liquid uranium hexafluoride to the outside of the cylinder, where it can be drawn
off, while the uranium-235 diffuses to the centre of the cylinder. To effectively enrich the uranium-235,
thousands of centrifuges are connected in series.
Moderators
A fast neutron bouncing off a uranium nucleus is like a golf ball bouncing off a basketball. The large
difference in mass means that the neutron does not lose much kinetic energy. To slow down quickly, the
neutron needs to collide with something of similar mass, like one billiard ball hitting another billiard ball.
Also, the moderating material should be a liquid or solid at room temperature, reasonably inexpensive,
and not chemically reactive. These constraints mean that ordinary water is commonly used as a moderator.
Other possible moderators are carbon (in the form of graphite) and ‘heavy’ water (water in which the
hydrogen atoms are the deuterium isotope, which has one proton and one neutron).
Control rods
The elements cadmium and boron are deficient in neutrons and readily absorb them. Cadmium and boron
are usually encased within steel control rods that can be rapidly raised or lowered into the reactor.
The first controlled fission reactor was constructed by Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago in
December 1942. He used graphite as the moderator and cadmium for the control rods.
The chain reaction

To create an uncontrollable chain reaction, a large proportion of fissionable nuclei is necessary. If uranium
is the energy source, weapons-grade enriched ore (about 97% uranium-235) is required. This means that
there are very few nuclei present that can absorb the free neutrons without undergoing fission themselves.
Therefore, more of the available neutrons cause an energy release.
Criticality
A large ball of weapons-grade material makes a large nuclear bomb, but a small ball of weapons-grade
material may not make a small nuclear bomb! The difference lies in the volume-to-surface-area ratio. A
small ball has a small ratio of volume to surface area. This means a low proportion of the free neutrons stay
inside the ball where they can initiate a fission. Large balls of weapons-grade material will have a higher
ratio of volume to surface area; therefore, a higher proportion of the free neutrons stay inside the ball to
produce further fissions.
Critical mass is the smallest mass of a fissionable substance which, when formed into a sphere, will
sustain an uncontrolled chain reaction. This mass or criticality varies according to the percentage of
fissionable nuclei in the material and the fissionable isotope used. Any mass less than the critical mass is
known as subcritical.
If the shape of the fissionable material is changed from a sphere to a brick shape, then there is more
surface area available for neutrons to escape the material before initiating another fission reaction. A brick
shape therefore needs to be larger and heavier before it becomes critical. The sphere is the shape with the
smallest surface area for a given volume.
TABLE 17.2 Critical mass and diameter of a sphere of fissionable material
Fissionable nucleus Critical mass Critical diameter
Uranium-235 52 kg 17 cm
Plutonium-239 10 kg 10 cm
Uranium-233 15 kg 11 cm
The critical mass can be reduced by using beryllium around the outside as a neutron reflector. Escaping
neutrons are ‘reflected’ back into the fissionable material, increasing the chances of a fission reaction. The
neutrons collide with the beryllium nuclei and a high proportion bounce back.
FIGURE 17.8 An uncontrolled chain reaction
(a) (b)
A small volume compared

to surface area does not
allow neutrons to stay in
the material, so a small
sphere may not be able to
sustain a chain reaction.
(c)
A large ball has a large A flat sheet of weapons-grade material

volume-to-surface-area ratio. A large cannot sustain a chain reaction. A flat sheet
ball can sustain a chain reaction. has a very low volume-to-surface-area ratio.

17.3 EXERCISE
1. Explain why a large spherical mass of uranium may be able to sustain a chain reaction while the same mass
spread into a flat sheet could not.
2. In what form does the released energy from a nuclear fission reaction appear?
3. Why are neutrons good at initiating nuclear reactions?
4. Describe a chain reaction.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fusion power as compared to fission power?

17.4 Nuclear bomb design

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Explore the effects of nuclear weapons on the surrounding environment.
17.4.1 Fission bombs

With more countries developing nuclear facilities as power sources, the production of nuclear weapons
is growing. One type of nuclear weapon is the fission bomb, which releases massive amounts of energy
by splitting large nuclei. A nuclear fission bomb is simply a lump of fissionable material in which an
uncontrolled chain reaction is allowed to occur. Fortunately, this happens only under fairly specific
conditions.
All fission bombs rely on two or more subcritical masses being brought together to form a critical mass.
The joining of the subcritical masses is usually instigated by the detonation of a small conventional bomb.
FIGURE 17.9 This gun-style bomb is similar to ‘Little Boy’, the bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. It
uses the fission of enriched uranium-235 as its energy source.
(a) Before firing (c) Compressed piece of uranium created

which exceeds critical mass
Separating tube
Two pieces of enriched Explosive charge

uranium-235, both less
than the critical mass (d) Atomic explosion
(b) Detonation
FIGURE 17.10 This implosion bomb is similar to ‘Fat Man’, the bomb dropped on Nagasaki on 10 August 1945. It
uses several subcritical pieces of plutonium-239 as its energy source.
(a) Before firing (b) Detonation (d) Atomic explosion
Detonators
Small pieces of Beryllium shell

plutonium-239 (each Compressed small ball of plutonium-239
less than the critical mass) which exceeds critical mass
and separating material
17.4.2 The effects of nuclear weapons

The size of nuclear weapons is measured according to the mass of TNT needed to produce a similar blast.
Both bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 were about 20-kiloton bombs, meaning they produced a blast similar
to that of 20 thousand tons of TNT. Weapons currently stockpiled around the world are much larger than
this, with 20-megaton bombs being common.
The devastating damage caused by nuclear weapons can be classified in two ways: immediate and long-
term effects.
17.4.3 Immediate effects

Thermal flash
The high temperatures generated by a nuclear blast cause a flash of thermal (heat) radiation to spread out
from ground zero (the centre of the blast). The thermal radiation takes the form of an enormous fireball. A
10-megaton bomb would produce a fireball about 4.3 kilometres in diameter, and the thermal flash emitted
would cause second-degree burns up to 32 kilometres away. Eyesight may also be damaged in any creatures
looking at the fireball. When exposed to such large amounts of thermal radiation, dry grass and paper may
spontaneously ignite, setting fires which may be fanned by the accompanying high winds. Close to ground
zero, most substances are melted, burned or exploded.
Shock wave
Immediately after the detonation of a nuclear bomb, a shock wave spreads out from the centre of the blast.
This high-pressure wave moves out at speeds which may be greater than 3000 km h−1 . It is estimated that
a 10-megaton bomb would irreparably damage houses within a 17.7 kilometre radius, and moderately
damage homes up to 24 kilometres away.
Electromagnetic pulse
The huge amounts of gamma (𝛾) radiation emitted by the nuclear explosion can ionise atoms in the air. The
numerous free electrons produced form strong electromagnetic fields. These fields are capable of destroying
electric and electronic systems, including power distribution systems, telecommunications and computer
networks. Data stored electronically would be wiped from memory chips and flash drives.
Initial nuclear radiation

Enormous amounts of 𝛾 radiation and free neutrons would irradiate everything near the blast. While the
radius of damage due to nuclear radiation would not be as great as for the shock wave or thermal blast, the
severity of the radiation received by people and animals would cause immediate death in most.

FIGURE 17.11 The immediate after-effects of the nuclear bomb explosion in Hiroshima,
Japan, August 1945
Source: United States Department of Energy
17.4.4 Long-term effects

Radioactive fallout
In the days and weeks after a nuclear blast, the radioactive products of the fission reaction, floating as dust
in the atmosphere, would start to return to Earth. Many of these isotopes have long half-lives, ensuring that
their effects would remain for months and years. The fallout from fusion bombs is less than for fission
bombs because radioisotopes are not produced by fusion reactions. (A fusion bomb does still require a
small fission bomb to initiate the fusion reaction.) The radiation from the fallout would ensure that any
remaining people would continue to receive a greater than normal radiation dose for many years.
Nuclear winter
Some scientists have predicted that a so-called nuclear winter may follow large-scale nuclear detonations,
such as in a nuclear war. The dust and smoke brought into the atmosphere by the explosions would gather
as clouds covering great expanses of the sky. Sunlight would be blocked from the Earth’s surface, resulting
in lower temperatures and the destruction of plant life until the clouds finally settled. The ozone layer could
be damaged, leaving the Earth without protection from the Sun’s ultraviolet rays once the dust clouds
cleared.
17.4.5 Fusion bombs

The extreme conditions necessary for the fusion of hydrogen can be created by the detonation of a small
fission bomb. This means a fusion (or hydrogen) bomb is actually two bombs — a small fission bomb that
triggers a much larger fusion explosion. Such weapons are known as thermonuclear, because the initial
explosion creates the intense heat necessary to overcome the repulsion between positive nuclei and allow
them to get close enough for the fusion to occur.
17.4 EXERCISE
1. How can a nuclear bomb contain sufficient fissionable material for an explosion but be transported without
exploding? (Use the term critical mass in your answer.)
2. What energy source was used for the ‘Fat Man’ bomb?
3. What form of radiation is emitted from a nuclear explosion?
4. Why are there long-term effects of a nuclear blast?
5. Why are some weapons referred to thermonuclear?
17.5 Nuclear energy as a power source

KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare nuclear fission and fusion with reference to:
• energy released per nucleon and percentage of the mass that is transformed into energy
• limitations as a source of energy for electricity production
• environmental impact.
• Analyse fission and fusion with reference to their viabilities as energy sources.
• Describe the energy transfers and transformations in the systems that convert nuclear energy into thermal
energy for subsequent power generation.
• Explain the risks and benefits for society of using nuclear energy as a power source.
17.5.1 Nuclear power plants

Many countries use nuclear power to supply their domestic electric
FIGURE 17.12 France uses
power needs. It is the world’s second largest source of low-carbon nuclear power for 72% of its
power (30% of the total in 2016). Four countries get more than 50% electricity.
of their electricity from nuclear energy, another seven countries get
between 50% and 30%. Overall 10.2% of the world’s electric power
is supplied by nuclear energy. In 2019, 31 countries were producing
nuclear energy for domestic use and energy importation.
The amount of pure uranium required to generate this nuclear energy
is about 67 000 tonnes per year. Uranium resources are the amount
of uranium that is known to exist and can be mined. The amount of
uranium resources for various countries shown in figure 17.14.
The world’s current resources of uranium, approximately 5.9
megatonnes, would last about 90 years at existing rates of consumption.
It is expected that further exploration and higher prices will yield
further resources.

FIGURE 17.13 Percentage of electricity supplied by nuclear power in 2018
80
Percentage of energy from nuclear
70
60
power 2018
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sw elg en
e r da
pu ia
Sl nce
U akia
n
un e
Ko a
ch ul ia
n
Sp a
Ja an
itz ium
C a
ia
h na
C nia
Ru SA
Sw ary
M an
So ge co
Br s
Ta ny
ki n
d
rla ia
et In a
So Arm nd
il
Fi blic
m K
H a in
h ni
ai
re
Ira
ric
nd
az
Pa a
n
Re gar
Sl lan
ze B ven
ss
he d
ed
G a
st
ut nti
Ro U
p
Ar exi
w
hi
ut e
a
a
g
a
an
Af
m
ov
kr
nl
i
er
Fr
o
B
N
C
FIGURE 17.14 Uranium resources as in 2018. Data from OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic
Energy Agency.
1 600 000
1 400 000
Uranium resources (tonnes)
1 200 000
1 000 000
800 000
600 000
400 000
200 000
0
lia
an
ia
er
ca
il
na
SA
az
ad
si
di
ib
ig
ra
ri
st
hi
ai
s
U
In
Br
am
Af
an
Ru
st
kr
C
kh
Au
U
C
h
N
za
ut
Ka
So
17.5.2 Generating electricity

There are many energy sources that can readily be converted into electricity. In Australia, coal, gas, hydro
and wind are used to generate commercial quantities of electricity. Australia does not have any nuclear
power plants that produce electricity for use by the community.
Whatever the energy source used to generate electricity, the techniques are surprisingly similar. By
some means, the energy source is used to turn a turbine. The kinetic energy of the turbine is then converted
into electrical energy by a generator. The electrical energy is distributed to the community via a series of
transformers and transmission lines.
Power plants that use coal are very similar to those using nuclear energy. In both cases, the energy is used
to heat water and produce steam, which is then used to turn the turbine.
FIGURE 17.15 Various methods can be used to turn the turbines that allow electricity to be produced.
(a) Thermal power stations. Burning fuel or nuclear reactions release energy. This heats water and products steam,
which travels through pipes and spins the turbines.
(i) Gas or coal

Generator
Turbine
Water Steam
Burning fuel
(ii) Nuclear
Generator
Turbine
Water Steam
Reactor
(b) Hydro-electric power stations. Water rushing down from the dam spins the turbines.
Generator
Dam
Turbine
A NATURAL FISSION REACTOR

In 1972 scientists discovered a site in Gabon, West Africa, which is believed to be the remnant of a natural
fission reactor that operated about 2000 million years ago! Scientists suspected that a natural arrangement of
uranium ore and water had acted like a modern fission reactor when they noticed lower than expected amounts
of uranium-235 in the ore of a mine (0.44% instead of the usual 0.72%). It took some good scientific detective
work to solve the puzzle.
The main evidence for the existence of a natural reactor was the presence of fission products. The graphs
below show the distribution by mass number of the isotopes of the fission product neodymium (Nd). This
evidence leaves little doubt that a natural reactor really did exist: (a) and (c) are virtually identical.
FIGURE 17.16 Evidence for a natural reactor in Gabon: (a) natural reactor site, (b) regular ore and (c) spent
fuel rods from a nuclear power plant
(a) (b) (c)

25 25 25
Percentage
Percentage
Percentage
20 20 20
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
142 143 144 145 146 148 150 142 143 144 145 146 148 150 142 143 144 145 146 148 150
Mass number Mass number Mass number

Nuclear reactors
There are many different styles of nuclear reactor. The pressurised water reactor (PWR) is the most
common. It uses the fission of uranium-235 to produce energy. Generally, nuclear fission reactors have the
same basic components. Figure 17.17 shows the arrangement of a typical nuclear reactor.
17.5.3 Australia’s nuclear reactor

Australia currently has one small uranium-235 reactor, OPAL (Open Pool Australian Light Reactor),
which is used for industrial research and the production of medical isotopes, but not for power production.
Australia had another reactor, HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor), which was closed in January 2007
and permanently decommissioned over the following ten years.
OPAL is a 20-megawatt reactor that uses low enriched uranium fuel and is cooled by ordinary water.
It has twice the power of HIFAR. The reactor core, which contains the nuclear fuel and the moderator,
is about the size of a filing cabinet; it contains 30 kilograms of uranium, including 6 kilograms of
uranium-235. It is designed to produce a stream of neutrons, which are used to irradiate materials to either
identify their structure or to produce radioisotopes for medical or industrial purposes.
17.5.4 Fast breeder reactors

Like coal and gas, the world’s supply of uranium-235 is limited. To overcome this problem, fast breeder
reactors have been developed. These reactors use plutonium-239 as the energy source. Plutonium-239 is
not a naturally occurring isotope; rather, it is produced when uranium-238 captures a neutron and becomes
uranium-239. This unstable isotope releases a 𝛽 − particle and becomes neptunium-239. Another 𝛽 −
particle is then released and the nucleus becomes plutonium-239, a fissionable isotope.
238 239 239 239
92U + 10n → 92U → 93N p + β− → 94P u + β−
Fission reaction for plutonium-239

One possible fission reaction for plutonium-239 is:
239 240 148
94P u + 10n → 94P u → 58C e + 89 1
36K r + 3 0n + energy
Fuel rods in a fast breeder reactor consist of 20% plutonium-239 surrounded by 80% natural uranium. As
the plutonium undergoes fission, it actually produces more plutonium when the uranium-238 is bombarded
with neutrons. In this process more plutonium is produced than is used. This is why they are known as
‘breeder’ reactors. Uranium-238 is much more plentiful than uranium-235, so fast breeder reactors are an
alternative to conventional reactors.
There is another major difference between reactors that use enriched uranium-235 and fast breeder
reactors. Plutonium-239 readily absorbs fast-moving neutrons (hence, the name ‘fast’ breeder). It is
therefore not necessary for these reactors to have a moderator to slow down the free neutrons. Generally
they use liquid sodium as a coolant.
Fast breeder reactors have had a troubled history. France, the United Kingdom and the United States built
a small number of such reactors during the 1950s and 1960s but, due to political factors and the relatively
low cost of conventional uranium fuel, none of these are currently operational. Russia still has two fast
breeder reactors running, and France, Japan, India and China are all planning the construction of new
breeder reactors.
FIGURE 17.17 A nuclear power plant
Control roads
Centainment vessel
Steam
Turbine
Fuel
roads
generator
Steam
generator
Moderator (heat exchanger)
Electricity
Pressure
vessel
Pump
Coolant
Reactor core
Pump Water
Reactore core Coolant

The reactor core is where the fission place to produce energy. The coolant keeps the temperature constant throughout the
It contains the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderatoe and reactor core, and is also used to transfer heat energy from
coolant. A shield of concrete and steel surrounds the core to the reactor core to the heat exchanger. Water is the most
prevent radiation from escaping commonly used coolant. Often it is pumped under higbh
pressure in between the rods and through the rest
Fuel rods of the system. Water under high pressure does not turn into
Fuel rods consist of a number of thin tubes full of pellets of steam, even when the reactor operates at temperatures
fissionable material. Usually the fissionable material is exceeding 300°C. In raectors that do not use graphite as a
enriched uranium–235. Fission occurs inside the fuel moderator, the water acts as both a coolant and a moderator.
rods, releasing nuclear energy. Because the uranium–235 is In graphite–moderated reactors, carbon dioxide
used up in the process of fission, the fuel rods must be (under enormous pressure) is used as a coolant.
replaced regularly.
Containment vessel
Control rods The portions of the nuclear power plant that contain
The purpose of these cadmium or boron control rods is to radioactive material are housed in a containment vessel.
absorb neutrons. This allows the chain reaction to be This is an airtight, concrete and steel structure that isolates
controlled. When the reactor is just starting, the rods can be the reactore from the environment. It prevents any radioactive
raised to allow the number of nuclei being split each second material escaping if an accident occurs. For safety reasons,
to increase. Once the desired level is reached, the rods are containment vessels are designed to withstand a
lowered part way into the reactore core until they absorb plane crashing into them!
sufficient neutrons to maintain the fission at a constant
rate. In case of emergency, safety rods drop fully into the Heat exchanger
core, abosorbing lots of neutrons, and shutting down the In this section of the power plant, heat is transferred from
chain reaction. the reactor coolant to a secondary water system
used to turn the turbines. The purpose of the heat exchanger
Moderator is to keep the water that runs through the reactor
A moderator is used to slow down the neutrons released core separate from the water that travels outside the
during fission. Collisions with the moderator material slow the containment vessel. This is safety precaution as the
neutrons down. Slow–moving, or ‘thermal’, neurons are more coolant water itself can become radioactive.
likely to be absorbed by a uranium–235 nucleus than
fast–moving neutrons. Using a moderator means each
neturon released during fission has a greater chance of
causing another nucleus to underator. Sometimes graphite is
used, but it may catch fire if an accident occurs inside the
reactore core. For this reason, water–moderated reactors
are the only type used in the Western world.

TABLE 17.3 Mass and binding energies of some fission products and reactants

240 −25
Plutonium-240 94
Pu 3.985 755 × 10 1813.454 956
Uranium-236 236
92
U 3.919 629 × 10−25 1790.415 039
Cerium-148 148
58
Ce 2.455 916 × 10−25 1219.569 580
141 −25
Barium-141 56
Ba 2.339 939 × 10 1173.974 609
Krypton-92 92
36
Kr 1.526 470 × 10−25 783.185 242
Krypton-89 89
36
Kr 1.476 512 × 10−25 766.909 351
1 −27
Neutron 0
n 1.674 746 × 10
Proton 1
1
P or 11H 1.673 351 × 10−27
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Use table 17.3 to answer the following questions about the fission of uranium-236 to barium-141
and krypton-92.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of
the binding energies of the two fission fragments?
b. What is the difference between the mass of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the masses
of all the fission fragments, including neutrons?
THINK WRITE
236
a. 1. Write out the fission equation. a. 92U → 141 92 1
56B a + 36K r + 3 0n + energy
2. Use table 17.3 to find the binding Binding energy of uranium-236 = 1790.415 039 MeV
energy of uranium-236.
3. Calculate the sum of the binding Binding energy of barium-141 = 1173.974 609 MeV
energies of the fragments. Binding energy of krypton-92 = 783.185 242 MeV
1173.974 609 + 783.185 242 = 1957.159 851 MeV
4. Calculate the difference between the Energy difference = 1957.159 851 – 1790.415 039
binding energy of the uranium = 166.744 812 MeV
nucleus and its fission fragments.
uranium nucleus and its fission fragments is
166.744 812 MeV.
b. 1. Use table 17.3 to find the mass of b. Mass of uranium-236 = 3.919 629 × 10−25 kg
uranium-236.
2. Calculate the sum of the masses of Mass of barium-141 = 2.339 939 × 10−25
the fragments. Mass of krypton-92 = 1.526 470 × 10−25
Mass of a neutron = 1.674 746 × 10−27
2.339 939 × 10−25
+ 1.526 470 × 10−25
+ 3 × 1.674 746 × 10−27
= 3.916 651 × 10−25 kg
3. Calculate the difference between the Mass difference = 3.919 629 × 10−25
mass of the uranium nucleus and its − 3.916 651 × 10−25
fission fragments.
= 2.978 × 10−28 kg
4. State the solution. The difference between the mass of the uranium nucleus
and its fission fragments is 2.978 × 10–28 kg.
c. 1. Use E = mc2 to calculate the energy c. E = mc2
difference in joules. )2
= 2.978 × 10−28 × 2.997 924 58 × 108
(
= 2.676 493 × 10−11 J

2.676 493 × 10−11
2. Convert to MeV by dividing by = 167.053 615 MeV
1.602 176 × 10−13 . 1.602 176 × 10−13
3. State the solution. The energy equivalent of the mass difference is
2.676 493 × 10−11 J or 167.053 615 MeV.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A plutonium-239 nucleus absorbs a neutron to become plutonium-240, which splits to form
krypton-89, cerium-148 and three neutrons. Use the data in table 17.3 to answer the following
questions.
a. What is the difference between the binding energy of the plutonium-240 nucleus and the
sum of the binding energies of the two fission fragments?
b. What is the difference between the mass of the plutonium-240 nucleus and the sum of the
masses of all the fission fragments, including neutrons?
Resources
Weblink Nuclear power plant simulation
17.5.5 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

On Friday 11th March 2011, an earthquake, measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale, occurred about 70
kilometres off the east coast of Japan. It was the fourth most powerful earthquake since modern records
began in 1900. As well as structural damage on the coast, the earthquake produced a tsunami that reached
heights of 40 metres and travelled 10 kilometres inland.
Fukushima Daiichi is a complex of six nuclear reactors. It was built on a bluff that was reduced to a
height of 10 metres above sea level to give solid foundations.
On the day of the earthquake only three units (1, 2 and 3) were operating; the others were shut down for
maintenance. The earthquake produced a ground acceleration of 5.5 m s–2 at unit 2, which was above the
design tolerance for that reactor of 4.4 m s–2 .
Immediately after the earthquake, the control rods automatically shut down the fission reactions, but there
was still heat in the reactor core, sufficient to require active cooling for several days to prevent the fuel rods
melting.

The tsunami arrived 50 minutes after the earthquake. The tsunami height at Fukushima was 14 metres,
which flooded the low-lying rooms and disabled the emergency diesel generators. The battery operated
emergency generators took over, but ran out of power the next day and cooling of the reactor core stopped.
Replacement batteries were delayed by poor road conditions. Over the next few days, with increasing
reactor temperature, the zirconium coating of the fuel rods reacted with water to produce hydrogen in each
of the three reactors. The hydrogen gas vented out of the reactor vessel, mixed with air and exploded in the
outer secondary containment building causing a fire.
It is estimated that most of the fuel in each of the reactor cores melted and is now on the concrete floor
of the containment vessels. Radioactive material, consisting mainly of iodine-131, caesium-134 and
caesium-137, was released from the reactors by the following mechanisms:
• deliberate venting to reduce gas pressure in the containment vessels
• deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea
• uncontrolled events.
All three radioactive isotopes released undergo beta decay with the following half-lives:
• iodine-131 — 8 days
• caesium-134 — 2 years
• caesium-137 — 30 years.
Radioactive material vented to the atmosphere eventually falls out from the atmosphere downwind of the
site (hence, the term ‘fallout’). If the material falls on pasture, it can enter the food chain. Iodine is found
in cow’s milk and when consumed it concentrates in the thyroid. After the Chernobyl disaster, there was an
increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer among children. In Japan after the Fukushima accident, care was
taken to break the food chain and also to remove the caesium-contaminated topsoil. There was no increase
in the incidence of thyroid cancer in Japan, but the psychological effects of relocation and uncertainty are
now becoming noticeable.
Caesium-137 is the main health concern in decontaminating land around Fukushima. In the first few
months following the tsunami, about 8 kilograms of caesium-137 flowed into the ocean. Fortunately the
currents off the coast are rapid and the caesium dispersed to low concentrations.
Atmospheric releases of radioisotopes spread around the world, reaching the west coast of the United
States two days after the explosions. Measurements across the globe suggested that the release of radiation
was about 10–40% that of the Chernobyl disaster and covered an area about 10% the size.
The World Health Organization (WHO)
FIGURE 17.18 Damage to the roof of the outer containment
indicated that people who were evacuated building at the Fukushima power plant due to the hydrogen air
from the area around Fukushima were explosions in each of the three reactors
exposed to so little radiation that
radiation-induced health effects are likely
to be below detectable levels. However,
decommissioning the reactors remains a
problem, with radioactivity seeming to
still leak into the groundwater.
The Fukushima Nuclear Accident
Independent Investigation Commission
found the nuclear disaster was man-
made and that its direct causes were all
foreseeable. The report also found that the
plant was incapable of withstanding the
earthquake and tsunami. The company,
the regulators and the government body
promoting the nuclear power industry all
failed to meet the most basic safety requirements, such as assessing the probability of damage, preparing for
containing collateral damage from such a disaster and developing evacuation plans.
DISASTER AT CHERNOBYL
As in any other industry, accidents have occurred in the nuclear power industry. In most cases the damage has
been minimal, and was contained inside the reactor without posing danger to nearby communities. This is due
to the large number of safety features incorporated into reactor design. Unfortunately, on 26 April 1986, a major
accident happened at Chernobyl, near Kiev — then part of the Soviet Union.
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant reactors were graphite moderated and water cooled. Unlike those in
Western countries, Soviet reactors were sometimes built without a containment vessel and the Chernobyl
reactors were of this kind.
On the day before the accident, one of the reactors at the power plant had been reduced to running at about
50% of its usual power output and the emergency core cooling systems had been switched off to allow tests
to be carried out. The tests were to measure the effectiveness of modifications that had been made to the
generators and were not due to concerns about the reactor core.
Just after 1 am on 26 April, the operators had to make changes to the system in order to get the reactor to
behave in a way that would allow the test to continue. When another change was made to set the system up for
the tests, the reactor became more unstable and could no longer be controlled. The operator tried to insert the
control rods fully to stop the reaction. In four seconds the power rose to 100 times its normal level and a steam
explosion occurred.
The temperature of the core reached about 5000 K, one-third of the fuel was destroyed by the explosion and
about one-tenth of the core (mostly the graphite moderator) was burned, releasing about 4% of the fuel into the
atmosphere because there was no containment vessel. Two staff were killed at the time of the accident — one
was hit by a jet of steam, the other by a block of concrete. A further 300 reactor staff and emergency workers
were treated in hospital, and 29 of them died of acute radiation poisoning.
FIGURE 17.19 A giant confinement arch 150 metres long and 92 metres high is now
being constructed at the Chernobyl site to prevent leakage of radioactive material.
This is the second sarcophagus for the Chernobyl reactor. The first is beginning to
break down. Components of the new shell are being assembled off site, as the air
above the reactor is still too radioactive for humans. When completed, the shell will be
rolled over the reactor to the left.
The International Nuclear Safety Group investigated the causes of the Chernobyl disaster. They concluded
that there were problems with the design of the reactor and with the test procedures, which contributed to the
accident. In addition, investigators felt that operators were not fully aware of safety issues, due to a poor ‘safety
culture’, both locally and nationally. As a result of the investigation, much has been learned about design and
safety of reactors in general, and about Soviet reactors in particular.

17.5.6 Nuclear wastes
High-level waste
Fission reactors do not produce as much waste as coal or gas power plants, but the waste they do produce
is highly radioactive. When fission occurs inside the fuel rods, the fission fragments produced are unstable.
These fragments then undergo a series of radioactive decays to become more stable. Commonly the fission
fragments release 𝛽 − particles in order to increase the number of protons in the nucleus. Some of the
isotopes produced have very short half-lives, while others have longer half-lives.
Two frequently produced fission fragments and their decay chains are:
94 94 94
38S r → 39Y → 40Z r (stable)
140 140 140 140 140
54X e → 55C s → 56B a → 57L a → 58C e (stable)
The used (or spent) fuel rods can be reprocessed. During this procedure any unused fuel is removed
from the rods for reuse. Plutonium produced in the fuel rods is also separated. The remnants are classified
as high-level waste. While such waste does not take up a lot of space, it is highly radioactive. It has been
estimated that high-level waste will take about 1000 years to return to the same level of radioactivity as the
uranium ore that was originally mined, and at least 5 million years before there is no longer any significant
radiation. High-level waste must be stored in shielded containers to prevent radiation escaping into the
environment. It must also be cooled to stop overheating. Australia does not produce any high-level waste.
SPENT FUEL RODS IN THE US

The United States has so far refused to reprocess spent fuel rods. The reason is concern that the plutonium-239
that is removed during reprocessing may be illegally used to manufacture nuclear weapons.
Medium-level waste
In addition to the fuel rods, all other material in the reactor core is exposed to a huge amount of radiation.
Some of this radiation can be absorbed by the material, which itself becomes radioactive. The fuel
containers, pipes, gauges and other reactor components are classified as medium-level waste. This waste
does not require cooling, but still needs to be shielded.
Radioactive isotopes used in medicine and industry are classified as medium-level waste once their useful
life is over.
Low-level waste
Used protective clothing, water from showers and the cleaning of protective gear, and old plant equipment
all make up low-level waste. Often such waste contains levels of radiation that are just above safe levels,
or isotopes with very short half-lives or low activities. Sometimes these wastes can be released into the
environment after being diluted, or simply stored for a short time. Low-level waste does not require
shielding during handling. Such waste has a dose rate of about 2 millisieverts per hour. If the dose rate is
above this, then waste is classified as intermediate-level and needs shielding.
Waste disposal
Because of the long life of high- and medium-level radioactive waste, careful consideration must be given
to its storage. At present most waste is planned to be stored underground in geologically stable areas away
from underground water.
Some of the waste is simply placed in steel storage canisters. Another option is to fuse the waste into
glass blocks — a process called vitrification. Australian scientists have developed a process by which
wastes are encapsulated in an artificial rock dubbed ‘Synroc’. In this synthetic substance, the waste is
incorporated into the crystal lattice, making it resistant to high temperatures and water. These properties
make Synroc ideal for underground storage of nuclear wastes. It can resist the high temperatures present
very deep in the Earth’s crust, and heat produced by radioactive decay. Underground water supplies will not
break down Synroc, thus avoiding the possibility that the waste will contaminate water supplies. Natural
rocks with similar composition to Synroc have been known to survive harsh conditions for millions of
years. It is hoped that Synroc will do the same.
Storage of nuclear waste deep in the oceans has also been used by some countries. While this is mostly
used for lower level wastes, it is still a source of concern for environmentalists because the metal storage
canisters will corrode in time, allowing the radioactive contents to leak into the world’s oceans.
Suggestions have been made that nuclear waste should be shot away from the Earth in rockets, possibly
into the Sun’s core (although the amount of energy needed to do this makes it prohibitive). It is not known,
however, what effect this might have on the stability of the Sun! In addition, the possibility of a rocket
carrying nuclear waste exploding in our atmosphere, or crashing back to Earth, is not something most
governments would be prepared to risk.
17.5.7 Energy released

As we discovered in sample problem 4, the amount of energy released by the fission of uranium-236 to
produce barium-141 an krypton-92 is approximately 167 MeV.
There are two measures of the energy released that can be used to compare nuclear reactions, in
particular fission and fusion reactions. They are:
• energy released per nucleon
• percentage of mass that is transformed into energy.
Energy released per nucleon
In the fission of uranium-236, there are a total of 236 protons and neutrons involved. So:
167 MeV
energy released per nucleon =
236
= 0.71 MeV
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Uranium-236 undergoes a fission reaction releasing 172.646 963 MeV of energy. Calculate how
much energy is released per nucleon in MeV.
THINK WRITE
1. Nucleons are the total number of protons and There are 236 nucleons in uranium-236.
neutron in uranium-236.
172.646 963
2. The energy per nucleon is calculated by Energy per nucleon =
dividing the energy by the number of nucleons. 236
= 0.731 554 MeV
3. State the solution. 0.731 554 MeV of energy is released per
nucleon in the fission reaction.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Fission of uranium-236 to xenon-140 and strontium-94 releases 178.189 774 MeV of energy. Calculate
the energy released per nucleon for this reaction.

17.5.8 Percentage of mass that is transformed into energy
The total mass of the fission fragments including the neutrons is less than the mass of the starting
uranium-236 nucleus. This missing mass has appeared as the 167 MeV of kinetic energy of the fragments.
It is useful to know how much mass this 167 MeV represents.
The amount of missing mass can be calculate using E = mc2 , but first the energy of 167 MeV needs to
be converted into joules. 1 MeV = 1.602 176 × 10–13 joules. The number comes from the charge on the
electron: 1.602 176 × 10–19 coulomb.
The other number required is the speed of light, c = 2.997 924 58 × 108 m s1 .
Energy released in MeV = 167 MeV

Energy released in joules = 167 MeV × 1.602 176 × 10−13 J MeV−1
= 2.675 634 × 10−11 J
2.675 634 × 10−11

Missing mass =
(2.997 924 58 × 108 )2
= 2.977 044 × 10−28 kg
The percentage of the original uranium-236 nucleus converted into energy can now be determined. The
mass of the uranium-236 nucleus is 3.919 629 × 10–25 kg.
2.977 044 × 10−28

Percentage = × 100
3.919 629 × 10−25
= 0.076%
17.5.9 Environmental impact of a fusion reactor

The advantages of a fusion reactor over fission are that there is no chain reaction that could possibly
run away, and there is no radioactive waste. Any accident is not likely to require the evacuation of the
surrounding area. Neutrons will be emitted from the reaction vessel, but they can be stopped by a thick
containment vessel. Tritium is radioactive with a reasonably long half-life, but if accidentally released into
water, it is impossible to remove and will flow through the planet’s water cycle.
17.5.10 Conclusion
Having studied this topic, you are now in a position to compare fission and fusion on each of the
following aspects:
• the reactants — that is, the starting material for the reaction
• how the reaction is initiated
• the products at the end of the reaction
• how plentiful and easily obtained the reactants are
• how much energy is produced
• the opportunities and difficulties of the technology being used as a source of society’s energy
• the environmental impact of the technology
• the risks and benefits for society of using nuclear energy as a power source.
The thermodynamics topics also invited you to investigate solar thermal technology as a power source for
society, so you may wish to include that technology as part of your comparison.
17.5 EXERCISE
1. Make a list of the similarities and differences between the way electricity is produced in a nuclear power
plant and the way it is produced in a coal-burning plant.
2. How do control rods allow the fission chain reaction to be controlled?
3. Explain why fast breeder reactors are likely to be the main producers of nuclear power in the future.
4. Enriching uranium is difficult. Why?
5. After the explosion at the Chernobyl reactor, tonnes of lead, sand and boron were dropped into the reactor.
Why was boron used?
6. Why are ‘thermal’ reactors so called?
7. What do control rods control?
8. What does the phrase ‘reprocessing of spent fuel rods’ mean?
17.6 Review
17.6.1 Summary
• Fission reactions occur when a nucleus is split into smaller, more stable fission fragments. If every
neutron released in fission is free to initiate more fission reactions, an uncontrolled chain reaction
occurs. Controlled chain reactions occur when some of the free neutrons are absorbed by
non-fissionable substances.
• Nuclear reactors use the energy generated by controlled chain reactions to heat water. The steam
produced turns the turbines that produce electricity.
• The fuel in some nuclear reactors is more likely to undergo fission when it absorbs slow-moving
neutrons. Moderators are used in these reactors to slow down neutrons. Control rods start and stop the
nuclear reaction by absorbing neutrons.
• The amount of uranium-235 in natural uranium is not enough to sustain a chain reaction. In order for
uranium to be used in some types of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons, the percentage of
uranium-235 needs to be increased to 1–4% for nuclear reactors and 97% for weapons.
• The fuel in fast breeder reactors undergoes fission when it absorbs fast-moving neutrons. Its fuel does
not need to be enriched, because it uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238 as the fuel source.
The reaction is:
238 239 239 239
92U + 10n → 92U → 93N p + β− → 94P u + β−
• A critical mass is needed for a sustainable chain reaction.

• The nuclear fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium is a possible energy source.
• The processes of nuclear fission and fusion can be compared by a variety of measures including energy
released per nucleon and percentage of mass lost.

Resources
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the
studyON: Revision and practice exam question booklet (sonr-0042).
17.6.2 Key terms
A chain reaction occurs when neutrons, emitted from the decay of one atom, are free to initiate fission in
surrounding nuclei.
Control rods start and stop the nuclear reaction by absorbing neutrons.
Critical mass of a fissionable substance is the smallest spherical mass that will sustain an uncontrolled chain
reaction.
Enrichment is the process of increasing the percentage of uranium-235 in a sample of uranium. Enrichment is
important because naturally occurring uranium does not have a high enough percentage of uranium-235 to
sustain a chain reaction.
High-level waste does not take up a lot of space but is highly radioactive. High-level waste needs to be stored in
shielded containers and cooled to stop overheating.
Low-level waste contains levels of radiation that are just above safe levels, or isotopes with very short half-lives
or low activities. Low-level waste is either stored for a short time and then released into the environment, or
released immediately, without first being stored.
Medium-level waste does not require cooling, but still needs to be shielded.
A moderator is a material that slows down the speed of a neutron.
A nuclear winter may follow large-scale nuclear detonations. It involves the blocking of sunlight by the smoke,
dust and soot produced by a nuclear explosion. The reduction of sunlight would lead to a drop in the Earth’s
temperature and interrupt vital processes such as photosynthesis
A thermonuclear weapons are those whose initial fission explosion provides the intense heat necessary to
overcome the repulsion between positive nuclei and allow them to get close enough for fusion to occur.
Resources
Investigation 17.1
Chain reaction with dominoes
Aim: To model controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions in

nuclear fission using dominoes

Resources
17.6 Exercises
1. Which of the following is the isotope tritium?
2
A. 1H
3
B. 1H
1
C. 1H
2
D. 1D
2. Under what conditions can fusion occur?
A. Electric field
B. Bright light
C. High temperature
D. In water
3. Which of the following is one of the three possible reactions for a terrestrial fusion reactor?
3 3 6
A. 1H + 1H → 2H e + 10n
4 3
B. 2H e + 1H → 43L i + 3 10n
1
C. 1H + 11H → 22H e + 10n
2
D. 1H + 31H → 42H e + 10n
4. Tritium is radioactive and it decays into helium-3. What form of decay does it undergo?
A. Alpha
B. Beta
C. Gamma
D. X-ray
5. When uranium-235 collides with a neutron, which of the following is a possible chemical equation?
235 141 92
A. 92U + 10n → 46P d + 36K r + 3 10n
235 87 146
B. 92U + 10n → 35B r + 67L a + 3 10n
235 141 92
C. 92U + 10n → 56B r + 36K r + 3 10n
235 147 89
D. 92U + 10n → 58C e + 36K r + 3 10n
6. One of the fragments of fission of uranium-236 has an atomic mass number of about 96. What is the
most likely species produced?
A. Gold
B. Barium
C. Caesium
D. Rubidium
7. Which of the following is one of the processes used to overcome difficulties in causing a chain
reaction?
A. Engaging
B. Enhancing
C. Enrichment
D. Evolving
8. The process to slow down the neutrons very quickly is done using which of the following?
A. A net
B. A moderator
C. Water
D. Heat

9. Why are neutrons good for initialising a chain reaction?
A. They are neutrally charged.
B. They are light.
C. They are heavy.
D. They are large in size.
10. An element that has 105 protons and 125 neutrons releases 180.5465 MeV. What is the energy released
per nucleon?
A. 1.7195 MeV
B. 0.7850 MeV
C. 1.4444 MeV
D. 0.8570 MeV

1. Explain the how a chain reaction works.
2. Write the equations that make up the three-stage fusion process which occurs in the Sun to convert
hydrogen to helium.
3. Given the general equation A + B → C + D and using the following table, calculate the:
a. difference between the binding energy of products and reactants
b. difference between the sum of masses of the products and reactants
Symbol Mass (kg) Total binding energy (MeV)

−25
A 3.610 422 × 10 1467.164 791
B 1.956 117 × 10−27 0
−25
C 2.307 189 × 10 890.065 063
D 1.321 596 × 10−25 644.312 162
4. Using the values from your solution to question 3, calculate the:

a. energy released per nucleon of reactants in MeV, given the reactants have 72 protons and 106
neutrons combined
b. percentage of mass transformed into energy.
5. How and why are control rods used in nuclear reactors?
6. How does a nuclear reactor generate electricity?
7. What is the difference between a moderator and a control rod in a nuclear reactor?
8. What is the critical mass of a fissionable substance?
9. What are the advantages of a fusion reactor compared to a fission reactor?
10. The mass difference of a fission reaction is 3.723 48 × 10−28 kg. If the mass of the original uranium-236
nucleus is 3.919 629 × 10−25 kg, calculate the percentage of the original uranium-236 nucleus that is
converted into energy.

For the fission equation 236 85 148 1
92U → 35B r + 67L a + 3 0n , calculate the mass difference between the fragments
and the uranium-236 nucleus given the following information.
Mass of uranium-236 = 3.919 629 × 10−25 kg

Mass of lanthanum-148 = 2.456 472 × 10−25 kg
Mass of bromine-85 = 1.410 057 × 10−25 kg
Mass of neutron = 1.674 746 × 10−27 kg
The fission of uranium-236 to barium-141 and krypton-92 releases 166.744 812 MeV of energy. Use the
data in table 17.3 to calculate the percentage of mass transformed into energy.
Nuclear reactors do not produce as much waste as coal or gas power plants, but they do produce what is
described as high, medium and low-level waste. Describe each level of waste from a nuclear reactor and
how it must be handled or disposed of.
Describe the difference between a fission and fusion bomb.
236 137
Consider the fission reaction 92U → 52T e + 97 1
40Z r + 2 0n .
Use the following values.

236 −25
Uranium-236 92
U 3.919 629 × 10 1790.415 039
Tellurium-137 137
52
Te 2.273 507 × 10−25 1139.760 337
97 −25
Zirconium-97 40
Zr 1.609 304 × 10 837.065 893
1 −27
Neutron 0
n 1.674 746 × 10
Calculate the:
a. difference between the mass of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the binding energies of the
fission fragments 2 marks
b. difference between the mass of the uranium-236 nucleus and the sum of the masses of the fission
fragments, including neutrons 2 marks
c. energy equivalent of this mass difference in joules and in MeV 2 marks
d. energy released per nucleon in MeV 1 mark
e. percentage of mass transformed into energy. 2 marks

Test maker

18 How is radiation used to

maintain human health?
18.1 Overview
18.1.1 Introduction
The models used by physicists to explain the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation and the nucleus of
the atom have provided the basis for huge improvements in medical diagnosis and treatments during the
last century. In this topic we will look at how electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation are used in
medical imaging and diagnosis.
FIGURE 18.1 Using computer analysis, the data from images of ‘slices’ through the body can be combined to
produce a three-dimensional image of the area under investigation.
TOPIC 18 How is radiation used to maintain human health? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Radiation and the human body
• distinguish between electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation
• describe how X-rays for medical use are produced including the distinction between soft and hard X-rays
• describe how medical radioisotopes may be produced by neutron bombardment and high energy collisions
• analyse decay series diagrams of medical radioisotopes with reference to type of decay and stability of
isotopes
• explain the effects of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation on humans, including:

• compare ionising and non-ionising radiation with reference to how each affects living tissues and cells
• different capacities to cause cell damage

• short- and long-term effects of low and high doses
• ionising impacts of radioactive sources outside and inside the body
• calculations of absorbed dose (gray), equivalent dose (sievert) and effective dose (sievert)
The use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment of human illness and disease
computed tomography (CT), 𝛾 radiation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single photon emission
• compare the processes of, and images produced by, medical imaging using two or more of X-rays,
computed tomography(SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET)

• describe applications of medical radioisotopes in imaging and diagnosis
• explain the use of medical radioisotopes in therapy including the effects on healthy and damaged tissues
• relate the detection and penetrating properties of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation to their use in different medical
and cells
applications
• analyse the strengths and limitations of a selected contemporary diagnostic or therapeutic radiation
technique.
Resources

18.2 Radiation and the human body
KEY CONCEPTS
• Distinguish between electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation.
• Describe how X-rays for medical use are produced including the distinction between soft and hard X-rays.
• Explain the effects of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation on humans, including:

• Compare ionising and non-ionising radiation with reference to how each affects living tissues and cells.
• different capacities to cause cell damage

• short- and long-term effects of low and high doses
• ionising impacts of radioactive sources outside and inside the body
• calculations of absorbed dose (gray), equivalent dose (sievert) and effective dose (sievert).
18.2.1 Electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation

Ionising radiation is the collective name given to 𝛼 and 𝛽 particles, neutrons that have been released
from the nucleus, 𝛾 rays and X-rays. These forms of radiation are grouped together because they have high
energies and therefore similar effects on matter. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as radio
waves, microwaves and visible light, have lower energies and do not interact with matter in the same way.
They are non-ionising radiations.
X-rays are the only type of ionising radiation that are not formed by changes in the nucleus. They result
from large energy losses by electrons.
Ionising radiation has sufficient energy to knock an electron from its orbit around a nucleus. Once an
electron has been knocked away from the nucleus, the atom has more positive charges (protons) than
negative charges (electrons), giving the atom an overall positive charge. Atoms that have an overall charge
are called ions, hence, the name ionising radiation.
Sometimes the electron that is knocked from the atom is part of a bond between one atom and another.
This causes the bond to be broken, and can result in the molecule being split in two. Each piece of the
molecule would then have a charge. The charged pieces are called free radicals.
Both ions and free radicals are chemically very reactive. This may result in new chemical reactions
taking place inside the substance that was exposed to the ionising radiation.
18.2.2 What are X-rays?

X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very high frequency
FIGURE 18.2 An X-ray of the lungs
and very short wavelength, in the range 0.001 nm to 10 nm. showing damage due to tuberculosis
Because of their high frequency, and hence high energy, they
can penetrate flesh and may cause ionisation of atoms they
encounter on the way through.
When X-rays pass through the body, the body tissue
absorbs energy and the intensity of the beam is reduced.
The more dense material, such as bone, absorbs more
X-radiation.
18.2.3 Production of X-rays

X-rays are emitted from a cathode-ray tube when the
cathode rays strike the glass of the tube. Similar principles
are used to produce X-rays for medical diagnosis.
A cross-section of an X-ray tube is shown in figure 18.3.
The tube is highly evacuated and a very high voltage, from
25 000 to 250 000 volts, is applied between the anode and
cathode. The cathode is a filament of wire through which a

current is passed. Electrons are emitted from the hot filament and a metal focusing cup directs the electrons
towards the anode. The very high voltage between the cathode and anode accelerates the electrons to the
anode. The anode is usually made of tungsten that can withstand the high temperatures generated. When the
electrons strike the tungsten they are absorbed and some of their energy is converted to X-rays. By placing
the tungsten target at an angle to the incoming electron beam, the X-rays emitted from the tungsten can be
sent in a predetermined direction.
FIGURE 18.3 An X-ray tube
Evacuated chamber
Heated
filament
Electron beam Anode mounting (copper)
Coolant
circulates here
Metal target
(tungsten)
X–rays Window
Very high potential difference
Tungsten is usually used for the target as it has a very high melting point of about 3400 °C and emits
X-rays when struck by electrons. This is not a very efficient way to produce X-rays as only about 1% of
the energy reaching the target is converted to X-rays. The rest is converted to thermal energy in the target
— enough to heat a cup of water to boiling point in one second. Hence, it is important to prevent the target
from overheating or melting. Copper — a good conductor of heat — is used for the anode mountings and
oil, circulating in the outer region near the anode, helps the cooling by convection. Rotating the target at a
rapid rate, approximately 3600 revolutions per minute, also allows the heat produced to be distributed over
a large area.
18.2.4 Hard and soft X-rays

An X-ray beam consists of a range of frequencies. A thin sheet of material placed in the path of the X-ray
beam acts as a filter and absorbs more low frequency rays than high frequency rays. The beam will then
have a greater proportion of high frequency (high energy) rays, which are more penetrating than the low
frequency rays. The beam is said to consist of hard X-rays.
By contrast, a beam of X-rays with lower frequency rays has less energy, is less penetrating and is said to
consist of soft X-rays. Note that the higher the frequency of the rays, the shorter their wavelength.
Hard X-rays are preferred for imaging as they penetrate the body and are absorbed by material such as
bone, allowing images of the bone to be observed. Soft X-rays are not useful for imaging as they will not
penetrate the body. They expose the patient to additional useless and possibly harmful X-radiation.
18.2.5 Ionising radiation and living things

The chemical changes resulting from the production of ions and free radicals in living cells can have a
therefore, it is often water molecules that are broken. This results in the production of H+ and OH− ions,
range of effects. The cytoplasm (the part of the cell that surrounds the nucleus) has a high water content,

which are chemically very reactive. The ions may react with important molecules, causing damage to DNA,
the mechanisms for controlling cell division, or the production of molecules necessary for the life of the
cell. Cells undergoing division when they are irradiated are particularly at risk.
Often the cell is able to repair itself, but sometimes the chemical changes cause the cell to die. This is not
a problem for a living thing unless a large number of cells are damaged.
If the mechanism for cell division is damaged, the cell may begin to reproduce uncontrollably, forming
a cancer. If DNA in the ovaries, the testes or in an unborn foetus is damaged, genetic mutations may be
18.2.6 The effects of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation on humans

passed on. Usually these mutations are recessive and are not exhibited.
How much radiation is safe? This seemingly simple

FIGURE 18.4 Visualisation of the damage caused
question has a very complicated answer. The damage by ionising radiations of different penetration
caused by radiation depends on the type of radiation, powers in a block of carbon
the rate at which it is received, the part of the body
exposed, the general health of the individual and many
other factors.
Absorbed dose
α
One measure of the amount of radiation received is the
absorbed dose. This is the amount of energy absorbed
by each kilogram of the tissue being irradiated. The
symbol Gy (1 Gy = 1 J kg−1 ).
unit of absorbed dose is the gray, which is given the
absorbed dose =
β
energy absorbed
mass
Unfortunately, the number of grays absorbed by a

person does not provide much information about the
γ
extent of the damage to that person. The penetrating
power of the type of radiation is important. For
example, alpha (𝛼) particles are stopped in a short
distance. They pass on all their energy in a short
space, causing a great deal of localised damage.
widespread. Neutrons, 𝛾 rays and X-rays are far more penetrating than either 𝛼 or 𝛽 particles. They spread
Beta (𝛽) particles are more penetrating, so the damage they cause is less severe in any one area but is more
their energy over a large range.
Equivalent dose
To take into account the different styles of damage caused by the various forms of ionising radiation,
another measure of the amount of radiation, equivalent dose, was developed. The units for equivalent dose
are sieverts (Sv).
equivalent dose (Sv) = absorbed (Gy) × quality factor
The quality factor is determined by the type of radiation that delivered the energy.
One sievert of radiation causes the same amount of biological damage, no matter what type of radiation
is used.

TABLE 18.1 Quality factors for different types of radiation
Type of radiation Approximate quality factor
𝛾 rays and X-rays 1
𝛽 particles 1
Slow neutrons 3
Fast neutrons 10
𝛼 particles 10–20
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A 60-kilogram person absorbs 0.054 J of energy due to ionising radiation.
b. What would be the equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by 𝛾 rays?
a. Calculate the absorbed dose.
c. What would be the equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by 𝛼 particles? (Take the quality
factor to be 20.)
d. Which would cause more biological damage to the person?
Absorbed dose =
THINK WRITE
energy absorbed
a. 1. Recall the formula for the a.
mass
=
absorbed dose.
0.054 J
= 9 × 10−4 Gy
60 kg
The absorbed dose is 9 × 10−4 Gy.

b. Equivalent dose = absorbed dose × quality factor
= 9 × 10−4 Gy × 1
b. 1. The quality factor of gamma
radiation is 1.
= 9 × 10−4 Sv
= 0.9 mSv
𝛾 rays is 0.9 mSv.

2. State the solution. The equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by
c. Equivalent dose = absorbed dose × quality factor

= 9 × 10−4 Gy × 20
c. 1. The quality factor of alpha
radiation is 20.
= 1.8 × 10−2 Sv
= 18 mSv
𝛼 particles is 18 mSv.
2. State the solution. The equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by
d. Equivalent dose of 𝛾 rays = 0.9 mSv

Equivalent dose of 𝛼 particles = 18 mSv
d. 1. Recall that damage is measured
by equivalent dose, in sieverts.
= 20
18
The equivalent dose delivered by the 𝛼 particles would

0.9
by the 𝛾 rays.
cause about 20 times more damage than that delivered

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
space. The exposure was mainly electrons and 𝛾 rays. Estimate an astronaut’s mass and determine
On average, each crew member on the Apollo space missions received a dose of 12 mSv while in
how much energy each astronaut absorbed.
Effective dose
Radiation affects different parts of the body in different ways. Each organ or tissue in the body has a
different sensibility to radiation doses. For example, the head is less sensitive than the chest.
The effective dose is a number that is calculated for an individual patient. This number takes into
account the absorbed dose, the quality factor (relative harm level) of the different types of radiation and the
sensitivity of each organ or tissue type to the different types of radiation. It also takes into account the fact
that different parts of the body will not receive the same amount of radiation when undergoing a medical
procedure.
The calculation of the effective dose helps to estimate the risk to a patient from a procedure. The actual
risk to an individual patient will also depend on such factors as the size and age of the patient.
The effective dose for a patient is the total of the equivalent doses for all the different parts of the body.
Effective dose is measured in sieverts.
18.2 EXERCISE
1. Why can the formation of free radicals and ions be damaging to living cells?
2. X-rays can be classified as hard or soft.
(a) How are hard X-rays different from soft X-rays?
(b) Why are hard X-rays preferred for imaging the human body?
3. A 30-kilogram child receives 3 mGy of radiation. How much energy did the child absorb?
5. What is the equivalent dose of 3 mGy of radiation, assuming the energy was delivered by 𝛾 radiation?
4. An adult (60 kg) absorbs 0.09 J of radiation. What is the adult’s absorbed dose?
was delivered by 𝛼 radiation? Assume a quality factor of 18.

6. What is the equivalent dose of a 60-kilogram adult who receives 3 mGy of radiation, assuming the energy
7. Why is 𝛼 radiation given a higher quality factor than 𝛾 radiation?

8. Why is equivalent dose often a more useful measure than absorbed dose?
9. It is more dangerous for pregnant women to be exposed to high radiation levels than for other
people. Why?
10. A particularly concerned man is keen to minimise his exposure to background radiation. What advice could
11. Australians receive on average 2 mSv of radiation each year. Assuming this radiation is all 𝛽 particles with
you give him on the lifestyle changes he should make?
energy of 1 MeV, how many 𝛽 particles pass in or out of your body every second? (Hint: Estimate your
energy there are in a 1 MeV 𝛽 particle, then find out how many 𝛽 particles pass through your body every
body mass and find out how many joules of radiation you receive each year. Find out how many joules of
year, then every second.)

12. Ionising radiation can cause cancer, yet it can also cure cancer. Explain this contradictory statement.

18.3 The use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe applications of medical radioisotopes in imaging and diagnosis.
• Explain the use of medical radioisotopes in therapy including the effects on healthy and damaged tissues
• Relate the detection and penetrating properties of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiation to their use in different medical
and cells.
applications.
• Describe how medical radioisotopes may be produced by neutron bombardment and high energy
collisions.
• Analyse decay series diagrams of medical radioisotopes with reference to type of decay and stability of
isotopes.
18.3.1 Radioactivity as a diagnostic tool

The best known use of radioactive materials in medicine is probably in the ‘radiotherapy’ treatment of
cancer. Less well known is the use of a radioactive material inside the body to diagnose disease. This use
of radioactive material in the body may seem very risky because of the danger associated with radioactivity.
In fact the use of radioisotopes and, more recently, PET (positron emission tomography) to image organs
and study their function has become a very common, effective and safe means of diagnosis.
For the purposes of medical diagnosis, radioactive substances may be introduced into the body and used
to target areas of interest. The radiation produced is measured and used to determine the health of the organ
or section of the body under investigation.
PRODUCING RADIOISOTOPES: THE MEDICAL CYCLOTRON

The effectiveness of nuclear medicine for
diagnosis of disease has depended on the FIGURE 18.5 A cyclotron for radioisotope synthesis in
ability to: a clinical medical centre
• produce radioisotopes
• detect the gamma radiation produced.
The production of radioisotopes became
possible with the development of the cyclotron
by E. O. Lawrence in 1931. From the mid-1940s,
a range of radioisotopes from the United
States and later from the United Kingdom was
available.
The radioisotopes needed in nuclear medicine
in Australia are made at the nuclear research
reactor based at Lucas Heights in the south
of Sydney, or in a cyclotron under the control
of ANSTO (Australian Nuclear Science and
Technology Organisation). Cyclotrons are
needed to make radioisotopes for positron emission tomography (PET), a diagnostic technique discussed later
in this topic. PET facilities are presently found in hospitals in Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney.
18.3.2 Choosing the right medical radioisotope

When a radioisotope is introduced into the body, other factors in addition to the half-life of the radioisotope
need to be considered. The radioisotope is removed from the patient’s body by processes such as
respiration, urination and defecation. However, some patients metabolise the chemical to which the
radioisotope is attached more quickly than others, so it is important that the characteristics of the particular
patient are considered when dosages are being determined.

The half-life of the radioisotope must be long enough to allow useful readings to be taken after it has
been taken up by the targeted organ. Generally, if the radioisotope remains in the patient’s body for a
long period of time, its half-life should be comparable to the time taken to carry out the investigation, to
minimise the dose to the patient. When the radioisotope is excreted in about the same time as is needed for
Radioisotopes that emit 𝛼 particles are not used in the diagnosis of disease because the 𝛼 particles cause
the investigation, a longer half-life radioisotope can be safely used.
damaging ionisation inside the body. 𝛽 particles travel further than 𝛼 particles before they are absorbed but
their ionisation damage is much less. They are used in therapy but not in diagnosis of disease.
The most useful radioisotopes for nuclear medicine are those that emit gamma radiation only.
Technetium-99m and iodine-123 are two such isotopes. A gamma-emitting radioisotope inside the body
can be detected outside the body because gamma radiation is very penetrating. Common radioisotopes used
in medical diagnosis are listed in table 18.2.
TABLE 18.2 Radioisotopes used in medical diagnosis
Radioisotope Production site Half-life Function
Chromium-51 Nuclear reactor 27.70 days To label red blood cells and measure gastro-intestinal
protein loss
Iodine-131 Nuclear reactor 8 days To diagnose and treat various diseases associated with
the thyroid gland; used in the diagnosis of the adrenal
medullary; used for imaging some endocrine tumours
Iodine-123 Cyclotron 13 hours To monitor thyroid function, evaluate thyroid gland size
and detect dysfunction of the adrenal gland; to assess
stroke damage
Molybdenum-99 Nuclear reactor 65.94 hours Used as the ‘parent’ in a generator to produce
technetium-99m, which is the most widely used
isotope in nuclear medicine
Technetium-99m ‘Milked’ from 6 hours To investigate bone metabolism and locate bone
molybdenum-99 disease; assess thyroid function; study liver disease
and disorders of its blood supply; monitor cardiac
output, blood volume and circulation clots; monitor
blood flow in lungs; assess blood and urine flow in
kidneys and bladder; investigate brain blood flow and
function; estimate total body plasma and blood count
Thallium-201 Cyclotron 3.05 days To detect the location of damaged heart muscles
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A 20-milligram sample of iodine-123 is to be used as a radioactive tracer in the body. The half-life
of the iodine-123 is 13 hours.
a. How long will it take for 17.5 milligrams to decay?
b. Calculate how much iodine-123 will remain after 26 hours.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the amount that decays in each a. In one half-life, 10 mg of iodine-123 will
half-life until the total amount has reached decay. This will leave 10 mg of iodine-123. In
17.5 mg. the second half-life, 5 mg of iodine-123 will
decay, leaving 5 mg of iodine-123. In the third
half-life, 2.5 mg of iodine-123 will decay.

2. State the solution. 17.5 mg (10 + 5 + 2.5) of iodine will have
decayed in three half-lives, or 39 hours.
(2 × 13 hours).
b. 1. Recall that 26 hours is two half-lives b. After one half-life, 10 mg of iodine-123 will
decay, leaving 10 mg of iodine-123.After two
half-lives, 5 mg of iodine-123 will decay,
leaving 5 mg of iodine-123.
2. State the solution. 5 mg of iodine-123 will remain after 26 hours.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
A radioisotope with a half-life of 13 hours is used in the diagnosis of a patient. A check 52 hours later
reveals that 1 milligram of the radioisotope remains.
a. What mass of the radioisotope was used in the diagnosis?
b. How much of the radioisotope will remain after a further 52 hours?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A sample of a radioisotope has a half-life of 10 minutes.
a. Calculate the time it will take the radioisotope’s activity to drop from 8 MBq (megabecquerels)
to 4 MBq.
b. Calculate the time it will take for its activity to be 1 MBq.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. When half the sample has decayed, the a. The time needed to reduce the activity to 4 MBq
activity will also halve. This assumes that is one half-life, or 10 minutes.
the atoms formed are not radioactive.
b. 1. Halving the activity each half-life means b. The time taken is 30 minutes.
that three half-lives have passed before the
activity is 1 MBq.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A sample of a radioisotope with a half-life of 8 days has an activity of 8 MBq 16 days after it is placed
in safe storage.
a. What was the activity of the sample when it was placed in safe storage?
b. What is the activity of the sample after a further 16 days?
c. How long will it take after the sample is placed in safe storage for its activity to decrease
to 1 MBq?
18.3.3 Labelling with isotopes

The radioisotope chosen needs a way of getting to the target organ. First, it must be chemically attached
to a compound that would normally be metabolised by the organ of interest. When this compound is

‘labelled’ with the radioisotope (they are chemically attached) it is called a radiopharmaceutical. The
radiopharmaceutical that is used must not alter the functioning of the organ or the area being examined. It
must be sterile, non-toxic and compatible with the body. For example, glucose is a compound that is readily
absorbed by the brain. Hence, glucose is labelled to become a suitable radiopharmaceutical for imaging
brain function.
RADIOISOTOPES EMITTING GAMMA RADIATION
because they decay by the emission of 𝛾 radiation only.

Both iodine-123 and technetium-99m are valuable radioisotopes
FIGURE 18.6 A cross-section
through a typical technetium
Iodine-123 is more expensive than iodine-131, which has been
generator used in hospitals to
emits both 𝛾 and 𝛽 radiation, leading to larger radiation doses than
used in the investigation of the thyroid gland. However, iodine-131
generate technetium-99m
desirable. The half-life of 8 days for iodine-131 is relatively long,
resulting in exposure of the patient to radiation well after the testing
has been carried out. By contrast, iodine-123 has a short half-life of
13 hours.
Technetium-99m has a short half-life of only 6 hours so it must
be produced in the hospital where it is to be used. A purpose-built
generator system is used to obtain the technetium-99m when it is
needed. The generator contains the ‘parent’ isotope molybdenum-99,
which decays to the excited ‘daughter’ isotope technetium-99m.
The technetium-99m is flushed from the molybdenum using a
saline solution and the molybdenum remains in the generator as
it is chemically attached to a central column. (Figure 18.6 shows a
cross-section through a technetium generator.)
The technetium-99m is said to be ‘milked’ from the molybdenum.
This operation usually happens daily, allowing the technetium sufficient
time to build up. As the molybdenum has a half-life of approximately
66 hours it must be replaced weekly because, by that time, the rate of
production of technetium is too low to be of value.
Technetium-99m has the added advantage that it readily attaches to
different compounds to form radioactive tracers. Source: Gentech® Generator courtesy of
Technetium is produced by the following equation: ANSTO
→ + −10𝛽 + 𝜈
99 99m
42M o 43T c
Its decay equation is:

99m
43T c → 99
43T c +𝛾
It is a gamma emitter that is used as a diagnostic tool for finding and treating cancer.
18.3.4 Targeting body organs

As indicated in table 18.2, particular radioisotopes are chosen to target particular organs. The
radiopharmaceutical is injected into the bloodstream, inhaled or taken orally and its passage through the
body can be traced by measuring the radiation it emits.
Sometimes an image is taken after a period of up to several hours, to allow the radioisotope to
accumulate in the target organ. This image measures the amount of radiation emitted from the target organ
and shows where the radioisotope has accumulated.
In other situations, a series of images are taken over a period of time, starting from when the radioisotope
is first introduced. This type of investigation shows the distribution of the radioisotope and the rate of
absorption or excretion by various organs. The images may be taken over a few minutes for a heart or lung
study, or over a period up to half an hour for kidney or bladder investigation.
In analysing the images, radiographers identify ‘hot spots’ with a higher than normal concentration of
radioisotope and ‘cold spots’ showing a lack of radioisotope.

Obtaining the image — SPECT
The image is obtained by measuring the amount of gamma
FIGURE 18.7 Radiopharmaceuticals
radiation coming out of the patient’s body using a gamma camera. can also be used for bone scans
The gamma camera is stationary and collects gamma radiation with images taken by a gamma
over a large area. It converts the gamma rays into light flashes camera.
(scintillations) that are transformed into amplified electrical
signals. These signals are decoded and converted to an image on a
computer screen. This process is known as single photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT).
18.3.5 Some applications of radioisotopes

Thyroid investigations
The thyroid gland metabolises iodine. A dilute solution of sodium
iodide tagged with iodine-123 is given to the patient to drink and
the radioisotope’s accumulation is measured over a 10-minute to
48-hour time interval. An image of the goitre may be obtained or
the uptake of the isotope may be graphed and compared with a
standard, as in figure 8.8.
Thyroid investigations now commonly use technetium-99m,
which is also taken up readily by the thyroid but is also more
readily released than iodine-123.
Source: Andreas Praefcke
FIGURE 18.8 Uptake of iodine-123 by the thyroid gland
100 Hyperthyroid
(overactive)
Uptake (%)
> 50% Normal
50
30 – 50%
Hypotyroid
(underactive)
15 – 30%
0
24 48
Time (hours)
The heart
Human serum albumen is labelled with technetium-99m and injected into the patient. The passage of
the radiopharmaceutical through the heart chambers is monitored to measure the efficiency of the heart
as a pump.
Thallium-201, as part of thallium chloride, can be injected and monitored to assess damage caused by a
stroke or to measure the effect on the heart of exercise or drugs (see figure 18.9).

FIGURE 18.9 Performance of heart muscle using thallium-201. A series of images produces ‘slices’ through a
chamber in the heart. The top row is images taken during exercise and the bottom row is taken when at rest.
Source: US National Library of Medicine
Bones, lungs and brain

Technetium-99m is used in imaging the bones, lungs and brain.
Polyphosphate ions are labelled with technetium-99m and injected, accumulating in bone within an hour.
The image shows the function of the bone. Areas of increased blood flow show up as ‘hot spots’. Such areas
are frequently associated with disease. Bone imaging often shows up bone tumours and stress fractures
earlier than standard X-rays, which show the structure of the skeleton (see figure 18.10).
Brain studies using technetium-99m as a tracer measure blood flow through the brain, allowing dementia
and stroke damage to be identified.
To study the blood flow in the lungs, technetium-99m attached to albumen is mixed with saline solution
and injected into the veins in the arm. It becomes trapped in the fine capillaries in the lung and allows a map
to be made of the functioning capillaries. Any blockage in the lung, perhaps due to a clot, shows as a region
without any radioactive tracer. This is called a perfusion study.
FIGURE 18.10 (a) An X-ray of a broken leg (b) A bone scan showing (i) a healthy skeleton and (ii) a skeleton with
tumours (Note: The white spot on the right arm shows where the isotope was injected.)
Source: © Westmead Hospital

To enable the health of the airways to be studied, the patient inhales an aerosol labelled with
technetium-99m. This ventilation study shows, over about half an hour, ‘cold spots’ where the radioisotope
has not accumulated because the airway is blocked (see figure 18.11).
FIGURE 18.11 Lung studies. (a)(i) A normal perfusion study and (ii) ventilation study of the lungs (b) Front
view of lung scans of a patient with a blockage in the left pulmonary artery: (i) the perfusion scan showing no
blood flow to the left lung and (ii) the ventilation scan showing both lungs as the airway is not blocked
Source: © Westmead Hospital
Blood
To determine the volume of blood in the
FIGURE 18.12 The decay series of uranium-238
body, a measured quantity of a radioisotope is
administered and, after a period of time, a sample N
of blood is taken. If the activity of the tracer in α
238U
the blood is measured, the dilution of the tracer 145

234
4.5×109 y
Th
and hence the volume of blood in the body can β
be calculated. This procedure, known as dilution 24 d 234Pa
1.2 min β 234
analysis, is valuable in investigating disorders U
α
such as anaemia, assessing stroke damage and 230
2.5×105 y
Th
monitoring blood loss as a result of an accident. 140
α
8×104 y
18.3.6 Production of medical

226
Ra
α
radioisotopes
1600 y
222Rn
Number of neutrons
α
A radioisotope can be produced for medical 135 3.8 d
purposes through the absorption of a neutron. 218
Po
β
This is achieved by a bombardment of thermal 3.0 mα 218
At
α
neutrons, thus, enabling a stable element to absorb 214
Pb β
a neutron. The process increases the element’s 27 m 214Bi
mass number by 1. After the neutron is absorbed 20 m β 214
130 210 α Po
Tl α 1.6×10−4 s
by the nucleus, the energy that binds the neutron is β 210
Pb
released as radiation. Radioactivity is the result of 1.3 m
β
radioactive decay. The following example looks at 22 y 210 Bi
5.0 d
this process with cobolt-59: 206Tl α
β
210
Po
+ 10n → + 𝛾 + −10𝛽
125 α
138 d
59 60 β Key
27C o 28N i 206
Pb α alpha decay
β beta decay
Recall that radioactivity is a result of radioactive y year(s)
m month(s)
decay, thus, the element cobolt-60 transmutes to d day(s)
s second(s)
nickel-60. This process along with many other 120
radioactive decays can be shown in a decay series
80 85 90 95 100 Z
diagram, which demonstrates the change in mass Number of protons

and atomic number once an element has undergone 𝛼 or 𝛽 decay.
FIGURE 18.13 A radiation
Figure 18.12 shows the decay series of uranium-238, demonstrating the warning sign. The trefoil is the
type of decay and how long it takes for uranium-238 to decay to internationally recognised sign
lead-206. indicating a controlled area.
18.3.7 Safety issues

In hospitals, the general public, medical teams and patients must be
protected from overexposure to radioactive material. Strict guidelines
are implemented to control and monitor exposure to radiation.
Areas where work is carried out with ionising radiation are clearly
marked as controlled areas with limited access. Equipment is checked
regularly to make sure it does not leak radioactive material. Personnel
distance themselves from radioactive material where possible and
wear monitors to measure their exposure to radioactive sources. These
monitors are checked regularly.
18.3 EXERCISE
1. Carbon-11 has a half-life of 20 minutes while bromine-75 has a half-life of 100 minutes. If samples of these
isotopes initially have the same activity, show on one graph how their activities vary with time.
2. A small amount of iodine-131, which has a half-life of 8 days, is used to treat a patient with a thyroid
condition. Sixteen days later, an amount of 6 milligrams remains.
(a) How much iodine-131 was used in the treatment?
(b) How much of the radioisotope will remain after another 16 days?
(c) When is iodine-123 preferred to iodine-131 even though it is more expensive?
3. A sample of a radioisotope has a half-life of 2 minutes.
(a) Calculate the time it will take the activity to drop from 4 MBq to 1 MBq.
(b) Calculate the time it will take for its activity to be 0.25 MBq.
4. A particular isotope has a half-life of 100 days. Discuss the suitability of this isotope for use in medical
diagnosis.
5. Describe the problems associated with using a radioisotope of very short half-life for medical diagnosis.
6. (a) Choose two specific radioactive isotopes used in medical diagnosis and outline where they would be
(b) Explain why 𝛼-emitting radioisotopes are not used for medical imaging.
used in the body. Justify your answer.
7. Identify a radioactive tracer study in which the tracer:

(a) mixes with the substance under investigation
(b) is accumulated in the organ of interest.
8. Explain why technetium-99m is such an ideal radioisotope for medical imaging.
9. Figure 18.11 shows two different types of studies of lungs.
(a) Contrast the studies.
(b) Relate the type of study to the disease diagnosed.
10. Figure 18.10 shows an X-ray of a leg and a bone scan of the body.
(a) Compare the X-ray image with the bone scan.
(b) Explain why there are differences in the images obtained.

11. The function of the lungs can be studied using a radioactive gas. The choices are xenon-133 or
krypton-81m and their properties are listed in the following table.
Isotope Emission products Half-life

Xenon-133 𝛽, 𝛾 5.3 days
Krypton-81m 𝛾 13 seconds
Evaluate the claim that Xenon should be used in preference to krypton for investigations of lung function.
18.4 X-rays in medical diagnosis

KEY CONCEPT
• Compare the processes of, and images produced by, medical imaging using two or more of X-rays,
computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET).
18.4.1 Medical imaging using X-rays

X-rays are used frequently in medicine and dentistry. It is likely that you or someone you know has had
an X-ray at some time, for example, to check the development of teeth at the dentist or at a hospital for a
suspected broken bone.
Use and detection of X-rays
Since X-rays cannot be focused, the images from X-rays are shadows of objects placed in the beam. To
obtain a sharp image it is necessary to have an object that is as still as possible and illuminated by an X-ray
beam of small cross-sectional area, with the detecting plate as close to the object as possible. In this way,
blurring of the image is minimised and the shadow is sharper. X-rays may also be scattered by surrounding
tissue, which will affect the sharpness of the image. This is illustrated, using light, in figure 18.14.
FIGURE 18.14 Obtaining a sharp shadow image. (a) A narrow source produces a sharp shadow. (b) An extended
source or large distance between object and screen results in a shadow that is less sharp. (c) Cloudy water
scatters light and produces a blurry image.
(a) (b) (c)
Cloudy
water
Pinhole
opening
Object
Image is sharp Large penumbra causes image to blur Image is not sharp

A narrow beam of X-rays can be obtained by shaping the target to allow the beam of electrons to
strike it over a reasonable area while significantly reducing the width of the X-ray beam, as illustrated in
figure 18.15.
FIGURE 18.15 Electrons hitting the target over a wide area produce a narrow beam of X-rays.
Anode angle
Filament Wide beam

of electrons
Rotating
tungsten
target
Narrow beam
of X–rays
The X-ray beam is directed at the part of the patient being imaged. Some tissues absorb X-rays very
well and cast a shadow on the detecting screen. Bone is more dense than soft tissue and absorbs X-rays.
Consequently, bones produce a clear image when X-rayed.
X-rays may be detected on a photographic film or by an image intensifier. The photographic film is
used when only a record of the image is required. An image intensifier allows direct viewing of the X-ray
image. X-rays strike a phosphor screen that produces light. This light stimulates a photocathode to produce
electrons that are accelerated to strike an output phosphor screen, producing more light than was generated
originally and intensifying the image up to 1000 times. The image produced can be viewed directly by
the eye, a movie camera or a TV camera. The viewing area can be altered while the X-ray process is
occurring.
18.4.2 Effect of X-radiation on the body

If the intensity of X-radiation striking the body is great enough it may be absorbed and cause electrons to
be removed from atoms or molecules (ionisation). The effect may be harmful, which is why X-radiation
is often referred to as ‘harmful ionising radiation’. One reaction that may occur is the ionisation of water
molecules in the body and the formation of hydroxyl and hydrogen free radicals. These free radicals may
alter base structures and sequences in the DNA in chromosomes, causing mutations. This may affect not
only the person exposed to the radiation, it may also be passed on to that person’s children.
Radiation that can cause damage to the body includes alpha (𝛼), beta (𝛽) and gamma (𝛾) radiation as
well as X-rays.
Government bodies set dose limits that are considered to be safe, but they vary from country to country.
For the general population, the limit may be 1 mSv per year. For children under 16, it is usually about
0.5 mSv per year. These appear to be conservative values as the limit for radiation workers is generally set
at 20 mSv per year. These values are in addition to the background radiation from the Earth and cosmic

rays, which amounts to a value under 3 mSv. Approximate values for radiation from various sources are
listed in table 18.3.
TABLE 18.3 Radiation from various sources
Source Radiation received
Dental X-ray < 10 𝜇Sv
Chest X-ray 20 𝜇Sv
Pelvic X-ray 70 𝜇Sv
Mammogram < 4000 𝜇Sv
‘Barium meal’ X-ray 3000 𝜇Sv
CT scan of head 2000 𝜇Sv
CT scan of chest 8000 𝜇Sv
Aircraft crew additional annual exposure 2000 𝜇Sv
18.4.3 Using conventional X-rays as a diagnostic tool

The effects that X-rays have on the tissues of the body depend on the frequency (and therefore energy)
7 × 1018 Hz, resulting in the best contrast between different tissues. At this frequency the X-rays are
of the X-rays and the time of exposure to them. For diagnostic purposes, the optimal frequency is around
absorbed by the tissues and electrons are released. The extent of the X-ray absorption depends on the
cube of the number of protons in the nuclei of the atoms encountered. For example, bone that has a high
atomic density (high number of protons in the nuclei), attenuates the beam about 11 times more than the
surrounding tissue and hence produces a strong X-ray shadow and allows a very good image of the bone to
be obtained.
Atomic density values are high for bone, moderate for soft tissue and low for air. Hence, the skeleton is
imaged very well by X-rays.
18.4.4 Imaging parts of the body

To image soft tissue, an artificial contrast medium that
FIGURE 18.16 X-ray of the abdomen with
absorbs X-rays readily may be introduced. For investigations barium sulfate used to provide a white
of the circulatory system, iodine in a compound is introduced contrast to image the bowel
into the bloodstream. To X-ray the gastrointestinal tract,
which is composed of soft tissue, a ‘barium meal’ consisting
of a thick suspension of barium sulfate is swallowed by the
patient or introduced into the intestines through the anus.
The barium compound absorbs X-rays and gives a clear
image, as shown in figure 18.16.
A chest X-ray is the most common way of detecting
lung cancer or tuberculosis. The X-ray must be taken from
several different directions to overcome the problem that the
heart sometimes obstructs a clear view of the lungs.
The teeth and jaw are X-rayed to detect tooth decay and
the position of crowded teeth or wisdom teeth before surgery
or orthodontal treatment.
Someone who has swallowed a foreign object may be
X-rayed to locate its position.

For imaging the breast, which is an area of continuous soft tissue, careful choice of the X-ray beam
and film detector provides high resolution. Molybdenum targets in the tube and low voltage maximise
photoelectric attenuation. High tube current and short exposure time minimise image blur due to
movement by the patient.
FIGURE 18.17 An X-ray image of a breast showing a tumour
A better technique for imaging soft tissue is computed axial tomography (CAT) scanning, which detects
small differences in X-ray attenuation.
18.4 EXERCISE
1. With the aid of a labelled diagram, give a description of the way in which X-rays are produced.
2. Explain why the X-rays usually pass through a thin filter before they are used to image the patient.
3. Outline how the attenuation of X-rays changes for different materials in the body.
4. Describe and account for the appearance of an X-ray image of part of the body containing bone, muscle
and air spaces.

18.5 Medical imaging with CT, PET, MRI and
ultrasound
KEY CONCEPTS
• Compare the processes of, and images produced by, medical imaging using two or more of X-rays,
computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET).

• Analyse the strengths and limitations of a selected contemporary diagnostic or therapeutic radiation
technique.
18.5.1 CT scanning
Computed axial tomography scanning (CAT scanning) uses X-rays to obtain an image of a cross-section
through the body. Very slight differences in X-ray attenuation can be measured, so soft tissue can be
accurately imaged. Sometimes the name of the technique is abbreviated to computed tomography scanning
(or CT scanning).
How is a CT scan produced?

A CT scanner consists of an X-ray tube that is rotated around the patient being imaged. The tube and
detection mechanism are mounted on a frame called a gantry. The part of the patient’s body being scanned
is positioned in a gap in the gantry. An image is obtained in the plane being examined. The patient, on a
bed, is moved slowly through the gantry so that a series of images of ‘slices’ through the body may be
obtained.
The X-ray source must produce a very narrow beam so that the path of the X-rays can be carefully
controlled. To produce the narrow beam, the tube voltages are high and consequently a lot of heat must be
conducted away from the anode in the tube generating the X-rays. This requirement, coupled with the tube
movement during scanning, means that tubes fail and have to be replaced after a few months of use. The
cost of such replacement is high.
The beam is filtered to remove some soft X-rays that are not needed. This ensures the beam is relatively
uniform in frequency and the dose to the patient’s skin is reduced. The X-rays are detected by an array of
several hundred detectors. The detectors convert the X-radiation directly into electrical signals that go to
multiple integrated-circuit amplifiers.
FIGURE 18.18 A modern CT scanner

The patient is accurately positioned in the gantry so that a plane of the body can be scanned. A beam of
X-rays is sent through the patient and detected on the other side. The tube is then rotated, usually 1°, and
another beam transmitted and detected. This process is repeated until an angle of 180° has been swept out.
The data from the scan are collected, displayed and reconstructed using a powerful computer and
software. The computer analyses the absorption of the X-rays at each measured point in the slice. For
example, if X-ray beam absorption is measured at 160 distinct points along each scanning path and 1°
increments in angle are used, approximately 29 000 distinct pieces of data about X-ray absorption are
obtained. The reconstruction, which is explained in simplified form in figure 18.19, is the result of around
one million computations. The image can be displayed on a TV screen or stored in the computer memory
and used with other data to produce an image in a different plane. Using computer analysis, the data from
images of ‘slices’ through the body can be combined to produce a 3D image of the area under investigation.
FIGURE 18.19 Creating a CAT scan image
X–rays
5 Attenuation = 5 + 5 10 9 7 9 10
4 9 8 6 8 9
X–rays 2 Attenuation = 5 + 2 7 6 4 6 7
4 9 8 6 8 9
5 10 9 7 10 10
5 4 2 4 5
(a) The attenuation is measured (b) The total attenuation of the (c) A shade of grey is assigned
at many points (pixels) from X–rays at each pixel is to each pixel and from this
different angles. (Here only calculated. the image is created. (As an
2 angles at 90° are recorded.) example assign the darkest
shade to the smallest
number.)
In recent years, full body CT scans have been advertised for those who want to detect problems before
symptoms appear. The medical profession has criticised this offer on several grounds: people are exposed to
unnecessary radiation; potential problems may not be detected; and abnormalities, which are harmless, may
be found. People may either be given false security or false alarms. For further information about full CT
body scans, enter ‘CT scans’ or ‘full body scans’ in a search engine.
Comparing CT scans and conventional X-rays

CT scans are significantly more expensive than
FIGURE 18.20 CT scan of a shoulder showing
conventional X-rays. They are, however, a superior the detail possible with this technique
diagnostic tool to X-rays when fine detail is needed.
CT scans provide detail to distinguish between areas
where the density difference is quite small and a dense
material shields the area. For example, in the brain
the density range is only a few per cent but the bony
skull is so dense that it absorbs most of the X-rays.
A conventional X-ray will therefore provide an image
of the dense skull rather than the brain tissue inside.
However, by taking X-ray images from many angles
in a CT scan, the material along the path of the X-ray
beams can be distinguished clearly. The method of
obtaining and analysing the image makes it possible
to see behind bone using a CT scan.

Conventional X-rays are valuable when there is high natural contrast between the tissues to be viewed.
The contrast is high for bone, moderate for soft tissue and low for air. Hence, X-rays are good for
diagnosing bone problems such as fractures, dislocation and arthritis. Conventional X-rays can also be used
to image the digestive tract if an artificial contrast medium, such as a barium meal, is introduced.
Because very good soft tissue resolution is possible with CT scans, soft tissue damage due to bone
fracture or ruptured spinal discs can be investigated. CT scans are also used to scan the liver and kidneys
to obtain resolution better than 1 millimetre (meaning that differences separated by 1 mm can be detected).
CT scans are preferred for imaging the lungs. Although conventional X-rays give adequate routine lung
screening, CT scans provide clearer detail.
Resources
Weblink CT scan applets
18.5.2 Ultrasound
X-rays of sufficient intensity are a harmful ionising radiation, whereas ultrasound does not produce
any ionisation. Hence, ultrasound is so safe it can be used with foetuses. Ultrasound is used to view the
performance of organs, vessels and tissues without needing to make an incision. It is a medical test that
doesn’t produce any ionisation as it uses high-frequency sound waves to capture images from inside the
human body. As ultrasound uses sound waves, which are reflected by dense materials such as bone and
are affected by gaps in a medium such as an air-tissue boundary, it is not able to be used in a large variety
of situations. Ultrasound can be used many times with the same patient without any harmful effects. The
specific advantage over a CT scan or X-ray would need to be considered in each case before exposing a
patient to the X-ray doses involved.
The less expensive, quick and portable imaging techniques using X-rays or ultrasound may give an initial
diagnosis that could lead to further testing for tissue damage or internal bleeding by ordering a CT scan.
18.5.3 Positron emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography, known as PET, is used to
FIGURE 18.21 A PET scan of a patient’s brain
diagnose and monitor brain disorders, investigate heart
and lung functioning and detect the location and spread
of tumours. Using particular radiopharmaceuticals, a
cross-sectional image through an organ can be obtained
or a region of the body can be imaged, allowing the
function of an area to be determined. A PET image of
the brain shows the patient’s responses to factors such as
noise, illumination and changes in mental concentration.
Positron–electron interactions
Certain radioisotopes decay by the emission of
positrons — positively charged beta particles. That
is, they are positively charged electrons formed when
a proton disintegrates to form a neutron and a positron.
Radioisotopes that are deficient in neutrons often decay
emitting a positron (𝛽 + ):
in this way. For example, carbon-11 decays to boron-11
11
6C → 11
5B + 𝛽+

mass into two 𝛾 rays. The energy of each of these 𝛾 rays is 0.51 MeV. This process is sometimes called
When a positron meets an electron they ‘annihilate’ each other, converting their combined energy and
‘pair annihilation’.
How a PET scan is obtained

To obtain a PET scan, a suitable pharmaceutical is
FIGURE 18.22 (a) Some PET images of
labelled with a positron-emitting radioisotope. The
of 𝛾 rays travelling in opposite directions and
brain activity (b) Cross-section showing pairs
radiopharmaceutical is usually injected into the patient,
but sometimes the chemical is inhaled. After a short period reaching detectors
of time the radiopharmaceutical will have accumulated (a)
in particular areas of the body and begun to decay by
the emission of positrons. These positrons travel a short
distance, of the order of a few millimetres, before they
place and two 𝛾 rays are produced. The 𝛾 rays travel

encounter electrons in the body. Pair annihilation takes
in opposite directions from the site of annihilation

and emerge from the body, where they are detected by
gamma cameras.
being scanned, so that 𝛾 rays can be detected from all

Gamma cameras surround the patient in the section (b) Photomultipliers Detector
angles. Pairs of 𝛾 rays travelling in opposite directions

are detected and their relative intensity measured. By γ γ
coefficients for 𝛾 rays passing through tissue, the position

comparing these measurements with known attenuation γ γ
of the decaying radioisotope can be approximately γ

determined. In this way, an image is produced showing γ
where radioisotopes accumulate. A PET imaging system
detecting emissions from a region of the brain is illustrated
Annihilation of electron and
in figure 18.22. positron produces two
gamma rays
Isotopes used in PET
Common isotopes used in PET are listed in table 18.4.
TABLE 18.4 Common isotopes used in PET
As can be seen from the table, the half-lives of isotopes
suitable for PET are very small. The isotopes must be Radioisotope Symbol Half-life
created on the day of use and, except for fluorine-18, 11
Carbon-11 C 18.4 min
must be made at the site of use. A cyclotron is needed 6
13
for their production. This is a serious limitation, as the Nitrogen-13 7
N 10.0 min
cost of an on-site cyclotron and facility for producing Fluorine-18 18
F 109.8 min
9
radiopharmaceuticals is extremely high. In Victoria, the 15
Oxygen-15 O 2.13 min
Austin Hospital, the Royal Melbourne Hospital and the 8
Peter McCallum have on-site cyclotrons for their own PET

facilities. The largest cyclotron in Victoria, at Bundoora, is privately owned and produces radioisotopes for
PET facilities in a number of hospitals, including some in other states. Fortunately the longer half-life of
fluorine-18 means tracers can be labelled with fluorine-18 and shipped to nearby hospitals from a central
location.
Resources
Weblink PET scans

18.5.4 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) makes use of the effect
FIGURE 18.23 A patient having a scan
of a strong magnetic field on nuclei in the body to obtain using magnetic resonance imaging
images of organs and tissue. The images show significant
clear contrast between different types of soft tissue, making
MRI scans suitable for examining the brain, spinal cord,
muscle, tendons, cartilage and joints.
Our bodies consist of a relatively small variety of
elements combined in a large variety of compounds. The
protons in the nuclei of hydrogen atoms and isotopes such
as carbon-13, fluorine-19, sodium-23 and phosphorus-31
respond to a strong external magnetic field by aligning
themselves so that they are parallel to the field. Hydrogen
is the most commonly imaged element in MRI because it is
the most abundant of these elements in the body.
When a patient is placed inside an MRI machine, the
machine generates a strong magnetic field. A pulse of low-
energy electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency
range is beamed into the patient. The aligned protons
resonate with the radio frequency, absorbing a small
amount of energy. When the pulse is turned off, the protons
release the absorbed energy as a radio frequency pulse.
The intensity and duration of the radio frequency pulse FIGURE 18.24 Images using MRI and
is analysed by computers, enabling an image of a ‘slice’ showing clear contrast of soft tissue: (a)
through the patient’s body to be obtained. MRI of the abdomen showing liver cancer
The contrast between different tissues on the images (b) MRI image of the lumbar spine
exists because they have different concentrations of
hydrogen and different hydrogen compounds.
The greater the density of hydrogen protons in the tissue,
the larger the signal and the brighter the image. Air and
outer bone contain little or no hydrogen, so they appear
dark in an MRI scan. Water, however, contains many
mobile hydrogen protons, so it produces a strong signal.
Cerebrospinal fluid in the brain and spinal cord has a large
amount of water that is not bound to other molecules, so it
shows up brightly on an MRI scan.
The types of hydrogen compounds in the tissue also
determine how easily the protons can release energy to
neighbouring nuclei. Therefore, the type of tissue influences
the intensity of the signal. The type of tissue can be
identified by examining the time it takes for protons in
the tissue to release the energy absorbed from the radio
frequency pulse.
Source: (b) © David Grabham

The use of MRI in medical diagnosis
MRI is considered the best diagnostic technique
FIGURE 18.25 Brain activation showing increased
for obtaining sharp and crisp images of tissues. It blood flow to reward centres of the brain
depicts soft tissue so well that it is the preferred
choice for imaging the brain and spine, where it
is able to show suspected tumours and slipped
discs. Cancerous tumours contain different
amounts of water from normal tissue or are
surrounded by watery tissue; they can be
distinguished in an MRI scan because of the
different brightness.
Functional MRI allows brain activity to be
investigated while the patient is awake and able
to think and respond to stimuli. There is an
increased flow of oxygenated blood to areas
that are stimulated. Knowledge of the magnetic
properties of oxygenated blood allows the
parts of the brain involved in the activity to be
identified and studied (see figure 18.25). Parts
of the brain may be able to be studied prior
to surgery.
Source: Powell K
CARDIAC MRI
Cardiac MRI allows investigation of congenital abnormalities and coronary heart disease to be carried out.
Improvements in the speed of MRI have made abdominal imaging possible. Early MRI machines took 10 minutes
to scan 24 ‘slices’ of the body and this can now be done in under 1 second. Injection of a contrast agent into
the blood, combined with rapid imaging techniques, now allows blood flow in the kidneys to be examined and
narrowing of the arteries due to fatty plaques to be seen.
18.5.5 Strengths and limitations of imaging techniques

Imaging methods working together
Medical imaging to obtain both functional and structural images is often needed for adequate diagnosis. For
example, CT scans are used to obtain structural images. Radioisotopes, on the other hand, allow functional
information to be gathered. For example, a nuclear medicine image may show tumours but not very much
normal tissue. Hence, it may be difficult to determine the position of the tumour relative to other structures.
If a CT scan is obtained at the same time, the location of the tumour can be established precisely.
Comparison of imaging techniques

Table 18.5 provides some comparison between imaging techniques. Improvements are being made in the
machines used in all these imaging methods, and students are advised to search the internet for the latest
advances.

TABLE 18.5 Comparing imaging techniques
X-rays CT SPECT and PET MRI
Cost of machine Least expensive Quite expensive Quite expensive Very expensive
(capital cost)
Mobility of machines Small portable Fixed machines Fixed machines Very few mobile
machines machines
available
Spatial clarity (ability 0.1 mm 0.25 mm 5–15 mm 0.3–1 mm

to see fine detail)
Time for examination Very fast Moderate May be long, Relatively long but
depending on tracer some procedures are
and procedure now quite short
Comfort and safety Small dose of Usually higher Moderate dose of Some claustrophobia
ionising radiation dose of ionising ionising radiation from lying inside
radiation than for from radioisotopes the bore containing
X-rays the magnetic field.
Patients with metallic
implants cannot be
scanned.
Imaging soft tissue of Image poor — Good for whole Good for growth Good clarity for
abdomen needs contrast abdomen scan of tumours and specific areas e.g.
medium functional study of kidneys
liver and kidneys
Imaging soft tissue of Poor contrast Good — preferred Poor clarity but Excellent for studying
joints to MRI when extra good for functional muscles, tendons and
bone detail is information cartilage
needed
Imaging heart and Contrast medium Limited use with Good for blood flow Good clarity and ability
circulation is needed digital imaging studies to measure blood flow
techniques
Imaging chest Adequate for Better detail than Good for functional Not good for imaging
routine lung X-rays studies of blood air spaces
screening and air flow
Imaging brain and Limited use as Good — preferred PET scans are Excellent for giving
spinal cord region bone blocks most to MRI for details useful for showing good contrast between
waves of bone of spine function tissues
Imaging bone Given very good Good when more Good for whole Weak signal, so of
clarity complicated body bone cancer limited use
structures must and early diagnosis
be viewed of stress fractures
18.5 EXERCISE
1. Describe the differences between the ways in which CT scans and conventional X-ray images are
produced.
2. Use a table to summarise situations in which CT scans are a superior diagnostic tool to X-rays and
ultrasound.
3. How are the radioisotopes used in PET scans different from those not used in PET scans?

4. (a) What is a positron?
(b) How are positrons obtained?
(c) Identify issues associated with positron–electron interaction and describe how this interaction is used in
medical diagnosis.
5. Describe how a radioisotope of your choice is used in a PET investigation. In your answer, name the
isotope and state what radiation is emitted and how it is monitored. Describe what measurements are
made and how they are used to obtain a result. You should also mention any precautions or safety
procedures.
6. Describe how an external magnetic field influences a hydrogen proton.
7. Why are hydrogen nuclei imaged more than any other nuclei in MRI?
8. Describe two different pieces of information that can be analysed during an MRI scan when the low-energy
radio frequency pulse is turned off.
9. Why is MRI useful for imaging cancerous tumours in the brain?
10. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of X-ray scans, CT scans, ultrasound and MRI scans for each
of the following purposes:
(a) imaging the brain
(b) imaging bone
(c) imaging the heart and circulation.
18.6 Review
•
18.6.1 Summary
The effect of radiation exposure can range from nausea to death. The amount of radiation energy
received by each kilogram of living tissue is measured in gray (Gy), but this value does not take into
account the type of radiation that has been absorbed. Each type of radiation has a different effect
•
because of its ionising power.
X-rays are produced by the collision of electrons with a target material. Soft X-rays are less
•
penetrating and have lower frequency than hard X-rays.
Equivalent dose measures the radiation energy absorbed by each kilogram of biological tissue and its
effect by taking into account the form of radiation energy absorbed. Equivalent dose is measured in
sievert (Sv). The Australian average annual radiation dose is 2 mSv, most of which is from background
•
radiation.
Gamma radiation from radioisotopes is detected and used to make an image of an organ. This process
is known as SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography). Radiopharmaceuticals to which
radioisotopes have been attached are taken up by particular organs in the body. The rate at which the
•
radioisotope accumulates in the target organ indicates the health of the organ.
The half-life of the radioisotope and length of time needed for the procedure must be considered when
•
choosing an appropriate radioisotope.
A CT scan is produced by the computer analysis of the attenuation of X-rays moving around a slice of
the body. CT scans can distinguish soft tissue with small differences in density and can produce an
•
image of tissue behind bone.
PET imaging uses radioisotopes that are positron emitters. Positrons and electrons annihilate each
other in the body, producing two gamma rays. Detecting the position from which the gamma rays
originate enables the position of the positron emitter to be mapped.

• PET scans indicate the biochemistry, metabolism and function of a particular area. PET scans are used
for studying the brain and heart, detecting cancers at an early stage and monitoring cancers during
•
treatment.
MRI scans make use of the magnetic effects of a strong external magnetic field on certain nuclei,
•
particularly hydrogen, together with pulses of radio waves, to produce images of internal body tissue.
MRI scans show soft tissue clearly, making them suitable for imaging the brain and spinal cord.
Resources
18.6.2 Key terms
Absorbed dose, measured in gray (Gy), describes the amount of energy absorbed by each kilogram of tissue
that is irradiated.
To attenuate is to reduce the intensity of the beam.
A cathode ray is a narrow beam of electrons emitted from a hot filament through which an electric current flows.
Equivalent dose, measured in sievert (Sv), describes the biological effect of radiation that has been absorbed by
living tissue. It takes into account the type of radiation absorbed.
A free radical is an uncharged fragment of a molecule resulting from a covalent bond being broken.
Hard X-rays have a higher frequency and more energy than soft X-rays and are therefore more penetrating.
Ionising radiation is high-energy radiation that has the ability to change atoms by removing electrons and
therefore giving the atom an overall charge.
A positron is a positively charged beta particle; that is, it is a positively charged electron formed when a proton
disintegrates to form a neutron and a positron.
A radiopharmaceutical is a compound that has been labelled with a radioisotope.
To resonate means to absorb energy when an applied external frequency matches the natural frequency of an
object.
Soft X-rays have a lower frequency and less energy, and are less penetrating than hard X-rays.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very high frequency and very short wavelength.
Resources
18.6 Exercises

1. Which of the following is the most penetrating radiation?
A. Alpha
B. Beta
C. X-rays
D. Gamma

2. What are sieverts a measure of?
A. Equivalent dose
B. Quality factor
C. Absorbed dose
D. Energy absorbed
3. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 8 days. What percentage of substance is left after 24 days?
A. 50%
B. 12.5%
C. 25%
D. 87.5%
4. A sample of a radioisotope has a half-life of 12 minutes. How long will it take the radioisotope’s
activity to drop from 6.0 MBq to 1.5 MBq?
A. 12 minutes
B. 24 minutes
C. 36 minutes
D. 18 minutes
5. You can get a clear image from an X-ray of a bone, due to which characteristic of the bone?
A. Absorbs the X-rays
B. Reflects the X-rays
C. Is soft
D. Refracts the X-rays
6. A patient who has a chest X-ray taken is exposed to approximately how much radiation?
B. 100 𝜇Sv
A. 20 Sv
D. 20 𝜇Sv
C. 100 Sv
7. A CT scan takes multiple images by rotating how much each time?

A. 1°
B. 10°
C. 5°
D. 45°
8. During a PET scan, what happens when a positron meets an electron?
A. They turn into a neutron.
B. They repel each other.
C. They annihilate each other.
D. They both become electrons.
9. What are half-lives of isotopes suitable for PET usually measured in?
A. Minutes
B. Hours
C. Days
D. Weeks
10. What is the preferred imaging for the brain and spinal cord?
A. X-ray
B. PET
C. CT
D. MRI

1. The X-ray tube is highly evacuated and a very high voltage runs between the anode and cathode.
What does this high voltage do?
2. What is the definition of absorbed dose?

3. Why are radioisotopes that emit 𝛼 particles are not used for diagnosis?
4. Why are both iodine-123 and technetium-99m valuable radioisotopes?
5. If the intensity of X-rays striking the body is high enough:
a. What is one of the reactions that may occur?
b. What effect can this reaction cause?
6. What is the amount of radiation set by government bodies for the general population each year?
7. When using X-rays as a diagnosis tool:
a. What is the optimal frequency?
b. What is the benefit of using X-rays at this frequency?
8. What advantages do CT scans have over X-rays?
9. What is the benefit of using ultrasound rather than X-rays in relation to safety?
10. What causes an MRI to have a brighter image?

A 75-kilogram person absorbs 0.068 J of energy due to ionising radiation.
b. What would be the equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by 𝛾 rays?
a. Calculate the absorbed dose. 1 mark
c. What would be the equivalent dose if the energy was delivered by 𝛼 particles?
1 mark
(Quality factor of 20) 1 mark

d. Which would cause more biological damage to the person? 1 mark
A 35-milligram sample of technetium-99m is used for medical diagnosis in the body. The half-life of
technetium-99m is 6 hours.
a. How long will it take for 26.25 milligrams to decay? 3 marks
b. Calculate how much iodine-123 will remain after 18 hours? 3 marks
Nuclear medicine plays an important part in the health system.
a. What is the most commonly used radioisotope in nuclear medicine? 1 mark
b. Where is this radioisotope produced from? 1 mark
c. Write the decay equation of this radioisotope. 1 mark
Why can therapeutic radioisotopes be either 𝛼, 𝛽 or 𝛾emitters, but for diagnostic tracing purposes the
Question 4 (1 mark)
radioisotopes can only be 𝛾?

Question 5 (1 mark)
Breast cancer awareness is continuing to grow, and women are encouraged to self-check for any unusual
lumps. If lumps appear the doctor is likely to order a mammogram. Which X-rays would be used, hard or
soft? Explain.

Test maker

19 How do particle
accelerators work?
19.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are available just where you need them, at the point of learning, in your
digital formats, learnON and eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
19.1.1 Introduction
Following the discovery of radioactivity, the newly identified particles were soon being used as investigative
tools. They were fired at targets to see what the targets were made of. Rutherford fired alpha particles at thin
gold foil to explore the structure of the atom. He also fired them at nitrogen gas, producing oxygen.
Chadwick discovered the neutron by firing alpha particles at beryllium.
These high-speed ‘bullets’ were fired at the nuclei of various atoms to break them apart. By looking at the
fragments, an insight into the structure of the atoms and the nucleus and ultimately the structure of the
nuclear particles themselves could be achieved.
However, Rutherford, Chadwick and other early researchers were limited to particles from naturally
• The energy of the incoming particle could not be measured.

occurring radioactive sources. They soon realised there were three limitations to these natural ‘bullets’:
• The energy could not be controlled or varied.

• Higher energies were needed to investigate further.
A machine was needed.
FIGURE 19.1 The Large Hadron Collider at CERN
Source: ATLAS Experiment © 2014 CERN
TOPIC 19 How do particle accelerators work? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Particle accelerators and the production of light
• distinguish between the use of particle accelerators to produce synchrotron light and to collide particles
• distinguish between the capabilities of a particle collider and the capabilities of the Australian Synchrotron
• explain the general purpose of the electron linac, circular booster, storage ring and beamlines in the
Australian Synchrotron
• explain, using the characteristics of brightness, spectrum and divergence, why for some experiments
synchrotron radiation is preferable to laser light and radiation from X-ray tubes
Accelerator technology and the development of modern particle physics
• explain the evolution of collider technology including:
• particles involved in the collision event
• the increasing energies attained since the 1950s
• evaluate the role of colliders in the development of the Standard Model of particle physics, including
reference to subatomic structure and processes
• describe the products of collisions with reference to symbol, charge, rest energy and lifespan
• compare the physical designs and purposes of particle detectors at the Large Hadron Collider including
ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb
Current and future applications of accelerator technology for society
• explain how the immense amount of data collected by the Large Hadron Collider is stored and analysed, and
the associated role particle detectors have had in the development of information processing technologies
• describe at least one application of particle accelerators selected from:
• materials analysis and modification which results in the improvement of consumer products such
as heat shrinkable film and chocolate
• implanting of ions in silicon chips to make them more effective in electronic products such as
computers and smart phones
• nuclear energy applications such as the use of thorium as an alternative fuel for the production of
nuclear energy or the treatment of nuclear waste
• pharmaceutical research involving the analysis of protein structure leading to the development of
new pharmaceuticals to treat major diseases
• DNA research involving the analysis of protein metabolism leading to the development of new
antibiotics
• medical applications such as the production of a range of radioisotopes for medical diagnostics
and treatments or cancer therapy through the use of particle beams
• use of spectrometry in environmental monitoring or the use of blasts of electrons in the treatment
of pollution such as contaminated water, sewage sludge and gases from smokestacks
• use of particle accelerators in a selected experiment or scientific endeavour
• investigate current and proposed future directions of collider technologies.
Resources

19.2 Particle accelerators and the production of light
KEY CONCEPTS
• Distinguish between the use of particle accelerators to produce synchrotron light and to collide particles.
• Distinguish between the capabilities of a particle collider and the capabilities of the Australian Synchrotron.
• Explain the general purpose of the electron linac, circular booster, storage ring and beamlines in the
Australian Synchrotron.
• Explain, using the characteristics of brightness, spectrum and divergence, why for some experiments
synchrotron radiation is preferable to laser light and radiation from X-ray tubes.
19.2.1 Synchrotron
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) (figure 19.1) is the most powerful accelerator in the world. It boosts the
particles in a loop 27 kilometres in circumference at an energy of 6.5 TeV (teraelectronvolts), generating
collisions of 13 TeV. Accelerated to a speed close to that of light, these particles collide with other particles.
These collisions produce massive particles, such as the Higgs boson or the top quark. By measuring their
properties, scientists increase our understanding of matter and of the origins of the universe. These massive
particles only last for a very short time and cannot be observed directly. Almost immediately they transform
(or decay) into lighter particles, which in turn also decay. The particles emerging from the successive links
in this decay chain are identified in the layers of the detector. The type of particles, the energy of the
collisions and the luminosity are among the important characteristics of an accelerator.
The principles of a synchrotron are not new — aspects of them have been used for over 100 years.
Synchrotrons were originally designed as particle accelerators — that is, machines that can accelerate
charged particles such as electrons and protons up to high speeds (close to speed of light) and energies
(around 7 trillion eV), using electromagnetic fields.
One of the early problems with particle accelerators was when any charged particle was accelerated, it
emitted electromagnetic radiation, UV, X-rays or visible light, depending on the speed and acceleration. This
radiation is a loss of energy from the particle, but it became a significant and detectable problem only with
the construction of synchrotrons. For this reason, the radiation is commonly called synchrotron radiation.
The radiation produced is such an intense and narrow beam that synchrotron radiation became a powerful
experimental research tool. In fact, synchrotrons ended up being built just to produce the synchrotron
radiation!
This name, synchrotron radiation, is now applied to the radiation produced by any accelerating particle.
Synchrotron radiation is emitted as cosmic ray electrons enter Earth’s magnetic field, in the form of radio
waves. Distant galaxies are also sources of radio waves as charged particles move through their strong
magnetic fields. Synchrotron radiation from a synchrotron was first observed in 1948.
Both the Australian Synchrotron and the LHC use synchrotrons to accelerate charged particles — it’s
what happens next that makes the big difference. In the case of synchrotron as a light source, the electrons
are accelerated close to the speed of light that gives off intense and very narrow beams of mainly X-rays
synchrotron radiation, which is harnessed for beamline experiments in biological, chemical and materials
science. Whereas, the LHC accelerates protons or lead ions close to the speed of light, then lets them collide.
This is used to test the predictions of theories of particle physics, for example, the existence of the Higgs
boson.

Why do accelerating charges produce radiation?
When a charged particle is accelerated, the
FIGURE 19.2 Radiation from synchrotron is emitted
electric field around the charged particle is progressively along the tangent to the circle, like water
disturbed. This changing electric field produces a flung off a spinning wet ball.
changing magnetic field. These changing fields
radiate (away from the charge) as electromagnetic
radiation (at the speed of light). The transmission
towers of TV and radio stations and the small
aerial inside a mobile phone have electrons
oscillating along a length of wire producing
the electromagnetic signal.
The radiation from a fast-moving charge
is all emitted in the direction the particle is moving
in. If a particle is moving in a circular path in
a magnetic field, radiation is emitted progressively
along the tangent to the circle, like water flung
off a spinning wet ball, as shown in figure 19.2.
19.2.2 Design features of the Australian Synchrotron

Opened in 2007 in Clayton, Victoria, the Australian Synchrotron (figure 19.3) is Australia’s largest and
arguably most successful scientific user facility, benefiting over 5000 researchers from academia, medical
research institutes, industry, government and other research organisations.
FIGURE 19.3 The Australian Synchrotron in Melbourne has a suite of X-ray and infra-red beamlines with applica-
tions in health, medical, food, environment, nanotechnology, energy, mining, advanced materials, agriculture and
cultural heritage.
Source: ANSTO

Put simply, a synchrotron is a very large, circular, gigavoltage machine similar in size to a football field.
The exterior of the Australian Synchrotron, for example, looks just like a roofed football stadium, but inside
instead of a pitch and seats, there is a vast, circular network of interconnecting tunnels and high-tech
equipment.
Synchrotrons use electricity to produce intense beams of light a million times brighter than the Sun. The
light is produced when high-energy electrons are forced to travel in a circular orbit inside the synchrotron
tunnels by ‘synchronised’ application of strong magnetic fields.
With this new knowledge that synchrotron science provides about the molecular structure of materials,
researchers can invent ways to tackle diseases, make plants more productive and metals more resilient
— among many other beneficial applications of synchrotron science.
The design features of the Australian synchrotron are described below.
FIGURE 19.4 Design features of the Australian Synchrotron at Clayton, Melbourne
Source: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
Electron gun
Electrons are produced at the electron gun by thermionic emission from a heated tungsten matrix cathode.
Electrons are attracted out of this by 120 kilovolts. Applying a 500 MHz voltage signal to the gun as it fires
means the electrons are generated in bunches two nanoseconds apart. The emitted electrons are then
accelerated to 90 keV (kiloelectron volts) by a 90-kilovolt potential difference applied across the gun and
move into the linear accelerator.

Linear accelerator (linac)
The linear accelerator (or linac) accelerates the electron beam to 100 MeV over about 10 metres (see
figure 19.5).
FIGURE 19.5 A schematic diagram of a linear accelerator
Radio frequency
source
Electrons Electrons
bunch
Gate Anode
To booster
Electron gun Buncher Linac synchrotron
Cathode
Source: Courtesy of the Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
The anode is a torus (doughnut) shaped to create an electromagnetic field that guides most of the electrons
through the hole into the next part of the accelerator, called the buncher. The purpose of the buncher is to
accelerate the pulsing electrons as they come out of the electron gun and pack them into bunches. This
involves a series of radio frequency (RF) cavities operating at a frequency of 3 GHz. Due to the nature of the
acceleration, the beam must be separated into discrete packets, or ‘bunches’, with a spacing consistent with
the 3GHz acceleration frequency of the linac. This is done at the start of the linac, using several ‘bunching’
cavities. The linac can accelerate a beam once every second. After the first metre of acceleration in the linac,
the electrons are already travelling at more than 99.99% of the speed of light. Linacs utilise travelling waves
rather than standing waves. A vacuum is created to ensure that the electron beam is not impeded by other
particles.
Circular booster (booster ring)

The booster is an electron synchrotron 130 metres in circumference that takes the 100 MeV beam from the
linac and increases its energy to 3 GeV (giga electron volts). The booster ring contains 60 combined-
function (steering and focusing) electromagnets to keep the electrons inside the stainless-steel vacuum
chamber and a single 5-cell RF cavity (operating at 500 MHz) to supply energy for acceleration. Electrons
are bent into a circular path by a force produced by magnets at a right angle to its motion. The beam is
accelerated by a simultaneous ramping of magnet strength and cavity fields. Each ramping cycle takes
approximately 1 second for a complete ramp up and down. An electron spends about half a second in the
booster ring and completes over one million laps.
Storage ring
The accelerated electrons are transported to their final destination, the storage ring. It can hold 200 mA of
stored current with a beam lifetime of over 20 hours. The storage ring is 216 metres in circumference, with a
radius of 34.4 metres. The ring, however, is not really circular. It consists of 14 nearly identical sectors; each
sector consists of a 4.4-metre straight section and an 11-metre arc. In the straight-line sections, the electrons
are accelerated back up to speed to compensate for the loss of energy due to the emission of the radiation.
Every arc contains two dipole ‘bending’ magnets where synchrotron light will be produced. The magnets
force the electrons into a snake-like path, so that the light from all the curves adds together (see figure 19.6a).

These beams can be captured and focussed to a specific wavelength appropriate for a particular technique.
Insertion devices increase the intensity of light in the straight sections of the ring (figure 19.6b). There are
two types of insertion devices: wiggler and undulator. In the multipole wiggler (MPW), a cone of light is
emitted at each bend in the wiggler so that the cones of light superimpose on each other, the intensity
increasing with the number of bends. The undulator uses less powerful magnets to move the electrons up
and down. In this case, the light cones just overlap and interfere with each other, so that certain wavelengths
of light are enhanced approximately 10 000 times. These wavelengths can be changed by altering the gap
between the component magnets so that the light is tunable to specific wavelengths (figure 19.6c). The
synchrotron light emitted by the electrons is directed to beamlines through the round beam ports.
FIGURE 19.6 Illustration of different sections of storage ring (a) Bending magnet. At each defection of the
electron path a beam of light is produced. The effect is similar to the sweeping of a search light. (b) Multipole
wiggler. At the peak of each wave a beam of light is emitted. These beams reinforce each other and appear
as a broad beam of incoherent synchrotron light when viewed in the horizontal plane ahead of the wiggler.
(c) Undulator. The poles produce less deflection of the electron beam. This results in a narrow beam of coherent
synchrotron light, with certain frequencies amplified by up to 10 000 times.
(a) Illustration of a bending magnet (b) Illustration of a multipole wiggler
(c) Illustration of an undulator
Source: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
Beamlines
Synchrotron radiation is directed into separate experimental stations (figure 19.7). Each beamline is usually
set up for a particular application using a specific frequency range. The first section of every beamline is the
photon delivery system (also called the ‘beamline optics’). It incorporates filters, monochromators, mirrors,
attenuators and other devices to focus and select appropriate wavelengths for particular research techniques.
The frequency for the beamline is selected by a monochromator, which means that only one frequency
leaves the end of the beamline and hits the target. Table 19.1 shows some of the processes for which
beamlines of different frequencies are used. Experiments employing synchrotron light are conducted in
customised facilities called end-stations. Most of the end-stations are housed inside radiation shielding
enclosures called ‘hutches’ to protect staff and visitors from potentially harmful X-rays. Each beamline
utilises the synchrotron light to gather data in the form of images, chemical spectra, and/or scattered light.
As research scientists cannot enter the hutches during data collection, much of the equipment is controlled
remotely via motors and robotic devices.

FIGURE 19.7 Generation of synchrotron light
Bending magnets
Synchrotron radiation (light) is
generated when the electron beam is Numerous
deflected between powerful magnets. detectors can be
One analogy is the manner in which a positioned to
wet tennis ball will fling off drops off record diffraction
water when swung in a circle. patterns.
Electron beam Monitor
detector
Synchroton Slits Measures
light define intensity of
the the beam.
beam. Analyser
crystal
Selects
Electron beam
scattered
Synchroton light
radiation.
Monochromator Sample
A single piece of Target object is
silicon cut with high rotated to build
precision allows only a comprehensive
specific wavelengths image.
to pass. Other
wavelengths are
absorbed as heat.
TABLE 19.1 Beamline uses
Photon
Process Science and industry applications Example energies
X-ray Protein crystallography Determining 3D structure of proteins 2–20 keV

diffraction and pharmaceuticals
Single-crystal Chemistry, materials science, Determining structure of very small 3.6–5.5 keV
diffraction nanotechnology, geochemistry, samples
pharmacology, mining, polymers,
pigments
Infra-red Geology Detection of minerals 10–104 cm−1 ;

Forensic Analysis of fibres, dyes, residues exit through
Metallurgy Study of corrosion a diamond
Cell biology Study of drug uptake window
Soft X-rays Surface analysis, mining, polymers, Spectroscopy of materials with low 0.1–4 keV
engineering chemical analysis atomic number elements (Li to K),
e.g. the coal and sulfur industries
High- Mining Determining trace elements in soil 2–20 keV

performance Materials science High-resolution surface mapping
microprobe
General- Geochemical Mineral exploration 5–30 keV

purpose Manufacturing Corrosion, stress/strain mapping
microprobe Biotechnology Metal uptake by plants
Forensic Analysis of biological samples
(continued)

TABLE 19.1 Beamline uses (continued)
Photon
Process Science and industry applications Example energies
Vacuum Electronic and magnetic properties of Electronic structure of alloys; 10–350 eV

ultraviolet atoms, molecules and solids chemical processes at the
nanometre level
Imaging and Biological/biomedical, materials science, Obtain images at the organic or even 4–60 keV
hard X-rays fundamental X-ray imaging studies cellular level for biomedical research
and clinical medical practice
Powder Structural chemistry, materials science, Structure of transition metal oxides 4–30 keV
diffraction nanotechnology, mineral processing and superconductors; measurement
of fast chemical reactions
X-ray Structural and chemical analysis of Structure of photonic devices; 4–65 keV
absorption materials structure of metal complexes in
spectroscopy enzymes
Lithography Nanotechnology Product manufacture, 2–25 keV

e.g. photonic devices, hearing
implants, communication chips
Surface Use X-rays to probe the structural Coatings, adhesion, corrosion, 5–25 keV
scattering properties of the first few nanometres catalysts, surfactants
of the surface of a material
Small Chemical, material and biological Growth of crystals and polymers; 5–30 keV
angle X-ray sciences, polymer science structure of colloids and membranes
scattering
There are currently 10 operational beamlines with plans to expand the suite with an additional seven
beamlines, where separate experiments using specific wavelengths can be conducted simultaneously.
Synchrotron techniques can generate images plus elemental, structural and chemical information from
diverse sample types ranging from biological to industrial materials.
19.2.3 Technical features of the Australian Synchrotron
• Air pressure. The air needs to be sucked out of all the components where electrons are moving. If the
The technical features of the Australian Synchrotron include the following.
electrons hit an air molecule, they will be deflected and hit the side of the tube. The pressure inside the
synchrotron is reduced to 10−9 millibar — about one millionth of atmospheric pressure.
• High voltage. The linac uses high voltages to accelerate the electrons. The magnets in the booster and
storage rings are electromagnets with high voltage, producing large currents through many coils.
• Magnetic field strength. The magnetic field to bend electrons around in a circle has a strength of 1.30 T.
Vacuum pumps also run off high voltages.
• Electric current. The electric current in the storage ring is 200 mA. Once injected into the storage ring,
electrons are slowly lost from the beam as a result of collisions with the remaining air molecules. The
current can be kept at 200 mA for approximately 20 hours before a top-up is needed; but usually
• Energy loss. The electrons lose energy by synchrotron radiation; the energy lost each turn is 931.6 keV.
electrons are injected about twice a day.
This energy is made up by accelerators in the straight-line sections of the storage ring.

19.2.4 Synchrotron radiation and X-rays
Synchrotron storage rings are designed to produce synchrotron radiation, the electromagnetic radiation
emitted when charged particles are accelerated.
Synchrotron radiation is emitted as photons that form a narrow cone as they head towards the target. The
• Spectrum. Synchrotron radiation is mostly in the form of X-rays, as they are the most useful. However,
main characteristics of synchrotron radiation are as follows.
radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, from infra-red upwards, can be produced. The spectrum
is also continuous, which means there are no gaps or missing frequencies. Any frequency can be found
in the range (see figure 19.8).
FIGURE 19.8 A continuous band of electromagnetic spectrum including infra-red, visible light, ultraviolet, and
X-rays produced by Synchrotron is shown here.
Size
Taipei 101 Mall People Football Cell Virus Atom Nucleus
103 101 1 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–5 10–6 10–7 10–9 10–10 10–12 10–14
(1 km) (1 m) (1 cm) (1 mm) (1 µm) (1 nm) (1 Å) (m)
Wavelength
Visible light
Radio waves Micro-waves Infra-red Ultra-violet Soft X-rays Hard X-rays Gamma rays
Photon energy
10–9 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–3 10–1 1 101 103 105 106 107 (eV)
Source (1 neV) (1 µeV) (1 meV) (1 eV) (1 keV) (1 MeV)
Radio Microwave Light bulbs Radioactive
tube elements
Synchrotron light source
Source: Permission to use from National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center
• Brightness. The intensity of the beam is hundreds of thousands times greater than that of conventional
X-ray tubes (see figure 19.9). Brightness can be understood as the number of photons every second. It is
more properly measured as the number of photons emitted per second per square millimetre of source
size, per square milliradian of cone angle within a specific frequency range. In the past 120 years there
has been a considerable amount of growth in synchrotron brightness, as shown in figure 19.10.

FIGURE 19.9 Brigtness of difference sources in comparision FIGURE 19.10 Growth of synchrotron
to synchrotron radiation. Higher orders of brightness enables brightness over the past 120 years
synchrotron to performe quick experiments on small samples.
1035
1016
4th generation light source
1015 (free electron lasers)
1030
Brightness (Photons/sec/mm2/mrad/0.1 % bw)

1014
Synchrotron radiation with
1013 bend magnet
1025
1012
3rd generation light source
1011
(Bending magnets, wigglers
Brightness
Sun 1020 and undulators)

1010
109
2nd generation light source
108 (Bending magnets and
X-ray tube 1015 wigglers)
107 1st generation light source
(Bending magnet)
106
1010
105 60 W light bulb
X-ray tubes
104
Candle
103 105
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
102 Year
Source: (b) Amardeep Bharti and Navdeep Goyal
February 8th 2019. Fundamental of Synchrotron
Radiations, Synchrotron Radiation - Useful and
Interesting Applications, Daisy Joseph, IntechOpen,
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82202. Available from:
https://www.intechopen.com/books/synchrotron-
radiation-useful-and-interesting-
applications/fundamental-of-synchrotron-radiations
•
Divergence. The beam of radiation spreads out like a cone as it FIGURE 19.11 Cone of
travels down the beamline (see figure 19.11). Typically a beam cone radiation showing cone
would have a cone angle of a few microradians — that is, angle. The size of the cone
less than half of one thousandth of a degree.
• Polarisation. The radiation from a synchrotron is linearly polarised,
angle is a few microradians,
which is less than half of the
one-thousandth of a degree.
• Tunability. The frequency for the beamline is selected by a

minimises background scattering and improves sensitivity.
monochromator, which means that only one frequency leaves the
• Collimation. The beam can be focused down to less than a

end of the beamline and hits the target.
• Duration. Synchrotron radiation comes in pulses, typically lasting

micron (10–6 m) across, enabling chemical speciation to be mapped.
about one billionth of a second.

These features allow the X-rays to be used to investigate the fine Cone angle
structure of many materials — that is, to locate specific atoms in a
molecule, even a large molecule such as haemoglobin that is found
in red blood cells. This information is of value to researchers across a range of fields, because it enables
• What are the differences between malignant and non-malignant brain tumors?
them to answer such questions (that are not possible to explore using visible light) as:
• What is the structure of material, such as semiconductor nanocrystals, which may be used in the next
generation of computers?

• What are the steps or dynamics of a chemical reaction, either an industrial situation or a biological one?
To get some idea of how X-rays can answer these questions, we should go back in time to their discovery.
FIGURE 19.12 A reconstruction of 3D structure of the active site of an

influenza virus based on information revealed by synchrotron radiation.
This collection of precise information can improve the knowledge of
causes of infectious diseases like flu.
Source: © Dr. Jose Varghese
Discovery of X-rays
In the late nineteenth century, scientists were keen to discover the exact nature of electricity, but they had no
way of getting the electricity out of the wires. Two new technologies offered this possibility: the high DC
voltage equipment invented by Heinrich Ruhmkorff, capable of producing 20 000 volts; and the mechanical
pump that could reduce the air pressure inside a glass tube to very low, near vacuum, levels. Placing
electrodes inside the glass tube and connecting them to high voltage enabled electricity to flow through
about 20 centimetres of low-pressure air producing strange visual effects.
Ribbons and coloured bands of light were produced inside the tube. These lights seemed to come from the
terminal in the tube that was connected to the negative of the power supply, and so were called cathode
rays. However, a clear answer to the question of what electricity is was not forthcoming.
In October 1895 while experimenting with cathode rays, Wilhelm Röntgen, professor of Physics at the
University of Wurzburg in Germany, discovered an unknown form of radiation, which he called X-rays. He
had noticed that photographic film beyond the end of the tube was exposed when the cathode rays hit the
end of the tube. Röntgen spent the next seven weeks carrying out a variety of experiments on the X-rays to
determine their properties and to identify them. In that time, he compiled and published the following
properties.
1. X-rays are produced when cathode rays (later to be identified as electrons) strike any solid object.
2. All substances are more or less transparent to X-rays. The more dense or thick the substance, the more
the X-rays are absorbed. (Röntgen produced the first ‘X-ray’ of the bones in his hand, which attracted
the immediate interest of the medical profession.)
3. X-rays make a number of materials fluoresce — that is, give off visible light.
4. X-rays expose photographic film.
5. X-rays cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
6. X-rays travel in straight lines, and had not been found to reflect or refract.
7. X-rays discharge electroscopes, regardless of whether they were charged positive or negative.

Comparison between synchrotron, laser and X-rays
As shown in table 19.2 the synchrotron is the most powerful tool to investigate complex issues. A
conventional X-ray is less bright and produces radiation at a few different frequencies. Laser, on the other
hand, does not spread and is a coherent light source, meaning all photos have the same frequency. However,
being coherent does reduce laser’s versatility to be used in different investigations at different frequencies.
Synchrotron are extremely bright, polarised, continuous and very narrow. The broad range of available
wavelengths allow scientists to look at the size and shape of macromolecules and voids in bulk materials,
peer into the biochemistry of single cells and delve all the way down to the bonds between atoms.
TABLE 19.2 Comparisons of radiation a synchrotron, a laser and an X-ray tube
Brightness Spectrum Divergence
Synchrotron Extremely intense Continuous and wide Very narrow
Laser Very intense Single frequency Narrow
X-ray tube Intense Narrow, continuous but not smooth Wide
19.2 EXERCISE
1. What is a particle accelerator? Give an example of a particle accelerator.
2. How is radiation generated in a synchrotron?
3. What is the difference between Australian Synchrotron and the LHC?
4. Label the design features of the Australian Synchrotron with the given options in the boxes provided and
write the purpose for each of them.
Electron gun, Linear accelerator, Booster ring, Storage ring, Beamline, End station

5. Why does the storage ring have to be in an ultra-high vacuum?
6. The direction of the electron beam is controlled with the magnets in a synchrotron. How is the temperature of
these magnets and the entire building regulated?
19.3 Accelerator technology and the development

of modern particle physics
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the evolution of collider technology including:
• particles involved in the collision event
• the increasing energies attained since the 1950s.
• Evaluate the role of colliders in the development of the Standard Model of particle physics, including
reference to subatomic structure and processes.
• Describe the products of collisions with reference to symbol, charge, rest energy and lifespan.
• Compare the physical designs and purposes of particle detectors at the Large Hadron Collider including
ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.
The first particle accelerator

The first particle accelerator was an offshoot of equipment designed to investigate the nature of electricity.
The development of high voltage devices and vacuum technology in the 1850s enabled research into how
electricity flowed through gases at very low pressures. This ultimately led to the discovery of the electron
and the identification of its properties. The deflection of the electron in a magnetic field showed that the
electron was negatively charged and the radius of curvature gave a value to what is called the ‘charge-
to-mass ratio’ of the electron. This principle is now used in mass spectrometer chemical analysis.
FIGURE 19.13 A mass spectrometer. The ions move in a circular path in the magnetic field. The radius of the
path depends on the charge-to-mass ratio of the ion.
Particles are Ions are accelerated Magnetic field

ionised into beam causes deflection
Sample
Electromagnet
To vacuum
pump
Ion stream hits

Ion detector
To amplifier
To recorder

When the properties of the electron were being investigated in the
FIGURE 19.14 Schematic
1890s, the radius of curvature in a magnetic field gave the charge-to-mass diagram of a cyclotron
ratio of the electron, but neither the charge nor the mass separately. It was
only after Robert Millikan, in his oil-drop experiment, had experimentally
Magnet pole
determined the charge on the electron that its mass could be calculated.
Particle accelerators can be split into two fundamental types, electrostatic Dee Dee
and oscillating field accelerators. Magnet pole Vacuum
19.3.1 The cyclotron Dees
Ernest O. Lawrence invented the cyclotron in 1930, while

at the University of California. In his design, the electron made repeated
passes through the same electric field, getting an increase in speed each
time. The design consisted of what are called ‘dees’, because they look like
the letter D. The hollow metal dees were placed in a vacuum between the
poles of a strong magnet, facing each other across a narrow gap (see figure
B A
19.14). They were connected to a power supply, which could switch polarity
very quickly — that is, one moment one dee would be positive, and the
other negative; then a very short time later, the voltage would be reversed.
A charged particle was released in the middle of the
apparatus. It would be attracted to one of the dees and FIGURE 19.15 Ernest Orlando Lawrence,
gain speed. Once inside the hollow of the dee, the (1901–1958), US physicist, winner of the 1939
Nobel Prize for Physics for his invention of the
voltage would have no effect because the particle
cyclotron — the first particle accelerator to
was effectively ‘inside’ the conductor. However, the achieve high energies
magnetic field would have an effect and curve the
particle around in a semicircle and come back into the
space between the dees. Meanwhile the polarity of the
dees had been reversed, and the particle would be
attracted across to the other dee, and so gain speed.
Inside this dee the particle, now faster, would
be curved around by the magnetic field, but in a
larger radius because of the higher speed.
If the polarity of the voltage on the dees could be
reversed just at the right time as the particle emerges
from one dee, then the particle would continue to get
faster and faster as it spiralled outwards towards the
edge of the dees.
One of the difficulties with the cyclotron is that in
this mode of operation it works only for relatively
low speeds. We know from Einstein’s theory of
relativity that the mass of particles increases with
their speed, which means that at speeds close to the
speed of light, the faster the particle, the longer the
time for one revolution. The movement of the particle
between the dees would get out of sync with the
voltage reversals. This problem can be overcome by
decreasing the cyclotron frequency as the particle
gains in speed. These modified cyclotrons are called
synchrocyclotrons.
The first cyclotron built by Ernest Lawrence could accelerate protons to an energy of 80 keV and by 1939
to 8 MeV, using a magnet 150 cm in diameter (see figure 19.15). By 1953 variable energy cyclotrons were
being designed, with one of the first built at the University of Melbourne.

19.3.2 Early synchrotrons
The strategy used in the synchrotron to overcome the relativistic effect is to progressively increase the
magnetic field as the particle gains speed, keeping it in a path of constant radius.
To minimise operating costs, the radius needs to be large. In fact, the radius can be as large as
1 kilometre. Of course a giant magnet with a 1-kilometre radius has not been built. Rather, small magnets
are placed on the circumference of the synchrotron (the ring), where the particles are. Between these
magnets are high-voltage accelerators to top up the energy to the value requested by the experimenter.
It would be wasteful to inject particles into a synchrotron at low speeds and let the ring of magnets force
them up to almost the speed of light. Instead a linear accelerator outside the ring is used to accelerate the
particles up to a significant fraction of the speed of light before they are directed into the ring along a
tangential line.
The early particle accelerators used electrons because they are easy to produce with an electron gun and
because they are very light, which means they can be accelerated to very high speeds. However, their
lightness also means they have very little momentum, so their capacity to affect a nucleus is very limited.
Machines such as the proton synchrotron, mentioned earlier, were designed to produce protons, which are
much heavier than electrons.
In 1943, while working at the University of Birmingham during World War II, Australian physicist
Marcus Oliphant suggested modifying the design of the cyclotron to produce the synchrotron. In 1946 he
and his team began construction of a proton synchrotron.
The Melbourne physicists ‘had in mind the urgent need of a local source of radioactive isotopes’ for
medical research. Such a focus also allowed for tapping into the more generous funding possibilities
associated with medical science. The design of the variable-energy cyclotron, by David Caro and John
Rouse, was a world-first (figure 19.16) but a team of better resourced Americans managed to build one
sooner.
FIGURE 19.16 In the late 1950s at the University of Melbourne, David Caro and John
Rouse designed the 35 MeV Betatron, the world’s first variable-energy cyclotron.
Source: 35MeV Betatron from School of Physics Museum The University of Melbourne

A US team at Brookhaven, who started on their synchrotron after the UK team, were the first to be
operational. They produced 900 MeV protons in May 1952. The UK team were operational in July 1953 and
went on to produce 2900 MeV in January 1954. Later in 1954, a second US synchrotron, rated at 6000 MeV,
was built at Berkeley, California and in 1955 a Russian 10 000 MeV machine was built. By 1960 an
internationally owned machine of 30 000 MeV was built in Geneva.
Most particle accelerators developed since the 1950s have used the basic circular design described in the
previous section, ‘Design features of a synchrotron’. They differ in the amount of energy they can deliver to
the particles and also in their size, which is determined by the diameter of the storage ring.
European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN)

In December 1951, at an intergovernmental meeting of UNESCO in Paris, the first resolution concerning the
establishment of a European Council for Nuclear Research (in French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche
Nucléaire) was approved. Two months later, an agreement was signed, and the acronym CERN was born.
Today, our understanding of matter goes much deeper than the nucleus, and CERN’s main area of research is
particle physics. Because of this, the laboratory operated by CERN is often referred to as the European
Laboratory for Particle Physics. The first foundation stone was laid down in July 1955 by the CERN’s
director-general, Felix Bloch. Since CERN began, it has helped to uncover what the universe is made of and
how it works.
In the 1980s, the discovery of the W and Z particles brought the first experimental evidence of the theories
to explain weak and electromagnetic force. CERN researchers Simon van der Meer and Carlo Rubbia shared
the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery. During the 1990s, CERN experiments designed in light
of this discovery tested the so-called electroweak theory with extreme precision. In 2010, the LHC started to
provide particle collisions in a new high-energy domain, leading to the discovery at CERN of a Higgs boson
(figure 19.17) — long sought as the particle linked to the mechanism that gives mass to elementary particles.
FIGURE 19.17 A Higgs boson in a large collider
The Higgs boson

(Higgs particles)
is a particle in the standard
model of physics.
In the 1960s Peter Higgs
was the first person to think
of it, and the particle
was found in march 2013.
It is one of the 17 particles
in the standard model.
The Higgs particle is a boson.
The best-known CERN technology is the World Wide Web, invented to allow large number of scientists to
share information. For many of us today, life without the Web seems inconceivable. The Grid has been
developed at CERN to process the vast amounts of data collected by the LHC experiments. Electronic
particle detection techniques have revolutionised medical diagnosis. Detectors invented by Georges Charpak
in 1968 allow X-ray images to be made using a fraction of the dose required by photographic methods.
Crystals developed for CERN experiments in the 1980s are now ubiquitous in PET scanners. And today,
developments for a new generation of CERN detectors are allowing PET and MRI imaging techniques to be
combined in a single device. The transfer of CERN technologies and expertise to society is an integral part
of these activities, providing novel solutions in many fields (see figure 19.18).

CERN uses 1.3 terawatt hours of electricity annually. That’s enough power to fuel 300 000 homes for a
year in the United Kingdom. But the energy needed changes from month to month, as the seasons shift and
the experimental requirements are adjusted. At peak consumption, usually from May to mid-December,
CERN uses about 200 megawatts of power, which is about a third of the amount of energy used to feed the
nearby city of Geneva in Switzerland. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) runs during this period of the year,
using the power to accelerate protons to nearly the speed of light. CERN’s power consumption falls to about
80 megawatts during the winter months.
Particle accelerators can be designed to work with any charged particle or antiparticle. As the names in
table 19.3 reflect, electrons, positrons and protons are commonly used.
Particle accelerators use a straight-line section, called a linac, to accelerate the charged particles up to an
extremely high speed and energy. Some may use a booster ring to take the energy even higher. The
increasing energies attained since 1960s are shown in figure 19.19. Once the particles are at the maximum
energy, they are redirected to a storage ring. The storage ring is not so much a ring as a series of short curved
sections joined by short straight sections. In each curved section, magnets bend the beam of particles into a
circular path. In each straight section, the beam is given a little extra push along to compensate for the loss
FIGURE 19.18 How CERN’s various areas of expertise translate into impact across industries beyond CERN
Source: CERN

TABLE 19.3 Synchrotron developments
Maximum
Name Location Year Diameter energy Results
Cyclotron University of 1932 10 cm 80 keV Proof of concept

California,
Berkeley, USA
Cyclotron University of 1939 150 cm 8 MeV Discovered many isotopes

California,
Berkeley, USA
Cosmotron Brookhaven 1952 23 m 900 MeV Detected mesons only

National Laboratory, found in cosmic rays
Brookhaven, USA
Birmingham Birmingham, UK 1953 20 cm 2900 First synchrotron to reach

Synchrotron MeV 1 GeV
Bevatron Berkeley, USA 1953 36 m 6000 Discovered anti-proton and

MeV anti-neutron
Synchrophasotron Joint Institute for 1957 57 m 10 GeV First synchrotron to reach

Nuclear Research, 10 GeV
Dubna, Russia
Proton Synchrotron CERN, Geneva, 1960 200 m 28 GeV Discovered many

Switzerland sub-atomic particles
Stanford Stanford 1968 3.2 km* 90 GeV Found the charm quark in
Positron–Electron University, 1976 and quark structure of
Accelerating Ring Stanford, USA protons and neutrons in
(SPEAR) 1990
Tevatron Fermilab, USA 1983 2.2 km 1000 GeV Found the top quark in
1995; shut down in 2011
due to budget cuts
Large CERN, Geneva, 1989 8.5 km 209 GeV Precisely measured the
Electron–Positron Switzerland mass of subatomic par-
Collider (LEP) ticles, supporting the
Standard Model
Large Hadron Collider CERN, Geneva, 2008 8.5 km 14 000 Produced a quark plasma,
(LHC) Switzerland GeV the densest matter besides
black holes, in 2011;
discovered Higgs Boson
in 2012; discovered two
new heavy baryons in 2014
* SPEAR uses the 3.2 km long Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC), which has no storage ring.
of energy due to synchrotron radiation emitted on the bend. As the beam of particles circles the storage ring,
some particles stray off course and the number of particles in the beam diminishes. However, the beam can
hold enough particles to be useful for hours at a time before it needs to be replenished.
The diameter of the storage ring is determined partly by the energy of the particles, but also by the how
strong the magnets are. As the magnets are electromagnets, the electricity cost of running the magnets is a
significant factor in deciding the size of the accelerator.

FIGURE 19.19 Livingston plot showing the centre of mass energy of particle accelerators (lepton and hadron
colliders) versus time. In the case of the hadron machines, energies have been adjusted to account for quark and
gluon constituents. This suggests that the advancements in accelerator technology have increased the energy
records achieved by new machines by a factor of 10 every six years. Using these units, the energy of collisions at
the Large Hadron Collider is nearly 100 000 TeV.
Livingston plot – update 2009 – symmetry magazine First accelarator

100 000 TeV Cyclotrons
Cook or oft–Walton electrostatic accel
10 000 TeV LHC Van be Graaff electrostatic accelerators
Betatrons
1000 TeV Synchrocyd otrons
Linear accelarator
100 TeV
Electron synchrotrons
10 TeV Proton synchrotrons
Storage ring colliders
1 TeV Linear colliders
100 GeV
10 GeV
1 GeV
100 MeV
10 MeV
1 MeV
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Source: From 1954 ‘Energy of colliders is plotted in terms of the laboratory energy of particles colliding with a proton at rest to reach
the some center of mass energy’.
SIR MARCUS OLIPHANT

Marcus Oliphant was born and educated in Adelaide. After
completing his Master of Science, he won a scholarship to go FIGURE 19.20 Marcus Oliphant
to the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University to join (1901–2000)
the research team under Ernest Rutherford. Oliphant’s main
contributions were the discovery of tritium, the third isotope
of hydrogen, which has two neutrons and one proton, and the
confirmation of the possibility of a fusion reaction between
deuterons (the nuclei of the second isotope of hydrogen,
which have one neutron).
In 1939 he began building a 60-inch cyclotron, but World
War II intervened and the cyclotron was not finished until after
the war.
During the war, Oliphant’s research focused on radar. The
resonant cavity magnetron, developed by his team, enabled
radar with a 10 centimetre wavelength instead of the existing
150 centimetre. This became a vital part of Britain’s defence
during the 1940 Battle of Britain.
He also played a role in the development of the atom
bomb. In 1940, while working in England, Frisch and Peierls
had showed by calculation that the critical mass for a chain
reaction of uranium-235 was only a few kilograms. Oliphant
brought the results to the attention of government authorities
and a committee was set up to develop an atom bomb.
In 1941 Oliphant visited the United States to talk about
radar development. While there he discovered that, even
Source: Bassano Ltd / Wikimedia Commons

though the reports from the UK committee on the atom bomb had been sent to Washington, no work was being
done by the US on the atom bomb. The reports had been filed away and not discussed because the United States
was not at war. He immediately told US physicists of the developments in the United Kingdom and shortly after
the Manhattan Project was established to develop an atom bomb.
Oliphant strongly opposed the use of the atom bomb on Japan. He never overcame his feelings of guilt about
the part he played in the Manhattan Project. He subsequently took an active part in campaigns against nuclear
weapons, being a founding member of the Pugwash Movement. The mission of Pugwash is to ‘bring scientific
insight and reason to bear on threats to human security arising from science and technology in general, and
above all from the catastrophic threat posed to humanity by nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction’.
In 1972 he was appointed Governor of South Australia, a post he held for five years. Sir Marcus Oliphant died in
2000 at the age of 98.
19.3.3 The development of the Standard Model of particle physics

The Standard Model of particle physics describes all known elementary particles of matter and three of the
four known fundamental forces that describe their behaviour (see figure 19.21). There are 17 particles named
in the Standard Model, all of which can be classified into two types of particles: fermions and bosons.
FIGURE 19.21 The Standard Model of particle physics
Fermions describe the fundamental particles that make up all matter, while bosons are the mediators
(cause) of interactions between other particles. A fundamental particle is one that is not made up of other
smaller particles.
The six quarks are paired in three generations: the ‘up quark’ and the ‘down quark’ form the first
generation, followed by the ‘charm quark’ and ‘strange quark’, then the ‘top quark’ and ‘bottom (or beauty)
quark’. Quarks also come in three different ‘colours’ and only mix in such ways as to form colourless
objects. The six leptons are similarly arranged in three generations – the ‘electron’ and the ‘electron

neutrino’, the ‘muon’ and the ‘muon neutrino’, and the ‘tau’ and the ‘tau neutrino’. The electron, the muon
and the tau all have an electric charge and a sizeable mass, whereas the neutrinos are electrically neutral and
have very little mass.
Three of the fundamental forces result from the exchange of force-carrier particles, which belong to a
broader group called ‘bosons’. Particles of matter transfer discrete amounts of energy by exchanging bosons
with each other. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding boson – the strong force is carried by the
‘gluon’, the electromagnetic force is carried by the ‘photon’, and the ‘W and Z bosons’ are responsible for
the weak force.
The precise measurements of the mass and charge of all these various particles enabled physicists to
confirm the theory called the Standard Model. Some of the exotic particles detected are listed in table 19.4.
TABLE 19.4 Exotic particles detected in particle accelerator experiments
Particle Symbol Charge (e) Mass† (GeV/c2 ) Mean life‡ (s) Spin (h)
Leptons:
Electron e− −1 5.11 × 10−4 Stable 1/2
Electron ve 0 < 2 × 10 −9
Stable 1/2
neutrino
Muon μ− −1 0.106 2.20 × 10−6 1/2
Muon neutrino vμ 0 < 2 × 10−9 Stable 1/2
Tau 𝜏 −
−1 1.78 2.90 × 10 −13
1/2
Tau neutrino v𝜏 0 < 2 × 10−9 Stable 1/2
Hadrons:
Baryons:
Proton p +1 0.938 Stable 1/2
Neutron n 0 0.940 880 1/2
Lambda Λ 0 1.12 2.63 × 10−10 1/2
Ξ− −1 1.64 × 10−10
{
1.32 1/2
Ξ 2.90 × 10−10
Cascade 0 0 1.31 1/2
Omega Ω −1 1.67 8.2 × 10−11 3/2
Mesons:
π+ , π − +1, −1 2.60 × 10−8

{
0.140 0
π 8.5 × 10−17
Pion 0
0 0.135 0
K+ , K− +1, −1 1.24 × 10−8

{
0.494 0
, K0
Kaon
K 0
0 0.498 ¶ 0
J/psi J/𝜓 0 3.10 1.25 × 10−19 1
B+ , B− +1, −1 1.64 × 10−12

{
5.28 0
, B0 1.52 × 10−12
B
B 0
0 5.28 0
(continued)

TABLE 19.4 Exotic particles detected in particle accelerator experiments (continued)
Particle Symbol Charge (e) Mass† (GeV/c2 ) Mean life‡ (s) Spin (h)
Gauge bosons:
Photon 𝛾 0 0 Stable 1
W+ , W− +1, −1 1.59 × 10−25

{
80.4 1
1.32 × 10−25
Weak bosons 0
Z 0 91.2 1
Gluons g 0 0 Stable 1
Graviton‖ G 0 0 Stable 2
Higgs boson:
Higgs H0 0 126 1.56 × 10−22** 0

† Antiparticle symbols are indicated by an overline.
‡
Where available, values are quoted to three significant digits, which is sufficient precision for most purposes.
¶ Due to mixing of neutral kaons with their antiparticles, these particles do not have definite lifetimes. Symmetric and anti-
symmetric linnear combinations of K0 and K0 , known as KS and KL , have lifetimes of 8.95 × 10−11 s and 5.29 × 10−8 s,
respectively.
‖
The existence of this particle has been postulated but is not yet definitively established.
**
Predicted; measurements are not yet precise enough to determine the Higgs lifetime.
The Higgs boson

Since the positron was observed in 1932, confirming a prediction from theory, particle after particle that has
been predicted has been observed. By the end of 2000, all predicted particles had been observed in
experiment except for the Higgs boson. This particle had been predicted in 1964 to solve problems with
existing theory. Scientists had developed a theory that made sense of what was known about the particles of
matter that made up the known universe. However, it only worked if certain particles had zero mass. Some
of those particles were known to have mass so something was missing. Peter Higgs, François Englert and
three others proposed that there was a field through space, now known as the Higgs field, that particles with
mass interacted with via a particle called the Higgs boson. If the Higgs boson was found, the theory of the
Standard Model would match experimental results. To search for this elusive particle, the largest particle
accelerator ever built was constructed at CERN on the boarder of Switzerland and France. More than 100
countries are involved in the Large Hadron Collider, which has cost more than US$13 billion. In July 2012
scientists announced that this enormous investment had paid off and the final piece in the Standard Model
had been observed. Higgs and Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2013, for the prediction
they had made nearly fifty years earlier.
The detection of these particles has posed significant challenges, as they do not stay around to be ‘stored
in a bottle’; they rapidly decay into other particles, which themselves decay almost immediately.
Achievements in particle physics owe as much to the design of the detectors as to the design of the machines
that produce the collisions in the first place.
19.3.4 Features of the Large Hadron Collider

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s most powerful particle collider. It mostly uses protons
(hence its name, as protons are hadrons), but also uses ions and lead nuclei.
The LHC was built underground, as the Earth’s crust provides a shield for the radiation produced. It
generates about 1 billion particle collisions per second. Each proton beam flying around the LHC makes
11 245 circuits every second and could reach an energy of 7 TeV, so for two protons the collision energy is
14 TeV. In absolute terms, these energies, if compared to the energies we deal with every day, are not
remarkable. In fact, about 1 TeV of energy is produced by a flying mosquito. What makes the LHC so
extraordinary is that it squeezes energy into a space about one million times smaller than a mosquito.

The detectors
There are four main detectors at the LHC, each with a specific purpose and special design features. They are
known by the acronyms ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.
For all of the particles produced in a reaction, particle detectors need to be able to measure their mass,
momentum, kinetic energy, lifetime and charge.
ATLAS
ATLAS is a general-purpose detector. The acronym stands
FIGURE 19.22 The ATLAS detector
for ‘A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS’. (The word ‘toroidal’
means ‘donut-shaped’.) It is a large construction, 45 metres
long and 25 metres in diameter, with a mass of 7000 tonnes.
Particle beams can be arranged to collide in the middle of
ATLAS so that the numerous particles that are produced in
a collision can be detected.
ATLAS is made up of four layers of concentric detectors,
each for different types of particles.
1. Inner detector: determines the exact path of the particles
2. Calorimeter: measures their energy
3. Muon spectrometer: measures the momentum of muons
4. Magnet system: measures the momentum of other
particles
The charge and momentum of particles are detected by
their curvature in the magnetic fields in the layers. The only
particles that cannot be detected by ATLAS are neutrinos.
CMS
The Compact Muon Solenoid, or CMS, is another
general-purpose detector. It is smaller than ATLAS but
heavier: 22 metres long, 15 metres in diameter, with a mass Source: Justin Clements / Flickr
of 14 000 tonnes. It is also of a similar shape to ATLAS, although more cylindrical. The CMS has five layers
that serve similar functions to those in ATLAS. The CMS is mainly used to detect photons, electrons, muons
and different types of hadrons.
Why both?
If the ATLAS and CMS do similar jobs, why is there a need for two detectors?
ATLAS and CMS experiments each involve over 3000 physicists from almost 200 institutions from more
than 40 countries. The LHC frequently runs two or more experiments at the same time. The benefits are
healthy competition between teams, cross-checking of results, increased data and insurance against failure.
The arrangement also allows the experiments to use the different expertise of physicists and explore
different strategies to solve problems.
ATLAS and CMS both confirmed the existence of the Higgs boson. ATLAS gave its mass as 126 ± 0.4
GeV c2 and CMS gave the result 125.3 ± 0.4 GeV c2 . (The Tevatron at Fermilab also produced results
consistent with the Higgs boson but there was a 1-in-500 chance that those results could have been due to
other events, so the Tevatron finding was not categorised as a confirmed result.)
ALICE
ALICE stands for ‘A Large Ion Collider Experiment’. It is different from ATLAS and CMS in that it has a
specific purpose. It is designed to analyse collisions between lead nuclei. The temperature of such a collision
produces a quark plasma, the densest matter besides black holes, similar to conditions thought to have
existed a fraction of the second after the big bang.
In 2012 ALICE measured the highest temperature on Earth at 5.5 trillion degrees Celsius.

LHCb
LHCb stands for ‘Large Hadron Collider beauty’. It is investigating matter and antimatter. At the beginning
of the big bang, matter and antimatter were created in equal quantities, but now there is little antimatter to be
found. The LHCb is seeking an explanation by colliding heavy hadrons that contain the bottom quark. This
detector has about 800 people working together on it. The LHCb detected new baryons in 2014.
Putting the LHC together

The LHC consists of accelerators and detectors. How are they all related? Figure 19.23 shows the different
components of the LHC.
FIGURE 19.23 p and Pb: The linear accelerators for protons and lead ions; where they start their journey
CMS
LHC
LHCb
ALICE
SPS
ATLAS
p
Pb PS
•
•
PS: Proton Synchrotron, where the energy of the protons is increased from 1.4 GeV to 28 GeV
SPS: Super Proton Synchrotron, where the energy is increased further, from 28 GeV to 450 GeV;
•
particles are sent into the large ring in opposite directions to collide in one of the detectors
•
ATLAS: A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS detector
•
CMS: Compact Muon Solenoid detector
•
ALICE: A Large Ion Collider Experiment
LHCb: Large Hadron Collider beauty detector
19.3 EXERCISE
1. Who invented the first cyclotron and what was its purpose?
2. What can the LHC do that the Australian Synchrotron can’t?
3. What can the Australian Synchrotron do that the LHC can’t?
4. (a) What are the four main detectors at the LHC?
(b) Which is the only particle that cannot be detected by ATLAS?
5. The ATLAS and CMS do similar jobs, why is there a need for two detectors?
6. What does LHCb stand for and what is its purpose?
7. What features does the LHC have that the early particle colliders did not?
8. In what way is the LHC crucial for our increased understanding of the universe?

19.4 Current and future applications of accelerator
technology for society
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain how the immense amount of data collected by the Large Hadron Collider is stored and analysed,
and the associated role particle detectors have had in the development of information processing
technologies.
• Describe at least one application of particle accelerators selected from:
• materials analysis and modification which results in the improvement of consumer products such
as heat shrinkable film and chocolate
• implanting of ions in silicon chips to make them more effective in electronic products such as
computers and smart phones
• nuclear energy applications such as the use of thorium as an alternative fuel for the production of
nuclear energy or the treatment of nuclear waste
• pharmaceutical research involving the analysis of protein structure leading to the development of
new pharmaceuticals to treat major diseases
• DNA research involving the analysis of protein metabolism leading to the development of new
antibiotics
• medical applications such as the production of a range of radioisotopes for medical diagnostics
and treatments or cancer therapy through the use of particle beams
• use of spectrometry in environmental monitoring or the use of blasts of electrons in the treatment
of pollution such as contaminated water, sewage sludge and gases from smokestacks
• use of particle accelerators in a selected experiment or scientific endeavour.
• Investigate current and proposed future directions of collider technologies.
19.4.1 Data analysis

In the ATLAS detector, two beams of protons
FIGURE 19.24 Tim Berners-Lee, the CERN scientist,
are aimed at each other. A ‘crossing’ is when made the World Wide Web inaugural page available at
a particle from one beam crosses the path of a CERN in December 1990. However, the world’s first
particle from the other beam; there are 40 million website was made public on 6 August 1991.
crossings every second. Each impact produces
25 megabytes of raw data. In total, about one
million gigabytes of raw data are produced every
second. Analysing the data is an international
exercise relying on high-speed data links around
the world.
The 230 000 processor cores and 15 000 servers
run 24/7. Over 90% of the resources for computing
in the Data Centre are provided through a private
cloud based on OpenStack, an open-source project
to deliver a massively scalable cloud operating
system. It runs over 2 million tasks per day and,
Source: © CERN 2019
at the end of the LHC’s Run 2, global transfer rates
regularly exceeded 60 GB per second. These numbers will increase as time goes on and as computing
resources and new technologies become ever more available across the world.
With its high demands for data storage, data transfer and software design, it is no wonder that CERN was
the birth place of the internet.

19.4.2 Applications of particle accelerators
There are over 25 000 particle accelerators across the world. Not all of these are as big or as powerful as the
• medical uses — about 40% of the world’s particle accelerators are dedicated to medical uses such as:
Australian Synchrotron, let alone the LHC. Many have quite specific purposes, including:
• radiation therapy with protons or electrons

• sterilisation of equipment
• ion implantation — about another 40% of particle accelerators are used this way. Ions are accelerated
to high speeds, then fired at the surface of a material. This process is used in the manufacture of
•
semiconductors and the altering of surface properties, such as toughening steel tools
non-destructive testing to find out about the internal structure of an object such as an aircraft wing
• blasts of electrons from a particle accelerator are an effective way to clean up dirty water, sewage
without damaging it in any way.
• treating nuclear waste and allowing the use of an alternative fuel, thorium, for the production of nuclear
sludge and polluted gases from smokestacks.
energy.
Accelerators are used in two ways for diagnostics and for therapy for medical purposes.
Radiotherapy
Radioisotopes are an essential part of radiopharmaceuticals (consists of a radioisotope tracer attached to a
pharmaceutical) and have been used regularly in medicine for more than 30 years. They can give exclusive
biochemical and physiological information when injected into living creatures. The radioisotopes that have
short half-lives are appropriate for diagnostic purposes; whereas, others with longer half-lives are used for
therapeutic purposes. Radioisotopes are employed to observe anomalies of metabolism (changes in blood
flow, oxygen utilization, glucose metabolism) or detect tumours. The aim of radiotherapy is to destroy the
malignant cells without damaging the healthy tissues.
After entering the body, the radio-labelled pharmaceutical will collect in a particular organ or tumour
tissue. The radioisotope attached to the targeting pharmaceutical will undergo decay and produce specific
amounts of radiation that can be used to diagnose or treat diseases and injuries. The amount of
radiopharmaceutical given is carefully chosen to ensure the safety of each patient.
The most common radiopharmaceuticals used in Australian’s nuclear medicine centres are
technetium-99m and iodine-131. Technetium-99m has a half-life of six hours that make it ideal for imaging
organs for disease detection without delivering a significant radiation dose to the patient as it emits weak
gamma radiation. On the other hand, iodine-131 with a half-life of eight days and a higher energy beta
particle decay, it is used in the treatment of thyroid cancer.
Sterilisation
Sterilising medical equipment in hospitals is a critical process in medical facilities. This can be done by
bombarding the equipment with a beam of electrons or X-rays produced by a particle accelerator. These
high energy particles eradicate any microbes on the surface of the product. This technique can also be used
in sterilisation of fresh food and industrial waste. In this process ionisation radiation is produced without
using radioisotopes. Accelerators could be used to sterilise single objects or multiple objects quickly.
19.4.3 Current and proposed future of collider technologies

At the time of writing the LHC was shut down for two years for upgrades. This planned improvement will
bring the energy up to 14 trillion eV by 2021. It will also lay the groundwork for another expression of the
collider further, known as the High-luminosity LHC. This is expected to be ready by 2026 and will increase
the rate of proton collisions by at least a factor of five.

CERN has announced the ambitious FIGURE 19.25 The proposed future circular collider would take
plan to build a future circular collider decades to design and build.
(FCC) in a circular tunnel stretching
100 kilometres near Geneva that could
start operating in 2040 and take over
from the existing 27-kilometre LHC.
The goal of the FCC is to significantly
push the energy and intensity frontiers
of particle colliders, with the aim
of reaching collision energies of
100 TeV, in the search for new physics.
The project is the combined work
of 1500 contributors across 150
universities, research institutions and
industrial partners and is yet to
be approved.
Source: © CERN 2019
19.4 EXERCISE
1. How much raw data is produced every second in the ATLAS detector?
2. How is the huge amount of data transferred and stored at CERN?
3. Why was CERN the birth place of ‘internet’?
4. Which charged particles has the LHC detected and how?
5. What is the future direction of collider technologies?
19.5 Review
19.5.1 Summary
•
•
Synchrotrons accelerate electrons to produce light, called synchrotron radiation.
Colliders accelerate electrons, protons and heavy ions to produce particle collisions. The maximum
•
energies have grown exponentially since the 1950s.
In the Australian Synchrotron the linac is where the electrons receive most of their energy gain. The
circular booster ring raises the energy even further before the electrons are passed to the storage ring.
At each bending magnet in the storage ring, synchrotron radiation is produced along the tangent into
•
beamlines.
Synchrotron radiation is characterised by its extreme brightness, wide spectrum and narrow spread.
Laser light has a narrower spread.

• Colliders have played a central role in detecting and measuring subatomic particles that support the
•
Standard Model of particle physics.
The LHC has several ways of detecting the particles produced in collisions. These include ATLAS,
•
CMS, ALICE and LHCb, which have different purposes.
The need to store massive amounts of data produced by the LHC, the software to analyse it and the
networks to share it has had an impact of the development of information processing technologies.
Resources
19.5.2 Key terms
A beamline is the line along which the synchrotron radiation passes to reach the target.
The booster ring is the part of a synchrotron that takes the already fast electrons from the linear accelerator and
increases their speed and energy before injecting them into the storage ring.
A cathode ray is a narrow beam of electrons emitted from a hot filament through which an electric current flows.
A cyclotron was an early design for a particle accelerator that was replaced when speeds close to the speed of
light were desired.
A mass spectrometer uses a magnetic field to separate ions by their charge-to-mass ratio. It gives information
about the presence or absence of particular ions and also their proportion.
A monochromators is a device that allows radiation of only one frequency through.
A nanocrystal is a very small crystal with only a few hundred to a thousand atoms.
A particle accelerator is a large expensive machine that accelerates charged particles such as electrons,
protons and atomic nuclei to speeds close to the speed of light, and aims them at a target to gain some
understanding about the target or the ‘bullet’ itself.
A photon is a discrete bundle of electromagnetic radiation. It can be thought of as a discrete packet of light
energy with zero mass and zero electric charge.
A proton synchrotron is designed to run with positively charged particles such as the proton.
The storage ring of a synchrotron is where the electrons, now at maximum possible speed, produce radiation
for use in the beamlines.
A synchrotron is a particle accelerator in which the final path of the particle is a circle of constant radius.
Synchrotron radiation is the electromagnetic radiation produced when electric charges are accelerated.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very high frequency and very short wavelength.
Resources
19.5 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,

1. What is a particle accelerator used for?
A. Accelerating particles other than subatomic particles to very high velocities by means of electric or
electromagnetic fields
B. Accelerating particles other than subatomic particles to very high velocities by means of electric or
electromagnetic fields
C. Accelerating subatomic particles to very high velocities by means of electric or electromagnetic
fields
D. Accelerating subatomic particles to very high velocities by means of electric and electromagnetic
fields
2. Which statement is correct about the Australian synchrotron?
A. It accelerates charged particles to very high velocities, to produce intense and narrow beams of
B. It accelerates charged particles to velocities less than the speed of light, to produce intense and
narrow beams of electromagnetic radiation.
C. It accelerates charged particles to very high velocities and then let them collide.
D. It accelerates charged particles to velocities less than speed of light and then let them collide.
3. Where is synchrotron radiation produced?
A. All the parts of synchrotron
B. Storage ring
C. Booster ring
D. Beamlines
4. If a fast-moving charge is moving in a circular path within a magnetic field, how is radiation emitted?
A. Along the circular path
B. Uniformly in all directions
C. Along the tangent to the circle
5. Which of the following is true in relation to the first particle accelerators?
A. They were electromagnetic accelerators.
B. They were electrostatic accelerators.
C. They were either electromagnetic or electrostatic accelerators.
D. They were neither electromagnetic nor electrostatic accelerators.
6. What is the purpose of beamlines?
A. To generate electrons
B. To bend the electrons into a circular path
C. To accelerate charged particle to the speed of light
D. To bring the X-ray beam to the separate experimental stations
7. Why is the synchrotron a more powerful tool than laser?
A. Synchrotron produces an extremely intense, continuous and very narrow beam.
B. Synchrotron produces an extremely intense, single frequency and very narrow beam.
C. Synchrotron produces an extremely intense, continuous and wide beam.
D. Synchrotron produces an extremely intense, single frequency and wide beam.
8. What is the only particle that cannot be detected by ATLAS?
A. Protons
B. Neutrons
C. Neutrinos
D. Electrons

9. Which of these is not a use of particle accelerators?
A. Particle physics experiments
B. A new type of weaponry
C. Particle therapy to treat cancer
D. Condensed matter physics
10. ALICE stands for ‘A Large Ion Collider Experiment’. It is designed to analyse collisions between which
of the following?
A. Potassium nuclei
B. Carbon nuclei
C. Uranium nuclei
D. Lead nuclei

1. What components do the LHC and the Australian Synchrotron have in common?
2. Why is vacuum required in the particle accelerators?
3. In the storage ring of a synchrotron, energy is lost by electrons in the form of synchrotron radiation.
How is this lost energy replaced?
4. What components do each of the LHC and the Australian Synchrotron have that the other does not?
5. What is the benefit of using X-ray synchrotron over a laser source?
6. What is the main difference between a cyclotron and a synchrotron?
7. What is the significance of the word ‘hadron’ in the title of the LHC?
8. What is the purpose of a wiggler and an undulator magnet?
9. What does ALICE stand for and what is its specific purpose?
10. What are some of the areas where technologies developed at CERN had an impact across society?

What is the main difference in the purpose of the LHC and the Australian Synchrotron?
What is the benefit of using X-ray synchrotron over conventional X-ray sources?
List three main characteristics of synchrotron radiation that allow it to be a powerful tool for investigating
the fine structure of materials.
Describe the purpose of each of the following components of the Australian Synchrotron: linac, circular
booster, storage ring and beamlines.
Why did it take physicists so many years to discover the Higgs boson?

Test maker

20 How can human vision be

enhanced?
20.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are available just where you need them, at the Invepoint of learning,
in your digital formats, learnOn and eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
20.1.1 Introduction
Physics is the field of science that is based on making sense of the physical universe. To do this we use our
senses, looking for patterns and connections to evaluate the data they provide. Our sense of sight is one
of our most significant. Although it detects only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, it provides
us with vast amounts of useful information. Our ability to enhance human vision is incredible — glasses
and bionic eyes have been designed to treat vision impairment and blindness, and lenses in telescopes and
microscopes allow us to see very small and very distant objects. We will explore these amazing innovations
further in this topic.
FIGURE 20.1 Sight is one of the senses we heavily rely on for collecting data and making observations. Consider
how vision can be extended to gather even more information.
TOPIC 20 How can human vision be enhanced? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Behaviour of light
• identify that light travels in straight lines in a uniform medium
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the two laws of reflection at a plane surface:
• the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
• the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence are coplanar
• investigate theoretically and practically refraction using Snell’s Law, n1 sin(𝜃 1 ) = n2 sin(𝜃 2 )
Manipulating light for a purpose

• describe image formation using pinhole cameras and convex and concave lenses
• calculate image positions for thin lenses using either accurate ray tracing scale diagrams and/or the thin
1 1 1
lens equation: = +
f u v
u
• calculate image sizes in pinhole and simple lens cameras: M = −
v
• explain the operation of simple two-lens telescopes and microscopes
Light and the eye

• model and explain human vision as refraction at a spherical surface with an adjusting lens
• distinguish between short-sightedness and long-sightedness, and explain their correction by concave and
convex lenses, respectively
1
• apply the power of a lens: P = to eye glasses
f
• explain accommodation in the human eye including the effects of ageing
• investigate and explain the treatment of cataract blindness including the use of intraocular lenses
• investigate the operation of the bionic eye.

Resources
Digital documents Key science skills — VEC Units 1–4 (doc-31856)

20.2 Behaviour of light
KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify that light travels in straight lines in a uniform medium.
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically the two laws of reflection at a plane surface:
• the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
• the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence are coplanar.
20.2.1 Light travels in straight lines

In this topic we will discuss the ray
FIGURE 20.2 Rays are straight lines indicating light propagating
model for light. The ray model makes from a light source. The further they are apart, the dimmer the light.
use of the fact that light travels in
straight lines in uniform media. Rays
are arrows drawn from a light source,
as shown in figure 20.2. The direction
of light moving out from its source is
called the direction of propagation.
Objects that emit light are called
luminous objects. They include
the Sun, the stars, light globes,
computer screens (when switched
on), lit candles and glow worms.
Light propagates away from luminous
objects. Luminous objects shine even
when there is no other light source.
Luminous objects that produce light as
a result of being hot are described as
Light
incandescent. bulb
All other objects are described as
non-luminous. They need a luminous
object to shine light on them for us
to be able to see them. They do not
produce light of their own. Non- FIGURE 20.3 The Sun is luminous; clouds, rocks, trees and water
luminous objects include trees, tables are all non-luminous.
and the Moon.
It turns out that all objects are
luminous to some extent, but ones
we call non-luminous are radiating
light that is invisible to the unaided
eye. We know that very hot objects
tend to glow, for example, a hot coal
in a fire. What we see depends on the
object’s temperature. When the coal
cools down, it is still radiating but the
light it emits has a longer wavelength
than the human eye can see. We call
this radiation infra-red, microwave or
radio wave radiation, depending on
how cool the object is.

Devices such as night-vision FIGURE 20.4 An image seen through a night-vision device
goggles can be used to detect some
of these wavelengths that our
unaided eyes cannot and turn them
into wavelengths on a screen that
are visible to the human eye.
Night-vision devices are used by
soldiers and journalists, in wildlife
observation, navigation and
surveillance and are useful in
firefighting to find the hotspots
behind the smoke.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 20.1 Luminous or not? (doc-32327)
Investigation 20.2 The Galilean telescope (doc-31901)
20.2.2 Objects and images

We can see luminous objects because the
FIGURE 20.5 Light radiating from a flame with some
light from them directly enters our eyes. entering an eye
We draw rays from the luminous object
to the retinas of our eyes, through the iris.
Notice that in figure 20.5 rays of light leave
the flame in all directions. Only some are
drawn. Our eyes only see the rays that enter
the eyes. All of the other rays play no part in
our perception of the flame.
Eye
Some terminology will help us here and
for the rest of this topic. In this example, the
flame is called the object. It is the source of
the rays. Optical devices such as our eyes Object (candle)
collect the rays that enter them to form an
image of the object. Without these images,
we would not be able to see.
Eyes do not always successfully form clear images. Many people cannot form clear images of letters on
the page in front of them. Reading glasses help some people form clear images of the letters they read.
20.2.3 Looking in the mirror

Most of what we see depends significantly on the phenomenon of reflection. We can see the light emitted
by luminous objects, but we can see everything else around us because light reflects from non-luminous
objects into our eyes.
In the previous section we noted that rays of light radiate in all directions from a luminous object such as
a flame. What happens to those other rays that do not enter the eye? Some of them might hit a book that is
lying on the table beside the flame. When they hit the book, two things can happen: the ray can be absorbed
or the ray can be reflected.

Different materials absorb different amounts of light. Compare the sunlight striking snow and soil. The
snow absorbs very little light but the soil absorbs a lot. This means that most of the light hitting the snow is
reflected, but only a little of the light hitting the soil is reflected. The snow and soil have irregular surfaces,
so the reflected light leaves them in many different directions. Any ray that reflects so that it enters your eye
will help form an image of the snow or the dirt. Many more rays come from the snow, so it is very bright,
whereas the soil has absorbed a lot of the light, so it appears dark.
The book next to the candle is visible to us because some of the light that hits it reflects into our eyes,
which use that light to form an image of the book (shown in figure 20.6). This is how we see all non-
luminous objects. This type of reflection, in which the directions of the reflected rays appear random, is
called diffuse reflection. The directions of rays in diffuse reflection are not really random; they are simply
a result of the rays striking an irregular surface. Regular reflection, also referred to as specular reflection,
is reflection from a smooth surface. The more polished a surface is, the less we see the surface itself and the
more we see the reflection of other objects in the surface (for example, in a mirror).
FIGURE 20.6 Light rays from a luminous object hitting a book and reflecting into an eye
Eye
Candle Book
The ray model can explain diffuse reflection. On a microscopic scale, the surfaces of most objects are
not flat or smooth. Rays hitting the surface only a tiny distance apart will therefore be reflected at different
angles. Although the law of reflection is satisfied on the microscopic scale, the overall effect of light hitting
that surface is for it to be scattered in all directions. This scattering of the light in random directions is
called diffusion, hence, the term diffuse reflection (figure 20.7).
FIGURE 20.7 This is diffuse reflection. Each of the incoming parallel rays meets the irregular surface at a
different angle of incidence. The reflected rays will therefore go off in different directions, enabling observers
in all directions to receive light from the surface; in other words, to see the surface.
Observer A
Observer B
Irregular surface

The law of reflection
The law of reflection governs the reflection of light rays off smooth conducting surfaces, such as polished
metal or glass mirrors.
Consider the incident of a light ray on a plane mirror, as shown in figure 20.8. The ray of light
approaching the surface is called the incident ray and the ray of light reflecting from the surface is called
the reflected ray. The normal (N) is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror.
The angle that the incident ray makes with the normal to the surface is called the angle of incidence (i).
The angle that the reflected ray makes with the normal to the surface is called the angle of reflection (r).
(Note: The surface is not necessarily flat, so the angle with the surface can be different depending on the
direction of the ray.)
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (i) equals to angle of reflection (r). The incident
ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
FIGURE 20.8 Diagram showing incident and reflected rays for a plane surface
Normal (N)
Incident Reflected
ray ray
Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection
i r
Mirror
Forming images in a mirror

In flat, or plane mirrors, the image is virtual, upright, the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in
front of the mirror and the same size as the object. We describe this image as having a magnification of 1
(it is the same size as the object) and it is upright. These images are also laterally inverted, which means
that the left-hand side of the object is the right-hand side of the image, but the image is facing the object.
So, if you wear a watch on your left hand (the object), the image will have the watch on its right hand. This
is illustrated using the simple ray diagram in figure 20.9.
FIGURE 20.9 In flat, or plane mirrors, images have FIGURE 20.10 A ray diagram of image formation in
a magnification of 1 and they are laterally inverted. a flat, or plane, mirror
C
N1 N2
P P D
M A B M1

To understand how this happens, consider
FIGURE 20.11 The image of your face in the mirror is
figure 20.10. Two rays emerge from point an optical illusion caused by the reflection of light in the
O (object), strike the mirror (M) and reflect mirror. It is called a virtual image.
into the observer’s eye. We use the law
of reflection to construct the reflected
rays. If the reflected rays are extended
backward behind the mirror (shown by the
dashed lines, as rays are imaginary not real
light rays), they seem to originate from point
I (image). This is where the image of point O
is located. By forming images of all points of
the object, we obtain an upright image of the
object behind the mirror. The reflected rays
appear to the observer to come directly from
the image behind the mirror; in reality, these
rays come from the points on the mirror where
they are reflected. The image behind the mirror
is called a virtual image because it cannot
be projected onto a screen — the rays only
appear to come from a common point behind
the mirror, so that is where the virtual image is
located (figure 20.11).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the angles a, b and c in the following figure.
Mirror
50° c°
a° b°
THINK WRITE
1. The angle of incidence (a) is measured from a = 90° – 50° = 40°
the normal line.
2. The law of reflection states that the angle of According to the law of reflection, the angle of
incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r). incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r).
Therefore, b = 40°.
3. The angle between the normal and the mirror c = 90° – b = 90° – 40° = 50°
is 90°.
4. State the answer. a = b = 40° and c = 50°

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A ray of light strikes the surface of a plane mirror so that the angle between it and the mirror is 35°.
a. Determine:
i. the angle of incidence
ii. the angle of reflection.
b. What do the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all have in common (other than
being straight lines)?
Reflection in curved mirrors

Images are not always the same size as their objects.
FIGURE 20.12 In a car headlight, the light
The effect of an optical device on the size of the image source (a globe or LED) is placed at the focus of
is indicated by the magnification (discussed later in the curved reflective surface. This produces a
section 20.4.1). As the image in a plane mirror is the narrow beam of light.
same height as the object, the magnification is 1. In a
device such as the bottom of a spoon, where the height
of the image is smaller than the height of the object,
the magnification is between 0 and 1. This is known as
a diminished image. When the magnification is greater
than 1, the image is said to be enlarged. If you look
at the reflection of your eye in the concave (curved
inwards) side of a polished spoon, with your eye very
close to the spoon, you may see an enlarged image of
your eye.
Sometimes mirrors are used for purposes that
require them to be curved. For example, a car headlight
has a curved mirror behind its bulb (figure 20.12). This mirror collects the rays that would otherwise
illuminate objects behind the light and reflects them forward. A plane mirror behind the light would cause
the light to reflect in a forward direction but diverge (figure 20.13a). The curved mirror results in all of the
rays reflecting in the forward direction without diverging, to create an intense beam of light (figure 20.13b).
Mirrors curved like this are called concave mirrors. The edge of a concave mirror is closer to the object than
the centre (figure 20.13c). Such mirrors are also used in many forms of telescope.
FIGURE 20.13 (a) Rays from a light source in front of a plane mirror are reflected in all directions. (b) The curved
circular mirror brings the reflected rays inwards. (c) When the curved mirror is in the shape of a parabola, the
reflected rays become parallel to each other and the light source is said to be at the focus of the curved mirror.
(a) Plane mirror (b) Circular concave mirror (c) Parabolic concave mirror
Convex mirrors are like the bottom side of a spoon: the middle is closer to the object than the edge.
These mirrors can be used to help see around corners in driveways and small streets by producing a wider
field of view (figure 20.14). The magnification of convex mirrors is always less than one, and the image is
virtual.

FIGURE 20.14 Convex mirrors are often used to help improve
vision around corners.
Resources
Digital documents Model of a concave mirror (doc-0055)
Investigation 20.3 Luminosity and temperature (doc-32329)
Weblink Concave mirror applet
20.2 EXERCISE
1. Describe the light path from a light source to your eye in seeing an object.
2. Use the ray model and the sources of light to rephrase the statements (a) ‘I looked at a flower through the
window’ and (b) ‘I watched the TV’.
3. Explain how early astronomers knew the Moon must have a rough surface.
4. Copy the following figure and draw the incident and reflected rays from the two ends of the object to the
eye. Locate the image.
Object
Plane
mirror

5. A horizontal light ray strikes a mirror such that the reflected ray is directed at a 60° angle with respect to the
horizontal as show in the following figure. Find the value of the angle, a, that the mirror makes with the
horizontal?
60°
a°
6. The two arrowed lines in the following figures represent reflected rays. The line AB represents the plane
mirror. Locate the image and the light source in each of the two figures.
A
A
B B
7. A student argues that you cannot photograph a virtual image because light rays do not pass through the
space where the image is formed. How would you argue against this statement?
8. Sketch the path of each of the rays entering each of the pair of joined mirrors in the following figure.
9. You are walking towards a plane mirror at a speed of 1 m s−1 . How fast is your image walking? How quickly
are you and your image approaching each other?
10. (a) You are standing 2 metres in front of a plane mirror and you wish to take a sharp photograph of yourself
in the mirror. At what distance do you set the camera lens?
(b) Your friend is standing beside you, 1 metre away. At what distance do you set the camera lens for a
sharp photograph of your friend?


20.3 Refraction
KEY CONCEPT
• Investigate theoretically and practically refraction using Snell’s Law, n1 sin(𝜃 1 ) = n2 sin(𝜃 2 ).
20.3.1 The behaviour of light when changing media

So far we have considered opaque objects such as books,
FIGURE 20.15 An example of refraction
heads and mirrors. Light does not pass through these objects.
Materials that light passes through are called transparent and
translucent materials.
Materials that are transparent include clear glass. The light
passes through undeviated so that you can see the objects on
the other side clearly.
Translucent materials are used when you want some light
but you do not want to be able to see through clearly, for
example, glass in a bathroom window. The glass is etched so
that the surface is not smooth, or it has some other material
embedded in it that diffuses the light.
Light that strikes the surface of transparent glass is partially
reflected from the material and is partially transmitted through
the material. When light moves from one medium to another
(in this case from air into glass), the speed of the light tends to
change. If the light strikes the surface at an angle other than
90 degrees, this usually results in bending of the light. This
bending is called refraction. (The occasions when it does not
bend are when the two materials are such that they convey
light at the same speed.)
You may have noticed some of the effects of bending of
light. Hunters spearing for fish in the shallows must aim the
spear below where the fish appears to be in the water. At the
beach or in a pool, people standing in the shallows appear to have shorter legs. Our perception is distorted
by light travelling from one medium into another. This may be more apparent when we set up a straight
rod in a beaker of liquids that do not mix, as seen in figure 20.15. Each time the medium changes, the light
changes direction, distorting our vision. This change in the direction of the light is refraction.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 20.4 Seeing is believing (doc-32331)
20.3.2 Bending of light

The ray model can help explain these observations, as shown in figure 20.16. If we try to spear a fish and
the fish swims safely beneath where the spear passes, it is because a virtual image of the fish has formed
above where the fish actually was. The rays of light from the fish that enter our eyes are bent when they
leave the water. To our eyes, the rays seem to be coming from another direction. Given that light can travel
both ways along a light path, the fish will see spear throwers stand taller above it than they in reality are.
This effect was well known to Indigenous Australians in their traditional hunting methods, in which spears
are used to hunt fish and sea life.

FIGURE 20.16 The rays from the fish bend when they enter the air. To the eye, the rays appear to come from a
point closer to the surface.
Air
water
Fish appears
to be here.
Fish is here.
The ray model not only gives us a way of describing our observations of the bending of light; it also
helps us to take measurements. The angle that a ray of light makes with the normal (either the angle of
incidence or the angle of refraction) can be measured and investigated.
20.3.3 Snell’s Law

In 1621, the Dutch physicist Willebrand Snell investigated the refraction of light and found that the ratio of
the sines of the angles of incidence (i) and angle of refraction (r) was constant for all angles of incidence.
Figure 20.17 shows how an incident ray is affected when it meets the boundary between air and water. The
normal is the line at right angles to the boundary, and all angles are measured from the normal. Some of the
light from the incident ray is reflected back into air. The rest is transmitted into the water.
The following ratio is a constant for all angles for light travelling from air to water:
sin i
= constant
sin r
FIGURE 20.17 A graphical representation of Snell’s Law for any two substances. 𝜃 2 is the angle of refraction in
medium 2.
Angle of Angle of
incidence Normal reflection
Incident ray Reflected ray
θi θi
Boundary n1
n2
θr
Angle of
refraction Refracted ray

Snell repeated his experiments with different substances and found that the ratio was still constant, but
it had a different value for different substances. This suggested that different substances bend light by
different amounts. (Remember that some light is always reflected.)
In fact, there is a different ratio for each pair of substances (for example, air and glass or air and water).
A different ratio is obtained for light travelling from air into glass than for light travelling from air into
water. The value of the ratio is called the relative refractive index, because it depends on the properties
of two different substances.
The refractive index is a measure of the bending of a ray of light as it passes from one medium to
another. It is not possible to find the effect of a particular substance on the deflection of light without
adopting one substance as a reference standard. Once you have a standard, every substance can be
compared with it. A natural standard is a vacuum, the absence of any substance. The absolute refractive
index of a vacuum is given the value of 1. From this, the absolute refractive index of all other substances
can be determined. Some examples are given in table 20.1. (The word ‘absolute’ is commonly omitted and
the term ‘refractive index’ usually refers to the absolute refractive index.) A medium that produces a large
amount of the light path is said to have a large refractive index.
TABLE 20.1 Values for absolute refractive index
Material Value
Vacuum 1.0 000
Air at 20 °C and normal atmospheric pressure 1.00 028
Water 1.33
Perspex 1.49
Quartz 1.46
Crown glass 1.52
Flint glass 1.65
Carbon disulfide 1.63
Diamond 2.42
The refractive index is given the symbol n because it is a pure number without any units.
This enables a more useful restatement of Snell’s Law:
nair sin 𝜃air = nwater sin 𝜃water
Where:
nair = refractive index of air
nwater = refractive index of water
𝜃air = angle of incidence in air
𝜃 water = angle of incidence in water.
More generally this would be expressed as:

n1 sin 𝜃1 = n2 sin 𝜃2
Where:
n1 = refractive index of incident medium
n2 = refractive index of the refractive medium
𝜃1 = angle of incidence in medium 1
𝜃2 = angle of refraction in medium 2.

As with all formulas, it is important to enter the data carefully into Snell’s Law. The refractive index
inserted for n1 must be the refractive index of the medium in which the light makes an angle of 𝜃 1 with the
normal. Similarly, the refractive index inserted for n2 must be the refractive index of the medium in which
the light makes an angle of 𝜃2 with the normal.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A ray of light strikes a glass block of refractive index 1.45 at an angle of incidence of 30°. What is
the angle of refraction?
THINK WRITE
1. State the known and unknown quantities. nair = 1.0, 𝜃air = 30°, nglass = 1.45, 𝜃glass = ?
2. Recall Snell’s Law. n1 sin 𝜃1 = n2 sin 𝜃2
nair sin 𝜃air = nglass sin 𝜃glass
3. Substitute known values in and solve 1.0 × sin 30° = 1.45 × sin 𝜃glass
for 𝜃glass . sin 30°
sin 𝜃glass = = 0.3448
1.45
𝜃glass = sin−1 (0.3448) = 20°
4. State the answer. The angle of refraction is 20°.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
A ray of light enters a plastic block at an angle of incidence of 40°. The angle of refraction is 30°.
What is the refractive index of the plastic?
GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS AND BENDING LIGHT

Light can be bent by a strong gravitational field, such as that near the Sun. The gravitational field can act like
a convex lens. Light from a distant star that is behind and blocked by the Sun bends around the Sun so that
astronomers on Earth see an image of the star to the side of the Sun.
Resources
Video eLesson Refraction and Snell’s Law (eles-0037)
Interactivity Refraction and Snell’s Law (int-0056)
20.3.4 The speed of light in glass

The speed of a wave depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels. During the
seventeenth century, one model of light proposed that light travelled faster in glass. Another model of
light proposed that light travelled slower in glass. Scientists at the time did not have the technology to
measure the speed of light through materials such as water or glass. It was only in the nineteenth century
that Augustin-Jean Fresnel and Jean Bernard Léon Foucault were able to measure the speed of light in
water as being less than the speed in air. This helped to improve understanding of the nature of light. This
gave the refractive index a physical meaning:

speed of light in a vacuum
absolute refractive index of a medium =
speed of light in a medium
where the speed of light in a vacuum = 3.0 × 108 m s–1 .
As light passes through the interface between two mediums of different refractive indices, it bends. The
medium with greater refractive index is called the denser medium and the one with smaller refractive index
is called the rarer medium. In figure 20.18a, the path of a light ray is bent towards the normal when the ray
enters a medium with a refractive index higher (water) than the one from which it emerges (air). This is
because the light travels slower in the medium with a higher refractive index. In figure 20.18b, the light ray
bends away from the normal when the ray enters a medium with a refractive index lower (air) than the one
from which it emerges (water). This is because the light travels faster in the medium with a lower refractive
index. This property is very helpful in designing optical lenses as it allows the calculation of the bend angle
of the beam of light when it passes from one transparent medium to another.
FIGURE 20.18 A graphical depiction of Snell’s Law for any two substances
(a) Normal (b) Normal
Rarer (n1 < n2) Denser (n1 > n2)
(n1) i (n1) i
Denser Rarer r
(n2) r (n2)
r<i r>i
Dispersion
White light is split up into different colours as it passes
FIGURE 20.19 Dispersion
through a triangular prism due to refraction. This
phenomenon is known as dispersion (see figure 20.19).
These colours are generally described as red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
The refractive index varies with the wavelength of
light. Red light has a longer wavelength than violet light
and therefore red light bends least as it passes through
a refractive medium. This means that the red light is
travelling faster than the violet light through the medium
and therefore has a smaller refractive index than violet.
It is important to use monochromatic light to prevent
dispersion of light into different colours.
The refractive index also depends on the temperature
of a medium. A medium with a higher temperature means
the liquid becomes less dense and less viscous, causing
light to travel faster within the medium. This results in
a smaller value for the refractive index due to a smaller

ratio. A lower temperature means the liquid becomes denser and has a higher viscosity, causing light to
travel slower in the medium. This results in a larger value for the refractive index due to a larger ratio.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. How fast does light travel in glass?
THINK WRITE
1. State the known and unknown quantities. nglass = 1.5, speed of light in a vacuum = 3.0× 108 ,
speed of light in glass =?
2. Recall the refractive index of a medium. absolute refractive index of a medium
speed of light in a vacuum
=
speed of light in a medium
3.0 × 108
1.5 =
speed of light in glass
3.0 × 108
speed of light in glass =
1.5
= 2.0 × 108 m s−1
3 State the answer. The speed of light in glass is 2.0 × 108 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
How fast does light travel in diamond?
APPARENT DEPTH
As described earlier in this topic, spear throwers need to aim below a fish if they are to have a chance of spearing
the fish. A similar phenomenon occurs when a spear thrower is directly above a fish. The fish appears to be
closer to the surface than it actually is. This observation is known as apparent depth. Swimming pools provide
another example of apparent depth: they look shallower than they actually are. The refraction of light combined
with our two-eyed vision makes the pool appear shallower.
The relationship is illustrated in figure 20.20 and can be expressed as:
real depth
= refractive index
apparent depth
FIGURE 20.20 The phenomenon of apparent depth
Air
water
Apparent depth
Real depth

Resources
Digital document Investigation 20.5 Using apparent depth to determine the refractive index (doc-31904)
Teacher-led video Investigation 20.5 Using apparent depth to determine the refractive index (tlvd-1075)
20.3.5 Total internal reflection and critical angle

Light can play some strange tricks. Many of these involve refraction away from the normal and the effect on
light of a large increase in the angle of incidence.
It has already been mentioned that some light is reflected off a transparent surface, while the rest is
transmitted into the next medium. This applies whether the refracted ray is bent towards or away from the
normal.
When light passes from a denser medium (such as water) to a rarer medium (air), the refracted ray is
bent away from the normal (as illustrated in figure 20.21a). As the angle of incidence increases, the angle
of refraction also increases. Eventually the refracted ray becomes parallel to the surface and the angle of
refraction reaches a maximum value of 90° (see figure 20.21b). The corresponding angle of incidence
is called the critical angle. If the angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical angle, all the light
is reflected back into the water and no refraction takes place. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection (see figure 20.21c). As all angles are less than the critical angle (i), both refraction and reflection
occur in varying proportions.
FIGURE 20.21 Three stages of refraction leading to total internal reflection
(a) Before critical angle (b) At critical angle (c) After critical angle
(total internal reflection)
θr
Air water
θc θc
θr θr
Total internal reflection is a relatively common FIGURE 20.22 Total internal reflection,
atmospheric phenomenon (as in mirages) and it has together with a large index of refraction,
technological uses (for example, in optical fibres). explains why diamonds sparkle more than
Total internal reflection, together with a large index other materials.
of refraction, is why diamonds sparkle more than
Incident
other materials. The critical angle for a diamond-to-air angles < 24.4°
surface is only 24.4°, so when light enters a diamond light is refracted
White
it can exit only if it makes an angle of less than 24.4° light
with the normal. Facets (flat surfaces) on diamonds
are specifically intended to make this unlikely, so
that the light can exit only in certain places. Good Total internal
quality diamonds are very clear so that the light makes reflection – all
incident angles Total internal
many internal reflections and is concentrated at the > 24.4° reflection – all
few places it can exit, which causes it to sparkle. incident angles
> 24.4°
Zircon is a natural gemstone that has a large index

of refraction, but not as large as diamond so it is not as highly prized. Cubic zirconia is manufactured and
has a refraction index of approximately 2.17. The colours emerging from a sparkling diamond are due to
dispersion.
A mirage creates the illusion of water or an inverted reflection as a result of the refraction of light
through a non-uniform medium. Consider figure 20.23. The air near the surface of the road is hot and much
cooler higher up. Light travels faster through the thin hotter air than it does through the denser cooler air.
Therefore, the light travels in a curved line instead of travelling in a straight path —the effect on the road
we observe is a reflection of the sky. As the light has different speeds in different media, the light bends due
to refraction.
FIGURE 20.23 (a) Atmospheric refraction when air near the surface of the road is hot and cooler above
(b) A mirage when driving along a hot road (c) A mirage when traveling in dessert
(a) (b)
Cool air
(denser)
Warm air
(rarer)
Hot surface
(c)
OPTICAL FIBRES
An optical fibre is a thin, transparent fibre, usually made of glass or plastic, for transmitting light. Fibres in bundles
(figure 20.24a) are clad by a material that has a lower index of refraction than the core to ensure total internal
reflection, even when fibres are in contact with one another. The structure of a single optical fibre is shown in
figure 20.24b.
An optical fibre consists of an outer protective material called cladding and an inner part called the core,
through which light travels. The difference in the refractive index of the cladding and the core allows total internal
reflection in the same way as happens at an air–water surface, as discussed earlier. If light is incident on a cable
end with an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, then the light will remain trapped inside the glass
strand. In this way, light propagates very fast down the cable over a very long distance (tens of kilometres). The
cladding prevents light from escaping out of the fibre, minimising the loss of signal and ensuring that a quality
image is formed at the other end. Most telephone conversations and internet communications are now carried by
laser signals along optical fibres, because information can be transported over long distances, with minimal loss
of data.

FIGURE 20.24 (a) A bundle of optical fibres (b) A single fibre with its cladding
(a) (b)
Total internal reflection
Cladding has lower

refractive index
Core has higher

refractive index
Source: (b) Woodford, Chris. 2006/2019 Fiber optics. Retrieved from https://www.explainthatstuff.com/fiberoptics.html.
[Accessed 14 November 2019]
Another common use can be found in medicine in endoscopes. Endoscopes are used to explore the body
through various orifices or minor incisions. Light is propagated down one fibre bundle to illuminate internal parts,
and the reflected light is transmitted back out through another to be observed. Arthroscopic surgery on the knee
joint can be performed, using cutting tools attached to and observed with the endoscope. Optical fibres have
made microsurgery and remote surgery possible where the incisions are small, and the surgeon’s fingers do not
need to touch the diseased tissue.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
What is the critical angle for water given that the refractive index of water is 1.3?
THINK WRITE
1. State the known and unknown quantities. nair = 1.0, 𝜃air = 90°, nwater = 1.3,
𝜃water = ?
2. Recall Snell’s Law. n1 sin 𝜃1 = n2 sin 𝜃2
nair sin 𝜃air = nwater sin 𝜃water
3. Solve for 𝜃water . 1.0 × sin 90° = 1.3 × sin 𝜃water
sin 90
sin 𝜃water = = 0.7692
1.3
𝜃water = sin–1 (0.7692) = 50°
4. State the answer. The critical angle is 50°.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A glass fibre has a refractive index of x and its cladding has a refractive index of y. What is the
critical angle in the fibre in terms of x and y?

20.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the angle of refraction in water (n = 1.33) for an angle of incidence of 40°? If the angle of incidence
is increased by 10°, by how much does the angle of refraction increase?
2. A ray of light enters a plastic block at an angle of incidence of 55° with an angle of refraction of 33°. What is
the refractive index of the plastic?
3. A ray of light passes through a rectangular glass block with a refractive index of 1.55. The angle of incidence
as the ray enters the block is 65°. Calculate the angle of refraction at the first face of the block, then
calculate the angle of refraction as the ray emerges on the other side of the block. Comment on your
answers.
4. Immiscible liquids are liquids that do not mix. Immiscible liquids will settle on top of each other, in the order
of their density, with the densest liquid at the bottom. Some immiscible liquids are also transparent.
(a) Calculate the angles of refraction as a ray passes down through immiscible layers as shown in the
following figure.
Light
ray
25˚
Air n = 1.00
Acetone n = 1.357
Glycerol n = 1.4 746
Carbon n = 1.4 601

tetrachloride
Glass beaker n = 1.53
(b) If a plane mirror was placed at the bottom of the beaker, calculate the angles of refraction as the ray
reflects back to the surface. Comment on your answers.
5. Light rays are shown passing through boxes in the following figure. Identify the contents of each box from
the options (a)–(g) given below. Option (b) is a mirror. All others are solid glass. Note: There are more options
than boxes.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

6. (a) To appear invisible you need to become transparent. What must your refractive index be if your
movement is not to be detected?
(b) The retina of your eye is a light-absorbing screen. What does that imply about your own vision if you are
to remain invisible? (Hint: If you are invisible all light passes through you.)
7. Calculate the angle of deviation at a glass–air interface for an angle of incidence of 65° and refractive index
of glass of 1.55.
8. Calculate the sideways deflection as a ray of light goes through a parallel-sided plastic block (n = 1.4) with
sides 5 centimetres apart, as in the following figure.
30°
n = 1.4 5 cm
9. Calculate the angle of deviation as the light ray goes through the triangular prism shown in the following
figure.
n = 1.5
60°
?
40°


20.4 Manipulating light for a purpose
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe image formation using pinhole cameras and convex and concave lenses.
• Calculate image positions for thin lenses using either accurate ray tracing scale diagrams and/or the thin
1 1 1
lens equation: = + .
f u v
u
• Calculate image sizes in pinhole and simple lens cameras: M = − .
v
20.4.1 Cameras
Pinhole cameras
The earliest cameras did not have lenses, just a pinhole for light to pass through onto a screen. Pinhole
cameras help us to understand how modern cameras work; this knowledge also applies to the human eye.
A pinhole camera is essentially a box (possibly an entire room) with a small hole made in one side
for light to enter. The light passing through the hole shines on a screen on the other side of the box.
Photographic film can be placed on the screen to preserve the images formed.
Figure 20.25 shows a pinhole camera forming an image of a person. Rays from the top of the person
shine in all directions. Because the pinhole is so small, very few rays pass through, but those that do make
a small spot of light on the bottom of the screen. The rays from the feet of the person that make it through
the pinhole shine on the top of the screen. You can draw rays from every other part of the object through
the pinhole to the screen and you will see that an inverted image is formed on the screen. It is a real image
because light rays form it, rather than it just being an illusion. The image is there even if we are not looking
at it.
FIGURE 20.25 (a) Clear upside-down (inverted) image with a small pinhole (b) Fuzzy out-of-focus image with a
large pinhole
(a)
Image Object
(b)
Image Object

The size of this image depends on the distance of the pinhole from the object: the closer the object, the
larger the image. The size of the object does not change; the size of the image depends on the distance to
the object. It also depends on the size of the box: the longer the distance from the pinhole to the screen, the
larger the image. This ability to form a clear image of objects at various distances from the camera is called
depth of field. The depth of field is essentially infinite for a pinhole camera; however, in reality none of the
images are particularly sharp.
Pinhole cameras are a great way for safely viewing the Sun, particularly during an eclipse, as the event
can be viewed on the screen using only the small amount of light that has passed through the pinhole being
spread out to form an image of low intensity (figure 20.26). Before viewing the Sun, you must be very
careful to check that your method is safe. It is very easy to permanently damage your eyes by observing
the Sun.
FIGURE 20.26 Stand with your back to the Sun and look through the view hole. Once you have lined up the
pinhole with the Sun, you will be able to see an image of the Sun reflected from the paper screen at the back of
the box. Using shadows of the box can help you line it up. Never turn to line it up by sighting directly.
White paper taped

to inside end
Sunlight
Aluminum foil
with pinhole
Small image of
partially eclipsed sun
Source: AAS Sky Publishing
Pinhole cameras have played a very important role in the history of the understanding of light, with
Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci and Johannes Kepler all using them to further their understanding of light and
optics. The earliest cameras were pinhole cameras. Sometimes an early camera could be a room called a
camera obscura, with the image formed on a table. The image could then be recorded by drawing on paper
placed on the table. Only in relatively recent times (since 1850) has a sensitive material been placed on the
screen to preserve the image, such as emulsions, film, photographic paper or the image sensors found in
digital cameras (charge coupled devices).
One of the features of a pinhole camera is that the images formed have fuzzy edges; the images are never
in sharp focus. This is because the hole allows rays to enter from a small range of angles. Instead of a point
on the object forming a point of light on the image, it forms a small disk. All of these small disks form the
image. Making the hole larger has the advantage of forming a brighter image because more light is allowed
through, but the image is more blurred. A smaller hole allows less light in, forming a clearer but duller
image. If the hole is too small, another effect called diffraction distorts the image.
Pinhole cameras have been very useful for exploring the behaviour of light but they have serious
limitations, which has led to the exploration of more advanced cameras.

Adding a lens
To overcome the limitations another component needs to be added to the pinhole camera. This is a lens.
A lens makes use of the refractive properties that we learned about earlier in this topic. What we need a lens
to do is to take all of the rays that are coming from one point on the object and direct them to one point on
the image. This will produce a sharp image. If we can do that using a larger opening (aperture), then we will
also have more light to make a brighter image.
To begin to understand a lens, we can start with a rectangular block of glass as in figure 20.27. Parallel
rays from the left pass through the lens unaffected if they are normal to the lens (red lines). Parallel rays
that are not normal to the lens are slightly displaced due to refraction when passing through the lens, but
emerge parallel. This is essentially what happens with light passing through a pane of glass in a window.
This would not help the function of our camera apart from keeping dust and rain out. In fact, the glass
would absorb a little of the light entering the camera.
FIGURE 20.27 Ray diagram of parallel rays normal to the lens (shown in red) and parallel rays not normal to the
lens (shown in black) falling on a rectangular block of glass.
If we grind the lens down so that it is now shaped like figure 20.28, refraction converges (bends the rays
to meet at a point) the three rays in each case. This works for these three rays from the two angles, but if
we grind the lens so that it is a continuous curve in the arc of a circle (or better, a parabola), we find that the
convergence occurs for all sets of parallel rays that hit the lens, as shown in figure 20.29.
FIGURE 20.28 Refraction converges three rays when a lens is not curved but shaped as shown.

FIGURE 20.29 Refraction converges all rays when a lens is curved.
Now that we have some idea about how a lens works for parallel rays, we need to think of how that
might be useful in a camera. If the object is distant from the camera, the light that enters the lens diverging
from one point on the object will be nearly parallel. As an example, light from an object 5 metres from
the camera enters a lens with a radius of 1 centimetre. The angle of the light passing through the edge of
the lens only differs from a line parallel with light through the centre of the lens by 0.1 degrees. A pinhole
camera with a pinhole of 1 centimetre radius and depth of 25 centimetres would produce a disk of light with
a 1.05 centimetres radius on the screen for every point of light on the object. This would be very blurred,
which highlights why it needs to be a pinhole camera. Placing a lens at the large pinhole that focuses that
light onto a point on the screen enables the clear image to be produced, as shown in figure 20.30.
FIGURE 20.30 Adding a lens to a camera ensures that the light rays converge to give a clear image, rather than
diverging to form a blurry image.
Image
disk
Object
Pinhole
camera
Image
point
Object
Lens
Simple cameras, like many small ‘point and shoot cameras and those in mobile phones, use a very small
aperture so that they do not need to change focus for each photo taken. They have a large depth of field but
do not function well in low-light environments or when the objects are moving quickly. More sophisticated
cameras have lenses that can move to focus on near and far objects. This means that the aperture can be
larger while still producing a focused image. A large aperture means more light is allowed into the camera,
making it possible to take good photos in lower light levels, or to reduce exposure times so that clear images
can be taken of moving objects.

We will now look at lenses more generally before exploring how we can apply them to different
situations.
Forming images with lenses

The refraction of light at a boundary between two transparent media can be put to use if the boundaries
are curved. There are two possibilities for curved boundaries — curving inwards or curving outwards.
A convex lens has its faces curving outwards. A lens that curves inwards is a concave lens.
The simple ray tracings in figure 20.31 illustrate what each lens does to the light rays. As rays enter the
glass, they are bent towards the normal. When they reach the air on the other side of the lens, they are bent
away from the normal. In the case of the convex lens, the emerging rays converge (come together) at a point
called the focus (F). For the concave lens, the rays diverge (move apart) so that they appear to come from
a point, also called the focus, on the other side of the lens. For these reasons, convex lenses are sometimes
called converging lenses and concave lenses can be called diverging lenses.
FIGURE 20.31 Refraction of rays through (a) a convex and (b) a concave lens
(a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens
F F
In fact, the focus is more than just a point. It is a plane — a focal plane through the focus point.
In figure 20.32, for example, parallel light rays from a distant object coming in at an angle to the lens
are still brought to a focus, not at the same focus as for light coming in directly, but elsewhere in the focal
plane. The distance from the lens to the focal point is called the focal length. The value of the focal length
is positive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses.
FIGURE 20.32 The convex lens has two focal points.
Optical axis
Convex lens
Principal
axis
Optical center
Focus
Focus
Focal length (f )

Convex lenses — locating images using ray tracing
The features of a convex lens are illustrated in figure 20.33. The convex lens has two symmetrical curved
surfaces, which means that it has two focus points. The straight line that goes through the centre of the
lens at right angles to the lens surface is known as the principal axis. The vertical line passing through the
centre of a lens and joining the two centres of curvature of its surfaces is known as optical axis of a lens.
FIGURE 20.33 Rays converge at a point on the focal plane, which passes through the focus point (F).
Focal plane
F Principal
axis
Ray diagrams can be used to locate an image. The object and the image are usually represented by a
vertical line with an arrow. In the case of an image, the arrow can be down if the image is inverted, and up if
the image is upright.
The three principal rays used to locate and size the image formed by a single lens (convex or concave) are
as follows:
• Ray 1 parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens.
• Ray 2 passes through the principal focus of a lens and emerges parallel to the principal axis on the
other side of the lens.
• Ray 3 passes through the optical centre of a lens and emerges undeviated on the other side of the lens.
(See table 20.2 for a convex lens and table 20.3 for a concave lens.)
The ray diagram in figure 20.34 shows the location of the image of an object placed beyond the principal
focus. All three rays converge on the same point after passing through the lens. This is where the image of
the head of the object is located. Note that the image could have been located with any two of the rays, but
the other can be used to confirm the location of the image.

TABLE 20.2 The three principal rays used to locate and size the image formed by a convex lens
Light ray from object is Ray diagram How it a appears after refraction
1 Parallel to the principal axis After refraction from a convex lens,

passes through the principal focus on
O the other side of the lens
F1 F2
2 Passing through a principal After refraction from a convex lens, will

focus emerge parallel to the principal axis
O
F1 F2
3 Passing through the optical After refraction from a convex lens, will
centre of a lens emerge without any deviation
O
F1 F2
TABLE 20.3 The three principal rays used to locate and size the image formed by a concave lens
Light ray from object is Ray diagram How it a appears after refraction
1 Parallel to the principal axis After refraction from a convex lens,

the ray appears to diverge from the
principal focus located on the same
side of the lens
O
F1 F2
2 Passing through a principal After refraction from a convex lens, will

focus emerge parallel to the principal axis
O
F1 F2
3 Passing through the optical After refraction from a convex lens, will
centre of a lens emerge without any deviation
O
F1 F2

The features of the image can now be described — its location, size, orientation and nature. There are
four aspects of an image which may be determined.
• Nature. Is the image real or virtual?
• Orientation. Is the image upright or inverted?
• Position. Is the image on the same side of the lens to the object or it is on the opposite side of the lens
to the object?
• Size or magnification. Is the image magnified (enlarged), diminished (reduced) or the same size as the
object?
In the example in figure 20.34, we have a real, inverted and magnified image on the opposite side of the
lens to the object.
FIGURE 20.34 The location of the image is determined according to the point where the three rays cross. All the
rays that pass through the lens pass through the image.
3 Object
Convex lens
1 Image
I
O F F
FLAT LENS
A lens works by changing the direction of the light ray at the front surface and then again at the back surface. The
glass in the middle is there to keep the two surfaces apart. Augustin-Jean Fresnel devised a way of making a lens
without the need for all the glass in the middle.
The glass surface of the lens is a series of concentric rings. Each ring has the slope of the corresponding
section of the full lens, but its base is flat. The slopes of the rings get flatter towards the centre.
FIGURE 20.35 A side view of a convex Fresnel lens showing how it is constructed
This design substantially reduces the weight of the lens, so lenses of this type are used in lighthouses. Their
relative thinness means they are also used where space is at a premium, such as in overhead projectors, and as a
lens to be used with the ground-glass screens in camera viewfinders.
Flat lenses, or Fresnel lenses as they are called, are now attached to the rear windows of vans and station
wagons to assist the driver when reversing or parking.

Convex lenses are used in a variety of applications. The image obtained depends on the placement of the
object in relation to the focus. A range of these applications is given in table 20.4.
TABLE 20.4 A variety of applications for convex lenses
Object Ray diagram Type of Image Uses

distance image distance
(u) (v)
u=∞ Parallel • Inverted v=f • Object lens

rays from • Real •Opposite of a
a distant
object • Diminished side of the telescope
v
lens
F
F Image
u > 2f • Inverted f < v < 2f • Camera

Object • Real • Opposite • Eye
2F F
F
Image
2F
• Diminished side of the
lens
u v
u = 2f • Inverted v = 2f • Photocopier
Object • Real • Opposite making
2F
F
Image
2F
• Same size side of the same-sized
F lens copy
u v
f<u • Inverted v > 2f • Projector

< 2f
Object F 2F • Real • Opposite • Photograph
2F F
• Magnified side of the enlarger
Image lens
u v
u=f Image at • Upright • Image at • To produce

infinity • Virtual infinity a parallel
• Magnified • Same beam of
2F F side of the light, e.g. a
u Image lens spotlight
u<f • Upright • Image is • Magnifying

Image • Virtual behind glass
Object F • Magnified the object
F • Same
u Image side of the
v lens

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
a. A convex lens has a focal length of 10 centimetres. A candle 10 centimetres tall is located
16 centimetres in front of the lens. Use ray tracing to determine the location, size, orientation
and type of image formed.
b. The candle is moved so that it is now 5 centimetres in front of the same lens. Use ray tracing to
determine the location, size, orientation and type of image formed.
c. The lens is switched to a diverging lens with a focal length of −10 centimetres. What image of
the candle is formed when it is placed 15 centimetres from the lens?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw the principal axis, the a.
Object
focal points, the object and three
rays, one passing through the Convex lens
centre of the lens without

deviation, one parallel to the Image
principal axis and one passing
through the focus.
F F
2. State the solution. The image of the candle is 27 centimetres on the opposite
side of the lens, 15 centimetres tall, inverted and real.
b. 1. Draw the principal axis, the b.
focal points, the object and the Object Convex
three rays. lens
Image
F F
2. State the solution. The image of the candle is 10 centimetres on the same
side of the lens, 20 centimetres tall, upright and virtual.

c. 1. Draw the principal axis, focal
points, object and the three rays.
F
F Principal
Object image axis
2. State the solution. The image of the candle is 6 centimetres on the same side
of the lens, 4 centimetres tall, upright and virtual.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
The box in the following diagram contains a lens.
Object
Image
The scale of the grid is 1 centimetre per line. Draw rays from the object to the image to determine:
a. whether the lens is converging or diverging
b. its focal length.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 20.6 Snell’s Law (doc-32627)
Investigation 20.7 The convex lens as a magnifying glass (doc-31905)
Model of a convex lens (doc-0056)
Investigation 20.8 Describing images producing by a convex lens (doc-31906)
Investigation 20.9 Flat lens profile (doc-31907)
Teacher-led video Investigation 20.6 Snell’s Law (tlvd-1076)
Weblink Convex lens applet

20.4.2 The thin lens formula and magnification
Can we determine where the image is without drawing the ray diagram? Look at figure 20.36. We introduce
‘u’ as the distance between the object AB and the lens, and ‘v’ as the image distance.
FIGURE 20.36 The location of an image can be determined using similar triangles.
Ho
F B´
B O
Hi
f f A´
u v
The two triangles shaded in blue are similar triangles as all of their angles are the same size. This would
be true wherever the image was located.
From the properties of similar triangles, the ratios of equivalent sides are equal, so we can write:
Ho u−f
=
Hi f
Also, the triangles shaded in purple are similar:
Ho u
=
Hi v
The left-hand sides of these equations are equal, so we can say:
u u−f
=
v f
Which is the same as:

u u
= −1
v f
1 1 1
= −
v f u
1 1 1
= +
f u v
This formula is known as the thin lens formula. It gives a good approximation for thin
lenses. When using it, you need to be careful with signs:
• f is positive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses.
• u is positive.
• v is positive when the image is on the opposite side of the lens to the object and
negative when on the same side.

We have defined the magnification to be equal to the height of the image divided by the height of the
H
object, M = i . We can see from the similar triangles in our derivation of the thin lens formula that
Ho
Hi v
= . However, if we follow our sign conventions for v and u we notice that when v and u are both
Ho u
H H
positive, the image is inverted ( i is negative). Conversely, if v is negative, the image is upright ( i is
Ho Ho
v Hi
positive). To account for this we add a negative to the formula so that we have M = − = .
u Ho
We can compare the results of this formula with what we have determined by ray tracing in Sample
problem 6.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
a. Use the thin lens formula to find the position of the image when f = 10 cm and u = 16 cm.
b. Use the thin lens formula to find the position of the image when f = 10 cm and u = 5 cm.
THINK WRITE
1 1 1
a. 1. Substitute the given values into the thin lens a. = +
formula and solve for the position, v. f u v
1 1 1
= −
v f u
1 1 1
= −
v 10 16
1 8 5
= −
v 80 80
1 3
=
v 80
80
v= = 27 cm behind the lens.
3
2. State the solution. The position of the image when
f = 10 cm and u = 16 cm is
27 centimetres behind the lens.
1 1 1
b. 1. Substitute the given values into the thin lens b. = +
formula and solve for the position, v. f u v
1 1 1
= −
v f u
1 1 1
= −
v 10 5
1 1 2
= −
v 10 10
1 1
=−
v 10
v = −10 cm
2. State the solution. The image is 10 centimetres in front
of the lens (on the same side as the
object).

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
A convex lens has a focal length of 12 centimetres and is used as a magnifying glass by placing an
object 4 centimetres from the lens. Determine the magnification achieved by the magnifying glass.
20.4 EXERCISE
1. Use ray tracing to determine the full description of the following objects.
(a) A 4 cm high object, 20 cm in front of a convex lens with a focal length of 15 cm
(b) A 3 mm high object, 10 cm in front of a convex lens with a focal length of 12 cm
(c) A 5 cm high object, 200 cm in front of a convex lens with a focal length of 10 cm
2. What are the main differences between concave and convex lenses?
3. (a) You are carrying out a convex lens investigation at a bench near the classroom window and you obtain a
sharp image of the window on your screen. A teacher walks past outside the window. What do you see
on the screen?
(b) The trees outside the classroom are unclear on the screen. What can you do to bring the trees into
focus?
4. A convex lens with a focal length of 5 centimetres is used as a magnifying glass. Determine the size and
location of the image of text on this page if the centre of the lens was placed:
(a) 4 centimetres above the page
(b) 3 centimetres above the page.
5. A 35 millimetres slide is placed in a slide projector. A sharp image is produced on a screen 4 metres away.
The focal length of the lens system is 5 centimetres.
(a) How far is the slide from the centre of the lens?
(b) What is the size of the image?
(c) Looking from the back of the slide projector, the slide contains a letter ‘L’. What shape will appear on the
screen?
(d) The slide projector is moved closer to the screen. The image becomes unclear. Should the lens system
be moved closer to or further away from the slide?
6. A teacher is using a slide projector but the image on the screen is smaller than the screen. What needs to be
done to produce a clear image on the full screen?

20.5 Extending vision

KEY CONCEPT
• Explain the operation of simple two-lens telescopes and microscopes.
20.5.1 Telescopes
Different optical systems and the understanding of the laws of optics can be applied to extend our vision.
An optical telescope is a device that improves our ability to see over long distances. Telescopes originally
only allowed direct viewing with the eye in the visible wavelengths of light. Later, the inventions of
photography and then of electronic sensors meant that images could be recorded on film and electronically.

Telescopes have enabled astronomers to greatly improve their understanding of the objects in the sky. For
example, it is only because of telescopes that we have been able to develop a detailed understanding of the
universe. Before Galileo began his work with telescopes in 1609, the world that we knew was essentially
made up of the Earth and some poorly understood lights in the sky. Telescopes have also been put to
powerful use on Earth to assist in navigation, surveying and photography.
Telescopes improve the image formed by the eye by:
• magnifying the image
• collecting more light than the eye
• providing better resolution of the image so that more detail can be seen in an object than with the
unaided eye.
The most important role of the telescope is to collect light. This is done by a large lens in a refracting
telescope, such as those developed by Galileo (the Galilean telescopes) and Kepler in the early 1600s,
or a concave mirror in the case of the reflecting telescopes developed by Isaac Newton and others since
the mid 1600s. The larger the lens or mirror, the more light the telescope is able to collect. Compound
or catadioptric telescopes are hybrid telescopes (a mix of refractor and reflector elements), which were
made by the German astronomer Bernhard Schmidt in 1930. These telescopes were mainly used for
photography, as they contained photographic film rather than a secondary mirror or eyepieces. Today,
the Schmidt–Cassegrain design, invented in the 1960s, is the most popular type of telescope. It uses a
secondary mirror that bounces light through a hole in the primary mirror to an eyepiece.
Resources
Weblink Modelling telescopes
Light collection
Optical telescopes collect more light than the eye, enabling dimmer objects to be seen. The ability of a
telescope to collect light is determined by the area of its objective lens or primary mirror. As area depends
on the square of the radius, doubling the radius of the objective lens means its area is four times greater, and
the telescope can collect four times as much light. The square of the radius is a useful way to compare the
ability of telescopes to detect faint stars.
The ability of telescopes to collect light has led to the discovery of many new objects. Asteroids were
unknown before large telescopes became available, as were Neptune, Uranus, Pluto and all of the other
smaller bodies of the solar system. These objects simply do not reflect enough light for the human eye to
detect from the Earth without the aid of a telescope.
Magnification
Magnification is a ratio that describes how many times larger an object appears when viewed through
a telescope. The Moon will appear to have twice the diameter if viewed through a telescope that has a
magnification of 2. Magnification results from a telescope’s ability to bend light rays. How large something
appears to us depends on the angle between a line from the top of the object and our eye and a line from the
bottom of the object and our eye, as shown in figure 20.37.
FIGURE 20.37 This diagram shows the same object at two different positions. It appears smaller at position 2
than at position 1 because the angle that light makes from the top and bottom of the object is smaller at
position 2 than position 1.
θ2 θ1
Position 2 Position 1

Images formed in telescopes are generally much smaller than the size of the object, yet we generally
think of telescopes as magnifying the image. This is because the object looks bigger with the telescope than
without the telescope.
An eyepiece or ocular lens is used to achieve this magnification. Ocular lenses with shorter focal lengths
(higher power) achieve greater magnification for a given telescope.
The magnification of a telescope is determined by the focal lengths of the lenses or mirrors
used in the telescope according to the relationship:
fo
M=
fe
Where:
fo = focal length of the objective lens or primary mirror
fe = focal length of the eyepiece.
Refracting telescopes
The most common design of refracting telescope used today is based on a telescope invented by Johannes
Kepler in 1611 (figure 20.38 a). It features two converging lenses arranged so that the focus from each lens
is located at the same point. The large lens at the front of the telescope is called the objective lens (it is at
the same end as the object).
From the ray diagram in figure 20.38b we can see how widely spread rays from the object are converged
by the telescope so that more intense light will enter the eye. We can also see that the angle at which the
rays enter the telescope is smaller than the angle at which the rays enter the eye. When we view an extended
object, we will see the object as being larger than without the telescope.
Notice also that the eye is looking down to see an object that is above the principal axis. This means the
image will be inverted. When Keplerian telescopes are used to view objects on Earth, an additional lens is
put in front of the eyepiece so that the image is upright.
FIGURE 20.38 (a) A Keplerian telescope (b) Image formation in a Keplerian telescope
(a) (b) A keplerian telescope
Real image
Focal length of objective Focal length of subject
Subject being of eyepiece
observed
Reflecting telescopes
Isaac Newton built the first reflecting telescope in 1668, although others had proposed different designs
earlier. Newton ground his own mirrors to the shape required. This first Newtonian telescope had a concave
objective mirror but used a secondary plane mirror to divert the light out of the side of the telescope
(figure 20.39).

The reflector telescope’s mirror has a FIGURE 20.39 (a) A Newtonian telescope (b) Image formation in
parabolic shape as the light rays coming a Newtonian telescope
from the celestial objects are parallel (a)
to each other. The parabolic-shaped
mirror focuses the parallel light rays
to a single point. All modern research
telescopes and large amateur ones
are of the reflector type because of its
advantages over the refractor telescope.
There is no chromatic aberration (failure
of a lens to focus all colours to the same
point) with reflector telescopes, as all
wavelengths reflect off the mirror in the
same way. Newtonian telescopes can
also use a right-angled prism instead (b) Plane secondary mirror Parabolic primary mirror
of a plane mirror; the light passes into
the prism but undergoes total internal
Light from a star
reflection on the back face (see
figure 20.40).
The Newtonian design loses a small
Eyepiece lens
proportion of the light because the
secondary mirror gets in the way. However,
a complete image is still formed because
light from all parts of the object reaches the primary mirror. The capacity of the telescope to collect
much more light than the unaided eye is apparent, and mirrors of greater than 10 metres diameter have
been constructed to achieve enormous light-gathering power. These mirrors are made of several sections
to reduce the cost and difficulty of producing such a large mirror. Large telescopes tend to be reflecting
telescopes because the mirror can be supported from behind, whereas a large lens would tend to change
shape under its own weight. Two famous reflector telescopes are the 5-metre Hale Telescope at Palomar
Observatory and the 10-metre Keck Telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory.
FIGURE 20.40 Light passing through a right-angled prism undergoes total internal reflection.

20.5.2 Microscopes
To magnify very small things using an optical microscope, a
FIGURE 20.41 The specimen to
similar process is used to the refracting telescope. A convex lens be observed is placed on a glass
can be used as a simple magnifying glass, but to obtain greater microscope slide and positioned
magnification another lens is needed. under the objective lens. The eyepiece
lens is at the top of the microscope
Compound microscope barrel near the observer’s eye.
In its simplest form, a compound microscope has two convex
lenses, one fatter and with a shorter focal length than the other.
The fatter one is located near the object to be magnified and is
called the objective lens. The other lens is close to the eye and is
called the eyepiece. This is the opposite of a telescope, where the
higher powered lens is in the eyepiece (figure 20.41).
As shown in figure 20.42, an object placed just outside the
focus of the objective lens produces a real, inverted, magnified
image. The eyepiece lens is adjusted so that this image is formed
inside the focus of the eyepiece lens. The real, inverted image
now becomes the object for the eyepiece lens. Because it is
inside the focus of the eyepiece, it produces a final magnified
image, which is virtual and inverted compared with the original
object.
Unlike a telescope, the key to a microscope is magnification
rather than light collection. Optical microscopes require the
object to be well lit in order to form a bright image.
FIGURE 20.42 Ray diagram for a compound microscope
Objective lens Eyepiece lens
Convex lenses
Object
Fo Fo Fe Fe
l1
l2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Calculate the magnification of a telescope if the focal length of the objective lens is
900 millimetres and the focal length of the eyepiece is 25 millimetres.
THINK WRITE
1. State the known and unknown focal length of the objective lens ( fo ) = 900 mm,
quantities, focal length of the eyepiece lens ( fe ) = 25 mm
fo
2. Recall the magnification of a telescope M=
formula (magnification is a number and fe
has no unit) and substitute the known 900
=
values. 25
= 36
3. State the answer. The object appears 36 times larger than the actual
object. The magnification of the given telescope is 36.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
Compare Keplerian refracting telescopes with compound microscopes in terms of the focal lengths of
the two lenses.
20.5 EXERCISE
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using refractive telescope and reflective telescopes?
2. A small refracting telescope has an objective lens of 600 millimetres and eyepiece of 20 millimetres.
Calculate the magnification of the telescope.
3. Identify three differences between a telescope and microscope.
4. Describe the nature of the image formed by a telescope.
5. An organelle labelled ‘M’ in the following figure is 2.5 μm long, calculate the magnification of the image.
Structure of human cell
Cell membrane Mitochondrion
Lysosom
Cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
Nucleus
ribosomes
Rough Nucleolus
Smooth reticulum
endoplasmatic


20.6 Light and the eye

KEY CONCEPTS
• Model and explain human vision as refraction at a spherical surface with an adjusting lens.
• Distinguish between short-sightedness and long-sightedness, and explain their correction by concave and
convex lenses, respectively.
1
• Apply the power of a lens: P = to eye glasses.
f
• Explain accommodation in the human eye including the effects of ageing.
• Investigate and explain the treatment of cataract blindness including the use of intraocular lenses.
• Investigate the operation of the bionic eye.
20.6.1 Human and animal vision

Now that we understand refraction and lenses, we can investigate the optics of the human eye. The human
eye is an extraordinary device. It can respond to an enormous range of light brightness. The strongest light
that the eye can safely detect is 10 000 million times as bright as the weakest light it can detect. It is capable
of focusing on objects from many billions of kilometres away to objects a few centimetres away. It can also
detect colour.
The parts of the human eye are shown in figure 20.43. The purpose of the eyeball is to produce a sharp,
real image on a screen. The retina is this screen. Light passes through many refracting elements in the
human eye on its way to the retina (see table 20.5).
FIGURE 20.43 Cross-section of a human eye TABLE 20.5 Refractive index of the
parts of the eye
Ciliary Iris
muscle (coloured) Part of the eye Refractive index
Tears 1.33
Aqueous Fovea
Cornea 1.37
humour centralis
Aqueous humour 1.33
Lens cover 1.38

Vitreous Macula
Pupil Lens centre 1.41
humour
Vitreous humour 1.33
Optic
nerve
Cornea
Blindspot
Lens
Sclera
Retina Choroid

The eye achieves a focus in two stages. The curved cornea at the front of the eye does two-thirds of the
focusing due to the large difference in refractive index between the cornea and the air. The transparent and
biconvex lens does the fine focusing as there is little difference in the refractive index of the lens and that of
the liquid on either side of it. In the rest of the eye, the differences in refractive index are marginal, but they
are crucial when the eye wishes to produce clear images of far and near objects.
The iris is a pigmented layer of tissue that gives colour to the eye. Its primary function is to control the
size of the pupil, depending on the amount of light entering it. The pupil is the small opening located in
the middle of the iris that allows light to enter. The vitreous humour is a semi-solid, transparent, jelly-like
substance that covers the interior portion of the eyes. Its purpose is to maintain the shape of the eye and
cause refraction of light before it reaches the retina. The choroid is the vascular layer of the eye that lies
between the retina and the sclera and provides oxygen and nourishment to the outer retina.
The retina is very sensitive of light because of the presence of specialised cells called photoreceptors.
There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones (see figure 20.44). Rods are stimulated by light and
are responsible for observing the size, shape and brightness of visual images. They do not perceive colour
and fine detail; this task is performed by the other type of light-sensitive cells called the cones. The human
eye contains approximately 120 million rods and roughly 6 to 7 million cones. Animals that are nocturnal
like owls tend to have far fewer cones, so that they see only in black and white, but more rods, allowing
them to see well in dim light. Animals that are active in the daytime, such as humans or hawks, have many
cone cells and can see well in colour.
FIGURE 20.44 Structure of the retina
Pigment epithelium
Rod Cone
The retina functions by converting the light rays into impulses and sending the signals to the brain
through the optic nerve. The optic nerve is located at the end of the eyes, behind the retina.
HOW YOUR EYE SEES

The eye is an amazing instrument. It has an automatic aperture adjustment called the iris. The act of blinking
operates the cornea’s built-in scratch remover, lens cleaner and lubricator. In dim light, the eye operates
as a supersensitive, black and white television camera. It allows us to see objects with less than 0.1%, or
one-thousandth, of the light we need for colour vision.
The optic nerve packages the visual information from the retina so that the brain receives about 30 discrete
‘frames’ per second in a similar way to television and cinema.
The pinhole camera helps us to understand how the eye works. The pinhole is the pupil and the screen
is the retina. As with a pinhole camera, the real image that forms on the retina is inverted and diminished.
Two key differences between the capabilities of a pinhole camera and the eye are that the eye can produce
sharper images and is able to function effectively over a greater range of brightness levels.

A pinhole camera relies on an opening (the pinhole) to allow the light in. If the pinhole is large enough to
produce a reasonable image, the image will be fuzzy. The eye has an opening (the pupil) that is larger than
would provide a reasonable image in a pinhole camera, but it also provides a more focused image than a
pinhole camera. This clear image is possible because of the refractive surfaces of the eye, in particular the
cornea and the lens. The eye can also open even wider in low-light levels by dilating the iris so that there is
more light available to stimulate the retina.
Accommodation mechanisms
Consider light from a light globe passing through a convex lens onto a screen to produce an image of the
globe’s filament. If the lens is moved to a new position, the screen needs to be moved to obtain a sharp
image. The human eye can produce a sharp image on its ‘screen’ (the retina) of objects at various distances.
But the eye’s screen stays put, so something else has to change to achieve a sharp image. The only thing
that can change is the focal length of the lens.
Convex lenses form images of very distant objects at their focus. As objects get closer to the lens, the
image is formed behind the focus. For the human eye with its fixed ‘screen’, this means that the focal length
must shorten to keep a sharp image on the retina. This adjustment is called accommodation.
FIGURE 20.45 (a) When the object is distant, the ciliary muscles are relaxed, as there isn’t much need for
refraction to focus an image on the retina. (b) When the object is close, the ciliary muscles are tense and
supporting fibres are thereby loosened, the lens rounds to its minimum focal length to focus an image on
the retina.
How short can the focal length of the lens in an eye become? When you bring an object closer to your
eye from an arm’s length away, there is a point at which the object becomes fuzzy in appearance. This point
is called your near point. As you age, your near point becomes further away (see table 20.6). That is why
some older people hold the newspaper further away to read it.
To enable the focal length of the eye to change, the lens has to change its shape. To achieve a shorter
focal length, the lens needs to become fatter. This raises important questions. How does the lens change
shape? What is the natural rest position of the lens in the eye? Is the lens relaxed in the short focal length
position so that it needs to be ‘stretched’ to see distant objects? Or is it relaxed in the long focal length
position and has to be ‘squashed’ to see near objects? Muscles can act only by contraction, so how are the
muscles arranged in the eye to squash the lens?

TABLE 20.6 Average near points by age
Age (years) Near point (cm) Age (years) Near point (cm)
10 7 40 22
15 8.5 50 40
20 10 60 65
30 15 70 200
In fact, the relaxed human eye has a long focal length located at the retina to form images of very distant
objects. Ligaments attached to the outside edge of the lens are continually pulling outwards, but around
the lens itself there is a circular muscle. When this circular muscle contracts, it produces a smaller circle,
making a lens that is smaller in diameter but thicker (as shown earlier in figure 20.45).
Some animals have different mechanisms for accommodation in their eyes. Most animals’ eyes, like
human eyes, are relaxed in the long focal length position. This is ideal if the animal is roused from sleep
by the sound of a distant predator, as the eye is ready to focus on it.
Although many animals use an adjustable focal length lens like humans, some use other strategies. One
strategy is to move the lens backwards and forwards. In most fishes and snakes, the lens moves within the
eyeball in the same way that a camera lens is moved to produce a sharp image on the digital image sensor
or film.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 20.10 Measuring your near point (doc-31908)
Weblinks Modelling the eye
Animal eyes
THE POWER OF THE LENS

Optometrists and opticians describe the focusing ability of a lens in terms of its power. The power of a simple
lens is defined as:
1
Power =
f
The unit of the power of a lens is the dioptre (D). For example, a concave lens with a focal length of
25 centimetres has a power given by:
1 1
Power = = = −4.0 D
f −0.25
Note: The power of a lens that diverges light is negative, like its focal length.
Fish require higher power (thicker) lenses than land-based animals. This is because the difference between the
refractive index of water and the refractive index of the transparent materials of the eye is much smaller than that
between the refractive indexes of eye materials and air.
20.6.2 Correcting eye defects

Sometimes our eyes do not work properly and corrective lenses need to be prescribed. Corrective lenses
to improve vision were first invented in Italy in the late thirteenth century, but until early in the twentieth
century, they were available only to the wealthy. The two main eye defects are hypermetropia and myopia.

Myopia, or short-sightedness, means that the person’s
FIGURE 20.46 (a) Myopic vision causes
vision of nearby objects is good but distant objects are light rays to focus in front of the retina.
unclear (figure 20.46a). Parallel rays of light from distant Corrective diverging lenses are used in
objects are brought to a focus in front of rather than on (b) spectacles and (c) contact lenses.
the retina. The eyeball is too large for the ‘relaxed focal
(a)
length’ of the eye. This defect is not usually noticed until
the eyeball approaches its final size in adolescence. It can
be overcome by placing a diverging lens in front of the eye
to spread the rays apart slightly before they enter the eye
(figure 20.46b,c).
Sometimes myopia can be caused by excessive curvature
of the cornea, the principal focusing agent in the eye. Laser
eye surgery uses low-temperature ultraviolet lasers to ‘shave (b) Spectacle lens
off’ some tissue from the front of the cornea, to flatten the
curvature.
F
Hypermetropia, or long-sightedness, is the reverse of
myopia. The lens produces an image of near objects that
would appear behind instead of on the retina. Near objects
are not clear, whereas distant objects are in focus. The
muscles around the lens cannot contract enough to shorten (c) Contact lens
the focal length to bring the image onto the retina. The
eye needs help to achieve this, and an extra lens can help.
F
Converging lenses are used in spectacles and contact lenses
to correct hypermetropia (figure 20.48).
As people age, the muscles around the lens
slowly weaken and the lens itself becomes
thicker and less flexible. The loss in flexibility FIGURE 20.47 Contact lenses can be a solution to eye
defects. They alter the curvature of the front of the eye.
means that the near point moves further away
and printed reading material has to be held at
arm’s length to be read. The thickening of the
lens, even when the muscles are relaxed, means
that distant objects start becoming fuzzy. This
means that the eye is showing signs of myopia
for distant objects and hypermetropia for near
objects, which require different corrective
solutions. Hence, the need for bifocal lenses,
which have a converging surface at the bottom
to look down to read the newspaper and a
diverging surface at the top to look up to drive
the car.

FIGURE 20.48 (a) Hypermetropia causes light rays to focus behind the retina. This produces a ‘fuzzy’ image.
Converging lenses are used in (b) spectacles and (c) contact lenses to correct hypermetropia.
(a)
(b) Spectacles (c) Contact lens
An associated feature that often comes with aging is a reduced ability to read at low-light levels. This is
the result of pupils dilating to make the most of the available light. As the light is entering the eye from a
greater range of angles, the eye has to do more work to focus the incoming light onto the retina. A reason
that hypermetropia becomes more common in older age groups is that the lens in the eye becomes less
flexible. This more rigid lens is then less able to perform the additional focusing required at low-light
levels.
Prescriptions from the optometrist

Most of us at some time in our lives need to start regular visits to the optometrist to check for common
eye conditions and to get prescriptions for any corrective technology that we might need, particularly
glasses.
There are a number of eye problems that glasses can correct for, but here we will focus on myopia and
hypermetropia.
Prescriptions for these conditions will include the power of the lens required to correct the vision. In the
case of myopia, the optics within the eye are causing the light to form an image of distant objects in front of
the retina. A diverging lens is required to correct this. The prescription for myopia is a negative number, as
the power of the lens is negative for a diverging lens. A prescription for myopia might look like:
P = −2.50 D
This means that the power of the lens is −2.50 diopters. This is a prescription for someone who requires
more correction than a person whose prescription is −2.00 D and less than someone whose prescription
is −3.00 D.
The focal length of the lens is given by:
1 1
Focal length = = = −0.40 m
P −2.50
Glasses to correct myopia are thicker on the edges than in the centre. Like the lens in the figure 20.46,
lenses in glasses are concave on one side and convex on the other. Glasses to correct myopia have a greater
curvature on the concave side (the side facing the eye) than the convex side.

A prescription for hypermetropia will be positive, for example 1.50 D. This indicates a converging
lens of:
1 1
Focal length = = = 0.667 m
P 1.50
These lenses will be a little thicker in the centre than on the edge. The convex side of the lens is more
curved than the concave side.
FIGURE 20.49 Lenses in glasses are concave on one side and convex on the other.
Minus-power Plus-power
spectacle lens spectacle lens
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A person finds it hard to read a book and often squints her eyes to see nearby objects. She goes to
her optometrist to get her vision checked. The optometrist gives her a prescription for her glasses
with P = 2.0 D.
a. Is the person affected by myopia or hypermetropia. Give reasoning for your response.
b. What type of corrective lens is used to treat the condition in part (a)?
c. What is the focal length of the lenses she needs in her glasses?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the definition of myopia and a. Hypermetropia, or long-sightedness, affects the
hypermetropia. ability to see nearby objects. You may be able to
see distant objects clearly, but closer objects are
usually out of focus.
2. State the answer. The person is affected by hypermetropia as she
is unable to read a book and finds hard to see
nearby objects.
b. 1. Recall how hypermetropia is corrected. b. Hypermetropia is corrected using lenses in
spectacles and contact lenses that converge the
light rays to produce an image on the retina.
2. State the answer. Converging lenses are used to treat
hypermetropia.

c. 1. State the known and unknown quantities. c. Power (P) = 2.0 D
1
2. Recall the power of lens formula and P=
substitute in the known values. f
1
2.0 =
f
1
f=
2.0
= 0.50 m
3. State the answer. The lenses need to have a focal length of
0.50 metres.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Identify three main differences between short-sightedness and long-sightedness.
20.6.3 Restoring sight

One of the great challenges of medical science is to provide sight to the blind. Sight is a tremendously
important sense, but people can lose it for a number of reasons. These include damage to the eyeball due to
injury or birth defects, cataracts, deterioration of the retina, damage to the optic nerve (glaucoma) and brain
damage. As a result, efforts to prevent blindness and restore sight to the blind require a range of approaches.
The bionic eye

Currently in Australia there is significant research into developing prosthetic vision devices or ‘bionic eyes’.
These devices are intended to help people with blindness resulting from conditions that damage the retina,
such as age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa. In these situations, photoreceptor cells
in the retina have died. These cells are responsible for converting the light that strikes them into electrical
impulses that carry the information via the optic nerve to the brain.
Bionic eyes rely on the optic nerve and the visual cortex of the brain to still be functioning. Some retinal
cells must also be working. This system relies on a recipient who has had sight for a significant time so that
the brain has been able to develop its visual capacity. What the bionic eye replaces is the retinal cells that no
longer transmit the images to the optic nerve.
One system under development involves a small
FIGURE 20.50 An array of electrodes is
camera mounted on a pair of glasses that are worn by implanted into the eye.
the recipient. This camera converts the light it receives
into electrical signals. These signals are converted Diamond Power and
electronics data lead
to radio waves, which are detected by an array of capsule and
stimulating electrodes implanted on the retina of the eye. diamond array
The array stimulates nerve cells that would normally

receive stimulation from the photoreceptor cells in
the retina. These cells transmit the signals to the optic
nerve. The brain detects these signals as variations
Silicone form
in light. and
Other research teams are looking at implants to attachment
points
directly stimulate the brain. These versions of the bionic
eye will be aimed at helping those who have damage to
Source: From Electrical stimulation of retinal ganglion cells
the optic nerve as well as the eyes. with diamond and the development of an all diamond
retinal prosthesis, by Hadkinicolaou et. al., Biomaterials 33
2012, published by Elsevier.

A man who lost his eye in a shooting accident has had his eye replaced with a camera. In the future this
could potentially send information to an implant that directly stimulates the brain.
These technologies may be successful at restoring some sight to people, but it will not be the same as
that of a fully sighted individual. In 2014, three people began a trial by being the first people in the world
to have the retinal implant inserted in their eyes. They report being able to make out outlines of people and
objects that they are looking at. The technology is still in an early stage, but it offers hope in the future for
many people suffering from blindness.
Cataracts
Cataracts are another cause of blindness. A cataract occurs when the lens within the eye turns cloudy, losing
its transparency (figure 20.51). This opaque lens prevents light from reaching the retina. Cataracts are
the leading cause of blindness in the world, particularly affecting people over the age of 40. Risk factors
identified for cataracts include:
• exposure to ultraviolet light from the Sun
• obesity
• diabetes
• smoking
• prolonged use of some medications
• significant alcohol consumption
• family history
• previous eye problems.
FIGURE 20.51 The cataract is in the right eye and is clouding the lens that affects vision.
Normal eye Cataract eye
A healthy lens allows for all parts of the retina Clouding of the lens in the eye that affects vision.
to receive the image A cloudy lens scatters light, causing an image
that’s out focus and hazy
Cataract blindness can be treated by surgically removing the lens and replacing it with a clear plastic
lens. These artificial lenses are called intraocular lenses and can help restore sight in cataract sufferers. Most
patients who undergo surgery to remove cataracts regain good vision.

In a fully functioning human eye, the lens can change its focal length to adjust to seeing at different
distances. Most intraocular lenses, however, are set to focus for distance vision, so the patient has to wear
glasses for reading. More sophisticated lenses are being used that are bifocal or multifocal to enable the
patient to focus on near objects as well.
20.6 EXERCISE
1. A person suffers from myopia. Describe what this means to them.
2. Sketch a diagram of a myopic eye, using rays to show what is happening to cause this problem.
3. Sketch the profile of a lens that might be used to correct myopia.
4. Identify one cause of hypermetropia.
5. Sketch a profile of a hypermetropic eye, using rays to show what is happening to cause this problem.
6. Cataracts are the leading cause of blindness. What treatment is required to restore the sight to those with
cataracts?
7. Investigate three different research programs on bionic eyes. What is the difference between each of their
approaches, and what conditions do they aim to alleviate the symptoms of?
8. What does accommodation mean? Explain with the help of a well-labeled diagram.

20.7 Review
20.7.1 Summary
• The ray model depicts light as straight lines in a uniform medium.
• Rays of light reflect from a plane surface so that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
• The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.
• When passing from one medium to another, light refracts in accordance with Snell’s Law:
n1 sin 𝜃1 = n2 sin 𝜃2
• Pinhole cameras are powerful tools for understanding the behaviour of light and image formation.
• Convex lenses cause parallel rays of light to diverge. Concave lenses cause parallel rays to converge.
• Convex lenses result in image formation that depends on where the object is placed. Concave lenses
produce upright, virtual, diminished images.
• The position of image formed by thin lenses can be determined by accurate ray tracing and by using
the thin lens equation:
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
• For pinhole cameras and simple cameras, the magnification is given by:
v
M=
u

• Light from distant objects can be gathered by telescopes to form clearer and larger images. Telescopes
use either concave mirrors or convex lenses to collect light.
• Small objects can be enlarged by using a compound microscope with the object placed inside the focal
length of the objective lens.
• The operation of the eye can be explained with an understanding of refraction and lenses.
• Two of the major conditions that are corrected using glasses and contact lenses are short-sightedness
(myopia) and long-sightedness (hypermetropia).
• The power of a lens is calculated using:
1
P=
focal length
• The lens of the human eye can focus on near and distant objects by changing the curvature of its lens.
This ability tends to decrease with age, causing hypermetropia.
• The lens in the eye can go cloudy (cataracts), causing blindness. This can be treated by removing the
lens and replacing it with a plastic lens.
• Using technology to replace damaged retinas and optic nerves with a ‘bionic eye’ is an area of
intensive research and development.
Resources
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and
practice exam question booklet (sonr-0045).
20.7.2 Key terms
The absolute refractive index is the relative refractive index for light travelling from a vacuum into the substance.
It is commonly referred to as the refractive index.
Accommodation is the adjustment to the thickness of the lens in the eye to ensure that the image on the retina is
sharp. When the thickness of the lens changes, so does its focal length.
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
The choroid is the vascular layer of the eye that lies between the retina and the sclera and provides oxygen and
nourishment to the outer retina.
Compound or catadioptric telescopes are hybrid telescopes, with a mix of refractor and reflector elements.
Concave means curved with the reflecting surface on the inside of the curve.
A concave lens is thinner in the middle than at the edges.
Converging lenses bend incident parallel rays towards a focus; that is, they converge light.
Convex means curved with the reflecting surface on the outside of the curve.
A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.
The cornea is the curved front surface of the eye. It refracts light towards the pupil so that it can pass through
towards the lens.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°. The critical angle exists only
when light passes from one substance into a second substance with a lower refractive index.
Diffuse reflection is the reflection from a rough or irregular surface.
A diminished image is smaller than the object.
Diverging lenses bend incident parallel rays away from each other; that is, they diverge light.
An enlarged image is larger than the object.
A focal plane is at right angles to the principal axis and passes through the focus.
Galilean telescopes contain a converging objective lens and a diverging eyepiece lens, positioned so that their
focal points are at the same position.

Hypermetropia (long-sightedness) is where nearby objects appear blurred, but the person’s vision is clearer
when looking at things further away.
An image is a likeness of an object.
The iris is a pigmented layer of tissue that gives colour to the eye.
Keplerian telescopes have converging objective and eyepiece lenses.
A laterally inverted image is reversed from left to right.
Luminous objects give off their own light.
Magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
Myopia (short-sightedness) means that the person’s vision of nearby objects is good but distant objects are
unclear.
The near point of your eye is the closest an object can be to your eye so that your eye can produce a sharp
image of the object on its retina.
Newtonian telescopes have a concave objective mirror and uses a plane secondary mirror to divert the light
through the eyepiece out of the side of the telescope.
Non-luminous objects do not give off their own light.
The normal is a line that is perpendicular to a surface or a boundary between two surfaces.
An object is the subject that is being viewed.
An opaque substance allows no light to pass through it.
The vertical line passing through the centre of a lens and joining the two centres of curvature of its surfaces is
known as the optical axis of a lens.
The optic nerve communicates visual information by sending signals to the brain.
There are two types of photoreceptors. Rods are stimulated by light and are responsible for observing the size,
shape and brightness of visual images. Cones are less sensitive but perceive colour.
The straight line that goes through the centre of the lens at right angles to the lens surface is known as the
principal axis.
The pupil is the small opening located in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter.
A ray of light is a very narrow pencil-like beam of light.
A real image is one through which light passes. A real image can be seen on a screen placed at the location of
the image.
A refracting telescope is a type of optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image
Reflecting telescopes use a mirror at the objective.
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium into another.
Regular reflection, or specular reflection, is reflection from a smooth surface.
The relative refractive index is a measure of how much light bends when it travels from any one substance into
any other substance.
The retina functions as the screen of the eye. It is covered with nerve cells that detect the brightness and colour
of the light falling on it.
The total internal reflection is the total reflection of light from a boundary between two substances. It occurs
when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
A transparent substance allows most light to pass through it.
A translucent substance allows some light to pass through it.
A virtual image is seen because light appears to be coming from it. Light doesn’t actually pass through it;
therefore, a virtual image cannot be ‘captured’ on a screen.
The vitreous humour is a semi-solid, transparent, jelly-like substance that covers the interior portion of the eyes.
1 1 1
The thin lens formula provides a good approximation of the position of image formed by thin lenses: + = ·
u v f
Resources

Investigation 20.1
Luminous or not?
Aim: To determine, from a list, which items are luminous and which are non-luminous
Investigation 20.2
The Galilean telescope
Aim: To model and use a simple Galilean telescope and determine the magnifying power and orientation of images
Investigation 20.3
Luminosity and temperature
Aim: To investigate the change in colour and brightness with temperature
Investigation 20.4
Seeing is believing
Aim: To observe the bending of light using a pencil and a coin
Investigation 20.5
Using apparent depth to determine the refractive index
Aim: To use apparent depth to determine the refractive index for water and glass

Investigation 20.6
Snell’s Law
Aim: To observe the refraction of light and to use Snell’s Law to determine the
refractive index of a medium

Investigation 20.7
The convex lens as a magnifying glass
Aim: To use a convex lens to observe distant and close objects

Investigation 20.8
Describing images producing by a convex lens
Aim: To observe how the size and location of an image changes when using a convex lens
Investigation 20.9
Flat lens profile
Aim: To use a magnifying glass to examine the surface of a flat lens
Investigation 20.10
Measuring your near point
Aim: To find your near point for each eye using a pencil
Resources
20.7 Exercises

1. Which of the following shows the correct mirror image?
PERFECTION MIRROR
A. NOITCEFREP
B.
NOITCEFREP
C. PERFECTION
D. NOITCEFREP

2. The nature of an image formed by a plane mirror is which of the following?
A. Virtual, inverted, same size as the object
B. Virtual, upright, same size as the object
C. Real, upright, same size as the object
D. Real, inverted, same size as the object
3. In the following figure, what is the angle of reflection?
35°
Mirror
A. 65°
B. 55°
C. 35°
D. 50°
4. A concave mirror produces an upright image of an object when the object at which of the following?
A. A distance less than focal length from the mirror
B. The focus of the mirror
C. A distance greater than a focal length from the mirror
D. Twice the focal length from the mirror
5. If light strikes water straight on, as shown in the following figure, what will happen to the light ray?
Incident ray
Air
Water
A. It will bend towards the normal.

B. It will bend away from the normal.
C. It will be perpendicular to the normal.
D. It will not experience any bending.

6. The speed of light in five different materials is given in the following table.
Material Speed (ms−1 )
Air 3.00 × 108
Water 2.26 × 108
Perspex 2.01 × 108
Crown glass 1.95 × 108
Diamond 1.24 × 108
A ray of light passes from air into each of the materials listed. The refraction will be greatest as light
passes from air into which material?
A. Water
B. Perspex
C. Crown glass
D. Diamond
7. A slide is placed 15 centimetres from a convex lens in a slide projector. The image is formed on a
screen 6.0 metres away. If an object is 1.5 metres tall, what size will the image be?
A. 60 m
B. 6.0 m
C. 0.60 m
D. 3.75 m
8. The refractive index of water for yellow light is 1.33. If the refractive index for an unknown light colour
is slightly larger than 1.33, what is the colour?
A. Red
B. Orange
C. Green
D. Violet
9. What is the advantage of using a reflecting telescope over a refracting telescope?
A. No loss of light
B. Easy maintenance
C. Near permanent optical alignment
D. No chromatic aberration, cheaper and more light collection
10. Severe myopia is defined as –6 dioptres or worse. What would the minimum focal length of a lens have
to be in order to correct for severe myopia?
A. 0.1667 m
B. 0.1667 cm
C. –0.1667 m
D. –0.1667 cm

1. A physics student does a practical to understand the laws of reflection. He places a thumb pin at a
position ‘O’, as shown in the following figure, in front of the mirror.
1 0 2 3
Mirror
Draw a ray diagram to determine, in which positions 1, 2 or 3 the student will be able to observe the
image of the thumb pin placed at O.

2. At what angle does the incident ray strike on a plane mirror, if the angle between the incident and the
refelcted ray is 70°? Draw a well-labeled ray diagram showing the incident, reflected ray and the angles
formed by each of them.
3. An object of 3.0 centimetres is placed 14 centimetres in front of a concave lens of focal length 21
centimetres.
a. Describe the nature of the image produced by the lens.
b. What happens if the object is moved further away from the lens?
4. Convex mirrors are used in driveways for the safety reasons.
a. Describe the nature of the image formed in this case.
b. What is the advantage of using this mirror?
5. Draw a ray diagram to find out the position and nature of the image produced by placing an object 6
centimetres away from a convex lens of focal length 3 centimetres?
6. Figures (a) and (b) show refraction of a ray in air incident at an angle of 60° with the normal to a
glass-air and water-air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of refraction in glass when the angle of
incidence in water is 45° with the normal to a water-glass interface.
(a) (b) (c)
Air
Glass 35° ?°
60° Glass
Air
60° Water
Water 47° 45°
7. An optical fibre has a refractive index of 1.44 for the core and a critical angle of 80.0° between the core
and cladding. Calculate the refractive index of the cladding.
8. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 140 centimetres and an eyepiece of focal length
5.0 centimetres. Calculate the magnifying power of this telescope?
9. A myopic person has been using spectacles of power –1.0 dioptre for distant vision. During old age he
also needs to use separate reading glass of power +2.0 dioptres. Explain what may have happened.
10. a. Explain spherical and chromatic aberration in telescopes.
b. Which telescope, reflecting or refracting, is affected by these aberrations?

Draw a ray diagram to describe the nature of the image produced by placing an object 4 centimetres away
from a convex lens of focal length 8 centimetres?

The following diagram shows a rectangular glass block A
(refractive index = 1.5) on a bench and N
surrounded by air (refractive index = 1.0). Incident ray
a. If angle of incidence is i1 = 60°. Calculate the value i1
Air (rarer medium)
of the angle of refraction r1 . 2 marks
O
b. Calculate the values of the angles i2 and e. 2 marks
r1
Glass
Refracted (Denser
ray medium)
N
i1
O Air (rarer medium)

e
(Emergent ray)
B
a. A piece of optical wire with a light beam travelling through it is surrounded by a material
with a refraction index of 1.33. If the index of refraction of the wire is 1.85. Calculate the
critical angle needed to achieve total internal reflection. 2 marks
b. What is the critical angle, if a ray of light passes from a medium with an index of refraction
of 1.50 into another medium with an index of refraction of 3.33? The incident ray is at
an angle of 30° with respect to the normal. 2 marks
a. A small refracting telescope has an objective lens of 900 millimetres and magnification
power of 30. Calculate the focal length of its eyepiece. 1 mark
b. What is the main difference between objective and eyepiece lenses for telescopes
and microscopes? 1 mark
What is hypermetropia and how it is caused? How can it be corrected?

Test maker

21 How do instruments
make music?
21.1 Overview
21.1.1 Introduction
Sound is a form of energy that is created by vibrating objects, with the vibrations moving as a wave through
the surrounding medium. The sound you hear is dependent on the nature of these vibrations, and the
medium through which they travel.
Instruments create sound in a variety of ways, most commonly using strings or hollow tubes to create
standing waves. This topic explores the physics of sound and hearing, as well as the production of sound by
instruments.
FIGURE 21.1 Musical instruments produce sound in various ways, but they all
rely on the same physical principles.
TOPIC 21 How do instruments make music? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• describe sound as the transmission of energy via longitudinal pressure waves
• analyse sound using wavelength, frequency and speed of propagation of sound waves: v = f𝜆
−2
• distinguish between sound intensity (W m ) and sound intensity level (dB)
• calculate sound intensity at different distances from a source using an inverse square law
• analyse a standing wave as the superposition of a travelling wave and its reflection.
• explain resonance and identify it as related to the natural frequency of an object
• investigate factors that influence natural frequency including shape and material and explain how this
relates to instruments
• investigate and explain the human voice box as a resonance chamber with vibration provided by vocal
cords
• investigate and explain a variety of musical instruments with reference to the similarities and differences of
sound production between instrument types (brass, string, woodwind and percussion) and how they
compare with the human voice
• analyse, for strings and open and closed resonant tubes, the fundamental and subsequent harmonics and
apply this analysis to selected musical instruments
• analyse the unique sound of an instrument as a consequence of multiple resonances created by the
instrument and described as timbre
• investigate how the amount of diffraction around an obstacle varies with the size of the obstacle and the
wavelength of the sound
• describe the structure of the human ear with reference to the transfer and amplification of vibrations
• interpret the frequency response curve of the human ear
• differentiate between pitch, timbre and loudness
• identify the representation of timbre as a combination of specific frequencies
• describe how particular musical intervals can be represented as ratios of their frequencies, and how
consonant frequencies tend to have simple ratios
• investigate the phenomenon of beats
• investigate an aspect of contemporary research in psychoacoustics.

Resources

21.2 Sound as a wave
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe sound as the transmission of energy via longitudinal pressure waves.
• Analyse sound using wavelength, frequency and speed of propagation of sound waves: v = f𝜆.
• Analyse a standing wave as the superposition of a travelling wave and its reflection.
• Investigate how the amount of diffraction around an obstacle varies with the size of the obstacle and the
wavelength of the sound.
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Figure 21.2 shows how the vibrating membrane of a drum
causes compressions and rarefactions to travel outwards through the air.
FIGURE 21.2 Production of a sound wave
Membrane of drum Compression Rarefaction
Figure 21.3 shows how air pressure varies with distance at a large distance from the source of sound.
This type of graph shows the pressure variations in the air at a particular instant. As time goes by, the
positions of the compressions and rarefactions move away from the source at the speed of sound.
A pressure-versus-distance graph enables the wavelength of the sound wave to be found. It is the
distance between the centres of two adjacent compressions, or the length of one complete cycle.

FIGURE 21.3 Air pressure variations at a distance from the source
C R C R C
Air pressure
+Δp
Normal air pressure Distance from

100 source (m)
101
–Δp
C = compression
R = rarefaction
21.2.1 Longitude waves

In a longitudinal wave, as opposed to a transverse wave, the oscillations are parallel to the direction
the wave is moving. Longitudinal waves can be set up in a slinky, as shown in figure 21.4a. Sound waves
in air are also longitudinal waves, as shown in figure 21.4b. They are produced when a vibrating object,
such as the arm of a tuning fork, first squashes the air, then pulls back creating a partial vacuum into which
the air spreads.
FIGURE 21.4 Longitudinal waves in (a) a slinky and (b) air
(a) λ
Compression Rarefaction
(b) Direction of
Rarefactions
wave motion
λ
Compressions Direction of
particle motion
Longitudinal waves cause the medium to bunch up in places and to spread out in others. Compressions
are regions in the medium where the particles are closer together. Referring to sound waves in air,
compressions are regions where the air has a slightly increased pressure, as a result of the particles being
closer together. Rarefactions are regions in the medium where the particles are spread out. This results in a
slight decrease in air pressure in the case of sound waves.

The wavelength (𝜆) for longitudinal waves is the distance between the centres of adjacent compressions
(or rarefactions). The amplitude of a sound wave in air is the maximum variation of air pressure from
normal air pressure.
21.2.2 Wave speed

At the beach the approaching wave that is about to crash is described as the crest of the wave. In the case of
sound, a compression is approaching the ear drum. These approaching crests and compressions are called
wavefronts. The direction that a wave is travelling (and hence the direction of its speed) is always at right
angles to the wavefront. The speed of a wave is the rate at which a wavefront moves through the medium,
not the speed of individual particles of the medium.
The speed of sound

The speed of sound in air depends on the temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the speed
of sound.
Table 21.1 shows the speed of sound in various media.
TABLE 21.1 The speed of sound in various media
Material Speed of sound (m s−1 )
Air (0 °C) 331
Air (20 °C) 343
Carbon dioxide 260
Helium 1005
Water 1440
Sea water 1560
Glass ≈4500
Iron and steel ≈5100
SPEED OF A WAVE THROUGH A MEDIUM

The speed with which a wave moves through a medium depends on:
• the pressure as the molecules are pushed together, for a gas
• the elastic forces between atoms, for a solid
• the mass of the particles or how easy it is to move them or, more correctly, the density of the medium.
The greater the interaction between the particles, the faster waves will travel through it. The less dense the
medium, the greater the speed of the wave.
The speed of a wave depends only on the medium through which it is travelling. It does not depend on how
much energy is being transferred by the wave nor on the frequency of the wave.
21.2.3 The wave equation

The speed, frequency and wavelength of both transverse and longitudinal waves are related
by the formula:
v = f𝜆

This is known as the universal wave formula and is derived from the fact that a wave will travel a distance
of one wavelength (𝜆) in the time it takes to produce one complete wave — that is, the period (T).
Applying the formula:
distance travelled d
speed = or v =
time taken t
where d = 𝜆 and t = T, we get the useful formula:
𝜆
v=
T
1
By substituting f = into this formula, the universal wave formula is obtained.
T
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
What is the speed of a sound wave if it has a period of 2 milliseconds and a wavelength of
68 centimetres?
THINK WRITE
1. Write the known variables in their appropriate T = 2.0 ms 𝜆 = 68 cm
units. Time must be expressed in seconds and = 2.0 × 10 −3
s = 0.68 m
length in metres.
𝜆
2. Choose the appropriate formula. v=
T
0.68
3. Substitute values and solve. v=
2.0 × 10−3
= 340 m s−1
4. State the solution. The speed of the sound wave is 340 m s–1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A siren produces a sound wave with a frequency of 587 Hz. Calculate the speed of sound if the
wavelength of the sound is 0.571 metres.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
What is the wavelength of a sound of frequency 550 Hz if the speed of sound in air is 335 m s−1 ?
THINK WRITE
1. Choose the appropriate formula. v = f𝜆
v
2. Substitute values and solve. ⇒𝜆=
f
335 m s−1
=
550 Hz
= 0.609 m
3. State the answer. The wavelength is 0.609 metres.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
What is the wavelength of a sound with a frequency of 480 Hz if the speed of sound in air
is 320 m s–1 ?
21.2.4 Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of waves as
FIGURE 21.5 Diffraction of water waves: (a) short
they pass around an object, through a wavelength around an object (b) long wavelength around
gap in a barrier or around the edge of a the same object (c) short wavelength through the same gap
barrier. Diffraction occurs because waves (e) short wavelength around the edge of a barrier and (f) long
spread out as they travel. It is best seen with wavelength around the edge of the same barrier
water waves in a ripple tank. Figure 21.5
(a) (b)
shows how water waves diffract in various
situations. The diagrams apply equally well
Shadow
to the diffraction of sound waves.
The region where no waves travel is
called a shadow. The amount of diffraction
that occurs depends on the wavelength of (c) (d)
Shadow
the waves. The longer the wavelength, the
more diffraction occurs. As a general rule,
if the wavelength is less than the size of the
Shadow
object, there will be a significant shadow
region. (e) (f)
When waves diffract through a gap of
𝜆
width d in a barrier, the ratio is important.
d Shadow
As the value of this ratio increases, so too Shadow
does the amount of diffraction that occurs.
SOUND BARRIERS
Walls and fences built next to motorways are effective in protecting nearby residents from high-frequency sounds
as these have a short wavelength and undergo little diffraction. The low-frequency sounds from motors and tyres,
however, diffract around the barriers because of their longer wavelengths.
FIGURE 21.6 The diffraction of low and high frequencies

around a motorway barrier
High-frequency sound Low-frequency sound
Barrier

Resources
Digital documents Investigation 21.1 Diffraction and sound intensity levels for sounds of different frequencies (doc-31916)
Investigation 21.2 Diffraction of waves in a ripple tank (doc-32323)
21.2.5 Reflection of waves

When waves arrive at a barrier, reflection occurs. Reflection is the returning of the wave into the medium
in which it was originally travelling. When a wave strikes a barrier, or comes to the end of the medium in
which it is travelling, at least a part of the wave is reflected.
A wave’s speed depends only on the medium, so the speed of the reflected wave is the same as for the
original (incident) wave. The wavelength and frequency of the reflected wave will also be the same as for
the incident wave.
Reflection of transverse waves in strings

When a string has one end fixed so that it is unable to move (for example, when it is tied to a wall or is held
tightly to the ‘nut’ at the end of a stringed instrument), the reflected wave will be inverted. This is called
a change of phase. If the end is free to move, the wave is reflected upright and unchanged so there is no
change of phase. These situations are illustrated in figure 21.7.
FIGURE 21.7 Reflection of a transverse pulse on a string when (a) and (b) the end of the string is fixed (as in a
guitar), and (c) and (d) the end of the string is free to move (as with a loop supported by a retort stand)
(a) Incident pulse Fret board
Nut (reflecting barrier)

(b)
Reflected pulse is inverted, but has

the same length and speed.
(c) Incident pulse Retort stand
(d)
Reflected pulse is not inverted, but
has the same length and speed.
Reflection of sound waves

Sound waves can similarly reflect off a fixed end (for example, a solid wall) and a free end (for example,
a gap in a barrier). However, sound is a longitudinal pressure wave, so its behaviour is different. For a
sound wave, reflection at a fixed end occurs when sound echoes from a wall. When a compression hits
an immovable object such as a wall it is reflected as a compression. There is no change of phase. This is

the opposite of what happens with a transverse wave at a fixed end. Of course a rarefaction also does not
change phase and is reflected from a wall as a rarefaction.
A free end for a sound wave is the opening at the end of a trumpet that projects the sound into the room.
Some sound reflects off this free or open end and travels back up the instrument.
A compression travelling down the trumpet spreads out at the opening and transfers energy to the outside
air. This creates a rarefaction behind it, which then moves back up the trumpet. Sound waves at an open end
experience a change of phase. When this rarefaction hits the mouthpiece, it is reflected as it is hitting a fixed
end and is reflected unchanged.
FIGURE 21.8 Sound wave reflects (a) from a solid wall and (b) from the open end of a trumpet
(a)
(b)
Resources
Digital document Investigation 21.3 Observing sound (doc-31909)
21.2.6 Standing waves

Standing waves are an example of what happens when two waves pass through the same point in space.
They can either interfere constructively or destructively. Standing waves are an example of interference
in a confined space. The restriction may be a guitar string tied down at both ends, or a trumpet closed
at the mouthpiece and open at the other end, or even a drum skin stretched tightly and secured at its
circumference.
So, how and where do the nodes and antinodes form? And what does this imply about what we hear?
Transverse standing waves in strings or springs

When two symmetrical periodic waves of equal amplitude and frequency (and therefore wavelength), but
travelling in opposite directions, are sent through an elastic one-dimensional medium like a string, spring
or a rope, constructive interference and destructive interference occur. In fact, destructive interference
occurs at evenly spaced points along the medium and it happens all the time at these points. The medium
at these points never moves. Such points in a medium where waves cancel each other at all times are called
nodes. In between the nodes are points where the waves reinforce each other to give a maximum amplitude
of the resultant waveform. This is caused by constructive interference. Such points are called antinodes.

When this effect occurs the individual waves are undetectable. All that is observed are points where the
medium is stationary and others where the medium oscillates between two extreme positions. There seems
to be a wave, but it has no direction of motion. When this occurs, it is said to be a stationary or standing
wave.
Figure 21.9 shows how standing waves are formed in a string by two continuous periodic waves
travelling in opposite directions. It is important to note that the wavelength of the waves involved in the
standing wave is twice the distance between adjacent nodes (or adjacent antinodes).
FIGURE 21.9 The formation of a standing wave
(a) Resultant wave (R) (b) Resultant wave (R)
S Distance Distance
P
Fixed end
Fixed end
P N N N N T N N N N N
t=0 t=
A 4 A
S
Resultant wave (R) Resultant wave (R)

(c) (d)
S
Fixed end
Fixed end
TN N N N 3T N N N N
t= P A t=
2 Node 4
S Antinode P
Distance Distance
Figure 21.10 shows the motion of a spring as it

FIGURE 21.10 A standing wave over one cycle
carries a standing wave. It shows the shape of the
spring as it completes one cycle. The time taken to (a)
T
do this is one period (T). Note that (i) at t = and t=0
4
3T
at t = the medium is momentarily undisturbed (b)
4 t=
T
at all points and (ii) that adjacent antinodes are 4
opposite in phase — when one antinode is a crest,
those next to it are troughs. (c)
T
t=
2
(d)
3T
t=
4
(e)
t=T

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The following diagram shows a vibrating string.
8.0 m
a. How many nodes are there?

b. How many antinodes are there?
c. If the string covers a horizontal distance of 8.0 metres what is the wavelength of the wave?
d. If the wave has a frequency of 4.0 Hz, what is the speed of the wave?
e. At what frequency would the spring have only one antinode?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall that nodes are points that remain a. There are four nodes, three in the picture and one
at the same level at all times. at the elbow.
b. 1. Recall that antinodes are extremes of the b. There are three antinodes.
peaks and troughs.
c. 1. Wavelength is given by 2 × the distance c. The distance between nodes is:
between nodes. 8.0
3
2 × 8.0
Wavelength = = 5.3 m
3
State the solution.
2. The wavelength of the wave is 5.3 metres.
d. 1. Used the wave equation v = f 𝜆. d. v = f𝜆
= 4 × 5.3
= 21 m s−1
2. State the solution. The speed of the wave is 21 m s−1 .
v
e. 1. The speed is unchanged at 21 m s−1 and e. f =
the wavelength is now 16 m 𝜆
21
=
16
= 1.3 Hz
2. State the solution. The string would have only one antinode at 1.3 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
The diagram on the right shows a vibrating string.
a. How many nodes are there?
b. How many antinodes are there?
c. If the spring covers a horizontal distance of 12 metres what
is the wavelength of the wave?
d. If the wave travels at 30 m s−1 , what is the frequency of
the wave?

Sound and standing waves
Sound can also produce standing waves. In an air column such as an organ pipe, a whistle or a trumpet,
we have seen that sound reflects at each end. In the stretched string at the fixed end there is a node because
cancellation was caused by a change of phase, a trough is reflected as a crest. So when a longitudinal sound
wave reflects with a change of phase at an open end, there will also be a node, a pressure node. Whereas at a
closed end in an air column, there is no change of phase, so at this end there must be a pressure antinode.
At the nodes there will be little or no variation in air pressure. The antinodes will be distinct points where
the sound is the loudest and the variation of air pressure is the greatest. Figure 21.11 shows the pressure
variations when one end is open and the other end is fixed. In diagrams (a), (c) and (e) the pressure variation
waves ‘S’ and ‘P’ are undergoing constructive interference. In diagrams (b) and (d) the pressure variation
waves are the opposite of each other and therefore undergo destructive interference, making the resultant
wave, ‘R’, a flat line. Waves undergo constructive and destructive interference due to the reflected wave
interfering with the incident wave and this produces the anti-nodes and nodes that create a standing wave.
FIGURE 21.11 Pressure variations over one cycle for a standing sound wave
(a) (b)
t=0 R (t = T )
4
P P
S
Closed open R
end A N A N A N end
(c) (d)
(t = T ) R (t = 3T )
2 4
(e) t=T
R
P
S

The wavelength of the sound is twice the distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes.
Nodes and antinodes can be detected by ear, but a more reliable method is to use a microphone connected
to a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). At the antinodes the trace has a maximum amplitude. At the nodes
the trace has a minimum amplitude. Figure 21.12 shows two loudspeakers facing each other and connected
to an audio amplifier and signal generator. The microphone and CRO are used to detect the nodes and
antinodes. As there is an antinode just in front of each speaker, the sound will be loud and the microphone
will pick up a strong signal there.
FIGURE 21.12 Investigating a standing sound wave with a CRO
Signal
generator
Amplifier
Speaker Speaker
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Two loudspeakers emitting sound with a frequency of 1000 Hz are set up 10 metres apart and
facing each other. A microphone and CRO are used to detect points of loudest sound along a line
between the loudspeakers. These points occur at distances of 5 metres, 5.17 metres and
5.34 metres from one of the loudspeakers.
a. What is the wavelength of the sound waves?
b. Calculate the speed of sound in the region between the loudspeakers.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall that the wavelength is twice the distance a. 𝜆 = 2 × 0.17
between adjacent antinodes. = 0.34 m
2. State the solution. The wavelength of the sound waves is
0.34 metres.
b. 1. f = 1000 Hz, 𝜆 = 0.34 m; to find v, use the b. v = f𝜆
wave equation. = 1000 × 0.34
= 340 m s−1
2. State the solution. The speed of sound in the region
between the loudspeakers is
340 m s−1 .

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Hugh and Sam setup their sound system, which uses two speakers of 575 Hz. The speakers are facing
each other and 6 metres apart. A sound level meter is used to find loudness at points between the
speakers. Hugh and Sam found that there was no sound at 3.3 metres, 3.6 metres and 3.9 metres from
one of the speakers.
a. What is the wavelength of the sound waves?
b. Calculate the speed of sound between the speakers.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 21.4 Sound intensities and intensity levels (doc-31910)
Investigation 21.5 Reflection of pulses in springs (doc-32325)
Teacher-led videos Investigation 21.5 Reflection of pulses in springs (tlvd-1077)
21.2 EXERCISE
1. What is the speed of sound in air if it travels a distance of 996 metres in 3 seconds?
2. How far does a wave travel in one period?
3. Do loud sounds travel faster than soft sounds? Justify your answer.
4. A marching band on the other side of a sports oval appears to be ‘out of step’ with the music. Explain why
this might happen.
5. You arrive late to an outdoor concert and have to sit 500 metres from the stage. Will you hear
high-frequency sounds at the same time as low-frequency sounds if they are played simultaneously?
6. A loudspeaker is producing a note of 256 Hz. How long does it take for 200 wavelengths to interact with
your ear?
7. During an electrical storm the thunder and lightning occur at the same time and place. Unless the centre of
the storm is directly above, you see the lightning flash before you hear the thunder. How far away is
lightning if it takes 5 seconds for the sound of thunder to reach you after the flash is seen? Assume the
speed of sound in air is 335 m s−1 .
8. What is the wavelength of a sound that has a speed of 340 m s−1 and a period of 3 milliseconds?
9. What is the speed of a sound if the wavelength is 1.32 metres and the period is 4 × 10−3 s?
10. The speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 and a note is produced that has a frequency of 256 Hz.
(a) What is its wavelength?
(b) This same note is now produced in water where the speed of sound is 1.5 × 103 m s−1 . What is the new
wavelength of the note?
11. Copy and complete the following table by applying the universal wave formula.
v (m s−1 ) f (Hz) 𝜆 (m)

500 0.67
12 25
1500 0.30
60 2.5
340 1000
260 440

12. Sketch a graph showing the variation of air pressure as a function of distance for a sound wave of
wavelength 1 metre.
13. Sketch a pressure-versus-time graph to illustrate a:
(a) 100 Hz sound of a certain loudness
(b) sound with the same frequency, but louder
(c) sound with the same loudness as in (a) but twice the frequency
(d) sound that is an octave lower than in (a) and quieter.
14. Figure (a) shows the pressure variation as a function of distance from a sound source at an instant in time.
The graph shown in figure (b) shows the pressure variation as a function of distance from the sound source.
The speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
(a)
(b) Variation in
air pressure
+Δp
Normal Distance
air 0 from
pressure 100 101 102 source
(m)
–Δp
(a)What is the wavelength of this sound?

(b)What is the period of this sound?
(c)Using the same scale as in figure (b), sketch the distribution of particles one-quarter of a period later.
(d)Using the same axes as in figure (b), sketch a graph of pressure variation versus distance one-quarter
of a period later than shown in the graph.
15. The following figure shows the variation of air pressure as a function of time near a sound source.
Variation in
air pressure
Normal air Time

pressure 0 (ms)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a) What is the period of this sound?

(b) What is the frequency of this sound?
(c) What is the wavelength of this sound if the speed of sound is 330 m s−1 ?


21.3 Measuring sound intensity
KEY CONCEPTS
−2
• Distinguish between sound intensity (W m ) and sound intensity level (dB).
• Calculate sound intensity at different distances from a source using an inverse square law.
Sound waves transfer energy. Energy is produced by a sound source and transmitted by longitudinal
waves through the medium. This medium is usually air.
It is not meaningful to talk about the amount of energy produced by a sound source. This is because a
small loudspeaker or button earpiece from a cassette player may eventually produce as much total energy
as a thunderclap if it is in use for a long enough period of time. It is more meaningful to talk about the
acoustical power of the sound source, as this is the amount of sound energy produced by a source every
second.
Power (P) is the rate of doing work or of transferring energy. Power, measured in watts (W), equals
the energy transferred, measured in joules (J), divided by the time taken, measured in seconds (s):
energy
power =
time
LOUDSPEAKERS
Loudspeakers for entertainment systems are rated in watts. For example, a system might be fitted with 40 W
speakers. In this case, 40 W does not refer to the acoustical power produced by the speakers, but to the
maximum electrical power dissipated by the speakers. Under normal operating conditions, the acoustical power
produced will be much less than the stated power rating.
21.3.1 Intensity
As sound travels away from a source, it spreads out through the air. The acoustical power produced by the
source is spread out over a larger area the further it travels, and so the sound energy becomes less intense.
The intensity (I) of a sound at a point is a measure of the amount of power (P) passing through a unit of
area (A) at that point. The area here is taken at right angles to the direction of propagation of the sound.
The equation for the intensity of a sound is:

P
I =
A
Power is measured in watts (W) and area is measured in square metres (m2 ), so intensity is measured in
watts per square metre (W m−2 ).
FIGURE 21.13 The area is at right angles to the direction of propagation.
1m
Direction
of sound
1m propagation

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
What is the intensity of a sound if 6 × 10−3 W of acoustical power passes through an open
window that has an area of 0.30 m2 ?
THINK WRITE
P
1. Recall the formula for intensity. I=
A
6.0 × 10−3
2. Substitute the values into the equation. I=
0.30
= 2.0 × 10−2 W m−2
3. State the solution. The intensity of the sounds is 2 × 10−2 W m−2 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A window has an area of 0.50 m2 . 4.5 × 10−4 J of energy passes through the window in 30 seconds.
Calculate the:
a. acoustic power of the sound
b. sound intensity at the window.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
How much energy is transferred to a human eardrum that has an area of 5 × 10−5 m2 by a sound
of intensity 2 × 10−2 W m−2 in 20 seconds?
THINK WRITE
1. Use the formula for sound intensity to find the P = IA
power. = 2.0 × 10−2 × 5.0 × 10−5
= 1.0 × 10−6 W
2. Use the formula E = Pt to find the energy Energy = Pt
transferred. = 1.0 × 10−6 × 20
= 2.0 × 10−5 J
3. State the solution. 2 × 10−5 J of energy is transferred to
the human eardrum.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
How much energy is transferred through a window with an area 0.5 m2 by a sound intensity of
3.5 × 10−3 in 5 seconds?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
If an alarm bell produces a sound intensity of 5 × 10−6 W m−2 at a distance of 150 metres, what
will be the sound intensity produced at a distance of 150 metres by five identical bells ringing at
the same time in the same place?
THINK WRITE
1. If a source produces an intensity I at some distance, Intensity = 5 × 5.0 × 10−6
then n identical sources operating simultaneously = 2.5 × 10−5 Wm−2
will produce an intensity n times greater at that
same distance.
2. State the solution. The five bells will produce a sound
intensity of 2.5 × 10−5 W m−2 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
If one police car siren produces a sound intensity of 3.5 × 10−6 W m−2 at a distance of 80 metres,
what will be the sound intensity produced at a distance of 80 metres by three identical police cars
parked side by side?
21.3.2 Inverse square law

The inverse square law for sound applies to small (point) sources of sound that produce sound uniformly
in all directions. It assumes that the medium through which the sound travels is uniform and that the sound
does not reflect from, nor is absorbed by, any surfaces or the air.
Under these conditions, sound will travel as a spherical wave. It will spread out evenly in all directions
and its wavefronts will form the surface of a sphere.
The power of the source is therefore spread out over the surface of a sphere. When finding the intensity
of a sound at a distance of r from the source, the sphere will have a surface area of 4𝜋r2 . Since the intensity
is the power per unit area, if you divide the power of the source by the area of the sphere, you will calculate
the intensity at a distance of r from the source.
P
I=
4𝜋r2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
Karen measures the sound intensity at a distance of 5 metres from a lawnmower to be
3 × 10−2 W m−2 . Assuming that the lawnmower acts as a point sound source and ignoring the
effects of reflection and absorption, what is the total acoustical power of the mower?
THINK WRITE
P
1. Recall the formula for the sound intensity produced I=
by a point source. 4𝜋r2
2. Substitute the values into the equation to find P. P = 4𝜋r2 I
= 4𝜋 (5.0)2 × 3.0 × 10−2
= 9.4 W
3. State the solution. The total acoustical power of the
mower is 9.4 W.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
The sound of a passing car from 8 metres is measured to be 1.8 × 10−4 W m−2 . Assuming the sound
acts as a point source and ignoring the effects of reflection and absorption, what is the total acoustic
power of the car?
Referring to the formula for the sound intensity produced by a

FIGURE 21.14 A sound wave
P
source, I = , it can be seen that, for a particular sound source, travelling away from a source
4𝜋r2 has a spherical shape. Two
the sound intensity it produces is inversely proportional to the square compressions (wavefronts) are
1 shown here, with radii r1 and r2 .
of the distance from the source, I ∝ 2 .
r
Sound source
This is the inverse square law, which can be restated as:

r2
the intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance from the source.
r1
When comparing the sound intensities at two distances r1 and r2

from a source, it should be remembered that the power of the source is
a constant. Therefore, P = 4𝜋r1 I1 = 4𝜋r2 I2 .
This relationship then gives the useful formula:

I2 r2
= 21
I1 r2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
If the sound intensity 3 metres from a sound source is 4 × 10−6 W m−2 , what is the intensity:
a. 1.5 metres
b. 12 metres from the source?
THINK WRITE
2
I2 r1
a. 1. Recall the formula relating intensities and distances a. = 2
from a point source. I1 r2
I1 r21
2. Substitute the values into the formula to find I2 . I2 =
r22
4.0 × 10−6 × 3.02
=
1.52
= 1.6 × 10−5 Wm−2
3. State the solution. The intensity 1.5 metres from the
source is 1.6 × 10−5 W m−2 .
2
I2 r1
b. 1. Recall the formula relating intensities and distances b. =
from a point source. I1 r22

I1 r21
2. Substitute the values into the formula to find I2 . I2 =
r22
4.0 × 10−6 × 3.02
=
122
= 2.5 × 10−7 Wm−2
3. State the solution. The intensity 12 metres from the
source is 2.5 × 10−7 W m−2 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
If the sound intensity 5 metres from a sound source is 6 × 10−4 W m−2 , what is the intensity at:
a. 2.5 metres
b. 125 metres?
If you halve the distance, the intensity is multiplied by 4; if you double the distance, the intensity is
divided by 4.
21.3.3 Sound intensity levels

The human ear is a very sensitive organ. It can detect a range of sound intensities starting at less than
1 × 10−12 W m−2 at certain frequencies and having an upper limit of around 1 W m−2 .
The threshold of hearing — which is defined as being a sound intensity of 1 × 10−12 W m−2 when the
frequency of the sound is 1000 Hz — is the minimum intensity that an average young person can detect.
When the sound intensity is greater than 1 W m−2 , it is painful. Consequently, this intensity is sometimes
called the threshold of pain.
The sound intensity at the threshold of pain is about 1012 times greater than the sound intensity at the
threshold of hearing. Using sound intensities to describe sound is too awkward for everyday use, so a
logarithmic scale is used instead. This scale uses the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the intensity
of the sound to the intensity at the threshold of hearing. This value is given the unit of the bel (B), named
after Alexander Graham Bell who was once credited with inventing the telephone.
The bel as a unit is too big for convenient use, so the decibel (dB) unit is more often used. One decibel is
one-tenth of a bel.
1 dB = 10−1 B
The sound intensity level (L) of any sound is measured in decibels and defined in terms of its
intensity.
I
L(in dB) = 10 log 10
I0
Where I0 is a reference sound intensity, usually taken to be the threshold of hearing.
Therefore, I0 = 1.0 × 10−12 W m−2 at 1000 Hz.

The sound intensity level is measured with a sound level meter. The one shown in figure 21.15 has two
ranges, 40−80 dB and 80−120 dB.

FIGURE 21.15 A sound level TABLE 21.2 Sound intensities and intensity levels of some everyday sounds
meter
Source of the sound Intensity level (dB) Intensity (W m−2 )
Sensor
Threshold of hearing 0 1 × 10−12
Low-value
scale Rustle of leaves 10 1 × 10−11
CAL
60 70
50
1 × 10−10
80
Lo 40
80
90 100 110 120 Calibration Purring cat, at a distance of 1 m 20
Battery
Hi Ok
Battery Library reading room 30 1 × 10−9
OFF check
Lo
Inside a car with the engine on 40 1 × 10−8
Hi High-value
scale Conversation, at a distance of 1 m 65 3.2 × 10−6
CAL
BATT
Dial Busy street traffic 70 1 × 10−5
OFF
Jackhammer, at a distance of 10 m 90 1 × 10−3
Siren, at a distance of 30 m 100 1 × 10−2
Loud thunder 110 1 × 10−1
Threshold of pain 120 1
Jet engine, at a distance of 50 m 130 10
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
What is the sound intensity level of a sound of intensity 2.6 × 10−7 W m−2 ?
THINK WRITE
I
1. Recall the formula for sound intensity level. L = 10 log10
I0
2.6 × 10−7
2. Substitute the values into the formula to find L = 10 log10
the sound intensity level. 1.0 × 10−12
= 10 log10 2.6 × 105
= 54 dB
3. State the solution. The sound intensity level of a sound of
intensity 2.6 × 10−7 W m−2 is 54 dB.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
What is the sound intensity level of a sound with intensity of 4.8 × 10−6 W m−2 ?
Rearranging the formula for sound intensity level the sound intensity can be obtained by:
I = 10(L/10−12)
The average human being can distinguish a difference in sound intensity levels of only about 1 dB.

The formula for calculating sound intensity levels can be adapted to give the change in intensity level
between two sounds of different intensities: the intensity of a sound to the reference intensity of the
threshold of hearing. The change in intensity level, ∆L, between two sound intensities, I2 and I1 , can be
found as follows:
∆L = L2 − L1
I2 I
= 10 log10 − 10 log10 1
I I0
(0 )
I I
= 10 log10 2 ÷ 1
I I0
( 0 )
I I0
= 10 log10 2 ×
I0 I1
I2
= 10 log10
I1
I2
ΔL = 10 log 10
I1
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
What is the change in intensity level when a sound intensity is doubled? In this case:
I2 = 2I1
THINK WRITE
I2
1. Recall the formula for change in sound ΔL = 10 log10
intensity level. I1
2I1
2. Substitute I2 = 2I1 into the formula. = 10 log10
I1
= 10 log10 2
= 3.01 dB
3. State the solution. The change in intensity level in this case is 3.01 dB.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
What is the change in intensity level when a sound is tripled?
Sample problem 11 gives a useful rule of thumb:
If the sound intensity doubles, the sound intensity level increases by 3 dB; if the sound intensity
halves, the sound intensity level decreases by 3 dB. In fact, each 3 dB increase in the sound
intensity level requires a factor of 2 increase in the sound intensity.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
What is the change in intensity level when a sound intensity is multiplied by 10? In this case:
I2 = 10I1
THINK WRITE
I2
1. Recall the formula for change in sound ΔL = 10 log10
intensity level. I1
10I1
2. Substitute I2 = 10I1 into the formula. = 10 log10
I1
= 10 log10 10
= 10 dB
3. State the solution. The change in intensity in this case is 10 dB.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
What is the change in intensity level when a sound intensity is multiplied by a factor of 1000?
Sample problem 12 gives another rule of thumb:
If the sound intensity is multiplied by 10, the sound intensity level increases by 10 dB; if the sound
intensity is divided by 10, the sound intensity level decreases by 10 dB. In fact, for each addition of
10 dB to the sound intensity level, the sound intensity is increased by a factor of 10.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 21.6 Finding the speed of sound in air (doc-31912)
21.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the acoustical power of a source if it produces 2 J in 100 seconds?
2. What is the sound intensity if 4 × 10−8 W pass through an area of 0.080 m2 ?
3. Calculate the power passing through an area of 2 m2 if the sound intensity is 4.5 × 10−5 W m−2 ?
4. One siren produces a sound intensity of 3 × 10−3 W m−2 at a point which is 10 metres away. What would be
the sound intensity produced at that point if five identical sirens sounded simultaneously at the same place
as the original?
5. If the sound intensity 4 metres from a point sound source is 1 × 10−6 W m−2 , what will be the sound intensity
at each of the following distances from the source?
(a) 1 m
(b) 2 m
(c) 8 m
(d) 40 m
6. What are the sound intensity levels associated with the following sound intensities?
(a) 5 × 10−10 W m−2
(b) 3.2 × 10−7 W m−2

(c) 4.9 × 10−3 W m−2
(d) 1.8 × 10−9 W m−2
7. Calculate the sound intensities associated with the following sound intensity levels.
(a) 7 dB
(b) 25 dB
(c) 54 dB
(d) 115 dB
8. Show that the rule of thumb, halving the sound intensity reduces the intensity level by 3 dB, is true.
9. The area of a human eardrum is approximately 5 × 10−5 m2 . Sabiha is listening to music through a button
earphone. How much energy arrives at her eardrum during a song that lasts for 3 minutes if the average
sound intensity produced at the eardrum by the button earphone is 1 × 10−2 W m−2 ?

21.4 How does the human ear respond to sound?

KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the structure of the human ear with reference to the transfer and amplification of vibrations.
• Interpret the frequency response curve of the human ear.
The sensation of sound is perceived by living organisms. Compression waves travel through the air from
the source (a vibrating object such as a loudspeaker). The waves enter the ear. The ear converts the sound
waves to electrical nerve impulses, which are interpreted by the brain as sound.
21.4.1 Structure of the human ear

The ear responds to sound using three processes. The first process is the collection of the sound energy from
the disturbances in the air. This happens in the outer ear. The outer ear comprises the pinna, the ear canal
and the eardrum. The second process is the mechanical amplification of the sound. This is carried out in the
middle ear. The middle ear comprises three hinged bones called the ossicles, which are the three smallest
bones in the body.
The ossicles conduct sound from the eardrum to the oval window, which is the opening to the inner
ear. They help to amplify the sound, although most of the amplification is caused by the relative sizes of
the eardrum and the oval window. When the sound is too loud, the ossicles have the ability to dampen
(decrease) the vibrations to limit any damage to the inner ear. The middle ear is maintained at normal air
pressure by the Eustachian tube, which is connected to the back of the throat and therefore to the outside air.
BLOCKED EARS
Having a head cold or sinus problems sometimes interferes with the body’s ability to balance the air pressure
on either side of the eardrum. This often results in a condition commonly called ‘blocked ears’. In scuba diving,
where there are considerably larger changes in pressure, it is essential that the diver has the ability to equalise
the pressure on either side of the eardrum, or the eardrum will burst. This equalising of pressure is achieved by
holding the nose and blowing gently, which opens the Eustachian tube and allows air into the middle ear.

FIGURE 21.16 The simplified structure of the human ear
Semicircular Auditory
canals nerve
Ossicles
Cochlea
Eardrum
Ear
canal Oval
window
Eustachian
Stirrup tube
Pinna Section through cochlea
The third process of hearing is the conversion of the sound vibrations into nerve impulses that are sent
to the brain for interpretation. This conversion occurs in the inner ear. The inner ear is made up of the
semicircular canals and the cochlea. The semicircular canals can be thought of as three spirit levels arranged
at 90 degrees to each other so that the body can maintain its balance.
The cochlea is a liquid-filled coiled tube that has an arrangement of hairs called cilia on the inside. The
vibrations transmitted through the middle ear pass through the oval window and cause the liquid inside the
tube to vibrate. This excites specific hairs that correspond to the frequency of the vibrations. Once excited,
the hairs generate and transmit electrical impulses along the auditory nerve to the brain, where they are
interpreted.
The eardrum is the first movable part in the body’s system for detecting sound. It can be thought of as
a small piece of thin plastic (a bit like a piece of Glad® Wrap), which has air on both sides. On the inside
of the eardrum, the air is at the same pressure as the normal undisturbed air pressure outside. When the
air pressure on either side of the eardrum is the same, then the shape of the eardrum remains flat (as in
figure 21.17a), as the same force is applied to each side.
When the compression (increased pressure) part of the longitudinal wave reaches the eardrum, the
pressure it exerts is greater than that of the air inside the ear on the other side of the eardrum. As a result
the eardrum curves inwards, as in figure 21.17b.
The next part of the wave is at the same pressure as the surrounding wave, and as a result the eardrum
returns to its normal shape. This is then followed by a rarefaction (lower pressure). As a result, the air
pressure on the inside of the ear is greater than that on the outside, and the eardrum bulges out, as in
figure 21.17c.
FIGURE 21.17 How variations in pressure affect the shape of the eardrum
(a) (b) (c)
Normal Normal Higher Normal Lower Normal

air air air air air air
pressure pressure pressure pressure pressure pressure
Eardrum

The next part of the wave is at the same pressure as the
FIGURE 21.18 A chart showing how
surrounding air and as a result the eardrum returns to its frequency response declines with age
normal shape, as in figure 21.17a. This completes the cycle.
The range of frequencies that a young healthy ear can 0 age
detect lies between about 25 Hz and 20 000 Hz. This range 35
decreases both with age and with exposure to loud sounds. 20 45
Hearing threshold level (dB)

Often the damage to the ear caused by loud sounds does not 55
become apparent until later in life. 40
When hearing is tested, the response to a range of
65
frequencies is tested, producing an output called an 60
‘audiogram’. This is a chart that shows, among other things,
the sound intensity at the threshold of hearing for a range Speech band
80
of frequencies. Figure 21.18 shows how the sound intensity
levels at the threshold vary for different age groups.
100
The ear canal can be modelled as a pipe that is closed at
the ear drum. The ear drum resonates like a drum top. Both
of these factors determine the range of frequencies that the
250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
ear best responds to. Frequency (Hz)
21.4.2 The effect of frequency on hearing

The response of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency and intensity, and therefore on the
intensity level, of the sound involved.
Figure 21.19 shows the average range of sound intensity levels for human hearing. Note how the
threshold of hearing depends on the frequency of the sound. Low-frequency sounds, for example, must have
a greater sound intensity level to be detected.
Figure 21.19 also shows the approximate range of frequencies and intensity levels associated with music
and speech. The average human can hear sounds from about 25 Hz to 20 000 Hz. This range is affected by
factors such as age and ear defects.
It should be noted that the frequency axis for this figure is logarithmic in nature.
FIGURE 21.19 The sensitivity of the average human ear to different frequencies of sound
120
Sound
100
Music
Intensity level (dB)
80
Speech
60
40
20
Threshold
of hearing
0
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10k 20k

Frequency (Hz)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
a.What is the range of frequencies that the average human ear can detect at a sound intensity
level of 20 dB?
b. What is the lowest sound intensity level at which a sound of frequency of 10 kHz can be heard?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Refer to figure 21.19 and find the frequencies a. The range of frequencies that the average
that the line 20 dB passes through. human ear can detect at a sound intensity
level of 20 dB is approximately 200 Hz to
12 000 Hz.
2. State the solution. The lowest frequency which we can hear
at 20 dB is approximately 200 Hz and the
highest frequency that we can hear at
20 dB is approximately 12 000 Hz.
b. 1. Refer to figure 21.19 and find the vertical line b. The 10 kHz line cuts the threshold of
that represents 10 kHz. hearing at 10 dB.
2. State the solution. The lowest sound intensity level that we
can hear a frequency of 10 kHz is 10 dB.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
Refer to figure 21.19. What is the sound intensity level of the threshold of hearing at 100 Hz?
21.4.3 Loudness level curves

Loudness is the subjective quality of sound related to sound intensity. Remember that the loudness of a
sound depends both on the amplitude of the wave and on the response of the human ear to the relevant
frequency of the sound. Figure 21.20 indicates that loudness depends on the frequency of the sound. A
30 dB sound at 1000 Hz is easily heard, but a 30 dB sound at 100 Hz is below the threshold of hearing.
For a person to perceive the same loudness at different frequencies of sound means that the frequencies
must have different sound intensity levels. Figure 21.20 shows a series of lines joining frequencies and
intensity levels that have the same loudness. (These are called equal loudness curves.) This diagram was
developed by testing a large number of people.
The equal loudness curves show that a sound of 1000 Hz at 20 dB is as loud as a 50 Hz sound at
about 55 dB.
The phon
The phon is the unit of equivalent loudness of a sound. It is a measure of how loud a sound is relative to a
reference sound. The reference sound is usually the threshold of hearing for a sound with a frequency of
1000 Hz. All points on the individual curves in figure 21.20 have the same value in phons. The value of
equivalent loudness along a line is given by the sound intensity level of the line at 1000 Hz. For example,
the line that has an intensity of 70 dB at 1000 Hz is the 70 phon line.

FIGURE 21.20 Equal loudness curves for pure tones
Increasing
loudness level
130 120 phon 110 phon
120
110 100 phon
100
90 phon
Sound pressure level (dB)
90
80 80 phon
70 70 phon
60 phon
60
50 phon
50
40 phon
40 30 phon
20 phon
30 10 phon
20
10 Threshold of hearing
20 40 60 100 200 500 1000 2000 3000 5000 10k 20k

Frequency (Hz)
21.4 EXERCISE
1. What is meant by the expression ‘threshold of hearing’?
Use figure 2.19 to answer questions 2 to 5.
2. What is the sound intensity level at the threshold of hearing at the following frequencies?
(a) 100 Hz
(b) 500 Hz
(c) 2000 Hz
(d) 10 000 Hz
3. At what frequency is the average human ear the most sensitive?
4. What is the sound intensity level at the threshold of hearing at that frequency?
5. (a) Estimate the range of frequencies that an average human being can hear for sounds with a sound
intensity level of 10 dB.
(b) Estimate the highest frequency used in the speech region.
(c) What is the approximate range of frequencies that can be above 100 dB in performing music?


21.5 How instruments create sound
KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate factors that influence natural frequency including shape and material and explain how this
relates to instruments.
• Investigate and explain the human voice box as a resonance chamber with vibration provided by vocal
cords.
• Investigate and explain a variety of musical instruments with reference to the similarities and differences of
sound production between instrument types (brass, string, woodwind and percussion) and how they
compare with the human voice.
• Analyse, for strings and open and closed resonant tubes, the fundamental and subsequent harmonics and
apply this analysis to selected musical instruments.
• Analyse the unique sound of an instrument as a consequence of multiple resonances created by the
instrument and described as timbre.
Noise is generally considered to be an undesired sound. In contrast, a musical note or tone is sound with
a definite frequency or pitch that is produced by a musical instrument or voice.
Musical instruments can be classified as either wind, string or percussion. Examples of each type are
named in table 21.3.
TABLE 21.3 Examples of musical instruments
String instruments Wind instruments Percussion instruments
Guitar Pipe organ Drum
Violin Clarinet Xylophone
Piano Flute Triangle
Harp Saxophone Bell
All musical instruments consist of three parts:

1. the principal vibrator
2. the exciter that starts and, if necessary, maintains the vibrations of the principal vibrator
3. resonators that reinforce and sometimes modify the vibrations of the principal vibrator.
21.5.1 Stringed instruments

For stringed instruments, the principal vibrator is a string. The string is excited by plucking (guitar), bowing
(violin) or striking (piano). The resonator can be a sounding board (piano), the ‘body’ of the instrument or
the air inside the body (guitar or violin). Vibrations are transferred from the string to the sounding board or
body by the bridge, which also raises the strings above the instrument.
When a string is caused to vibrate, the transverse waves travel along the string and they are reflected from
the fixed ends of the string. The reflected waves interfere with the incoming waves to set up standing waves
in the string.
For any particular length of string, there are many possible standing waves that can exist. All the standing
waves have nodes at the fixed ends. Figure 21.21 shows the first five standing waves that are possible in a
string of length L.
Figure 21.21 also shows the extreme positions that the string can have for the first five possible standing
waves. The solid line shows the position of the string at a time of 0, T, 2T, 3T, and so on, where T is the
T 3T 5T
period of the standing wave. The dotted line shows the position of the wave at a time of , , , and so
2 2 2
on. In this way, the location of nodes and antinodes can easily be seen for each standing wave.

The actual position of the string throughout one period is illustrated in figure 21.22. Note that this figure
corresponds to the situation in figure 21.21c.
FIGURE 21.21 Some possible standing waves in a string FIGURE 21.22 The
position of a string
L throughout one period
(a) N N of a standing wave
A
t=0
(b) N N N t =T
A A 8
t =T
4
t= 3T
(c) N N N N 8
A A A
t =T
2
t= 5T
(d) N N 8
N N N
A A A A t = 3T
4
t = 7T
8
(e) N N N N N N
A A A A A t=T
In practice, when a string of a musical instrument is excited, more than just one standing wave is created.
The frequencies of these standing waves and their relative amplitudes contribute to the characteristic sound
of the instrument — its timbre.
The speed of a transverse wave in a string depends only on the tension of the string, its thickness and the
type of material it is made from. The speed of the wave is independent of the wavelength and frequency of
the wave.
The wavelength for a standing wave is twice the distance between adjacent nodes. Remember that the
v
frequency of a wave is given by the expression f = .
𝜆
Figure 21.21a shows the lowest frequency of a standing wave possible in a string fixed at both ends. The
wavelength of this standing wave is 2L. As the frequency of this wave is the lowest possible, it is called the
fundamental frequency and is given the symbol f0 .
The speed of this wave (and all other waves in this string) is given by:
v = f𝜆
= f 0 × 2L
= 2f 0 L
Overtones are other frequencies above the fundamental frequency that are produced by a musical
instrument.
The second possible standing wave for a string fixed at both ends is shown in figure 21.21b. The
frequency associated with this standing wave is the next highest frequency produced by the string and it
is given the symbol f1 . The wavelength of the standing wave is L as the distance between adjacent nodes is
L
. Since the speed of the wave in the string is 2f0 L, it is possible to derive the value of f1 in terms of f0 .
2

v
f =
𝜆
2f 0 L
⇒ f1 = , since v = 2f 0 L for this string
L
⇒ f1 = 2f 0
Therefore, this standing wave has twice the fundamental frequency and produces the second harmonic.
Similar analysis shows that the standing wave in figure 21.21c has a frequency three times the
fundamental and therefore produces the third harmonic:
f2 = 3f0
and so on.
f3 = 4f0
For strings, fn is the frequency of the (n + 1)th harmonic.
In general, for strings fixed at both ends, all harmonics are present.
PARTIALS AND HARMONICS

The frequencies produced by a musical instrument are known as partials. Overtones are more commonly referred
to as upper partials — they have frequencies above the fundamental frequency. A tone is a note containing no
upper partials.
If the frequency of the overtone is a whole number multiple of the fundamental frequency, it is known as
a harmonic. Harmonics form an ordered sequence of frequencies and hence they are given numbers. If the
harmonic is n times the fundamental, it is known as the nth harmonic. The fundamental frequency is therefore
called the first harmonic, as it is one times the fundamental frequency. Note that all harmonics are overtones, but
not all overtones are harmonics.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14
What is the frequency of the third harmonic of a string if the fundamental frequency is 250 Hz?
THINK WRITE
1. The third harmonic, by definition, has a frequency 3 × 250 = 750 Hz
three times the fundamental frequency.
2. State the solution. The frequency of the third harmonic
of the string is 750 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 14
A string produces a sound that has a second harmonic of 700 Hz. Calculate the:
a. fundamental frequency
b. frequency of the fourth harmonic of this string.
21.5.2 Wind and brass instruments

For wind instruments the exciter can be a vibrating reed (clarinet, saxophone, bagpipes), a pair of reeds
(oboe, bassoon), eddies of air on either side of an edge of the instrument’s body (organ pipes, recorder,
flute), or vibrating lips (trumpet, tuba, didgeridoo). These methods are illustrated in figure 21.23.

FIGURE 21.23 Exciting vibrations in wind and brass instruments: (a) clarinet, (b) oboe, (c) pipe organ and
(d) trumpet
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Standing waves and the position of nodes and antinodes in wind and brass instruments can be formed
in two different ways. Every instrument has an opening to allow the sound to pass into the air outside the
instrument.
Particles of a gas have maximum freedom of movement at the open end of a pipe. They move into and
out of the open end with maximum amplitude, creating a displacement antinode. As the particles move
in and out of the open end, they maintain the same separation when in the pipe as when outside it. There
is little variation in the pressure at an open end; therefore, there is always a pressure node at the open end
of a pipe.
Particles of a gas have virtually no freedom of movement at the closed end of a pipe. There is always a
displacement node at this end. As a longitudinal wave is reflected from the closed end, compressions are
turned back on themselves, as are rarefactions. The different pressure regions constructively interfere with
themselves, creating pressure antinodes. Therefore, there is always a pressure antinode at the closed end
of a pipe. It can generally be stated that pressure nodes occur at the same points in a pipe as displacement
antinodes and that pressure antinodes occur at the same points as displacement nodes. Standing waves in
pipes can be represented as either variations in the displacement of particles along the pipe or variations in
air pressure along the pipe. In this text they will be represented as pressure variations.
There is an opening at one end to transfer sound energy to the outside air. So every instrument has a
pressure node at that end. However, the other end has two possibilities. In the case of instruments such as
the trumpet and clarinet, where the mouth closes off the end, there is a fixed or closed end and so there is
a pressure antinode located there. This means the standing wave patterns inside these instruments are not
symmetrical as in a stringed instrument.
The other possibility, strange as it may seem, is that the other end is also open. Instruments of this nature
are tubular bells and wind chimes, which produce sound by being hit on the outside. Surprisingly, a flute
behaves as if both ends are open. In this case the flute player does not cover the opening with their mouth
so it is open to the air. For these instruments there is a pressure node at each end and so the standing wave
patterns are symmetrical and similar to those of stretched strings.
21.5.3 Standing waves in pipes open at both ends

There are many possible standing waves that can exist in any pipe. The standing wave with the lowest
frequency is called the fundamental or the first harmonic. The fundamental standing wave in a pipe open
at both ends has a pressure node at each end and an antinode in the middle. This situation is shown in
figure 21.24.
FIGURE 21.24 The fundamental standing wave for a pipe open at both ends
A
N N

Figure 21.24 depicts the variations of air pressure in the pipe as it supports a standing wave. Imagine
a distance axis down the centre of the pipe, with a variation in pressure axis at right angles to this. The
diagram shows the maximum variations in pressure along the pipe. At the antinode the air pressure
fluctuates periodically between its maximum and minimum values.
The speed of the wave is the same as the speed of sound in air because the medium is air. The wavelength
is twice the distance between successive antinodes. Figure 21.24 shows a pipe of length L. The wavelength
of this standing wave is therefore 2L. The fundamental frequency is given the symbol f0 , so the speed of the
wave is 2Lf0 . Figure 21.25 shows the first four possible standing waves for a pipe open at both ends.
FIGURE 21.25 Standing waves in a pipe open at both ends
L
n
1 N A N
2 N A A N
N
3
N A A A N
N N
4 N A A A N
N N N
The frequency associated with the standing wave in figure 21.25b is the first resonant frequency for the
pipe above the fundamental. It is given the symbol f1 . The wavelength is L, and the speed is 2Lf0 .
v
f1 =
𝜆
2Lf0
=
L
= 2f0
The first resonant frequency, f1 , above the fundamental for this pipe is the second harmonic since it has
twice the frequency of the fundamental. A similar method can be used to show that the second resonant
frequency, f2 , above the fundamental is the third harmonic, and so on.
Pipes open at both ends can sustain all the harmonics.
If fn is the frequency of the nth resonant frequency above the fundamental for a pipe open
at both ends, then:
f n = (n + 1)f 0
The ratio f0 : f1 : f2 : f3 … equals 1:2:3:4 …
Other instruments that behave like pipes open at both ends include the piccolo, an open organ pipe (the
top of the pipe is open, as illustrated in figure 21.23c) and the recorder.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 15
A pipe open at both ends has a length of 40 centimetres. The speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
Determine:
a. the fundamental frequency
b. the third resonant frequency above the fundamental for this pipe.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall that the fundamental frequency a. 𝜆 = 2L
has a wavelength that is twice as long as = 0.80 m
the pipe.
v
2. Use the wave equation to find the f0 =
frequency. 𝜆
340
=
0.80
= 425 Hz
3. State the solution. The fundamental frequency of the pipe is 425 Hz.
b. 1. For a pipe open at both ends, the third b. f3 = 4f0
resonant frequency above the = 4 × 425
fundamental is the fourth harmonic. = 1700 Hz
2. State the solution. The third resonant frequency above the
fundamental for this pipe is 1700 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 15
A pipe open at both ends is 30 centimetres in length. Given the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 ,
determine:
b. the fourth resonant frequency above the fundamental for this pipe.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 16
The following figure shows the pressure variation in a pipe open at both ends. At the instant
shown in the figure, the pressure is at its maximum variation from normal pressure. The speed of
sound in air is 340 m s−1 . The pipe has a length of 0.8 metres.
Normal Normal
atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure

a. Mark the position of any pressure nodes and antinodes in the pipe.
b. Sketch a graph showing the variation of air pressure as a function of distance along the pipe:
i. at the instant shown in the diagram
ii. one-quarter of a period later
iii. one-half period later.
c. What is the wavelength of this standing wave?
d. What are the frequency and the period of this standing wave?
e. What harmonic is this standing wave?
f. What is the fundamental frequency of this pipe?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall that nodes occur at points a.
where the air pressure is normal, N A N A N
antinodes occur where the air
pressure is a maximum or a
minimum. Normal Normal
b. 1. i. The pressure variations are at a b. (a) Air pressure
maximum. This situation is Normal
Distance
shown in the figure (a). atmospheric 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 along pipe
pressure
ii. A quarter of a period later, the
air pressure will be normal all (b) Air pressure
along the pipe, as shown in Normal

Distance
atmospheric 0
figure (b). pressure
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 along pipe
iii. A half a period after the first
(c) Air pressure
instant, the pressure variations
will again be at a maximum, Normal
Distance
atmospheric 0 0.2 0.6 0.8
but they will be the opposite of pressure
0.4 along pipe
their original values, as shown
in figure (c).
c. 1. Recall that the wavelength is twice c. 𝜆 = 2 × 0.4 = 0.8 m
the distance between adjacent
nodes, or the distance between
alternate nodes.
2. State the solution. The wavelength of this standing wave is 0.8 metres.
v 1
d. 1. Recall the wave equation and the d. f = and T =
formula for the period of a wave. 𝜆 f
v 1
2. Substitute the values in to find f f= T=
and T. 𝜆 f
340 1
= =
0.80 425
= 425 Hz = 2.35 × 10−3 s
3. State the solution. The frequency of this standing wave is 425 Hz and
the period is 2.35 × 10−3 s.

e. 1. This is the first standing wave e. This standing wave is the second harmonic.
above the fundamental.
425
f. 1. The second harmonic is twice the f. f0 =
fundamental frequency. 2
= 212.5 Hz
2. State the solution. The fundamental frequency of this pipe
is 212.5 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 16
A pipe that is open at both ends has a length of 60 centimetres. It produces a sound that has a second
harmonic of 550 Hz. Calculate:
b. the speed of sound in air
c. the frequency of the third overtone of this pipe.
21.5.4 Standing waves in pipes closed at one end

For instruments such as the trumpet and clarinet, the standing wave will have a pressure antinode at the
mouth end and a pressure node at the open end. The longest standing wave possible in a pipe of length L
that is closed at one end is shown in figure 21.26a. The frequency associated with this standing wave is the
lowest possible, therefore, it is called the fundamental and is given the symbol f0 . The wavelength for this
standing wave is 4L and the speed is 4Lf0 . The first five possible standing waves for a pipe closed at one end
are shown in figure 21.26.
FIGURE 21.26 Standing waves in pipe closed at one end
(a) L
A N
(b) L
3
N
A A N
(c)
L
5
N N
A A A N
(d)
L
7
N N N
A A A A N
(e)
L
9
N N N N
A A A A A N

4L
The second longest wavelength standing wave has a wavelength of . This is the first resonant
3
frequency above the fundamental for the pipe and is assigned a frequency f1 . Since v is constant at 4Lf0 ,
v
f1 has a value of . So:
𝜆
v
f1 =
𝜆
1
=v×
𝜆
3
= 4Lf0 ×
4L
= 3f0 .
This means that the first resonant frequency above the fundamental for a pipe closed at one end is the
third harmonic. Similar calculations will show that only the odd numbered harmonics are possible for a pipe
closed at one end. The second resonant frequency above the fundamental is the fifth harmonic, the third
resonant frequency above the fundamental is the seventh harmonic, and so on. Pipes closed at one end can
sustain only the odd numbered harmonics.
If fn is the frequency of the nth resonant frequency above the fundamental, then:
f n = (2n + 1)f 0
SAMPLE PROBLEM 17
a.What is the fundamental frequency for a pipe closed at one end if it is 0.8 metres long and the
speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 ?
b. What is the frequency of the third resonant frequency above the fundamental for this pipe?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. For the fundamental frequency, use 𝜆 = 4L. a. 𝜆 = 4 × 0.80 = 3.2 m
v
f0 =
𝜆
340
=
3.2
= 106.25 Hz
2. State the solution. The fundamental frequency for this pipe is
106.25 Hz.
b. 1. The third resonant frequency above the b. f3 = 7f0
fundamental is the seventh harmonic. = 7 × 106.25
= 743.75 Hz
2. State the solution. The frequency of the third resonant
frequency above the fundamental for this
pipe is 743.75 Hz.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 17
A pipe that is closed at one end has a length of 40 centimetres. It produces a sound that has a first
overtone of 600 Hz. Calculate the:
a. fundamental frequency
b. speed of sound in air
c. frequency of the third overtone of this pipe.
Other instruments that behave like pipes closed at one end include the oboe, bagpipes, the didgeridoo and
a stopped or closed organ pipe (where the top of the pipe is closed off).
The length of resonating pipe for many instruments is controlled by covering holes along the body of the
instrument. The first open hole down the body sets the length of the pipe. Holes can be covered either with
the fingers (recorder) or by pads controlled by keys attached to the body (saxophone, clarinet).
Resources
Digital document Investigation 21.7 Standing waves in springs (doc-31913)
21.5.5 The human voice

The human voice tract can be modelled as a tube closed at one end. This is similar to a trumpet.
When you make a low frequency sound, the voice box (the larynx) lowers in the throat. This makes the
tube longer, so its resonant frequency is smaller.
There are three main parts involved in speaking and singing. These are:
1. the lungs as a source of air
2. the vocal cords, which act as the exciters and can be modelled as a vibrating string
3. the principal vibrator. This consists of the air in the lower throat or pharynx, the mouth and the nasal
cavity.
These parts are shown in figure 21.27.
FIGURE 21.27 The human vocal tract
(a) (b) Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Nasal cavity larynx
Mouth
Tongue Vocal
Mouth cords
Tongue Pharynx
Larynx
Vocal
cords Lungs
Lungs
Passage of air
The human vocal tract can be modelled as a pipe closed at the end where the vocal cords are located. The
length of the pipe is controlled by raising and lowering the larynx in the throat.

Locate your larynx with a finger (on the outside of your throat). Sing a low and a high note, noticing the
movement of the larynx up and down your throat as you do so.
As with musical instruments, the vocal tract produces and resonates at more harmonics than just the
fundamental frequency. The harmonics and their relative intensities contribute to the distinctive voice of
each individual.
ARTICULATING SOUNDS
Infants are unable to produce articulate sounds until they are about one year old, when the larynx descends into
the throat.
HELIUM SPEECH
Why does the pitch of your voice become higher when you breathe in helium gas?
The human voice tract can be modelled as a tube closed at one end. The wavelength of the fundamental
frequency is four times the length of the tube.
The speed of sound in helium is greater than the speed of sound in air:
−1
• The speed of sound in air at 20 °C is 343 m s .
−1
• The speed of sound in helium is 1005 m s .
v = f𝜆
This means that if the vocal tract is full of helium, the fundamental wavelength stays the same. As the speed of
sound increases, so does the fundamental frequency.
Your voice is not pure. You produce many frequencies at the same time, giving your voice its own timbre. When
your vocal tract is full of helium, it is the higher frequencies that resonate and dominate the pitch of your voice.
The ear canal can be modelled as a pipe that is closed at the ear drum. The ear drum resonates like a
drum top. Both of these factors determine the range of frequencies that the ear best responds to.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 18
In an adult, the ear canal is about 2.7 centimetres long. What is the lowest frequency at which the
ear canal will resonate? Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
THINK WRITE
1. The lowest resonant frequency is the fundamental L = 2.7 × 10−2 m, so 𝜆 = 1.08 × 10−1 m
frequency of the ear canal. For the fundamental v
f0 =
frequency of a pipe closed at one end, 𝜆 = 4L. 𝜆
340
=
1.08 × 10−1
= 3148 Hz
2. State the solution. The lowest frequency at which the ear
canal will resonate is 3148 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 18
If a child’s ear canal is 2.2 centimetres long. What is the lowest frequency at which the ear canal will
resonate?

Resources
Digital document Investigation 21.8 Resonant frequencies in a tube (doc-31914)
21.5 EXERCISE
1. The following figure shows the positions of three sets of two pulses as they pass through each other. Copy
the diagram and sketch the shape of the resultant disturbances.
(a)
(b)
(c)
2. What is the wavelength of a standing wave if the nodes are separated by a distance of 0.75 metres?
3. The following figure shows a standing wave in a string. At that instant (t = 0) all points of the string are at
their maximum displacement from their rest positions.
If the period of the standing wave is 0.4 seconds, sketch diagrams to show the shape of the string at the
following times.
(a) t = 0.05 s
(b) t = 0.1 s
(c) t = 0.2 s
(d) t = 0.4 s
4. A standing wave is set up by sending continuous waves from opposite ends of a string. The frequency of
the waves is 4 Hz, the wavelength is 1.2 metres and the amplitude is 10 centimetres.
(a) What is the speed of the waves in the string?
(b) What is the distance between the nodes of the standing wave?
(c) What is the maximum displacement of the string from its rest position?
(d) What is the wavelength of the standing wave?
(e) How many times per second is the string straight?
5. The speed of waves in a string is 250 m s−1 . It has a length of 1 metre.
(a) What is the wavelength of the longest standing wave that can be produced in this string?
(b) What is the fundamental frequency for this string?
(c) What is the frequency of the first resonant frequency above the fundamental?
(d) What harmonic corresponds to the second resonant frequency above the fundamental and what is its
frequency?
6. If the fundamental frequency of a string is 240 Hz, find the frequencies of the following quantities.
(a) The first resonant frequency above the fundamental
(b) The third resonant frequency above the fundamental
(c) The third harmonic
(d) The 22nd harmonic

7. The following figure represents four standing waves for a string of length L that is fixed at both ends. Use
this figure to complete the table.
String Nodes Antinodes 𝜆 Tone Harmonic

2 f0
L
2
2
A
8. (a) The first resonant frequency above the fundamental of a string is 500 Hz. What is the fundamental
frequency of this string?
(b) The second harmonic of a string is 516 Hz. What is the fundamental frequency of the string?
(c) The third harmonic of a string is 810 Hz. What is the fundamental frequency?
9. The fourth resonant frequency above the fundamental of a string is 1400 Hz. Find the following
frequencies.
(a) The fundamental frequency
(b) The second harmonic
(c) The second resonant frequency above the fundamental
10. If the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 , find (i) the longest wavelength tone and (ii) the fundamental
frequencies of the following pipes:
(a) open at both ends, length 40 cm
(b) open at both ends, length 60 cm
(c) open at both ends, length 1.21 m
(d) open at both ends, length 1.00 m
(e) closed at one end, length 0.50 m
(f) closed at one end, length 0.25 m
(g) closed at one end, length 12.5 cm
(h) closed at one end, length 17 cm.
11. The following figure represents four standing waves in a pipe of length L. The pipe is open at both ends.
Use this figure to complete the table.

L
Pipe Nodes Antinodes 𝜆 Resonant frequency Harmonic

B First
2L
3
12. The following figure represents four standing waves in a pipe of length L. The pipe is closed at one end.
Use this figure to complete the table.
L
Pipe Nodes Antinodes 𝜆 Resonant frequency Harmonic

4L
5
C
2
Seventh

13. The following figure shows a graph of how air pressure varies with distance along a pipe at a particular
instant. A standing wave has been set up in the pipe and the graph represents the maximum variation from
normal air pressure. Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
Variation from
normal air pressure
Distance
along
0
pipe (m)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a)Is the pipe open at both ends or closed at one end? Explain.
(b)What is the length of the pipe?
(c)What is the wavelength of the sound being produced?
(d)What is the frequency of the sound being produced?
(e)Which harmonic and resonant frequency above the fundamental is being produced?
(f)
What is the fundamental frequency for this pipe?
(g)Sketch a graph showing the variation of air pressure from normal along the pipe at a time half a period
later than the instant shown in the diagram.
14. The following figure shows pressure variation in and around a pipe open at both ends as it is resonating at
one of its harmonics. Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
N A N A N
Normal Normal
(a) What harmonic is represented in the diagram?
(b) If the pipe is 0.85 metres, what is the wavelength of the tone that the pipe is producing?
(c) What is the frequency of the tone being produced?
(d) Make a sketch to show the pressure variation in and around the pipe half a period later than the instant
shown.
(e) Sketch the pressure variation in and around the pipe one-quarter of a period later than the instant
shown.
(f) What is the period of the sound being produced by the pipe?
(g) What is the frequency of the second resonant frequency above the fundamental for this pipe?
15. The following figure shows the pressure variation in and around a pipe closed at one end as it is resonating
at one of its harmonics. Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 .
Normal
atmospheric
pressure

(a) What harmonic is represented in the diagram?
(b) If the pipe has a length of 50 centimetres, what is the wavelength of the tone that the pipe is producing?
(c) What is the frequency of the tone being produced?
(d) What is the fundamental frequency for this pipe?
(e) What is the frequency of the third resonant frequency above the fundamental of this pipe? What
harmonic does this frequency correspond to?
(f) Make a sketch to show the pressure variation in and around the pipe half a period later than the instant
shown.

21.6 Characteristics of sound

KEY CONCEPTS
• Differentiate between pitch, timbre and loudness.
• Identify the representation of timbre as a combination of specific frequencies.
• Describe how particular musical intervals can be represented as ratios of their frequencies, and how
consonant frequencies tend to have simple ratios.
• Investigate the phenomenon of beats.
• Investigate an aspect of contemporary research in psychoacoustics.
• Explain resonance and identify it as related to the natural frequency of an object.
21.6.1 Loudness
Loudness is a subjective quality of sound. A subjective quality depends on the interpretation of the
observer. The loudness of a sound is related to the amount of energy transferred by the wave and this, in
turn, depends on the amplitude of the wave. The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
The loudness of a sound depends on its frequency. The human ear is more responsive to some
frequencies than to others.
21.6.2 Pitch
Pitch is another subjective quality of sound. Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave. High-pitched
sounds, like those from a piccolo, have a high frequency; low-pitched sounds, like those from a bass guitar,
have a low frequency.
MUSICAL SCALES
In musical scales, doubling the frequency of a note produces a sound one octave higher than the original sound.
Halving the frequency produces a sound one octave lower. When musical notes or tones are one octave apart,
they can be perceived to be the same note, even though they have a different pitch. Try playing two notes an
octave apart on a keyboard or some other instrument and comment on how they sound.

21.6.3 Timbre
Timbre (pronounced ‘tamber’) is a subjective quality that distinguishes musical notes of the same
frequency played on different instruments. Timbre depends on the ‘shape’ of the wave (known as the
waveform) as can be observed on a cathode ray oscilloscope. Different instruments produce differently
shaped waves, as illustrated in figure 21.28.
FIGURE 21.28 The waveforms produced by (a) a pipe organ, (b) a piano and (c) a clarinet
(a) Pipe organ (b) Piano (c) Clarinet
When a musical instrument is sounded, it simultaneously produces a range of harmonics at different

intensities. The sound waves associated with each harmonic superimpose to produce a composite waveform
which gives the instrument its characteristic sound or timbre. The period of the composite waveform is the
same as the period for the fundamental frequency of the instrument.
A soundspectrum is a line graph that shows the frequencies produced by an instrument and their relative
intensities or amplitudes. Figure 21.29 shows the waveforms and sound spectra for a piano and a clarinet.
FIGURE 21.29 The waveforms and sound spectra for (a) a clarinet and (b) a piano
(a)
Clarinet
1.0
Amplitude
0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Frequency
(b)
Piano
1.0
Amplitude
0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Frequency

UNWANTED HARMONICS
Some harmonics sound horrible when sounded together. Stringed instruments can suppress unwanted
harmonics by exciting (hitting, bowing or plucking) the string at a point where the unwanted harmonic has a node.
For the violin and other stringed instruments, the undesired harmonic is the seventh.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 21.9 Analysing sound waves from tuning forks and musical instruments (doc-31915)
21.6.4 Resonance
Resonance is the condition where a medium responds to a periodic external force by vibrating with the
same frequency as the force.
Every object has one or more natural frequencies of vibration. For example, when a crystal wine glass
is struck with a spoon, a distinct pitch of sound is heard. If the resonant frequency is produced by a sound
source near the glass, the glass will begin to vibrate. In this case, the alternating driving force is provided by
the variations in air pressure at the surface of the glass due to the sound produced by the sound source.
If the intensity of the external sound is increased, it is possible to increase the amplitude of the vibrations
in the crystal wine glass until the crystal lattice falls apart and the glass shatters. Note, however, that
resonance does not necessarily mean that something will break.
In a musical instrument, the resonator vibrates at the same frequency as the principal vibrator. This has
the effect of making the sound of the instrument much louder.
21.6.5 Beats
When two notes are played together, the sound waves superimpose or add together. If the two notes are
close together in frequency, a throbbing sound is produced: the combined sound gets louder and softer.
When a maximum of one sound wave coincides with a maximum from the other sound wave, the resultant
amplitude is bigger and the sound is much louder. When a maximum of one sound wave coincides with a
minimum from the other sound wave, the resultant amplitude is smaller and the sound is much softer.
In figure 21.30, (a) and (b) are two notes that are close in frequency. When the two notes are played
together, they form a composite sound wave (c). The resulting sound wave shows how beats occur. Just
after the 1 second point, the maximum of one sound wave occurs at the same time as the other, resulting
in a large amplitude and a louder sound. At the 1.5 second point, the maximum of wave (a) coincides with
the minimum of wave (b), producing a softer sound.
Two musical instruments are in tune if they produce exactly the same frequency when they play the same
note. There will be no beats.
This effect can be used to tune a stringed instrument such as a guitar. If no beats are heard when two
strings are struck, then both strings are producing the same frequency. If beats are heard, they are producing
different frequencies.
The beat frequency (the number of loud beats produced per second) is obtained by
subtracting the two frequencies:
f beat = f 2 − f 1

FIGURE 21.30 (a) and (b) are notes of frequencies 5 Hz and 4 Hz and (c) is the waveform of the combination of
the two frequencies.
(a) Y f1 = 5HZ
B
F
t
0
A E
Y C f2 = 4HZ 1s 2s
(b)
Displacement
E
t
0
A
G
D 1s
Y 2s
(c)
H
2s t
0
A E
1s
SAMPLE PROBLEM 19
A string on a guitar produces a note with a frequency of 256 Hz. Another string is plucked at the
same time and a beat frequency of 4 Hz is heard. What are the possible frequencies of the second
string?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for beat frequency. fbeat = f2 − f1
2. Substitute know values and solve. 4 = f − 256
f = 260 HZ
Or
4 = 256 − f
f = 252
3. State the solution. Possible frequencies of the second
string are 260 Hz or 252 Hz.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 19
A guitar string produces a note of frequency 320 Hz. Another string is plucked at the same time and
a beat frequency of 6 Hz is heard. What are the possible frequencies of the second string?
21.6.6 Consonance
Sometimes, if two musical notes are played together, they can produce an unpleasant effect. If this happens,
the notes are said to be dissonant. If the effect is pleasing, the notes are said to be consonant.
Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) observed that two notes were consonant if the ratio of their frequencies
could be expressed as two small whole numbers.

TABLE 2.4 Frequency ratios of
consonant intervals
Interval Frequency ratio
Octave 1:2
Fifth 2:3
Fourth 3:4
Major third 4:5
Major sixth 3:5
If the beat frequency when two notes are played together is less than 6, the sound is generally consonant
or pleasing.
21.6.7 Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics is the study of how people perceive sounds. This involves both physical and psychological
• noise or musical (a tone)

factors. People can perceive a sound as being:
• high or low in pitch

• loud or soft
• having a timbre
• pleasant or unpleasant.
21.6 EXERCISE
1. A student is tuning a guitar using a tuning fork with a frequency of 440 Hz. When the A string is struck at the
same time as the tuning fork, the string sounds higher in pitch and a beat frequency of 2 Hz is heard. What
is the frequency of the string?
2. The tone A has a frequency of 440 Hz. What is the frequency of the tone:
(a) one octave above A
(b) one octave below A?
3. Research auditory or audio or sound illusions. Find three different illusions and explain how they work.
Examples include:
• the Shepard illusion
• phantom words
• the McGurk effect.
4. A sound that has a high pitch has which of the following?
A. Low frequency
B. High resonance
C. Low resonance
D. High frequency
5. Explain resonance and how it occurs.


21.7 Review
21.7.1 Summary
• Sound waves are longitudinal.
• As longitudinal waves move through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of propagation.
• The intensity (I) of a sound is the power per unit area at a point and it is measured in W m−2 .
• The intensity of a sound is inversely proportional to the distance from the source.
• The intensity level (L) of a sound is measured in decibels (dB):
I
L = 10 log10
I0
• Resonance is the condition where a medium responds to a periodic external force by vibrating with the
same frequency as the force.
• Standing waves are caused by the superposition of two wave trains of the same frequency travelling in
opposite directions.
• The fundamental frequency of a string or pipe is the lowest frequency at which a standing wave occurs.
• Harmonics are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency.
• If fn is the frequency of the nth resonant frequency above the fundamental for a pipe open at both ends,
then:
fn = (n + 1)/f0
• If fn is the frequency of the nth resonant frequency above the fundamental, then:
fn = (2n + 1)/f0
Resources
21.7.2 Key terms
Acoustical power is the rate at which sound energy is produced by a source. It is measured in watts (W).
An antinode is a point at which constructive interference takes place.
A compression is a region of increased pressure in a medium during the transmission of a sound wave.
Constructive interference describes the addition of two wave disturbances to give an amplitude that is greater
than either of the two waves.
Destructive interference describes the addition of two wave disturbances to give an amplitude that is less than
either of the two waves.
The displacement antinode is a region in a medium where particles experience maximum variation in
displacement.
The displacement node is a region in a medium where particles experience zero displacement variation.
The fundamental frequency of an object is the lowest frequency at which standing waves occur in it.
A harmonic is a whole number multiple of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is the first
harmonic.
The intensity of a sound is the rate at which sound energy passes through a unit of area. It is measured in
W m−2 .
In a longitudinal wave the disturbance of the particles is parallel to the direction of propagation.

Loudness is a subjective quality of sound perceived by an observer. It is closely related to the amount of energy
transferred by the sound wave and the effect that the energy has on the ear.
A node is a point at which destructive interference takes place.
An overtone is the frequency of a standing wave that is greater than the fundamental frequency.
The phon is the unit of equivalent loudness of a sound. It is a measure of how loud a sound is relative to a
reference sound.
Pitch is a subjective quality of sound perceived by an observer. It is closely related to the frequency of the sound
wave. The higher the frequency of the sound, the higher the pitch perceived.
The pressure antinode is a region in a medium where particles experience maximum variation in pressure.
The pressure node is a region in a medium where particles experience zero pressure variation.
A rarefaction is a region of reduced pressure in a medium during the transmission of a sound wave.
Resonance is the condition where a medium responds to a periodic external force by vibrating with the same
frequency as the force.
The sound intensity level is a mathematical comparison of the intensity of a sound to a reference intensity,
measured in decibels (dB).
A standing wave is the superposition of two wave trains at the same frequency travelling in opposite directions.
Standing waves are also known as stationary waves because they do not appear to move through the
medium. The nodes and antinodes remain in a fixed position.
The threshold of hearing is the lowest sound intensity that can be detected by an ear when the frequency of the
sound is 1000 Hz. For humans, it is defined as 1 × 10−12 W m−2 .
The threshold of pain is the lowest sound intensity that causes pain. For humans, it is 1 W m−2 .
Timbre is the subjective quality of sound that distinguishes sound waves of the same frequency produced by
different sources. It is closely related to the shape of the wave.
In a transverse wave the disturbance of the particles is at right angles to the direction of propagation.
The waveform of a wave is the shape of the wave as represented by a graph of pressure variation versus time.
The waveform of sound waves can be observed on a cathode ray oscilloscope.
A wavefront is the part of the medium that is disturbed during the transmission of a wave. The wavefront is
always perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is travelling.
Resources
Investigation 21.1
Diffraction and sound intensity levels for sounds of different frequencies
Aim: To explore the effect that frequency and gap size have on the diffraction of sound waves
Investigation 21.2
Diffraction of waves in a ripple tank
Aim: To observe the diffraction of water waves around a barrier and through a gap, and to examine the effect that
varying the gap size and wavelength has on the diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank
Investigation 21.3
Observing sound
Aim: To use a signal generator and an audio amplifier to observe sound on a CRO

Investigation 21.4
Sound intensities and intensity levels
Aim: To use a sound-level meter to record the intensity of everyday sounds and to investigate how sound intensity
varies with distance
Investigation 21.5
Reflection of pulses in springs
Aim: To investigate the reflection of pulses of transverse and
longitudinal waves using a slinky
Investigation 21.6
Finding the speed of sound in air
Aim:
1. To establish that resonance occurs in the tube, at different frequencies
2. To determine the speed of sound in air, at room temperature, by means of a resonance tube
Investigation 21.7
Standing waves in springs
Aim: To set up standing wave patterns using a slinky spring and to identify nodes and antinodes
Investigation 21.8
Resonant frequencies in a tube
Aim: To use a ballpoint pen to produce fundamental and resonant frequencies
Investigation 21.9
Analysing sound waves from tuning forks and musical instruments
Aim: To observe the sound from instruments, tuning forks and the human voice on a CRO or CRO computer
simulation program
Resources

21.7 Exercises
1. What is the speed of a sound wave if it has a period of 3 milliseconds and a wavelength of
103 centimetres?
A. 340 m s−1
B. 343 cm s−1
C. 343 m s−1
D. 34.3 m s−1
2. A guitar string is plucked to the third harmonic. How many nodes are there?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
3. How much energy is transferred to a human eardrum that has an area of 3.5 × 10−5 m2 by a sound with
an intensity of 2.4 × 10−2 W m−2 in 18 seconds?
A. 1.5 × 10−5 J
B. 1.2 × 10−5 J
C. 8.4 × 10−7 J
D. 4.8 × 10−7 J
Two speakers are emitting sound with a frequency of 430 Hz. If the two speakers are 6 metres apart and
facing each other and it was detected that the loudest sounds were found at 3 metres, 3.4 metres and
3.8 metres from one of the speakers.
4. What is the wavelength of the sound waves?
A. 0.4 m
B. 0.8 m
C. 0.2 m
D. 3.0 m
5. What is the speed of sound coming out of the speakers?
A. 340 m s−1
B. 348 m s−1
C. 338 m s−1
D. 344 m s−1
6. If a wave has a frequency of 400 Hz, then what is the wave’s period?
A. 0.0 025 s
B. 0.25 s
C. 0.4 s
D. 0.004 s
7. What is the sound intensity level of a sound with an intensity of 5.4 × 10−6 W m−2 ?
A. 60.72 dB
B. 67.32 dB
C. 6.7 dB
D. 6.0 dB
8. What is the frequency of the third harmonic of a string if the fundamental frequency is 360 Hz?
A. 360 Hz
B. 720 Hz
C. 1080 Hz
D. 1440 Hz

9. A pipe open at both ends has a length of 60 centimetres. Given the speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 ,
what is the fundamental frequency?
A. 567 Hz
B. 283 Hz
C. 189 Hz
D. 204 Hz
10. A pipe is closed at one end and 1.2 metres long. The speed of sound is 340 m s−1 . What is the
fundamental frequency of the pipe?
A. 283 Hz
B. 141 Hz
C. 71 Hz
D. 189 Hz

1. You are watching a movie. The soundbar is producing a sound at 320 Hz. How long does it take
300 wavelengths to interact with your ear?
2. A race starter uses his starters pistol to start a 100-metre race.
a. Assuming the speed of sound is 340 m s−1 , how long does it take for the sound to travel the
100 metres?
b. What is the difference in time between sound travelling the 100 metres and light travelling the
100 metres? Explain.
3. What is the wavelength of a sound that travels at 343 m s–1 and 15 periods of 30 milliseconds?
4. What is the acoustic power of a source that produces 8 joules in 48 seconds?
5. What are the sound intensity levels for the following sounds, to the nearest decibel?
a. 4 × 10−6 W m−2
b. 6.4 × 10−8 W m−2
c. 3.6 × 10−7 W m−2
6. Use figure 21.9 to answer the following.
a. What is the intensity level of the threshold of hearing at 200 Hz?
b. What is the maximum intensity level for music at 500 Hz?
c. What is the highest frequency for speech at an intensity level of 80 dB?
7. A standing wave is created with nodes 60 centimetres apart. What is the wavelength of the wave?
8. A standing wave is set up with a string fixed at both ends. The frequency of the wave is 8 Hz, the
wavelength is 1.8 metres and it has an amplitude of 6 centimetres.
a. What is the speed of the wave?
b. What is the distance between the nodes of the standing wave?
c. What is the maximum displacement of the string from its rest position?
d. What is the period of the standing wave?
9. The third resonant frequency above the fundamental of a string is 375 Hz. What is the fundamental
frequency of the string?
10. The speed of sound in air is 340 m s−1 . Find (i) the longest wavelength and (ii) the fundamental
frequencies of the following pipes.
a. Open at both ends, length 50 cm
b. Open at both ends, length 120 cm
c. Closed at one end, length 0.6 m
d. Closed at one end, length 15 cm

The following diagram below shows the pressure variation as a function of time.
Variation in
air pressure
Time
(ms)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
a. What is the period of the sound wave? 1 mark

b. What is the frequency of the sound wave? 1 mark
c. What is the wavelength of this sound wave if it is travelling at 340 m s−1 ? 1 mark
Calculate the sound intensities associated with the following sound intensity levels.
a. 12 dB 1 mark
b. 55 dB 1 mark
c. 120 dB 1 mark
Use figure 2.19 to answer the following.
a. What is the intensity level of the threshold of hearing at 5000 Hz? 1 mark
b. What is the maximum intensity level for music at 200 Hz? 1 mark
c. What is the higher frequency for speech at an intensity level of 40 dB? 1 mark
d. What is the loudest sound we can hear at 2000 Hz? 1 mark
The speed of waves in a 1.2-metre string is 240 m s−1 .
a. What is the wavelength of the longest standing wave that can be produced in this string? 1 mark
b. What is the fundamental frequency of the string? 1 mark
c. What is the frequency of the first resonant frequency above the fundamental? 1 mark
d. What harmonic corresponds to the second resonant frequency above the fundamental and what is this
frequency? 2 marks
A pipe open at both ends consist of four nodes and three antinodes from its pressure variation diagram.
Assume the speed of sound is 340 m s−1 .
a. What harmonic is represented? 1 mark
b. If the pipe is 1.2 metres long, what is the wavelength of the tone the pipe is producing? 1 mark
c. What is the frequency the pipe is producing? 1 mark
d. What is the period of the sound produced by the pipe? 1 mark
e. What is the third resonant frequency above the fundamental of this pipe? 2 marks

Test maker

22 How can performance in

ball sports be improved?
22.1 Overview
22.1.1 Introduction
• Is a heavier cricket bat more effective?

How can performance in ball sports be improved? Consider the following questions.
• When does a sliding ball begin to roll?

• How can you bend it like Beckham?
The physics of ball games can answer questions such as these. The concepts and principles of mechanics
can be applied to any collision with a ball, whether it is with a tennis racket, a golf club, a cricket bat, a
hockey stick, your hand or your foot. They can explain the movement of a ball through the air, and the
effects of air resistance and spin. In this topic you will learn about the physics behind a variety of ball
sports and apply that knowledge to find ways to improve performance.
FIGURE 22.1 Australian Ashleigh Barty in action during her quarterfinal match at the
2019 Australian Open in Melbourne Park. Small changes to the equipment or technique a
sportsperson uses can have a large effect on the outcome of a game. How can performance
be improved?
TOPIC 22 How can performance in ball sports be improved? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• investigate and calculate theoretically and practically the transfer of momentum in elastic and inelastic
collisions (limited to two dimensions) including the use of the coefficient of restitution, e
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the coefficients of static and kinetic friction to sliding and
• explain rolling of spherical objects using angular and linear speeds: 𝜈 = r𝜔.
rolling balls to calculate speeds using Newton’s laws of motion and the equations of constant acceleration
• model and describe qualitatively the energy transfers in the action of a double pendulum in at least one of
the following:
• the swing of a racquet, club, stick or bat
• the throw, pitch or hurl of a ball
• calculate air resistance (drag) and terminal velocity: FD = 2 CD 𝜌v A

• the kick of a ball
1 2
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the equations of constant acceleration to calculate the
flight of objects through the air (neglecting air resistance) in two dimensions
• model and describe qualitatively the flight of:
• a ball through the air when air resistance is not neglected
• spinning sports balls with reference to the Magnus effect
• analyse and explain the relative influence of dynamics factors that affect the performance of equipment in
ball sports.

Resources
22.2 Collisions and conservation of momentum

KEY CONCEPT
• Investigate and calculate theoretically and practically the transfer of momentum in elastic and inelastic
collisions (limited to two dimensions) including the use of the coefficient of restitution, e.
22.2.1 Coefficient of restitution

Collision is an interaction between two or more objects, simultaneously causing change in the motion of
the objects due to internal forces acting between them during the collision. Collisions can either be elastic,
where momentum and kinetic energy are both conserved, or inelastic, where only momentum is conserved
but not kinetic energy.

The principle of conservation of momentum explains all sporting impacts. The other important principle,
conservation of kinetic energy, only applies to elastic collisions. Billiard ball collisions come very close
to being elastic, but all other sporting collisions are very inelastic. Energy is lost as heat energy with the
increased temperature of the ball and the implement, as well as permanent damage done to both.
However, some measure of how close the collision is to being elastic can be useful. One such measure
is the coefficient of restitution (COR). It applies when two objects collide and move apart in one straight
line, that is, in a one-dimensional collision. This is true of most sporting impacts except for billiards.
The COR, in other words, is the change in the kinetic energy after collision between two objects. For
example, when a basketball bounces on a flat hard floor, every time it rebounds off the floor its energy
decreases (as real collisions are inelastic). This is why the basketball bounces lower with every collision
— as its energy gets converted to heat/vibrations. However, if these collisions were elastic, then the
basketball would have the same energy for each bounce. In this example, the COR suggests how efficient
the ‘bouncing’ process is. The more efficient it is, the more ‘bouncy’ the basketball would be.
To model one-dimensional collisions we consider the case of a two objects and define pronumerals for
their mass and velocity. The heavier object has mass M, initial velocity U and velocity after collision V. The
lighter object has mass m, initial velocity u and velocity after collision v. Capital letters refer to the heavy
object and lowercase letters are for the lighter object.
FIGURE 22.2 Heavier object A collides with lighter object B
M
m
A B
M
m
A B
coefficient of restitution (COR) =

speed of separation (post-impact velocity)
speed of approach (pre-impact velocity)
The COR is usually given the symbol e and as it is a ratio, it does not have a unit.
This gives us the formula:
v−V
e=
U−u
If the lighter ball is stationary, which is often the case, the formula becomes:
v−V
e=
U

The values for the COR can range from 0 to 1. If e = 0, the collision is an inelastic collision, for
maximum. If e = 1, it is an elastic collision with kinetic energy conserved. It can be shown mathematically
example, a collision with a ball made of putty. Some kinetic energy is left over but the amount lost is a
that for elastic collisions, the speed of separation equals the speed of approach.
Drop tests
Values for the COR are often determined by a drop test, in which the ball is dropped from a known height
onto a hard surface and the rebound height is measured, as shown in figure 22.3. The conversion of
gravitational potential energy, mgh, into kinetic energy, 21 mv2 , means that the speed before and the speed
√
after impact are proportional to h. Also, the object the ball hits is the Earth, whose speed can be ignored
because it is so massive. Therefore:
e =
√
rebound height
drop height
Table 22.1 shows typical values for the COR. Actual values will depend on many factors, such as the
material the ball hits (e.g. steel, concrete or wood), the temperature of the ball, the wear and tear on the ball
and the speed of the ball.
FIGURE 22.3 A drop test TABLE 22.1 COR for different sports balls
Sport COR
Golf ball 0.75
Tennis ball 0.85
Table tennis ball 0.70
Basketball 0.85
Netball 0.65
h1
Billiard ball 0.90
h2
Soccer ball 0.80
Cricket ball 0.35
Hockey ball 0.40
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A cricket ball is travelling towards the batter at 30 m s−1 . The bat speed just before impact
is 15 m s−1 . The ball rebounds at 30 m s−1 , while the bat slows down to 3 m s−1 . Calculate
a.
the COR.
b. A golf ball dropped from 1 metre onto a steel plate rebounds to a height of 0.79 metres. What is
the COR?
v = 30 m s−1 , V = 3 m s−1 ,
THINK WRITE
u = −15 m s−1 , U = 30 m s−1

a. 1. State the known and unknown quantities. a.

e=
speed of separation
2. Recall the formula for the COR and substitute in
30 − 3
speed of approach
=
the known values.
30 − (−15)
=
27
= 0.6
45
b. rebound height = 0.79 m,

3. State the solution. The COR is 0.6.
drop height = 1.00 m

b. 1. State the known and unknown quantities.
e=
√
rebound height
2. Recall the formula for the COR in the case of a
drop height
=
drop test and substitute in the known values. √
0.79
= 0.89
1.00
3. State the solution. The COR is 0.89.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
a. A golf ball has a COR of 0.7. The club head is moving at 50 m s−1 before impact and
34 m s−1 after impact. What is the speed of the golf ball?
b. A golf ball dropped from 1 metre onto a wooden plate gives a COR value of 0.67. What was
the rebound height?
22.2.2 Making the ball go faster

What effect would changing the mass of the ball or the club head have on the ball speed?
(m1 v1 + m2 v2 )initial = (m1 v1 + m2 v2 )final

Conservation of momentum is described by the formula:
The expression for the conservation of momentum and the definition of COR can be combined to obtain
a general expression for the speed of the ball after impact.
M = mass of club head

First, simplify the problem by assuming the ball is initially stationary.
U = initial speed of club head

V = final speed of the club head
m = mass of ball
v = final speed of the ball
By conservation of momentum:
MU = MV + mv [1]
v−V
Definition of COR:
e= [2]
U

First rearrange [2] to get V by itself: V = v – eU
MU = M (v − eU) + mv
Now substitute this into [1]:
MU = Mv − eMU + mv
Mu + eMU = Mv + mv
MU(1 + e) = (M + m)v
MU(1 + e)
So:
v=
M+m
Does this relationship fit with experience and what more can it tell us?
This expression can be examined to find out how the ball speed, v, might change.
M(1 + e)
1. A faster club head speed, U:
v=U×
M+m
Written this way, it is clear that for a given club and ball, the faster the club head moves, the faster the
ball moves. This fits with common experience.
M+m
M
2. A lighter golf ball, m: The mass, m, is in the denominator, so if m decreases, the factor
increases and so the ball speed, v, will increase. This also makes sense.
3. A heavier club head, M: The mass, M, appears in the numerator and the denominator, so its effect is
not immediately obvious. Let us divide the numerator and denominator by the mass, M:
1+e
v=U× (
1+ M
m)
m
Now the mass, M, is in only one place. As M gets bigger, the ratio gets smaller and the bracket
M
1+
m
( )
gets closer to equalling 1.
M
So for a very heavy club (very large M), the ball speed, v approaches.
(v = 2U). This sets a speed limit for each player.

Since the maximum value of e is 1, the ball speed cannot get any faster than twice the club speed
Of course, in practice a heavier club head is harder for the player to swing, so the club speed at
impact will be less.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A club head with a mass of 0.2 kilograms moving at 50 m s−1 hits a golf ball of mass
0.046 kilograms. The value of the COR is 0.65. Calculate the speeds of the golf ball and the club
head after impact.
M (1 + e)
v=U×
THINK WRITE
M+m
1. Recall the formula for the speed of
the ball.

M = 0.20 kg, U = 50 m s−1 , m = 0.046 kg,
e = 0.65
2. Subsitute known values in and solve.
0.20 (1 + 0.65)
v = 50 ×
0.20 + 0.046
0.20 × 1.65
= 50 ×
= 67.1 m s−1
0.246
V = v – eUV = 67.1 − 0.65 × 50

V = 34.6 m s−1
3. Obtain the speed of the club head after
impact, V.
The speed of the golf ball after impact is 67.1 m s−1
and of the club head after impact is 34.6 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
soft, with a COR value of 0.4. What is the speed of the ball if the bat is moving at 20 m s−1 ?
In a game of T-ball, the mass of the bat is 0.5 kilograms and the ball is 0.15 kilograms. The ball is
A POSSIBLE INVESTIGATION
Bat and ball impacts are rich with possibilities for practical investigation, but the impact needs to be simplified to
make it easier to undertake the investigation.
For the bat, for example, use a length of timber suspended by a piece of string from a retort stand. For the ball,
use a real ball if possible, but suspend it by a long length of string.
For the method, pull the bat back to a measured height, release it and the measure the heights to which the
ball and the bat rise. From the heights, calculate the speeds before and after impact and thus the energy transfer.
For possible independent variables, consider the initial release height of the bat, the point on the bat that hits
the ball, the mass of the bat and different mass distributions of the bat, for example, more mass at the bottom or
a hollowed out bat.
22.2.3 Billiard ball collisions

Billiard balls collide on a two-dimensional billiard table. Although physics in two dimensions is more
complicated than in one dimension, the simplifying benefits of billiard balls are that the two balls have the
same mass and we can make the assumption that kinetic energy is conserved.
In billiards, the target ball, B, is usually hit off centre so that it will head towards a pocket on the table.
The incoming ball, A, will go off in another direction. Hence, the collision is two-dimensional. The two
balls are the same size, so when they touch, the point of contact will be in the middle of the line joining the
two centres. Each ball will push the other away along this line.
Consider figure 22.4, ball A is coming from the left with speed uA . At contact, the line joining their
centres passes through the point of contact. The force imposed on ball B by ball A will be along this line.
Therefore, ball B moves off in the direction of the arrow, vB . Ball A will experience the same force and the
same change in velocity, but because it was already moving, the force will change its direction as well as
its speed.
The fact that target ball B moves along the line joining the centres is very handy for the billiard player.
For the target ball to go into the corner pocket, the player just needs to imagine the cue ball on the
other side of the target ball in line with the pocket and then aim to hit this imaginary cue ball, as shown in
figure 22.5.

FIGURE 22.4 Two billiard balls collide
VB sin
B
B
VB cos
A
VA cos
UA A
Right angles
VA sin to initial
Cue ball´s
initial direction direction
FIGURE 22.5 Aim the cue ball at the imaginary cue ball and the target ball will move towards the corner pocket.
Target ball
θ
Imaginary
cue ball
Actual
cue ball
Conserving momentum in billiard ball collisions

Momentum is a vector, which means it has size and direction. It also means that the momentum vector can
be expressed as two components, which in the case of billiards can be described as ‘in the initial direction
of the cue ball’ and ‘at right angles to this direction’ (see figure 22.6).
FIGURE 22.6 Conservation of momentum in the collision of billiard balls
VB sinθ
B
B
θ
VB cosθ
A
α VA cosα
UA A
VA sinα Right angles

Cue ball´s to initial
initial direction direction

• Momentum is conserved in the initial direction of the cue ball.
The conservation of momentum now can be expressed as two separate statements:
• Momentum is conserved at right angles to the initial direction of the cue ball.
• Momentum is conserved in the initial direction of the cue ball:
Total momentum before = Total momentum after
muA = mvA cos 𝛼 + mvB cos 𝜃
Cancelling the mass:

uA = vA cos 𝛼 + vB cos 𝜃
• Momentum is conserved at right angles to the initial direction of the cue ball. Initially there is no such
momentum, so the two final momenta are equal in size:
mvA sin 𝛼 = mvB sin 𝜃
Cancelling the mass:

vA sin 𝛼 = vB sin 𝜃
In summary: The two final velocity components along the original direction add up to give the original
speed, and the two components at right angles to the original direction cancel each other out.
Conserving kinetic energy in billiard ball collisions
total kinetic energy before = total kinetic energy after

Kinetic energy is a scalar, so the angles don’t come into consideration. It is simply:
Which in this case is:
muA = mv2A + mv2B

1 2 1 1
2 2 2
1
But the 2
and the mass, m, can be cancelled, giving:
u2A = v2A + v2B
You may recognise the form of this equation as the same as a2 = b2 + c2 , Pythagoras’ theorem.
two final velocities is 90 degrees; in other words, 𝛽 + 𝛼 = 90°.

This means the three velocity vectors form a right-angled triangle (figure 22.7). The angle between the
FIGURE 22.7 The two final velocities add together to give the initial velocity. Because kinetic energy is
conserved, the angle between the two final velocities is 90 degrees.
VB
B
VB
VA
+ =
ß
VB VA
VA + VB = uA
VA

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
at an angle of 𝛽 = 30° to go into the corner pocket.

A billiard player estimates that the target ball needs to head off
a. At what angle will the cue ball head off if the collision
b. If the cue ball is travelling at 5 m s−1 , how fast do the target

Target ball
is assumed to be elastic?
Imaginary
and cue balls move after collision? cue ball
Actual
cue ball
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the properties of elastic a. Momentum and energy is conserved in case of elastic
collision. collision.
𝛼 and 𝛽 = 90°.
2. From the diagram, the sum of angles
Cue ball
after collision
β α
Imaginary
Target ball cue ball
Actual
cue ball
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 90°
Since, 𝛽 = 30°:
𝛼 = 90° − 30° = 60°
3. State the solution. The cue ball moves off at 60° to its original direction.
b. uA = 5.0, 𝛽 = 30°, 𝛼 = 60°, cos 30° =

√
3
b. 1. State the known and unknown values. ,
√ 2
cos 60° = , sin 30° = , sin 60° =
1 1 3
Total momentum before = total momentum after

2 2 2
uA = vA cos 𝛼 + vB cos 𝜃
2. Recall the equation for conservation
of momentum and substitute in the
5 = vA × 2 + vB ×
known values.
√
1 3
[1]
2

Using: vA sin 𝛼 = vB sin 𝜃
vA × = vB × 12
√
3
[2]
vB = vA × 3
2 √
5 = vA × vA × 3 ×
√
1( √ ) 3
3. Substitute the value of vB in
2 2
5 = vA × vA ×
equation [1].
1 3
2 2
5 = vA ×
4
5 = vA × 2
2
2.5 m s−1 and

vB = 2.5 × 3 = 4.3 m s−1
√
The target and cue balls move at 2.5 m s−1 and

4.3 m s−1 after collision.
A billiard player estimates that the target ball needs to head off at an angle of 𝜃 = 45° to go into the
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
corner pocket.
2. If the cue ball is travelling at 8 m s−1 , how fast do the target ball and the cue ball move after
1. At what angle will the cue ball head off if the collision is assumed to be elastic?
collision?
22.2 EXERCISE
1. A golf ball bouncing on a concrete surface has a restitution coefficient of 0.8. If it is dropped from a height of
1 metre, to what height does it rebound?
2. A ball is dropped from rest at a height h1 above the ground. It rebounds to a height h2 . If the force of gravity
is the only force acting, show that:
e=
√
h2
h1
3. A ball travelling at 5 m s−1 approaches another ball of equal mass. The second ball is travelling in the same
direction at 2 m s−1 . If the coefficient of restitution is 0.6, calculate the speed of separation of the two balls.
4. A squash ball hits the front wall of the court head on at 10 m s−1 at a height of 1 metre. If the coefficient of
restitution is 0.8, how far back does the ball land?
5. Explain why the maximum theoretical speed a golf ball could achieve is twice the club head speed.

22.3 Friction and rolling balls
KEY CONCEPTS
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically the coefficients of static and kinetic friction to sliding and
• Explain rolling of spherical objects using angular and linear speeds: 𝜈 = r𝜔.
rolling balls to calculate speeds using Newton’s laws of motion and the equations of constant acceleration.
22.3.1 Friction
If you have tried to push a car along the ground, you may have noticed that at first it was quite difficult to
move but once it started moving the pushing became easier.
FIGURE 22.8 It is easier to push a car that is moving than a car that is stationary.
There are two types of friction at work here: one when the car is stationary on the ground and one when
the car is moving along the ground. The first one is called static friction, the second is called sliding or
kinetic friction. Why is there a difference?
At the microscopic level, nearly all surfaces are rough with little hills and valleys. When the car is at
rest, some of the tyres’ ‘hills’ fit into the ground’s ‘valleys’, and vice versa. Getting the car to move means
getting the tyres out of these hills and valleys. However, once it is moving, the hills of the tyres are moving
over the hills of the ground, clipping them but not sinking into the valleys. The friction is now less.
Measuring friction
From this model of friction, you would expect that a heavier object would sink more into the ‘hills and
valleys’. The reaction force from the floor would be greater, so the friction would be greater, if not actually
proportional to the reaction force. The constant of proportionality between the size of the friction force and
the reaction force depends on the nature of the two surfaces.
Ff = 𝜇FN
The size of the friction force is given by:
where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction.

The coefficient of friction is a dimensionless scalar value, with no units. It depends on the type of
surfaces in contact. For example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction — the two materials slide past
each other easily — while rubber on concrete has a high coefficient of friction — the materials do not slide
Like the COR, 𝜇 ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 is perfectly smooth with zero friction force and 1 is the
past each other easily.
roughest surface. A value of 1 for 𝜇 does not mean the object can’t move; rather, it means for that surface
As there are two types of friction, static and kinetic, there are two coefficients of friction, 𝜇 s and 𝜇 k , for
the friction force equals the reaction force, which is the maximum value the friction force can have.
each combination of surfaces. Figure 22.9 shows the relationship between applied force (Fp ) and friction
force (Ff ). Some typical values are shown in table 22.2.
FIGURE 22.9 Friction graph for a 100 N box
Reaction force = 100 N
Applied Applied
60 force force
μs = 0.5 Fp Friction force
50
Ff
Friction in newtons
40 Gravitational
Kinetic friction force (mg) = 100 N
Static μk = 0.4
friction
20
0
20 40 50 60 80
Applied force Fp in newtons
TABLE 22.2 Values for the coefficients of friction
Combination of surfaces Coefficient of static friction, 𝜇 s Coefficient of kinetic friction, 𝜇 k
Teflon on Teflon 0.04 0.04
Copper on steel 0.53 0.36
Rubber on concrete 1.00 0.8
Copper on glass 0.68 0.5
Ice on ice 0.10 0.03
Determining the coefficient of static friction, 𝜇s

A running shoe rests on a slope. What are the forces acting on the
FIGURE 22.10 Force diagram for
shoe? Figure 22.10 shows the gravitational force, the reaction force a mass on an inclined plane
and the friction force.
can be resolved into two components: one down the slope, mg sin 𝜃,
As the shoe is at rest, the net force is zero. The gravitational force FN: Normal force
and one at right angles to the slope, mg cos 𝜃. This net force on the Ruler
shoe can now be written as two equations. θ Friction
Along the slope:
Ff = 𝜇FN = mg sin 𝜃
mg
θ
[1] Base line

FN = mg cos 𝜃
At right angles:
[2]
Dividing [1] by [2] cancels FN and mg, giving:
𝜇s = tan 𝜃
The slope is slowly raised and when the shoe begins to slip, the height of the slope is measured. This
height divided by the length of the base line will give the tangent of the angle of the slope.
Resources
Digital document Investigation 22.1 Friction (doc-32319)
Teacher-led video Investigation 22.1 Friction (tlvd-1078)
22.3.2 Sliding and rolling

When a billiard ball or a golf ball is hit, the ball initially
the circumference covers an angle of ∆𝜃.
FIGURE 22.11 As a circle rolls, a point on
slides for a short distance before it begins to roll. During the
slide, the kinetic friction is slowing the ball down and starting
to make the ball rotate. Eventually the sliding stops and the
ball rolls.
So far in our study of the physics of motion, we have
considered an object as a single point, but a rolling ball has
size and its surface moves in a circle. Explaining the physics Pfinal
of rolling requires new concepts. Δθ
Consider figure 22.12 and imagine a point, P, on a spinning Pinitial
time interval, ∆t, it moves through an angle ∆𝜃. The speed

wheel. P moves in an arc around the centre of the circle. In a
of the rotation of P, called the angular speed, is the number of
The symbol for angular speed is 𝜔, which is the Greek letter

radians of angle P moves through every second.
omega, not the letter ‘w’. Angular speed is measured in radians

per second. FIGURE 22.12 1 radian corresponds
Δ𝜃
to an arc length of 1 radius
𝜔=
Δt
r
Radians are used rather than degrees, because
equals the radius from the formula s = r𝜃, as seen in

for an angle of 1 radian the length of the arc
1 radian
figure 22.12. r

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Calculate the angular speed of a carousel that completes one full revolution in 30 seconds.
THINK WRITE
Recall that a full circle = 2𝜋 radians. = ≈ 0.21 radians per second

2𝜋
1.
30
2. State the solution. The angular speed of the carousel is 0.21 radians
per second.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A billiard ball spins once in 0.08 seconds. What is its angular speed?
22.3.3 Velocity and angular speed

The formula s = r𝜃 gives the length of the arc, s, in a circle of radius r subtended by the angle 𝜃, as shown
in figure 22.13.
FIGURE 22.13 Arc length along a circle
r θ r Δθ Δx
s
∆x = r∆𝜃
So for point P:
Dividing by ∆t gives:
∆x ∆𝜃
=r
∆t ∆t
∆x
∆t
But is only the change in displacement over time taken, which is the velocity, v.
v = r𝜔
Therefore, the equation becomes:
If a rolling ball is slowing down, then the angular speed, 𝜔, of a point on the ball is decreasing. If the
Angular acceleration has the symbol 𝛼 and is measured in radians per second squared (rad s−2 ). It is
angular speed is changing, then we can talk about an angular acceleration.
defined in a similar way to linear acceleration.
Angular acceleration is given by:
Δ𝜔
𝛼=
Δt

are also angular equivalents to the constant linear acceleration equations. For example, v = u + at has the
We have seen that there are parallels between linear and rotational motion, as shown in table 22.3. There
angular equivalent 𝜔f = 𝜔i + 𝛼t.
TABLE 22.3 Parallels between linear and rotational motion

Linear kinematics Rotational kinematics
Displacement, ∆x or s Angular displacement, 𝜃
∆x ∆𝜃
Velocity, v = Angular velocity, 𝜔 =
∆t ∆t
∆v ∆𝜔
Acceleration, a = Angular acceleration, 𝛼 =
∆t ∆t
Newton’s second law says net force = mass × acceleration, Fnet = ma. Is there a rotational equivalent
for this?
In the motion topics, the rotational equivalent for force was discussed. A force can have a turning effect
torque. The symbol for torque is 𝜏.Sa

if its line of action is away from the centre of the object. The word used to describe this turning effect is
What can be the rotational equivalent of mass? It can’t be simply mass because the units of torque are
The units of torque can give us a clue. From F = ma, 1 newton = 1 kg ms−2 . Therefore, the units of
newton metre and the units of angular acceleration are radians per second squared.
torque are kg m2 s−2 . The units of this new quantity, the rotational equivalent of mass, must be kg m2 to
keep the units on each side of the equals sign the same.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
How fast is the person on the outside of the carousel from Sample problem 4 moving, if the radius
of the carousel is 3 metres?
THINK WRITE
2𝜋
1. Determine the person’s angular speed. radians per second
v=3×
30
2𝜋
Using the angular speed determine the person’s
𝜋
2.
=
linear speed. 30
≈ 0.6 m s−1
5
3. State the solution. The person is moving at 0.6 m s−1 .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Will the person closer to the centre of the carousel have a greater or smaller speed? Will they have a
greater or smaller angular speed?

22.3.4 Moment of inertia
It is easier to lift a wheelbarrow when most of the contents are
FIGURE 22.14 It is easier to lift
down over the wheel. This means that the distribution of the mass a wheelbarrow when most of the
is important in rotation. The further away from the axis of rotation contents are down over the wheel.
the mass is distributed, the harder it is for the torque to turn the
object.
The rotational equivalent for mass is called the moment
of inertia. Its value will depend on the shape of the
object. A ring, a disc, a sphere and a cylinder can all
roll but the distribution of mass is different in each case
(see figure 22.15). The symbol for the moment of inertia is I and
it has units of kilogram per metre squared (kg m2 ).
The rotational equivalent of Newton’s second law is:
𝜏 = I𝛼
net torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration
FIGURE 22.15 Moment of inertia for different shapes. M is the mass, R the radius and L the length.
Hoop about normal axis
I = mR2
Stick about end Stick about centre Solid cylinder Solid sphere
about centre
R
L R
1 1 1 2
I= mL2 I= mL2 I= mR2 I= mR2
3 12 2 5

22.3.5 Applying rotational kinematics to a billiard ball
When a billiard ball is hit, it starts to slide across the table (see figure 22.16). As it slides, there are three
forces acting on it.
FIGURE 22.16 Force diagram for a sliding billiard ball
Reaction force
Friction
Ff = μkN
mg
friction. The frictional force, 𝜇 k FN , has two effects on the ball.

The gravitational force, mg, and the reaction force cancel each other. The net force on the ball is just the
1. The frictional force slows down the ball. There is a linear deceleration from F = ma.
2. The frictional force begins to rotate the ball. The frictional force is applying a torque to the ball about
its centre, giving it an angular acceleration.
The effect of these two actions is that:
2. the angular velocity, 𝜔, increases.

1. the speed, v, of the ball across the table decreases
Eventually the values of the slowing speed, v, and the increasing angular velocity, 𝜔, will satisfy the
equation 𝜈 = r𝜔, at which point sliding stops and rolling begins.
Time lapse images of a ball skidding across the table are shown in figure 22.17. The images of the ball
are getting closer to each other, so the ball is slowing down. The marks on the ball show increasing rotation.
FIGURE 22.17 A ball starts off by sliding, then starts to roll.

5
1 2 3 4
Some questions occur:

a. How long does rolling take to occur?
b. How fast is the ball going when it begins to roll?
c. How far has the ball travelled in that time?
Let us say that the ball has mass m, radius r and initial speed u. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 𝜇 k
These questions can be answered using the linear and rotational relationships previously mentioned.
and the moment of inertia is − 52 mr2 .

a. How long does rolling take to occur?

Linear Rotational
Net force: Fnet = 𝜇 k Fnormal Torque: 𝜏 = 𝜇k Fnormal r
but Fnormal = mg Net torque: 𝜏 = I𝛼
so Fnet = 𝜇 k mg so 𝜇k mgr = 52 mr2 𝛼
a = 𝜇k g 𝛼=
5𝜇k g
and acceleration and angular acceleration
2r
Using v = u + at: u = u [1] Using 𝜔t = 𝜔i + 𝛼t: 𝜔i = 0 [2]

a = −𝜇k g
𝛼=
v=?
5𝜇k g
v = u − 𝜇k gt 𝜔f = ?
2r
𝜔f =
5𝜇k gt
2r
To find the time, t, when rolling begins, that is, when v = r𝜔, rearrange equation [2] to get r𝜔.
From equation [2]:
𝜔f r =
5𝜇k gt
2
v = r𝜔
Equate this to the expression for v in equation [1]:
u − 𝜇k gt =
5𝜇k gt
2
u=
Combining like terms gives: 7𝜇k gt
2
t=
So the time to roll, t, is given by: 2u
[3]
7𝜇k g
This expression says that the time to roll increases with the initial speed of the ball and decreases with the
roughness of the surface. The relationship is also easy to test experimentally.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
initially travels at 3 m s−1 .

A billiard table has a typical coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.2. If the ball was hit firmly, it
a. How long does it take to begin rolling?

b. How fast is the ball going when it begins to roll?
c. At what speed does the ball begin to roll?
μk = 0.2, u = 3.0 m s−1 , g = 9.8 m s−2 , t = ?

THINK WRITE
State the known and unknown values.
t=
a. 1. a.
2u
2. Recall the formula for calculating the
2 × 3.0
7𝜇k g
= = 0.4 s
time a ball takes to begin rolling and
7 × 0.2 × 9.8
substitute in the known values.

b. v = u + at
3. State the solution. It takes 0.4 seconds for the ball to being rolling.
a = –μk g and t =
b. 1. Recall the uniform acceleration formula
to calculate the velocity of an object. 2u
7𝜇k g
v = u − 𝜇k g
2u
( )
2. Substituting the values in the above (μk and g cancel out)
7𝜇k g
v=u−
formula.
2u
7
v=
Therefore:
5u
The ball is moving at v =

7
5u
3. State the solution. when it begins to roll.
7
Surprisingly, the speed when the ball begins to roll
c. u = 3.0 m s−1 , v =?
is not affected by the size of the friction force.
State the known and unknown values.
v=
c. 1.
5u
Use the formula for v obtained in part
5 × 3.0
2.
v= = 2.1 m s−1
(b) and substitute in the known values. 7
The ball begins to roll at 2.1 m s−1 .

7
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Use the values from Sample problem 6 for the initial speed and the coefficient of friction to answer
the following.
b. Use the equation s = ut + 21 at2 to calculate the distance travelled before the ball begins to roll.
a. Calculate the linear acceleration, which is negative.
c. Research the dimensions of a billiard table to find out what proportion of the table length
this distance represents.
d. Looking at the equation in (b), describe what you think would be the effect on the distance to
begin rolling if the initial speed was halved.
22.3.6 Rolling friction

Once a ball starts rolling, its slowly reduces speed and comes to rest. What force is making it slow down?
As a ball rolls along a surface, the point on the ball in contact with the surface is momentarily stationary.
It may be tempting to think the retarding force is static friction. But, as described, static friction needs
a sideways pushing force against which the static friction force is produced. There is no such sideways
pushing force on a rolling ball. Instead, there is a third type of friction, which is called rolling friction.
Energy is lost when the rolling ball squashes against the surface, but not all of this energy is returned to
the ball when the surface recovers as the ball rolls on.
Looking at rolling from a force point of view, the upwards reaction force from the squashed surface is
greater at the front of the point of contact than it is at the back. In fact, the upwards reaction force at the
front applies a small torque to slow down the ball. The upwards reaction force at the back also applies
a torque but in the opposite direction; because this force is less, the combined effect is a small retarding
torque (see figure 22.18).
The coefficients of rolling friction are very small. For a tyre on a road, its value is 0.01.

FIGURE 22.18 Reaction forces front and back on a rolling ball
22.3 EXERCISE
1. A billiard ball of radius 2.5 centimetres is rolling on a billiard table. If the centre of the ball is moving at
1 m s−1 , what is the rate at which the ball is rotating?
2. Explain what a snooker player must consider and do in order to play the perfect stun shot and discuss why
it works. (A stun shot is one in which the cue ball stops immediately at impact.)
3. A billiard cue strikes a billiard ball with a force F above the centre of the ball at a distance h up from the table
surface. The ball has mass m and radius r. The force gives the ball a rotation. The value of h can be chosen
so that the ball does not slide and only rolls straight from the impact.
h
r
The force produces a linear acceleration of the ball so that after time t, its speed is:
v=
F
t
m
The force also applies a torque so that the angular velocity, 𝜔, of the ball after time t is:
F (h − r )
𝜔= ×t=
torque
t
moment of inertia I
For rolling, v = r𝜔.
(a) Equate the expressions to show that for perfect rolling, h = r +

I
.
(b) Substitute the formula for the moment of inertia of a sphere to show that: h = 57 r.
Mr
Note: This is the design height of the cushion on a billiard table so that balls don’t slide when
they rebound.
4. A player strikes a billiard ball with a level cue at a height h, causing it to move forward with spin. Immediately
after the impact between the cue and the ball, the centre of the ball is moving at 1.2 m s−1 , while the ball
itself is rotating at 2 revolutions per second. The ball has a radius of 2 centimetres.
(a) In which direction does the frictional force due to sliding act?
A. h < 2 cm
(b) In which region must the cue have struck the ball?
B. 2 < h < 2.8 cm

C. h = 2.8 cm
D. 2.8 cm < h < 4 cm

22.4 Maximising flight

KEY CONCEPTS
• Model and describe qualitatively the energy transfers in the action of a double pendulum in at least one of
the following:
• the swing of a racquet, club, stick or bat
• the throw, pitch or hurl of a ball
• Calculate air resistance (drag) and terminal velocity: FD = 2 CD 𝜌v A.

• the kick of a ball.
1 2
• Investigate and apply theoretically and practically the equations of constant acceleration to calculate the
flight of objects through the air (neglecting air resistance) in two dimensions.
• Model and describe qualitatively the flight of:
• a ball through the air when air resistance is not neglected
• spinning sports balls with reference to the Magnus effect.
• Analyse and explain the relative influence of dynamics factors that affect the performance of equipment in
ball sports.
22.4.1 Modelling a golf swing

When you play golf, you use a long implement at the end of your arm. It is a tool applied to hit an object
across a great distance or with great speed. A tennis racket, a cricket or baseball bat, or a woomera throwing
stick achieves the same purpose.
The method applied in these cases is called a double pendulum. A single pendulum is just a rod swinging
about its end, as in figure 22.19.
FIGURE 22.19 A single pendulum can be seen in an old fashioned clock.

A double pendulum has another rod attached at the end of the first by a free hinge as in figure 22.20.
Each rod is free to move.
FIGURE 22.20 A simple double pendulum
TABLE 22.4 Double pendulum mechanisms in sports
Sport Upper rod Lower rod
Golf Straight arm Golf club
Tennis serve and backhand Upper arm Lower arm with wrist locked onto
Cricket racket or bat
Baseball
Woomera throw
Throwing a ball Upper arm Lower arm with ball in hand
Kicking a football Upper leg Lower leg
A double pendulum is also involved when a ball is thrown or a football is kicked. The mechanism is
basically the same in each action.
Initially the lower rod is bent back close to the upper rod. In the case of the golf swing, the body’s
shoulder muscles apply a torque to the upper rod, giving it an angular acceleration. The lower rod has been
bent back so that the moment of inertia of the combination of the upper and lower rods is at a minimum,
thus maximising the initial angular acceleration.
As the upper and lower rods pick up speed, the lower rod starts to swing out, increasing the angle
between the arms. Once that angle goes past 90°, other muscles now apply a torque to the lower rod,
accelerating the rotation of the lower rod.
Ideally, to achieve maximum transfer of energy to the ball, the upper rod should come to rest at the
moment of impact. However, the hinge between the upper and lower rods — the wrist in the case of a golf
swing or the elbow in the case of a tennis serve — doesn’t have 360-degree flexibility.
A fully free double pendulum is an example of a chaotic system. The behaviour of the system over time
seems unpredictable and varies with very small changes in the initial conditions.

Energy transfers in a golf swing
In golf, the equivalent components are the shoulders
FIGURE 22.21 Time lapse of the double
(acting as the fixed pivot), arms and hands (the upper pendulum motion of a golf swing
pendulum), and the club shaft and club head (the lower
pendulum). There are many factors that affect the
efficiency of a golf swing., such as the length of the club,
the player’s arm length, the mass of the club head, the
wrist-cock angle (how far backward the wrists are bent
during the swing) and whether the wrists actively twist
during the swing, resulting in wrist torque. Wrist-cock
angle
The main source of energy in a golf swing is the work
done by the torque from the muscles in the arms and the
shoulders. The amount of energy progressively builds
so that in the example below the total amount supplied is
about 240 J.
Figure 22.21 shows how the golf swing would look.
The other source of energy is the transfer of
gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy as the arms
and the club swing down. This contributes about 100 J.
These two transfers increase the kinetic energy of the arms
and of the club.
Resources
Weblink Double pendulums
22.4.2 Flight through the air

In many sports a ball is kicked or hit, travels through the air and lands or is caught some distance away,
hopefully to the player’s advantage. The motion of a ball through the air is complex. The player will often
put a spin on the ball. The shape of the ball itself will affect the motion, whether it is the raised seam of a
cricket ball or the oval shape of an AFL or rugby ball. Air resistance or drag is also a significant factor.
The study of the motion of objects through the air began with the study of the motion of cannon balls.
Not surprisingly, this subject is called ‘projectile motion’ and the word ‘projectile’ is often used as a
substitute for all objects moving through the air.
To analyse motion through the air, it is best to start with a simple situation — air resistance is zero and
the object is considered as a point object.
If a ball is thrown horizontally, the only force acting on the ball once it has been released is gravity
(ignoring air resistance). As the force of gravity is the same regardless of the motion of the ball, the ball
will still accelerate downwards at the same rate as if it were dropped. There will not be any horizontal
acceleration as there is no net force acting horizontally. This means that while the ball’s vertical velocity
will change, its horizontal velocity remains the same throughout its motion.
It is the constant horizontal velocity and changing vertical velocity that give projectiles their
characteristic parabolic motion.
In figure 22.22, notice that the vertical distance travelled by the ball in each time period increases, but
that the horizontal distance is constant.

FIGURE 22.22 Position of a ball at constant time intervals
The vertical
velocity
increases
(i.e. object
accelerates)
The horizontal velocity remains the

same (i.e. no acceleration)
Horizontal and vertical components

In modelling projectile motion, the vertical and horizontal components of the motion are treated separately.
1. The total time taken for the projectile motion is determined by the vertical part of the motion as the
projectile cannot continue to move horizontally once it has hit the ground, the target or whatever else it
might collide with.
2. This total time can then be used to calculate the horizontal distance, or range, over which thevertical
halt at its highest po projectile travels.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Imagine a helicopter is flying at a slow and steady speed of 20 m s−1 and drops a package from a
height of 100 metres.
a. Calculate how long it takes the package to hit the ground.
b. What is the range of the package?
c. Calculate the vertical distance the package has fallen after 0.5 seconds, 1 second, 1.5 seconds,
2 seconds, and so on. until the package has reached the ground. (You may like to use a
spreadsheet here.) Then calculate the corresponding horizontal distance and hence draw a scale
diagram of the package’s position at half-second intervals.
Remember, the horizontal and vertical components of the package’s motion must be considered
separately.
THINK WRITE
u = 0 m s−1 , s = 100 m, a = 10 m s−2 , t = ?

a. 1. In this part of the question a. Vertical component:
the vertical component is
s = ut + at2
important. 1
2
100 = 0 × t + (10) t2
1
2
= t2
100
t = 4.5 s
5.0

2. State the solution. It takes the package 4.5 seconds to hit the ground.
concerned only with what happens after t = 0.)

(Note: Again, the positive square root is taken as we are
b. 1. The range of the package b. Horizontal component: u = 20 m s−1 (The initial velocity of the
is the horizontal distance package is the same as the velocity of the helicopter in which it
a = 0 m s−2 (No forces act horizontally so there is no horizontal

over which it travels. It is has been travelling.)
the horizontal component
t = 4.5 s (from part (a) of this example)

of velocity that must be acceleration.)
s=?
used here.
s = ut + at2
1
= 20 × 4.5 + 0
2
= 90 m
2. State the solution. The range of the package is 90 metres.
c. 1. Create a table with the c.
Vertical component Horizontal component
u = 0 m s−1 , t = 0.5 s, u = 20 m s−1 , t = 0.5 s,

vertical and horizontal
a = 10 m s−2 , s = ? a = 0 m s−2 , s = ?
components of the
package’s motion.
s = ut + at2 s = ut + at2
1 1
= 0 × 0.5 + (10 × 0.52 ) = 20 × 0.5 + 0

2 2
1
= 10 m
= 1.3 m
2
the table for t = 1 s, 1.5 s,

2. Repeat the calculations in
Time (s) Vertical Horizontal
distance (m) distance (m)
2 s, etc. to get the vertical
and horizontal distance 0.5 1.3 10
travelled over time. 1.0 5.0 20
1.5 11 30
2.0 20 40
2.5 31 50
3.0 45 60
3.5 61 70
4.0 80 80
4.5 100 90

3. Create the scale diagram
of the package’s position.
0.0
1.2
4.9
11
20
31
Vertical distance (m)

44
60
78
99
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Horizontal distance (m)
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
A ball is thrown horizontally at a speed of 40 m s−1 from the top of a cliff into the ocean below and
takes 4 seconds to land in the water. Air resistance can be ignored.
a. What is the height of cliff above sea level if the thrower’s hand releases the ball from a
height of 2 metres above the ground?
b. What horizontal distance did the ball cover?
c. Calculate the vertical component of the velocity at which the ball hits the water.
d. At what angle to the horizontal does the ball strike the water?
Resources
Digital documents eModelling: Falling from a helicopter (doc-0005)
Investigation 22.2 Predicting the range of a projectile (doc-31919)
22.4.3 What goes up must come down

Most projectiles are set in motion with velocity. The simplest case is that of a ball thrown directly
upwards. The only force acting on the ball is that of gravity (ignoring air resistance). The ball accelerates
downwards. Initially, this results in the ball slowing down. Eventually, it comes to a halt, then begins to
move downwards, speeding up as it goes.

Notice that, when air resistance is ignored, the motion of the ball is identical whether it is going up or
coming down. The ball will return with the same speed with which it was projected. Throughout the motion
constant 10 m s−2 downwards. A common error made by physics students is to suggest that the acceleration
illustrated in figure 22.23 (and for which graphs are shown in figure 22.24), the acceleration of the ball is a
of the ball is zero at the top of its flight. If this were true, would the ball ever come down?
FIGURE 22.23 The motion of a ball FIGURE 22.24 Graphs of motion for a
projected vertically upwards ball thrown straight upwards
(a) Going up (b) Going down (a) x (m)
0 t (s)
(b) v (m s−1)
0 t (s)
v v
(c) a (m s−2)
0 t (s)
−10
FALLING BULLET
The axiom ‘what goes up must come down’ applies equally to bullets as it does to balls. Unfortunately, this
means that people sometimes get killed when they shoot guns straight up into the air. If the bullet left the gun
at a speed of 60 m s−1 , it will return to Earth at roughly the same speed. This speed is well and truly fast enough
to kill a person who is hit by the returning bullet.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A dancer jumps vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 4 m s−1 . Assume the dancer’s centre
of mass was initially 1 metre above the ground and ignore air resistance.
a. How long did the dancer take to reach her maximum height?

b. What was the maximum displacement of the dancer’s centre of mass?
c. What is the acceleration of the dancer at the top of her jump?
d. Calculate the velocity of the dancer’s centre of mass when it returns to its original height above
the ground.
u = 4.0 m s−1 , a = −10 m s−2 , v = 0 m s−1 (as the

THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the known and unknown a.
jump), t = ?
values. dancer comes to a halt at the highest point of the
v = u + at
0 = 4.0 + (−10) t
2. Recall the formula for uniform
t=
acceleration and substitute in the
known values. 4.0
= 0.40 s
10
3. State the solution. The dancer takes 0.4 seconds to reach her
b. u = 4.0 m s−1 , a = −10 m s−2 , v = 0 m s−1 (as the

highest point.
b. 1. State known and unknown values.
jump), s = ?
dancer comes to a halt at the highest point of the
v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 4.02 + 2 (−10) s
2. Recall the formula for uniform
16 m = 20s
acceleration and substitute in the
s = 0.80 m
known values.
3. State the solution. The maximum displacement of the dancer’s centre of

mass is 0.8 metres.
c. 1. State the force that is acting on the c. At the top of the jump, the only force acting on the
dancer at the top of the jump. dancer is the force of gravity (the same as at all other
points of the jump).
gravity: 10 m s−2 downwards.

2. State the solution. The acceleration of the dancer is acceleration due to
d. u = 0 m s−1 (as the dancer comes to a halt at the highest

point of the jump), a = −10 m s−2 , s = −0.80 m
d. 1. State known and unknown values.
(as the motion is downwards), v = ?

v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 02 + 2 (−10) (−0.80)
2. Only the downward motion needs
to be investigated. Recall formula
v = −4.0 m s−1
for uniform acceleration and
substitute in the known values.
(Note: Here, the negative square root is used, as the
dancer is moving downwards. Remember, the positive
and negative signs show direction only.)
returns to its original height is 4 m s−1 downwards.

3. State the solution. The velocity of the dancer’s centre of mass when it
Note: There are several ways of arriving at the same answer. As has been done in this example, it is
always good practice to minimise the use of answers from previous parts of a question. This makes
your answers more reliable, preventing a mistake made earlier from distorting the accuracy of your
later calculations.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A basketball player jumps directly upwards so that his centre of mass reaches a maximum
displacement of 50 centimetres.
a. What is the velocity of the basketballer’s centre of mass when it returns to its original height
above the ground?
b. For how long was the basketballer’s centre of mass above its original height?
HANGING IN MID AIR

Sometimes dancers, basketballers and high
jumpers seem to hang in mid air. It is as though the FIGURE 22.25 Australian high jumper Petrina
force of gravity had temporarily stopped acting on Price’s centre of mass passes under the bar, while
them. Of course this is not so! It is only the person’s her body passes over the bar!
centre of mass that moves in a parabolic path. The
arrangement of the person’s body can change the
position of the centre of mass, causing the body
to appear to be hanging in mid air even though the
centre of mass is still following its original path.
High jumpers can use this effect to increase
the height of their jumps. By bending her body as
she passes over the bar, Petrina Price can cause
her centre of mass to be outside her body! This
allows her body to pass over the bar, while her
centre of mass passes under it. The amount of
energy available to raise Petrina’s centre of mass
is limited, so she can raise her centre of mass only
by a certain amount. This technique allows her to
clear a higher bar than other techniques for the
same amount of energy.
Shooting at an angle
Generally, projectiles are shot, thrown or driven at some angle to the horizontal. In these cases the initial
velocity may be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components to help simplify the analysis of the
motion.
If the velocity and the angle to the horizontal are
FIGURE 22.26 The velocity can be resolved into a
known, the size of the components can be calculated vertical and a horizontal component.
using trigonometry.
The motion of projectiles with an initial velocity at
an angle to the horizontal can be dealt with in exactly
the same manner as those with a velocity straight up
or straight across. However, the initial velocity must
be separated into its vertical and horizontal components V
Vvertical = V sin θ
(see figure 22.26).
θ
Vhorizontal = V cos θ

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
angle of 40°) and leave the ramp travelling at 22 m s−1 . The river is 50 metres wide. Will the car
A stunt driver is trying to drive a car over a small river. The car will travel up a ramp (at an
make it?
−1
s
m
22
y=
locit
Ve
40° River 40°
50 m
THINK WRITE
1 Assign up as positive and
down as negative. Before
either part of the motion can v = 22 m s−1
vvertical = 22 sin 40°
be examined, it is important = 14 m s−1
to calculate the vertical and
horizontal components of the 40°
initial velocity. vhorizontal = 22 cos 40°
The initial vertical velocity is 14 m s−1 and the initial horizontal

= 17 m s−1
velocity is 17 m s−1 .
2 In order to calculate the
Vertical component Horizontal component
u = 17 m s−1 , t = 2.8 s
range of the car (how far it
will travel horizontally), it is (Use the first half
clear that the horizontal part of the motion — (being twice the time take
of its motion must be from take-off until the car to reach maximum height
u = 14 m s−1 , a = −10 m s−2 ,

considered. However, the has reached its highest point.) as calculated for the vertical
v = 0 m s−1 (as the car comes a = 0 m s−2 , s = ?

vertical part is also component),
s = ut
important. The vertical
= 17 × 2.8
motion is used to calculate to a vertical halt at its highest
t=? = 48 m
the time in the air. Then, the point),
v = u + at
horizontal motion is used to
0 = 14 + (−10)
calculate the range.
t= = 1.4 s
14
10
As this is only half the motion,
the total time in the air is
2.8 seconds. (It is possible
to double the time in this
situation because we have
ignored air resistance. The
two parts of the motion are
symmetrical.)
3 State the solution. The unlucky stunt driver will fall short of the second ramp and
will land in the river.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
32 km h−1 .
A hockey ball is hit towards the goal at an angle of 25° to the ground with an initial speed of
a. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity of the ball?
b. How long does the ball spend in flight?
c. What is the range of the hockey ball?
•
Tips for projectile motion calculations
•
It helps to draw a diagram.
•
Always separate the motion into vertical and horizontal components.
•
Remember to resolve the initial velocity into its components if necessary.
•
The time in flight is the link between the separate vertical and horizontal components of the motion.
At the end of any calculation, check to see if the quantities you have calculated are reasonable.
Resources
Digital documents eModelling: Free throw shooter (doc-0006)
eModelling: Modelling a stunt driver (doc-0007)
Weblink Projectile motion applet
22.4.4 Air resistance and terminal velocity

So far in this topic, the effects of air resistance have been ignored so that we can easily model projectile
motion (see figure 22.27). The reason the force of air resistance complicates matters so much is that it is not
constant throughout the motion. It depends on the velocity of the projectile, the surface area that is being hit
by the air, the type of surface and even the spin of the projectile. For objects with the same surface and spin,
air resistance increases as the speed of the object increases.
No matter what affects the amount of air resistance, one thing is always true: air resistance opposes the
motion of the projectile.
FIGURE 22.27 While the magnitude of air resistance changes throughout the motion, it always opposes the
direction of the motion.
Path of a projectile
Fa.r. with air resistance
Path of a
projectile
without air
resistance
Fg
Fa.r.
Fa.r.
Fg
Fg

The faster an object falls, the larger the upward force of air resistance becomes. In the case of the bungee
jumper, the cord also provides an increasing upward force as the cord is stretched, so the jumper eventually
stops.
Instead of a bungee jumper, imagine a skydiver who has jumped from a stationary hot air balloon (see
figures 22.28 and 22.29).
FIGURE 22.28 Forces acting on a skydiver while in free-fall
vi = 0
Air resistance
Air resistance
mg
Air resistance
Fnet = mg
a=g mg
Fnet < mg
a<g mg
Fnet < mg
a<g
mg
Fnet = 0
a=0
Terminal velocity
has been reached.
FIGURE 22.29 Forces acting on a skydiver while

parachuting
Air resistance The forces illustrated in this sequence of diagrams are
acting on the system of the skydrive and his parachute.
vWhen the parachute is open, the forces acting on the
skydrive himself are mg, the tension in the ropes and
the air resistance on his body.The forces acting on the
parachute canopy are air resistance, the downward pull
due to tension in the ropes, and its mg.
Air resistance
Air resistance
mg
Fnet = air resistance – mg

Acceletation is up. mg
Velocity is down,
but decreasing.
Fnet = air resistance – mg

Acceletation is up, mg
but small.
Velocity is down, Fnet = 0
but decreasing. a=0
Terminal velocity has
been reached.

Drag force
For balls that are hit into the air, and for other flying objects such as planes, air resistance is a significant
enough factor that it is given a specific name, the drag force.
The discussion about the skydiver describes the size of the air resistance force as increasing with speed.
In fact, at low speeds, when the air flow is even, the drag force is proportional to the speed, but at higher
speeds, when the air flow becomes turbulent, the drag force is proportional to the speed squared; that is, a
doubling of the speed results in four times the drag force.
The solid cylinder in figure 22.30 is in a moving stream of air. Let us assume that the air that hits the
The air is travelling at v m s−1 , so in 1 second the length of the air column that hits the cylinder is
front of the cylinder is brought to a stop by this impact. How much kinetic energy did this air lose?
v metres long. Let the density of air be 𝜌 kg m−3 and the area of the cylinder face A m2 .
FIGURE 22.30 A cylinder in a stream of flowing air
Density = ρ
The volume of the air column:

V = vA m3
The mass of the air column:

m = 𝜌 kg m−1 × vA m3 = 𝜌vA kg
Lost kinetic energy:
Ek = mv2
1
2
= 𝜌vA × v2
1
2
= 𝜌v3 A
1
2
force × the length of the air column, so:

But the work done by the drag force equals the lost kinetic energy and the work done also equals the drag
Fdrag × v = 𝜌v3 A
1
2
Cancelling v gives:
Fdrag = 𝜌v2 A
1
2

Finally, because the size of the drag force can be affected by specific aspects of the object such as shape
and texture, a drag coefficient, CD , for the particular object is included. The drag coefficient has no units,
like the other coefficients in this topic. The drag coefficients of different objects are given in table 22.5.
TABLE 22.5 Drag coefficients of different objects
Object Drag coefficient
Smooth sphere up to about 50 m s−1 0.47

−1
Smooth sphere above about 100 m s 0.1
Golf ball 0.23
Tennis ball (new) 0.5
Toyota Prius 0.24
Bullet 0.295
Ski jumper 1.2
Smooth brick 2.1
Airbus 380 0.0 265
Boeing 747 0.031
The full expression for the drag force is:
Fdrag = CD 𝜌v2 A
1
2
The density of air at sea level at 15 °C = 1.225 kg m−3 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
An Airbus 380 has a takeoff speed of 80 m s−1 . The area of the plane that the air ‘sees’ is 48 m2 .
What is the drag force at takeoff?
v = 80 m s–1 , A = 48 m2 , 𝜌 = 1.225 kg m−3 , CD = 0.0265

THINK WRITE
State known and unknown values.
Fdrag = CD 𝜌v2 A
1.
1
2. Recall the expression for the drag
= 0.5 × 0.0 265 × 1.225 × 802 × 42

force and substitute in the known 2
= 4986
values.
= 5000 N
3. State the solution. The drag force at take-off is 5000 N.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the drag force on the Airbus 380 when it is flying at altitude at a speed of 250 m s−1 and the
1
air density is of that at sea level.
3
22.4.5 The swerve of balls in flight

Most balls in flight spin. This may be due to the action of the club or racket at impact, or due to the action
of the player’s hand or foot making the ball spin. The result of these actions is that the ball deviates from its
normal path. It may swing left or right, dip suddenly or hold up in the air longer than expected.
The deviation is due to the fact that the movement of the air past the ball is different on one side
• the roughness of the ball’s surface

compared to the other. This difference in air flow is due to two factors:
• the spinning of the ball.

In the case of a shiny new cricket ball, the deviation produced by an opening bowler is caused by the ball
being angled in flight so that the raised seam points to the side of the direction the ball is travelling. This
creates a difference in air flow around the ball.
To explain the swerve of a ball in flight, we need to again start with a simple situation: a smooth ball that
is not spinning.
With a smooth ball that is moving slowly through the air, like one in figure 22.31, the air flows past the
ball as an even stream. The air between the lines stays between the lines as it moves around the ball as if in
a channel. The flow is steady and the amount of air passing any point in the channel will be constant. But
the lines narrow as they go around the ball, so the air must speed up as the channel narrows and slow down
again as the channel widens.
FIGURE 22.31 Flow diagram of a ball travelling through still air
A B
Note: The convention in drawing flow lines around a ball is to draw the ball as being stationary and the air flowing from the left. This
is the same as if the ball was moving to the left through still air.
The same happens with water in a river. Where the river is wide and deep, the water moves slowly, and
where the river is shallow and narrow, the water moves fast.
The air moving fast around the ball now has greater kinetic energy. Where has the kinetic energy come
from? The explanation is air pressure.
In a gas, the molecules are bouncing around. In a contained volume, this bouncing off the walls produces
an outward force on the wall. The size of this force divided by the area of the wall gives the pressure of
the gas.

The air pressure away from the ball is higher at B than at C and D. This pressure difference exerts a force
on the air, increasing its speed. Then, once the air is past C and D, it slows down back to its normal speed.
The spacing of the lines at A and B indicates that the air is almost stationary with a higher pressure.
The relationship between pressure and kinetic energy was established by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738
when he applied Newton’s laws of motion to the flow of gases and liquids. His work became the basis
of aerodynamics. Daniel was one of eight Bernoullis across three generations who were extremely gifted
mathematicians and physicists.
22.4.6 A spinning rough ball

If the ball is spinning and the surface is rough, then the rough surface that is moving in the same direction
as the air can take the layer of air close to the surface with it as the surface rotates and speed it up. This
speeding up lowers the pressure of this air.
The rough surface on the other side of the ball is rotating into the air and slows down the layer of air
close to the surface. This slowing down increases the pressure of this air.
The difference in pressure on opposite sides of the ball results in a net force from the high-pressure side
towards the low-pressure side. This effect is called the Magnus effect. It is named after Gustav Magnus,
who investigated the phenomenon and fully described it in 1852. However, Isaac Newton had described it in
1672 and correctly explained it after observing a tennis match.
Consider figure 22.32a. The ball is travelling anticlockwise. The air at the top of the ball is travelling
faster and so is at a lower pressure. The air at the bottom is travelling slower and is at a higher pressure. The
upward force on the bottom is greater than the downward force on the top. Therefore, the net force is up.
Consider figure 22.32b. The ball is travelling clockwise. The air at the bottom of the ball is travelling
faster and so is at a lower pressure. The air at the top is travelling slower and is at a higher pressure. The
downward force on the top is greater than the upward force on the bottom. Therefore, the net force is down.
The convention is to draw flow lines around the ball as if it is stationary. The air is flowing from the right.
This is the same as if the ball was moving to the right through still air.
FIGURE 22.32 The Magnus effect is causing these balls to move in opposite directions due to their opposite
spins, the ball in each figure is travelling from left to right through the air.
(a) (b)
Figure 22.32 has no labels — no up or down and no left or right. That is because the figures apply to a
variety of configurations.

Looking again at figure 22.32a, if the view is from the side and the ball is travelling to the right, the spin
of the ball is back spin and the effect of the force is to hold the ball up in the air. The shape of the head of
a golf club gives the ball under spin or back spin (see figure 22.33). The upward force initially counteracts
the gravitational force and the ball travels in a straight line into the air. The ball stays in the air longer and
travels further.
If the view is from above, the spin of the ball is side spin, with the ball spinning anticlockwise when
viewed from above the ball. The soccer player in figure 22.34 kicks the ball on its right side. The spin
curves the ball around the blocking players and into the goal.
FIGURE 22.33 During impact with the club head, the golf ball rolls up the face and leaves the club with back
spin. A driver can achieve a rotation of 50 revolutions per second, whereas a 7-iron imparts about 130 revolutions
per second.
o
lus
Tu
1
o
us
Tuluso Tul
1 1
1. Initial sliding 2. Compression, rolling 3. Rebound and release
FIGURE 22.34 The Magnus effect causes the ball to swerve around the wall and into the goal.

Looking again at figure 22.32b, if the view is from the side and the ball is travelling to the right, the spin
of the ball is top spin and the effect of the force is to cause the ball to dip suddenly as in figure 22.35.
FIGURE 22.35 The racket is angled forward before impact and rolls over the top of the ball during impact.
In figure 22.36a, the spin of the ball is side spin, with the ball spinning clockwise when viewed from
above the ball. If the golf club hits the ball with the face angled, as in figure 22.36b, the ball is made to spin
and for this golfer the ball will swing away to the right.
FIGURE 22.36 (a) The angle between the swing path and the club face will give clockwise side spin to the ball.
(b) A larger angle between the swing path and the club face will result in increased side spin.
Swing path Swing path
Club face angle Club face angle

(a) (b)

THE BALL OF THE CENTURY
The ‘ball of the century’ was bowled by Shane Warne in a cricket match on 4 June 1993 to dismiss Mike Gatting
of England. The flight and bounce of the ball have become legend.
A cricket ball is normally spun as in figure 22.37a. The ball changes direction when it bounces, deceiving the
batter. The sides of the spinning ball are moving at right angles to the movement of air past the ball, so there is no
Magnus effect.
FIGURE 22.37 (a) A normal spinning ball as viewed by the bowler. The axis of rotation is horizontal and into
the page, pointing towards the batter at the other end. The air is rushing past the ball out of the page. There
is no Magnus effect. (b) When the spinning ball lands and grips the ground, it pushes sideways against the
ground, producing a frictional force to the left. (c) The frictional force causes the bouncing ball to change
direction and move to the left.
(a) (b) (c)
v v
Static friction
However, in the case of the ball of the century, there was movement in the air to the right of several centimetres
before the ball bounced back to the left. The movement through the air was due to the Magnus effect, but how
was it achieved?
Shane Warne must have bowled the ball so that the axis of rotation was tilted up slightly.
The effect of the rotation and the tilt is that the face of the ball shown in figure 22.38 is moving into the air flow,
slowing it down and increasing its pressure. On the other side of the ball, the surface is spinning up and moving
with the air flow, increasing its speed and decreasing its pressure. This pressure difference produces the Magnus
effect and the sideways movement of the ball, which in the context of figure 22.37 will be into the page.
FIGURE 22.38 View of the ball from the left of figure 22.37. The face of the ball in this figure is spinning
down, but the axis is tilted up slightly.
Axis of rotation
Air flow
The spin rate that Shane Warne was able to achieve with his fingers was so large that even with a small tilt of
the axis, there was enough sideways force to move the ball.
22.4 EXERCISE
1. Describe the energy changes that occur during a backhand return in tennis.
2. Describe the energy changes that occur when a football is kicked.

3. In each of the cases shown here, calculate the magnitude of the vertical and horizontal components of
the velocity.
(a) (b) (c)
23°
V = 20 m s–1
V = 11 m s–1
V = 5 m s–1
50°
(d) V = 10 km h–1 (e)
60°
V = 33 m s–1
4. Explain why the horizontal component of velocity remains the same when a projectile’s motion is modelled.
5. While many pieces of information relating to the vertical and horizontal parts of a particular projectile’s
motion are different, the time is always the same. Explain why this is so.
6. A ball falls from the rooftop tennis court of an inner city building. This tennis court is 150 metres above the
street below. (Assume the ball has no initial velocity and ignore air resistance.)
(a) How long would the ball take to hit the street?
(b) What would the vertical velocity of the ball be just prior to hitting the ground?
7. After taking a catch, a cricketer throws the ball up into the air in jubilation.
(a) The vertical velocity of the ball as it leaves his hands is 18 m s−1 . How long will the ball take to return to
its original position?
(b) What was the ball’s maximum vertical displacement?
(c) Draw vectors to indicate the net force on the ball (ignoring air resistance):
i. the instant it left the cricketer’s hands
ii. at the top of its flight
iii. as it returns to its original position.
8. The metal shell of a wrecked car (mass 500 kg) is dropped from a height of 10 metres when the
electromagnet holding it is turned off.
(a) What was the vertical component of the velocity of the car just before it hit the ground?
(b) How long did the car take to fall?
(c) If the electromagnet was moving horizontally at a constant speed of 0.5 m s−1 as it was turned off, how
far (horizontally) did the car land from the point at which it was dropped?
(d) What was the velocity of the car just before it hit the ground? Include a direction in your answer.
(e) What was the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on the car:
i. while it was attached to the moving electromagnet
9. For a sphere moving through air, the drag force has the expression Fdrag = 21 CD 𝜌v2 A. Explain each of the
ii. while it was falling?
terms in the expression.

10. A cube-shaped parcel of flour with a volume about the size of a refrigerator is dropped from a height of
500 metres from a helicopter travelling horizontally at a speed of 20 m s−1 .
(a) Describe the effects of air resistance on:
i. the horizontal component of the motion of the parcel
ii. the vertical component of motion of the parcel.

10. A cube-shaped parcel of flour with a volume about the size of a refrigerator is dropped from a height of
500 metres from a helicopter travelling horizontally at a speed of 20 m s−1 .
(a) Describe the effects of air resistance on:
i. the horizontal component of the motion of the parcel
ii. the vertical component of motion of the parcel.
(b) Which of the horizontal or vertical components of the motion of the parcel is likely to experience the
greater air resistance during:
i. the first 2 seconds of its fall
ii. the final 2 seconds of its fall?
Give reasons for each answer.

Resources
Digital document eModelling: Skydiver spreadsheet (doc-0054)
Video eLesson Air resistance (eles-0035)
22.5 Review
•
22.5.1 Summary
The coefficient of restitution, e, of an impact between two objects is the ratio of their speed or
•
separation to their speed of approach.
•
The coefficient of restitution, e, equals 1 for an elastic collision and 0 for a sticky collision.
When the definition for the coefficient of restitution, e, is combined with the principle of the
•
conservation of momentum, an expression for the final speed of the target ball can be obtained.
The expression for the final speed of the target ball can be examined to determine the effect of
•
increased mass and speed of the incident object as well as the mass of the target ball.
A collision between two billiard balls can be considered elastic. The stationary target ball moves in a
direction along a line connecting the centres of the two balls at the moment of impact. The incident
•
ball moves off in a direction at right angles to the target ball motion.
but there is no movement. The maximum value of static friction is given by 𝜇 s N, where 𝜇 s is the
Static friction is the frictional force between two surfaces when one is being pushed across the other
•
coefficient of static friction and can take a value between 0 and 1 and N is the reaction force.
kinetic friction is given by 𝜇 k N, where 𝜇 k is the coefficient of kinetic friction and can take a value
Kinetic friction is the frictional force between two surfaces when there is movement. The value of
between 0 and 1, and N is the reaction force. For any two surfaces, 𝜇 k is less than 𝜇 s .
•
•
Kinetic friction is a retarding force on a sliding object.
Rolling friction is considerably less than kinetic friction, because there are no sideways forces between
the surfaces. Rolling friction is due to the contact surface not fully rebounding from being squashed by
the rolling object.

• The motion of a rotating object can be described using the physical quantities angular speed, 𝜔, and
angular acceleration, 𝛼, which are defined as:
∆𝜃
𝜔=
∆t
and
∆𝜔
𝛼=
∆t
• The relation between angular speed, 𝜔, and linear speed, v, is v = r𝜔.

• The rotational equivalent of mass is called the moment of inertia, I. Its value depends of how the
mass is distributed around the axis of rotation. The moment of inertia for a sphere and a cylinder are
• The rotational equivalent of force is torque, 𝜏.

different.
• The rotational equivalent of Newton’s second law is 𝜏 = I𝛼.

• Kinetic friction acts on a sliding ball in two ways. The friction reduces the linear speed of the sliding
v, and the angular speed, 𝜔, satisfy the relationship v = r𝜔, the ball stops sliding and begins to roll.
ball. The friction also applies a torque to the ball, increasing its angular speed. When the linear speed,
• Many sporting actions can be modelled as a double pendulum, in which two straight, jointed sections
can move independently. In most actions the energy begins in the inner arm and during the action is
transferred to the outer arm.
Fdrag = CD 𝜌v2 A
1
•
2
Air resistance is a retarding force that acts on objects moving through the air. For most objects and
most speeds, the air resistance is proportional to the square of the speed. The drag coefficient, CD , is a
given by, where 𝜌 is the air density and A is the cross sectional area of the object.
measure of the air resistance due to the surface of an object. The air resistance or drag force can be
• For falling objects, the air resistance acts against the gravitational force. Initially, at low speeds, the air
resistance is small, but as the downward speed increases, the air resistance increases to the point where
it balances the gravitational force and acceleration becomes zero. The speed at this point is called the
•
terminal velocity.
•
For the flight of an object, air resistance will reduce the maximum height and the range.
The air flow on opposite sides of a ball can be affected by spinning the ball or by making one side
rougher than the other. These can affect the speed on one side of the ball compared to the other. On the
side where the speed of the air flow is increased, the air pressure is less. On the side where the air
speed is less, the air pressure is greater. The difference in pressure produces a sideways force on the
ball. This effect is called the Magnus effect.
Resources

22.5.2 Key terms
The coefficient of restitution (COR) of an impact between two objects equals the ratio of the speed of their
separation to the speed of their approach.
An elastic collision is one where momentum and kinetic energy are both conserved.
An inelastic collision is one where only momentum is conserved but not kinetic energy.
The Magnus effect is the difference in pressure on opposite sides of the ball results in a net force from the high-
pressure side towards the low-pressure side.
The moment of inertia is the rotational equivalent of mass.
Sliding or kinetic friction is when two systems are in contact and moving relative to one another.
Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest.
Resources
Investigation 22.1
Friction
Aim: To observe differences in friction when a wooden block is pulled across a
surface

Investigation 22.2
Predicting the range of a projectile
Aim: To predict the range (i.e. the horizontal distance travelled) of a projectile with a known initial horizontal velocity,
and then to test the prediction
Resources
22.5 Exercises
1. A tennis ball is dropped from a height of 1.5 metres onto a concrete footpath. The height of the rebound
is 60 centimetres. What is the COR?
A. 0.63
B. 0.40
C. 6.32
D. 1.58

struck it is travelling towards goal at 2.5 m s−1 and the speed of the stick upon impact is 9 m s−1 . The
2. A hockey player runs towards goal and shoots the ball towards into the bottom corner. When the ball is
A. 3.6 m s−1
COR is 0.40. What is the speed of the ball as it leaves the stick?
B. 5.1 m s−1
C. 9.1 m s−1
D. 11.6 m s−1
3. What is the angular speed of a cricket ball that is spinning at 39 revolutions per second?
A. 225 radians per second
B. 239 radians per second
C. 245 radians per second
A car that is travelling at 100 km h−1 has wheels of diameter 60 centimetres. What is the angular speed
D. 257 radians per second
4.
of the car wheels?
A. 1.67 radians per second
B. 92.6 radians per second
C. 46.3 radians per second
D. 33.3 radians per second
5. The aerodynamic drag coefficient is a measure of the effectiveness of a streamline aerodynamic body
shape in reducing the air resistance to the forward motion of a vehicle. What does a low drag coefficient
imply?
A. The streamline shape of the vehicle’s body is such that it enables it to stop through the surrounding
viscous air with the maximum of resistance.
B. The streamline shape of the vehicle’s body is such that it enables it to stop easily through the
surrounding viscous air with the minimum of resistance.
C. The streamline shape of the vehicle’s body is such that it enables it to move through the surrounding
viscous air with the maximum of resistance.
D. The streamline shape of the vehicle’s body is such that it enables it to move easily through the
surrounding viscous air with the minimum of resistance.
6. As the skydiver falls, he encounters the force of air resistance. When is the skydiver said to have
reached a terminal velocity?
A. When the force of air resistance is greater than the force of gravity
B. When the force of air resistance is equal to the force of gravity
C. When the force of air resistance is less than the force of gravity
D. When there is only force of gravity
7. Which section of the following graph shows kinetic, or sliding, friction?
Friction graph for a 100 N box
60
50
Friction in newtons
b c
40
20
0 20 40 50 60 80
Applied force Fp in newtons

Section a
A.
B. Section b
C. Section c
D. Section a and c
8. What is the difference between the double and simple pendulum?
A. A single pendulum has just one rod swinging about its end whereas a double pendulum has two rods
attached at the end of the first by a free hinge.
B. A single pendulum has two rods swinging about its end whereas a double pendulum has three
swinging about its end.
C. A double pendulum has just one rod swinging about its end whereas a single pendulum has another
rod attached at the end of the first by a free hinge.
D. A single pendulum has just one rod swinging about its end whereas a double pendulum has another
rod attached at the end of the first by a free hinge.
9. What is the speed and acceleration of the free-falling ball at its highest point?
B. Speed will be zero and acceleration will be 9.8 m s−2 .

A. Speed will be maximum and acceleration will be maximum.
C. Speed will be maximum and acceleration will be 9.8 m s−2 .

D. Speed will be zero and acceleration will be -9.8 m s−2 .
10. What is the Magnus effect?
A. An effect that causes a ball to stop swerving in the direction of the spin
B. An effect that causes a spinning ball to swerve in the direction of the spin
C. An effect that causes a spinning ball to stop
D. An effect that causes a spinning ball to swerve in an opposite direction of the spin

1. A basketball rebounds at 30 m s−1 after it hits the floor. Calculate the COR if it has lost 10 m s−1 speed
in the bounce.
2. A 75-kilogram skydiver descending head first will have an area approximately 0.18 m2 . If the density of
air is 1.21 kg m−3 and the drag coefficient is 0.70, calculate the maximum terminal velocity of the
skydiver in km h−1 .
3. A car is travelling along the freeway at a speed of 100 km h−1 . Seeing an accident ahead, the driver
slams on the brakes. A tissue box flies forward from the back shelf.
a. Explain, in terms of Newton’s laws, why the tissue box continued to move when the car stopped.
b. What was the velocity of the tissue box as it left the shelf?
c. The tissue box flew through the interior of the car and hit the windscreen, a horizontal distance of
2.5 m from the back shelf. What vertical distance had the tissue box fallen in this time? State any
assumptions that you have made in modelling the motion of the box.
d. Why is it important to secure all items when travelling in a car?
4. A friend wants to get into the Guinness Book of Records by jumping over 11 people on his push bike.
each person to lay down in. In practice attempts, he has averaged a speed of 7 m s−1 at the end of the
He has set up two ramps, as shown in the following figure and has allowed a space of 0.5 metres for
ramp. Will you lay down as the eleventh person between the ramps?
45°
You

5. You have entered the javelin event in your school athletics competition. Not being a naturally talented
thrower, you decide to use your brain to maximise your performance. Using your understanding of the
principles of projectile motion, decide on the best angle to release your javelin. Back up your answer
A skateboarder jumps a horizontal distance of 2 metres, taking off at a speed of 5 m s−1 . The jump
with calculations.
6.
takes 0.42 seconds to complete.
a. What was the skateboarder’s initial horizontal velocity?
b. What was the angle of take-off?
c. What was the maximum height above the ground reached during the jump?
7. What would happen to the skydiver in the figure 22.28 they pulled their arms and legs to their chest?
8. If a baseball of mass 0.145 kilograms is thrown so that the pressure on the left side of the ball is 0.3%
greater than the pressure on the right side of the ball, calculate the distance the ball swings in the air if
the flight time is 0.5 seconds. Note: The diameter of a baseball is 7 centimetres.
9. Explain, by using a labelled diagram showing flow lines, that a ball moving through the air with back
spin will experience an upward force.
10. Shots played with top spin are very popular in tennis. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
hitting the ball with top spin. Suggest modifications the player may need to make apart from applying
top spin in order that the shot may be more effective.

A carousel with a radius of 5 metres, completes one full revolution in 40 seconds. Calculate the:
a. angular speed of the carousel 1 mark
b. speed of a person on the outside of the carousel. 1 mark
A skier with a mass of 62 kilograms is sliding down a snowy slope. Calculate the coefficient of kinetic
friction for the skier if the friction if known to be 45.0 N.
During practice, a young soccer player shoots for goal. The short goalkeeper is able to stop the ball only
9.8 m s−1 . The arrangement of the players is shown here.

if it is more than 30 centimetres beneath the cross-bar. The ball is kicked at an angle of 45° and a speed of
0.30 m
2.0 m
s –1
m
8
9.
=
V
45°
7.0 m
a. How long does it take the ball to reach the top of its flight? 2 marks
b. How far vertically and horizontally has the ball travelled at this time? 2 marks
c. How long does it take the ball to reach the soccer net from the top of its flight? 2 marks
d. Will the ball go into the soccer net, over it, or will the goalkeeper stop it? 2 marks

A cricket ball has a mass of 150 grams and a radius of 30 millimetres. The air density is 1.25 kg m−3 and
the drag coefficient is 0.4. Calculate the terminal velocity of the ball.
A ball is hit in such a way as to give it a rotation about an axis. The ball swings away to the left as it goes
away from the hitter.
a. Using a clear diagram, explain the air flow around the ball and the origin of the force. 4 marks
b. If the force is reasonably constant during the motion, describe how the path would appear from
above. 1 marks

Test maker

23 How does the human body

use electricity?
23.1 Overview
23.1.1 Introduction
Many important discoveries in the history of electricity came from observations of electrical behaviour
in animals and humans. There are recorded instances from 46 CE of the use of electric shock therapy to
treat headaches. The source of the electric shock was the electric discharge from the tornado fish! In 1781
Luigi Galvani demonstrated that a frog’s leg could be made to twitch using electrical energy. Galvani’s
work inspired Alessandro Volta to further investigate the source of the electrical energy affecting the frog’s
leg, leading to the development of the first batteries. Thomas Green, an anaesthetist in the late nineteenth
century, discovered that he could restart a sedated patient’s heart by discharging a 300 V battery across the
patient’s chest. Today, knowledge of electrical processes in the human body is leading to medical advances
in the treatment of paraplegia and degenerative brain and muscle disease. In this topic, you will learn
how and why the human body responds to electrical stimuli, and the roles electrical processes perform in
essential body systems such as the heart and the nervous system.
FIGURE 23.1 An artist’s impression of neurons in the brain carrying electrical impulses
TOPIC 23 How does the human body use electricity? 1

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Electrical signals in the human body
+ + 2+ 2+ 3− −
• compare charge carriers in the human body (specifically Na , K , Ca , Mg , PO4 and Cl ions) with
those in metals (specifically electrons)
• describe the nervous system as the control of the function of the human body through electrical processes
of nerve cells (through an action potential) and chemical transfer between nerve cells (through
neurotransmitters diffusing across synapses)
• describe electrical signalling in the body as occurring through electrical pulses
• model an action potential as a short lasting electrical event across the cell membrane in response to a
stimulus, including reference to the roles of ion channels (leakage and voltage gated) in changing
membrane potentials during the processes of depolarisation, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation and return to
resting state
• explain heart beat with reference to the production of a potential difference
• model heart beat with reference to the action of the nodes in a trial and ventricular muscles as the source of
the electric signal, the staggering of signals from the a trial and ventricular muscles, and time delay before
both muscles can contract again
Effects of electricity applied to the body
• describe the general principle of operation of artificial stimulators such as heart pacemakers and cochlear
implants
• describe the effects of current through, and potential difference across, the human body
• relate various sensations (tingling, taste) to amplitude of current flowing through the body
• explain how a defibrillator works by storing electric charge for rapid production of large-amplitude current
to restore heart rhythm
Applications of electricity involving the human body
• apply concepts of resistance and capacitance to current and the frequency of pulses (time constant for
charging and discharging, 𝜏 = RC)
• apply concepts of current, resistance, potential difference (voltage drop), capacitance and power to the
V
human body (quantitative analysis restricted to use of I = and P = VI)
R
• explain why people have different electrical resistances with reference to comparison of the resistances
inhuman bone, fat, muscle, nerves and skin
• apply electricity concepts to describe one of:
• use of potential difference in biomedical diagnosis with reference to electrocardiograms (ECGs)
and/or electroencephalographs (EEGs)
• the galvanic skin response and its use in polygraphs and/or biotherapy feedback devices
• neuroplasticity after spinal cord injury and use of activity-based therapies
• use of the brain, through activated muscles, to control remote devices
• cauterisation of wounds through resistive heating
• action potentials involved in detecting light by photoreceptors (three types of cones for colour;
rods for detecting light and dark changes, shapes and movement).


Resources
23.2 Electrical signals in the human body

KEY CONCEPT
+ + 2+ 2+ 3- −
• Compare charge carriers in the human body (specifically Na , K , Ca , Mg , PO4 and Cl ions) with
those in metals (specifically electrons).
The human body is composed of approximately 60% water, in which there are many dissolved ionic
salts. Consequently, bodily fluids contain charged particles such as Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ , PO4 3− and
Cl− . These ions play critical roles in the function of cells. In this subtopic we look at how the response
of ions to electric forces allows electrical currents to flow in the body. We also describe how the naturally
occurring imbalance of charge between the inside and outside of human cells results in an electrical
potential difference, a phenomenon that is the basis of the function of the human nervous system.
23.2.1 Why do humans conduct electricity?

We know that metals are good conductors of electricity. When electrical forces are applied to metals, the
valence electrons move in response. The freedom of charged particles to move in response to electrical
forces is known as their mobility. The greater the mobility of charged particles in a material, the better the
material conducts electricity.
Human bodily fluids contain many charged particles, namely dissolved ions such as Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ ,
Mg2+ , PO4 3− and Cl− , that play very important roles in cell function. However, the mobility of these
ions is 50 000 times smaller than that of metal valence electrons. They are also present in much smaller
concentrations that valence electrons in metals. Nevertheless, the ions in bodily fluids still enable electrical
currents to flow through the body. If you place a 9 V battery on your tongue, you experience a tingling
sensation. Your tongue is acting like a wire, connecting the positive and negative terminals of the battery.
However, in a metal wire, valence electrons carry the current; in this case, the ions in your saliva and tongue
tissue carry the current.
23.2.2 Charges, electrical potential and human cells

Human cells come in many shapes and sizes, but they all share the same basic structure illustrated in
figure 23.2. The structure of the cell is the key to understanding the electrical behaviour of cells. The cell
boundary is formed by the cell membrane, a constantly renewing double layer of molecules called lipids.
The lipids are interspersed with proteins. The proteins are extremely important because they control the
passage of molecules across the cell membrane. The proteins create channels through the membrane and
control the function of the cell. The interior of the cell contains cytoplasm (a term encompassing the clear,
jelly-like fluid inside the cell and any additional organelles) and the cell nucleus.

FIGURE 23.2 Basic elements of a human cell
Phospholipid
Cell membrane lipid bilayer
Phospholipid
Cytoplasm Cell membrane
Cell Protein
Nucleus
Rather surprisingly, all human cells in their resting or unstimulated state are slightly negatively charged
on the inside of the cell and slightly positively charged on the outside of the cell. The fact that the inside of
the cell membrane has a small negative charge and the outside of the cell membrane has a small positive
charge is referred to as the cell’s polarisation. When charged objects are held apart, there is an electrical
potential difference between them. A negative potential difference means that the charges are attracted to
each other; a positive potential difference means that the charges repel each other. The excess positively
charged ions on the outside of the cell membrane are attracted to the excess negatively charged ions on the
inside of the cell, so there is a negative potential difference between the outside and inside of the cell.
This potential difference is called the resting potential
difference of the cell. FIGURE 23.3 The resting potential
difference across the membrane of an
The difference in charge and the resulting electrical unstimulated cell. A potassium ion is moving
potential across the cell membrane is due to the large out of the cell through a protein channel
difference in the concentration of the ions on the inside and at the top of the diagram. (The orange ‘A’s
outside of the membrane, combined with the significant are proteins and other negatively charged
difference in the ability of the various ions to pass from one organic molecules that don’t cross the
membrane.)
side of the membrane to the other.
For nerve cells, the concentration of Na+ outside a cell is Cell membrane
typically 10 times greater than its concentration inside the
cell, whereas the opposite is the case for K+ . This can be
seen in the schematic diagram in figure 23.3. The diagram
shows the membrane of a nerve cell. The intracellular fluid
is on the inside of the membrane and the extracellular fluid
is on the outside of the membrane. The diagram also shows
a protein channel allowing potassium ions to leak out of
the cell. The natural tendency of the K+ and Na+ ions is
to diffuse into regions of lower concentration. Na+ ions,
in particular, try to enter the cell, but they are strongly
hindered by the cell membrane. Remember, the passage
Extracellular Intracellular
of ions across the membrane is controlled by the protein
Charge separation Across membrane
channels. There are a small number of leaky channels
that allow Na+ ions to diffuse in to the cell and K+ ions to Ion concentration gradients
diffuse out of the cell. Left alone, the cell would eventually Na+
depolarise, meaning that the difference in charge across the K+
membrane would gradually reduce to zero. However, Cl –

the membrane contains ATP (adinose triphosphate), a molecule that acts as a chemically powered pump,
transforming to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and simultaneously transferring three Na+ ions out of the
cell and two K+ ions into the cell. The ATP pump maintains the charge imbalance and resting potential
difference of about −70 mV across the membrane. Interestingly, the charge imbalance, or polarisation,
underlying the potential difference is only about 0.01% of the total concentration of ions present.
Resources
Digital documents Investigation 23.1 Conductance (doc-31920)
Investigation 23.2 More on electrical potential (doc-31921)
Teacher-led video Investigation 23.1 Conductance (tlvd-0865)
23.2.3 Electrical stimulus and cells

Although all cells have a resting electrical potential difference or voltage across the membrane, only some
cells are excitable. An excitable cell is a cell that responds to stimulus by changing the electrical potential
difference across the membrane. Excitable cells include muscle and nerve cells. In an excitable cell, some
of the protein channels are voltage gated. Voltage-gated channels switch between an open or closed state,
depending upon the potential difference across the cell membrane.
For example, when a sperm fertilises an egg cell, there is a change in the potential of the egg cell’s
membrane. The channels allowing sperm across the membrane are initially open but close in response to
the potential change, ensuring that only one sperm fertilises the egg.
23.2 EXERCISE
1. List two ions essential to the function of nerve cells and describe their role.
2. When electrical forces are applied to a conducting material, the charge carriers move. What is the term used
to describe how easily the charge carriers can move?
3. Electrons in Ag have a mobility of 56 cm2 V−1 s−1 at 27 °C. Na+ ions have a mobility of 5.2 × 10−4 cm2 V−1 s−1
in extracellular fluid.
(a) Which charge carriers move faster in response to an applied potential difference?
(b) The resistivity of Ag is 1.59 × 10−8 Ω m, whereas the resistivity of extracellular fluid is approximately
20 Ω m, or 1000 million times larger. List two factors that result in the significantly smaller resistivity of
Ag compared to extracellular fluid.
4. Describe the basic structural elements of a human cell.
5. Give two reasons why the Na+ ions in the extracellular fluid try to enter the unstimulated cell.
6. How do proteins located in the cell membrane affect cell function?
7. Describe the role of the ATP pump in maintaining the resting cell potential difference.
8. The resting potential difference across cells varies for different types of cells, from −60 mV for smooth
muscle cells to 95 mV for skeletal muscle cells. Explain how the resting potential difference across a cell can
be made more negative.


23.3 Electrical signalling and the nervous system
KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe the nervous system as the control of the function of the human body through electrical processes
of nerve cells (through an action potential) and chemical transfer between nerve cells (through
neurotransmitters diffusing across synapses).
• Describe electrical signalling in the body as occurring through electrical pulses.
• Describe the general principle of operation of artificial stimulators such as cochlear implants.
• Model an action potential as a short lasting electrical event across the cell membrane in response to a
stimulus, including reference to the roles of ion channels (leakage and voltage gated) in changing
membrane potentials during the processes of depolarisation, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation and return to
resting state.
• Apply electricity concepts to describe action potentials involved in detecting light by photo receptors (three
types of cones for colour; rods for detecting light and dark changes, shapes and movements).
• Apply concepts of resistance and capacitance to current and the frequency of pulses (time constant for
charging and discharging, 𝜏 = RC).
The nervous system is an extraordinary information superhighway, transferring both information from
sensory receptors to the brain and control signals to muscles and body systems. In this subtopic we describe
the basic electrical response of a cell to stimulation, namely the formation of an electrical pulse called the
action potential. Not all cells respond to stimulus by producing an electrical signal, however, those that do,
such as muscle and nerve cells, are known as excitable cells. Here we explain how the action potential is
able to be formed and transmitted electrically along nerve cells, or neurons. This process is at the core of
the functioning of the nervous system.
23.3.1 The nervous system

The building blocks of the nervous system are nerve cells, also called neurons, and support cells known as
glial cells.
There are three types of neurons. Sensory neurons respond to receptors of sensations such as taste and
touch. They then transmit an electrical signal along the neuron to the nerve cell body, which sends the
signal on for processing in the brain. Motor neurons respond to brain stimuli by transmitting electrical
signals along the nerve cell body to muscle cells, causing contraction of muscle fibres. Interneurons handle
the communication between the sensory and motor neurons.
What does a nerve cell look like?

A nerve cell or neuron is made up of dendrites, the cell body (or soma) and the axon (see figure 23.4).
Dendrites surround the cell body, which in turn is connected to a long cylindrical section called the axons.
Some axons are covered by sections of insulating sheaths known as myelin, which enhance the propagation
of electrical signals along the nerve cell. The myelin sheaths are formed from a type of glial cell known as
the Schwann cell. The axons are connected to sensory receptors or synaptic terminals, depending on the
neuron function.
Synapses lie between neurons and other neurons or muscle fibres. They enable transfer of chemical
signals. The pre-synaptic terminal on one side of the synapse releases chemicals called neurotransmitters,
which cross the synapse to the post-synaptic terminal on the other side of the synapse. The internal transfer
of information in nerve cells is electrical.
All nerve cell bodies are located in the spinal cord or the brain, making the axon that gathers sensory
input from your big toe over 1 metre long!
So what is the difference between a nerve cell and a nerve? Nerves are bundles of axons. The electrical
pulse transmitted along the axon is called the action potential and is the key to understanding the electrical
transmission of nervous impulses in the body, muscle contraction, and indeed the behaviour of any
excitable cell.

FIGURE 23.4 The nerve cell consists of dendrites surrounding the cell body, which is in turn connected to a long
cylindrical section called an axon.
Mitochondrion
Cell Nucleus
body
Axon
Myelin sheath terminal
Node of Ranvier Synapse

Dendrite
Schwann
cell
Axon
Resources
Weblink Parts of a nerve cell quiz
23.3.2 Electrical pulses in the body: the action potential

The action potential is an electrical voltage pulse that is produced at the point where the cell membrane is
stimulated. The pulse is caused by the charge difference across the membrane changing due to ions flowing
in and out of the cell. An action potential event is illustrated in figure 23.5.
FIGURE 23.5 The sequence of activation of membrane channels during an action potential
Action potential
Outer space
Cell
Resting potential Depolarisation Repolarisation Back to resting potential

Initially, the cell membrane is at its resting potential, polarised, with the inside of the cell membrane
slightly negatively charged with respect to the outside of the cell membrane. The cell is stimulated by a
current of Na+ ions entering the cell at a particular point. As the Na+ ions enter the cell, the magnitudes
of the charge difference and potential difference across the cell decrease, causing the cell to depolarise. If
the magnitude of the potential difference decreases by more than about 8 mV, suddenly the voltage-gated
channels allowing Na+ to cross the membrane open, allowing Na+ ions to flood into the cell, which in turn
rapidly accelerates the depolarisation of the cell.
As the Na+ ions rush in, the inside of the cell membrane actually becomes positively charged compared
to the outside, and the Na+ gates deactivate or close. Meanwhile, the change in cell membrane potential
causes voltage-gated K+ channels to open, so that K+ ions move rapidly out of the cell, reducing the excess
of positive charge inside the cell and repolarising the membrane. Once the cell membrane potential drops
below a threshold value, the K+ gates also close. By the end of repolarisation, the membrane potential
difference has overshot the resting membrane potential, a state referred to as hyperpolarisation; however,
the ATP pump gradually restores the original state of the cell. The total time taken for the membrane to
depolarise and repolarise again at the point of stimulus is about 2 milliseconds for a nerve cell.
FIGURE 23.6 The change in the membrane potential during an action potential
Action potential
mV
+40
Repo
risation
larisa
Depola
tion
–70
Refractory period
0 Time (ms)
1 2 3 4 5
The action potential requires a certain threshold stimulus to cause the sodium gates to open in the first
place. Unless sufficient stimulus is applied, there will be no action potential. Once the action potential
has started, increasing the stimulus does not affect the size of the action potential, as the sodium gates are
already open. When the sodium gates are in the inactivated phase during repolarisation of the cell, they are
unable to be restimulated, creating a rest or refractory period before the membrane can respond to the next
stimulus. If the cell receives a stimulus that makes it more negatively charged, it is called hyperpolarised.
This means that a larger stimulus will be required to initiate an action potential.
Resources
Weblink Simulation of propagation of action potential

23.3.3 How electrical pulses move along nerve cells
So how does the action potential pass along the cell? Some of the ions that flood into the membrane during
depolarisation spread along the length of the axon, stimulating an action potential in the neighbouring
segment of the axon. The refractory period means that an action potential cannot be stimulated in the
previously stimulated axon segment, so the signal only moves in one direction along the axon. The action
potential travels along the axon at a speed of about 0.5 m s−1 .
The speed of transmission of an impulse along the axon can be greatly increased if sections of the axon
are covered with an insulating sheath, as seen in figure 23.7a. This sheath is made from glial cells called
myelin. The myelin stops ions from transferring back and forth across the membrane. Instead, the pulse
of concentrated ions moves rapidly along the sheathed axon, rather like current in a metal, until it reaches
a gap in the myelin called a node of Ranvier. At the node of Ranvier, an action potential takes place, then
the pulse is passed into the next sheathed section of axon. The leaping of the current from node to node is
called saltatory conduction, and increases the speed of transmission of nerve impulses from the 0.5 m s−1
in unmyelinated axons to 100–150 m s−1 . As the current passes along the myelinated sheath, the size of the
current pulse decreases. It is important that the myelinated section is not too long, or the node of Ranvier
will be unable to generate a new action potential.
Sufferers of multiple sclerosis have damaged myelin sheaths, as seen in figure 23.7b. This affects the
effectiveness of the action potential for regeneration at the next node of Ranvier, resulting in symptoms such
as difficulty in walking and vision loss. Research into the condition is focusing on ways to grow cells to
replace the damaged myelin, as well as drugs to prevent attacks on myelin in the first place.
FIGURE 23.7 (a) A healthy nerve (b) A nerve affected by multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis causes damage to
the myelin sheath surrounding the axon, affecting the transmission of the action potential.
(a) (b)
Damaged
myelin
Node of Ranvier
Schwann Exposed
cell fibre
Nerve fibre
Resources
Weblink What is multiple sclerosis?
23.3.4 Sensation and stimulus — getting an action potential started

How is an axon stimulated? The source of the initial action potential depends on the type of neuron
concerned.
A sensory neuron responds to sensory receptors, such as touch or taste receptors, that stimulate the
axon. The axon then transmits the signal to the cell body, which passes the signal via the dendrites to
interneurons.
Touch receptors are connected to large, myelinated axons, allowing rapid transfer of the action potential.
There are three different types of touch sensor: two that respond to rapid changes in sensation, allowing us
to perceive vibrations, and one that adapts more slowly, giving rise to our sense of the firmness or pressure
of the touch.

Temperature receptors divide into hot and cold receptors. Temperature receptors are connected to thinner
axons, so that the signal transfers more slowly.
Pain receptors, also called nociceptors, are actually separate from touch and temperature sensors and
divide into relatively fast and slow responders. Although the fast-responding pain receptors are much
slower than touch neurons, they allow the source of pain to be quickly localised. The slow-responding pain
receptors influence our emotional response to pain.
So how do neurons communicate with each other? Transmission from one neuron to another occurs via
the synapses (the gaps between neurons). At the pre-synaptic terminals on the first neuron, the dendrites
stimulate the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters diffuse across each
synapse to the post-synaptic terminals of other neurons. Motor neurons, for example, can be stimulated
chemically via the dendrites from sensory neurons. Our motion is often in response to our experience
of touch. If we touch a hot object, we quickly move away. Sensory neurons in our skin detect heat. The
individual currents from the dendrites are gathered by the cell body, and if they are above the threshold
level, they result in an action potential being passed along axons to muscle cells, activating muscle
contraction.
Interestingly, the photoreceptors in the eye are unlike all other cells, because their resting state is actually
a depolarised state. We have two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. The rods are responsible for
detecting light and dark, and shapes and movement. Rods are extremely sensitive to light levels; they can
become hyperpolarised upon the absorption of single photon. The cones, which are responsible for our
sense of colour, require much higher photon intensities to become hyperpolarised. Cones contain pigments
that make them sensitive to the wavelength of the light, and fall into three groups that are more easily
stimulated by red, blue and green light respectively. Colour blindness is generally caused by defective
pigments in the cones.
Sometimes we experience sensations such as tingling when in fact there has been no stimulus. This
is known as paraesthesia and often occurs when the blood supply to a nerve is cut off. However, it can
also be caused by inflammation of tissue — for example, in carpal tunnel syndrome, a painful condition
in which the lining of the channel enclosing the main nerve running through the wrist becomes inflamed,
pressing on the nerve. Other causes of paraesthesia include metabolic and nutritional disorders such as
diabetes or alcoholism.
Artificial stimulation — the cochlear implant FIGURE 23.8 A cochlear implant. Electrodes
Neurons can also be stimulated by an external electrical are implanted into the cochlea and stimulate
potential, as Louis Galvani observed in the twitching the auditory nerve directly.
of frogs’ legs in the presence of lightning. There are
many cases of medical technology in which neurons Sound processor
respond to an artificial or external stimulus. The cochlear Internal implant

implant, developed by, among others, an Australian team
led by Graeme Clark, consists of an array of electrodes
implanted into the auditory canal (figure 23.8). The
electrodes receive an electrical signal from a small Hearing nerve
microphone worn on the person’s head. The electrodes
stimulate auditory nerve dendrites. The auditory nerve Cochlea
passes the signal to the auditory processing centre in the Electrode
brain. Developing the best possible interface between
the electrodes and the auditory nerve is a current active
research area.
Resources
Weblink The cochlear implant

23.3.5 A simple electrical model of cells
In 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley developed a simple electrical model that could explain
the response of the cell to stimulus. Hodgkin and Huxley studied axons in squid. The diameter of a squid’s
‘giant axon’ (a particular axon that helps squids move rapidly to escape predators) is so large that an
electrode can be inserted directly into the axon, allowing the cell membrane potential to be measured. In
1963 they were awarded a Nobel Prize for their work on the action potential.
From an electrical perspective, the cell membrane is a
FIGURE 23.9 Capacitors of varying
non-conducting layer that acquires an electrical potential capacitance
difference, V, across the layer because there is an effective
charge, −Q, on the inside of the cell and an effective charge,
+Q, on the outside of the cell. An object that has that
property is called a capacitor (see figure 23.9 for examples).
Capacitance, C, is the ratio of the charge stored on the
component, Q, to the electrical potential difference across the
component, V. The unit for capacitance is the farad, named
after one of the founding figures of our modern understanding
of electricity, Michael Faraday. The larger the capacitance, the
more charge the capacitor requires to achieve a given potential
difference.
An important safety point when working with capacitors is to
note both the direction and the maximum value of the potential
difference that can be applied across the capacitor. For values
exceeding the maximum potential and/or incorrectly connected
unidirectional capacitors, the internal structure of the capacitor
can break down, usually irreversibly, allowing charge to flow
freely across the capacitor.
The capacitance of a capacitor can be determined from the formula:
Q
C=
V
Where:
C = capacitance of the capacitor, in farads
Q = charge stored across the capacitor in coulombs
V = electrical potential difference across the capacitor, in volts.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A potential difference of 9 V is applied across a 10 𝜇F capacitor. How much charge is stored by
the capacitor?
THINK WRITE
Q
1. Recall the equation for charge stored by a C=
capacitance. V
2. Rearrange the equation and solve for Q. Q = CV
= 9 × 10
= 90 𝜇C
3. State the solution. 90 𝜇C is stored by the capacitor.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A potential difference of 80 mV is applied across a 10 𝜇F capacitor. How much charge is stored by
the capacitor?
The RC circuit
When a capacitor and a resistor are connected in series in a circuit, the potential difference across the
resistor changes as charge builds up on or dissipates from the capacitor, even though the supply voltage may
be constant.
In the circuit in figure 23.10, when the switch is closed, current begins to flow in the circuit, causing
charge to build up on the capacitor. As charge builds up, the potential difference across the capacitor
also increases. When the potential difference across the capacitor is equal and opposite to the potential
difference of the voltage source, no current can flow.
FIGURE 23.10 (a) An RC circuit (b) The potential difference across a capacitor as it charges
(a) Switch (b) Voltage (V ) across capacitor

V0
R
0.63 V0
V0 0.5 V0
C
0 1τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ t
When the switch is closed, the rate of charging of the capacitor is at its highest. This is because
the current in the circuit is initially at a maximum and decreases as the share of the voltage across the
resistor decreases, thereby decreasing the rate of charging of the capacitor. You can see from the graph in
figure 23.10b that the voltage across the capacitor approaches the supply voltage increasingly slowly, and in
theory takes an infinite amount of time to fully charge! When comparing capacitor charging times, a useful
measure is the time taken for the capacitor to reach 63% of the source voltage.
This time interval, 𝜏, is a characteristic of the circuit and is related to the resistance, R, and
capacitance, C, of the circuit, through the formula:
𝜏 = RC
After a time interval of 5𝜏, the capacitor is regarded as effectively fully charged.
In the circuit in figure 23.11 if the switch is open, then ideally no current will flow and the capacitor will
hold its charge. If the switch is closed, a current will flow until the capacitor is fully discharged. Again,
the characteristic time for the potential difference across the capacitor to drop to 37% of the initial value
is equal to RC. After a time interval of 5𝜏 the capacitor has fully discharged.

FIGURE 23.11 (a) A circuit for discharging a capacitor (b) The potential difference across a capacitor as it
discharges
(a) Switch (b)

V0
R
C
0.37 V0
τ = RC t
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A 0.1 𝜇F capacitor takes 5 milliseconds to be charged to 63% of its capacity.
a.How large is the resistance of the resistor?
b. How long will it be until the capacitor can be considered effectively fully charged?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the formula for time interval and 𝜏 = RC
rearrange to make the resistance, R, the 𝜏
R=
subject. C
𝜏 = 5 milliseconds = 5 × 10−3
( )
2. We know that the 0.1 𝜇F capacitor charges
to 63% of its possible capacity in one C = 0.1 𝜇F = 0.1 × 10−6
( )
characteristic time interval, 𝜏 = 5
milliseconds. Write the know values and 𝜏
R=
substitute them into the formula. C
5 × 10−3
( )
=(
0.1 × 10−6
)
= 5 × 104 Ω
= 50 kΩ
3. State the solution. The resistance of the resistor is 50 kΩ.
b. 1. We know that a capacitor is regarded as 5𝜏 = 5 × 5
effectively fully charged after a time interval = 25 milliseconds
of 5𝜏.
Substitute in the known values.
2. State the solution. The capacitor is considered fully charged after
25 milliseconds.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
A 10 𝜇F capacitor takes 2.0 milliseconds to fully discharge. How large is the resistance in series with
the capacitor?
The cell as an RC circuit

How is an RC circuit connected to cell behaviour? A cell membrane is like a capacitor because it can
support the separation of positive and negative charges. The protein channels create connections across the
membrane and can be modelled as resistive electrical pathways in parallel with the capacitor. The leakage

channels can be modelled as resistors, and the voltage-gated protein channels behave like a battery in series
with a variable resistor, actively transporting ions across the membrane once they are activated by the right
level of membrane potential.
FIGURE 23.12 A model circuit for the action potential
1. Stimulus causes positive

ions to flow into the cell, Na channels (fast)
depolarising the cell. K channels (slow)
Vm
6. Potential difference across the membrane
5. A further change in the potential

difference across the membrane
2. The membrane acts as a causes the resistance in the K channels
capacitor because of the difference to drop, allowing passage of K+ ions
in charge between the inside and out of the cell. The difference in
3. The leakage channels allow
outside of the cell. The stimulus ions concentration between the outside
some ions to pass through
decrease the difference in charge and inside of the potassium ions from the
the membrane. The resistor
between the inside and outside inside to the outside of the membrane.
represents the redtricted passage
of the cell.
of ions through these channels.
The larger the potential difference
across the cell membrane, the 4. The depolarising of the membrane
larger the current of ions through potential difference causes the resistance
the leakage channels. of the sodium channels to drop,
allowing passage of sodium ions.
The difference in concentration
between the outside and inside of the
cell acts as a battery, driving the
sodium ions across the membrane.
This is the essence of the model that Hodgkin and Huxley developed, as illustrated in figure 23.13. Their
model was a triumph because it could describe the shape and amplitude of the action potential across the
cell during depolarisation and repolarisation, the threshold activation and the refractory period of the action
potential, as well as the form and speed of the action potential as it travelled along the axon.
FIGURE 23.13 Comparison of the calculated action potential using the Hodgson–Huxley model with the action
potential measured in the squid giant axon
(a) Vmembrane (mV) (calculated) (b) Vmembrane (mV) (measured)
100 100
18.5 ˚C 18.5 ˚C
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)
Resources
Digital document Investigation 23.3 RC circuits (doc-31922)

23.3 EXERCISE
1. List the principal components of a nerve cell.
2. What is the role of the synapses in the nervous system?
3. (a) Explain the difference between a nerve cell and a nerve.
(b) What happens when a neuron is stimulated by 5 mV or less?
4. Describe the phenomenon of hyperpolarisation.
5. True or false? When hyperpolarisation occurs, an action potential cannot be established.
6. True or false? The magnitude of the action potential depends upon the strength of the stimulus.
7. Which is the main direction of current flow as an action potential moves along an axon — across the
membrane or along the membrane?
8. Towards the end of the refractory period, the neuron can be stimulated again. How does the threshold
stimulus compare with the initial stimulus applied to the neuron?
9. List three differences between saltatory conduction and conduction by an unmyelinated axon.
10. Sensory receptors stimulate the sensory neurons. Which sensory receptors are connected to the thickest
axons?
11. What is the advantage of a larger diameter axon?
12. If you perceive a tingling sensation in your arm, what is a likely explanation for this?
13. Compare figures 23.14a and b, which illustrate charging and discharging of a capacitor with the action
potential measured for the squid giant axon, −70 mV.
FIGURE 23.14 How voltage varies with time when (a) charging and (b) discharging a capacitor
(a) (b)
Voltage (V) acrosscapacitor
V0 V0
0.63 V0
0.37 V0
0.5 V0
τ = RC t
0 t
1τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ
(a) Which figure best describes the depolarising of the membrane?

(b) Which figure best describes the repolarising of the membrane?
(c) Do you think that the effective resistance of the membrane is the same during depolarising and
repolarising?
14. In the simple electrical model of a cell, the depolarising phase of the action potential across the membrane
can be modelled as the discharge of a capacitor. The initial charge is approximately 10–9 C, the potential
difference across the cell is 100 mV and it takes 0.3 seconds for the membrane to be 67% discharged.
Calculate the:
(a) capacitance of the cell
(b) effective resistance of the cell.


23.4 The heart as an electrically powered pump
KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain heart beat with reference to the production of a potential difference.
• Model heart beat with reference to the action of the nodes in atrial and ventricular muscles as the source of
the electric signal, the staggering of signals from the atrial and ventricular muscles, and time delay before
both muscles can contract again.
• Describe the general principle of operation of artificial stimulators such as heart pacemakers.
• Explain how a defibrillator works by storing electric charge for rapid production of large-amplitude current
to restore heart rhythm.
• Apply electricity concepts to describe the use of potential difference in biomedical diagnosis with reference
to electrocardiograms (ECGs).
The heart is an electrical pump controlled by signals received from the autonomic nervous system. In this
subtopic we show how the initial electrical stimulation of the upper right part of the heart — the sinoatrial
node — generates an action potential that gradually propagates across the heart, resulting in the sequence
of muscle contractions needed to pump blood through the heart and lungs, then back into the arteries to
circulate through the body. We discover how the passage of the action potentials across the heart can be
monitored by measuring the potential difference between different points of the body and learn about the
role of artificial electrical stimulation from devices such as pacemakers and defibrillators in maintaining
and/or restoring proper heart function.
23.4.1 Stimulating the heart

The heart is an electrical pump controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system
operates involuntary and reflexive processes such as digestion and the contraction of the iris. The action
potential is triggered in heart muscle cells in the same way as for nerve cells. An influx of sodium ions
causes the cell to start to depolarise. However, the action potential in each muscle cell lasts up to
300 milliseconds, compared to 3 milliseconds in a nerve cell.
The conduction system of the heart is illustrated in figure 23.15. The initial action potential starts in the
sinus or sinoatrial (SA) node above the right atrium, up in the superior vena cava, where there is a group
of autonomically activated cells that generate an action potential approximately 70 times per minute. The
depolarisation triggered by the SA node propagates through the atria, or upper two chambers of the heart.
The atria cannot directly stimulate the ventricles; instead, the depolarisation in the atria stimulates the
atrioventricular (AV) node. The AV node then stimulates action potentials along bundles of fibres called
either the ‘fibres of His’ (after their discoverer, Wilhelm His) or ‘the common bundle’. The fibres of His
propagate the signal across to the ventricles, then separate into the left and right bundles before dividing
further into the Purkinje fibres that stimulate the contraction of the muscle cells in the ventricle walls.
The heart has a couple of back-up mechanisms. If the SA node fails to stimulate the AV node, then
the AV node falls back on excitation by cells in the AV node that are directly connected to the autonomic
nervous system. These cells produce an action potential approximately 50 times per minute. If the AV node
also fails, or if there is failure in the fibres of His, the Purkinje fibres also contain cells connected to the
autonomic nervous system that can produce action potentials 15–30 times per minute.

FIGURE 23.15 Conduction system of the heart
Suprior vena cava
Left atrium
Right atrium
Bundle
branches
Sinoatrial node
(pacemaker)
Atrioventricular
node
Atrioventricular
bundle
Purkinje
fibers
23.4.2 Measuring heart function — the electrocardiogram

The change in potential difference as the action potentials progress through the heart muscle cells can be
detected and displayed on an electrocardiogram (see figure 23.16).
FIGURE 23.16 How the electrical activity of the heart contributes to an electrocardiogram
Sinus
node
Atrial
muscle
AV
node
Common
bundle
Bundle
branches
Purkinje
fibers
Ventricular
muscle
R
T
P
U
Q S
Time (ms) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Source: By permission of Oxford University Press.

Measurement electrodes were first placed on a patient’s body by Augustus Waller in 1887. The typical
features of the ECG are given the letters P, Q, R, S, T and U and are matched with the depolarisation and
repolarisation of the heart cells in the atria and ventricles.
23.4.3 Heart beat and the ECG

Initially the heart is unstimulated and the atrial chambers are full of blood. The atrial muscle cells
depolarise in response to the trigger from the SA node, causing the atrial muscle wall to contract and pump
blood from the atria into the ventricles. The hump due to the depolarisation of the atria in the ECG trace
is called the P-wave. The action potential passes relatively slowly into the ventricles (allowing the atrial
chambers to completely empty), eventually reaching the Purkinje fibres, where the depolarisation and
then contraction of the ventricles begins, marking the start of the QR period. The depolarisation of the
ventricular wall causes a sharp rise in the ECG trace, peaking at R, and dropping again as the ventricular
wall begins to depolarise. At this point the atria also begin to repolarise, and the atrial chambers refill with
blood. The geometry of the heart and the placement of the ECG results in a third hump appearing at T, also
associated with the depolarisation of the ventricular muscle. By the end of the TP period, the ventricular
chambers are fully relaxed, ready for the next stimulus from the AV node.
When analysing heart performance, medical practitioners consider the timing and amplitude of each of
the components of the ECG trace.
Resources
Weblink Video of the heart
23.4.4 Heart problems — fibrillation and defibrillation

If the chambers of the heart stop working in sequence, the heart will not pump effectively. Sometimes the
sequence of the heart is disrupted and depolarisation and repolarisation begin to occur chaotically, causing
the heart to fibrillate. Experiments in the late nineteenth century showed that even relatively small AC
currents of 0.1 A could cause a heart to go into fibrillation. However, it was also found that larger currents
could stop fibrillation.
Today, portable machines called
FIGURE 23.17 A defibrillator for use in a suspected heart attack
defibrillators (see figure 23.17) are
often found in public places such as
sports grounds and shopping centres
for use in the case of a suspected
heart attack. Such defibrillators use
a battery to charge up a large capacitor
to approximately 5 kV. The capacitor
is then connected across a person’s
heart using two leads and special skin
contact pads, forming a series RC
circuit. The capacitor discharges over
2–5 milliseconds, depending on the
effective resistance of the patient. The
large current depolarises a significant
amount of the heart muscle, allowing
the sinoatrial node to restart normal
heart rhythm.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A defibrillator machine contains a 20 𝜇F capacitor. If there is a resistance of 500 Ω between the
contact points on the chest, determine:
a. how long it will take for the defibrillator to have discharged to 37% of its original value
b. how much charge is stored on the capacitor when it is charged up to 5 kV
c. what the average current delivered by the capacitor is.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The capacitor discharges to 37% of original a. 𝜏 = RC
value after one characteristic time period, 𝜏 = 500 × (20 × 10−6 )
𝜏 = RC. = 10 ms
2. State the solution. It will take 10 milliseconds for the defibrillator
to have discharged to 37% of its original value.
Q
b. 1. Recall the equation for charge stored by a b. C=
capacitance. V
2. Rearrange the equation and solve for Q. Q = (20 × 10−6 ) × (5 × 103 )
= 100 mC
3. State the solution. 100 mC is stored on the capacitor when it is
charged up to 5 kV.
Q 100 × 10−3
c. 1. The capacitor is considered fully discharged c. Average current = = = 20 A
after 5𝜏 = 5 ms. t 5 × 10−3
2. State the solution. The average current delivered by the capacitor
is 20 A.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A defibrillator machine contains a 40 𝜇F capacitor. The person operating the machine forgets to
shave the chest of the patient before attaching the contact pads, raising the effective resistance
between the contact points to 100 000 Ω.
a. How long will it now take for the defibrillator to fully discharge?
b. How much charge is stored on the capacitor when it is charged up to 5000 V?
c. What is the average current delivered by the capacitor?
d. Explain why forgetting to shave the chest of the patient could have fatal consequences.
23.4.5 The artificial pacemaker

The first pacemakers were used in the 1950s and were designed to treat Stokes Adam syndrome, a condition
where a blockage between the atria and the ventricles stops the ventricles from being stimulated. These
pacemakers simply provided a regular electrical pulse to stimulate the ventricles, in imitation of the
normal function of the heart. They also required an external power supply. Modern pacemakers consist
of a tiny integrated circuit powered by a lithium-ion battery and are implanted inside the patient. The
modern pacemaker senses any existing pulse and adjusts accordingly, increasing heart rate in response to
physical activity. The sensing mechanism reduces the likelihood of the pacemaker being out of step with
any currently functioning heart stimulation and causing defibrillation.
Pacemakers may be single- or dual-chamber devices, depending on whether they stimulate the atria,
the ventricles or both. The advantages of a single-chamber pacemaker are that only a single lead needs
to be implanted in the heart and less energy is required, so the battery lasts longer. Often the return

path to the pacemaker is simply through body tissue. The advantage of a dual-chamber device is that it
ensures synchronicity between the atrial and ventricular contractions. Advances in battery life have made
dual-chamber devices more attractive.
FIGURE 23.18 Single-lead pacemaker implanted in a patient
The first pacemakers were based on a circuit very similar to the one in figure 23.19. In this circuit when
the switch is open, current flows in the circuit until the capacitor is fully charged. When the switch is
closed, charge from the capacitor flows through the heart (RB ) until the switch opens again, at which point
the capacitor begins to recharge. This type of circuit is an RC oscillator circuit and delivers a pulse of
voltage to a load across the capacitor.
FIGURE 23.19 (a) RC oscillator circuit (b) Charging and discharging of capacitor as switch opens and closes
(a) RA Charge (b) Charge Discharge

Percent of capacitor charge(%)
100
98
90
80 86.5
Discharge
70
63.2
60
50
C 40
RB 36.8
30
20
10
0
1RAC 2RAC 3RAC 4RAC 1RBC
Time
Figure 23.20 shows another example of such a circuit, found in flashing neon warning lights such as
those on emergency vehicles. When the potential difference across the lamp reaches a certain threshold,
the neon gas becomes a plasma and glows brightly. At this stage, the lamp conducts electricity, and current
from the capacitor and the battery flows through the lamp. The potential difference across the lamp starts
to drop but the plasma does not immediately revert to ordinary neon gas. When it does, the lamp ceases
to glow and no longer conducts electricity, so the capacitor begins to recharge. The potential difference
across the capacitor rises again until the plasma threshold is reached and the cycle begins again, resulting
in a regularly flashing lamp.

FIGURE 23.20 This simple circuit creates a flashing neon lamp.
Voltage across capacitor (V)

(a) R (b)
12
10
8
C Neon lamp 6
4
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)
23.4 EXERCISE
1. Describe the electrical activity of the heart as it progresses from P through to U on an ECG.
2. What are two important diagnostic criteria for doctors when they look at an ECG?
3. What is the advantage of a dual-chamber pacemaker?
4. Explain how a supply of constant voltage such as a battery can be used in a circuit containing a resistor, a
capacitor and a variable conductor such as a neon gas tube to produce a periodic voltage pulse.
5. Fibrillation can be induced by exposure to AC electrical currents as small as 100 mA. Why is the household
50 Hz AC supply particularly dangerous?
6. A circuit contains a 10 𝜇F capacitor. If the voltage across the capacitor is 10 V, how much charge is stored
by the capacitor?
7. A 0.50 𝜇F capacitor is in series with a 500 Ω resistor.
(a) When attached to a 9 V battery, how long does it take for the potential difference across the capacitor to
reach 5.7 V?
(b) Is the current in this circuit increasing or decreasing with time? Explain.
8. A 10 F capacitor is charged to 5000 V. It is then connected in series with a 500 Ω resistor.
(a) How long until the capacitor is regarded as fully discharged?
(b) What is the average current that passes through the resistor?


23.5 The effects of electricity applied to the body
KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply concepts of resistance and capacitance to current and the frequency of pulses (time constant for
charging and discharging, 𝜏 = RC.)
• Apply concepts of current, resistance, potential difference (voltage drop), capacitance and power to the
V
human body (quantitative analysis restricted to use of I = and P = VI).
R
• Explain why people have different electrical resistances with reference to comparison of the resistances in
human bone, fat, muscle, nerves and skin.
• Describe the effects of current through, and potential difference across, the human body.
• Relate various sensations (tingling, taste) to amplitude of current flowing through the body.
• Apply electricity concepts to the:
• galvanic skin response and its use in polygraphs and/or biotherapy feedback devices
• cauterisation of wounds through resistive heating.
As we have already seen in the case of the heart, electrical stimuli can be applied to the body to affect cell
function. In this subtopic we look at how the body responds in general to electrical stimulation and the
effect of current flow on the body.
23.5.1 How does the human body resist current flow?

What happens when a potential difference is applied across
FIGURE 23.21 The battery is a source
the human body? Current flows in response to a difference in of electrical potential difference between
electrical potential, or voltage, between two points that are part your hands, causing current to flow
of a circuit. If you touch one terminal of a 9 V battery with through your body.
your left hand and the other terminal with your right hand, the
electric potential difference between your hands is now 9 V.
Your body and the battery form a complete electrical circuit. I
The electrical potential difference between your hands causes
a current to flow through your body. How big is this current?
V
Writing Ohm’s Law as I = , you can see that the current +
R
through your body is equal to the potential difference across
the body divided by the electrical resistance of your body.
A typical effective resistance of a human body is between
2000 and 20 000 ohms, so that the current flowing between the
terminals of the 9 V battery is between 0.5 and 5 milliamperes,
enough to cause a slight tingling sensation in your fingers. –
Resistance is dependent on the mobility and concentration of

charge carriers. The epidermis, or outer skin layer, is made up
of overlapping dead skin cells in which the ions are much less
mobile than in the underlying salty tissue. The epidermis contributes 99% of the body’s effective resistance.
Dry outer skin layers can have electrical resistance as high as 100 000 ohms, whereas pathways through
body tissue will generally present a total effective resistance of about 300 ohms.
The resistance of a body part depends also upon the length and the thickness of the body part, as well as
its make-up. Fat cells have a higher resistivity than muscle cells due to their spherical shape and relative
lack of mobile ions. Men generally have more muscle mass than women and women generally have
more fat cells as a proportion of their body than men. This means that a male who is exposed to electrical
potential difference experiences a greater current passing through their body on average than a female.

If skin is cut or deeply abraded through to expose lower skin cells, the total effective resistance of the
body drops dramatically. Water on the skin also greatly reduces the electrical resistance of the outer skin
layer, thus decreasing the effective resistance of the human body.
From Ohm’s Law, we know that the smaller the resistance, the higher the current that flows in response
to an applied potential difference. A human being might inadvertently experience a potential difference
when handling a faulty appliance such as a broken toaster or hairdryer. In such a scenario, a person
might find that they become part of a path of least resistance for current to flow from the electricity
supply to the ground.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Cecily, who has an effective resistance of 40 000 Ω, is handling a faulty hairdryer that is plugged
into a 230 V power point. She becomes the path of least resistance for the current to flow from the
electricity supply to the ground.
Find the current that flows through Cecily and the energy deposited in her body if she holds the
hairdryer for 5 seconds.
THINK WRITE
V
1. Recall the equation for current in I=
terms of voltage and resistance. R
230
=
40 000
= 5.75 mA
2. Recall the equation for electrical E = Pt
energy. = I2 Rt
)2
= 5.75 × 10−3 × 40 000 × 5
(
= 6.61 J
3. State the solution. A current of 5.75 mA flows through Cecily and 6.61 J of
energy is deposited in her body.
A current of 5.75 mA will result in a tingling sensation
for Cecily but will not do long-term damage.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Bill uses the same hairdryer as Cecily, but he has wet hands, reducing his effective resistance to
400 ohms. Find the current that flows through Bill and the energy deposited in his body if he holds
the hairdryer for 5 seconds.
If a person experiences a large potential difference, typically greater than 500 V, the structure of the
skin actually breaks down as molecules in the skin ionise. This greatly reduces the effective resistance of
the person, thus exposing them to higher currents. This is analogous to the occurrence of lightning. In a
lightning strike, air, normally a very poor conductor, breaks down and ionises, allowing a current to pass
from clouds to the surface of the Earth; this occurs when the atmospheric conditions have resulted in the
build-up of an extremely large electrical potential difference between clouds and the Earth.
Because the body contains so many elements of varied resistance, it is rather like applying a potential
difference across a complex parallel circuit. In a parallel circuit, the largest proportion of current flows
through the part of the circuit with the least resistance. It is the same for the body. If the human body
experiences a potential difference, then the most current will flow through the parts with lowest electrical
resistance, namely body fluids and tissue. The effective resistance of the body is further complicated by the
capacitative cell membranes. A simplified equivalent circuit for the body can be drawn as in figure 23.22.

FIGURE 23.22 Most current flows through extracellular fluid. However, the capacitance of the cell membranes
also affects the resistance to current flow and allows current to pass across the membrane.
Rextracellular
Rskin contact Rskin contact
Rintercellular
Membrane capacitance,
with impedance Xmembrane
The capacitance of the cell membrane is very important when the current is not constant. The effective
resistance contributed by a capacitor is affected by the frequency of variation of the current. Effective
resistances that are frequency dependent are called impedances.
A popular method for determining the ratio of fat cells to other cells in the body is the ‘bioelectric
impedance measurement’. Although such measurements are relatively easy to obtain, they are strongly
affected by how hydrated the person is, causing the values obtained to vary considerably.
23.5.2 Current and the human body

When small currents pass through the body, a tingling sensation may be felt. As the magnitude of the
current increases, there is greater disruption of the body’s electrical processes and more energy is
transferred to the body in the form of heat. For example, the sensation of taste is affected if a current is
passed through the tongue. Some researchers are exploiting this to artificially simulate the taste of sugar
and salt. The energy deposited in the body is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the
body, the effective resistance of the body and the time the human is exposed to the current. Because of the
capacitive properties of the cell membranes, the effect of current on humans also depends on whether the
current is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). A 50 Hz AC current can cause serious physical
damage at a much lower voltage and current values than a DC current by interfering with the timing of
cell action potentials.
DC current FIGURE 23.23 Man suffering

If a constant potential difference is applied to the body, mobile ions involuntary muscle contraction
such as K+ and Na+ ions will respond, disrupting the electrical and possibly heart failure after
receiving an electric shock
balance of the cell. At high enough voltages, this may trigger a
nervous response in the case of nerve cells, or a contraction in the
case of muscle cells. If the potential difference remains constant,
then the repolarising processes in the cell cannot begin, so that
contracted muscles are unable to release. This increases the time of
exposure to current and further worsens the effect of the shock. The
damage to cell function is mainly due to electrical heating caused by
the current passing through the cell, or if the potential difference is
above 500 V, electrical breakdown of the cell.
AC current and voltage

In Australia, most electricity comes from coal- or gas-fired power
stations that generate large alternating potential differences. These
potential differences are transmitted along high-voltage power lines
to individual users, where they are transformed to smaller potential
differences varying between about ±250 V (figure 23.24). The effect
of an alternating voltage supply is to produce a current that varies
sinusoidally between a positive and negative peak value. The

frequency of the variation is 50 Hz in Victoria. Because the current and voltage vary, an average
value, the RMS (root mean square) value is used to describe the magnitude of the current and voltage.
Calculations ofelectrical power and energy consumption use the RMS current and voltage values
(figure 23.25).
FIGURE 23.24 High-voltage transmission FIGURE 23.25 Standard varying household supply
lines carrying alternating current to local voltage. The RMS value is indicated as a dashed line.
areas from the power station
Australia mains voltage
400 Period T = 0.020 s Peak voltage

300
RMS voltage
Potential difference (volts)

200
100
0
0.005 0.01 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 Time (s)
−100
−200
−300
−400
If the applied potential difference is varying, then the electrical balance of the cell will change
continuously and can trigger a sequence of nervous and/or contraction responses. This is why AC currents
are significantly more dangerous than DC currents. A 50 Hz current has a period of 2 milliseconds, meaning
that an action potential is being almost continually triggered in nerve cells. In the case of heart muscle
cells, fibrillation can occur and lead to heart failure. Breathing can be affected if effective chest wall
muscle contractions cease. For very high voltages, such as those in high-voltage supply lines, the person
will experience strong contraction of all muscles, which often causes them to jerk away from the point of
contact.
In a typical Australian household, circuits are rated to carry currents of up to 5 or 15 A, depending on
whether they are lighting or power circuits. Table 23.1 shows how deadly such currents are should a person
inadvertently form part of a return circuit.
TABLE 23.1 AC current (60 Hz)
AC current (60 Hz) Effect
1 mA Barely perceptible
16 mA Maximum current up to which a person can still let go
20 mA Paralysis of respiratory muscles
100 mA Ventricular fibrillation threshold
2A Cardiac arrest
23.5.3 Electrosurgery
In electrosurgery, the heating properties of current passing through the body are used to cut through tissue.
The patient lies on a large return electrode, so that where the instrument is applied to the patient, there is a

high current density. The current density causes water in the cells to vaporise, cutting through tissue. From
the entry point the current spreads out over a large volume, causing little damage to the rest of the patient’s
body. Lower voltages are used to stop bleeding by causing the blood to coagulate, a process also called
cauterising. (This is not to be confused with the cauterising technique known as electrocautery, in which
the body is heated radiatively by a metal tip that has a large current flowing through it. In electrocautery,
no current passes from the device to the patient.)
A surgeon has to take care not to inadvertently
FIGURE 23.26 The Bovie is the tradename of the
provide a low-resistance return path for the instrument used in electrosurgery.
current when using electrosurgical tools, as this
can result in severe burns to the patient and/or
the surgeon. If the patient has metal implants,
care has to be taken to keep the current path away
from those areas.
In previous sections, we saw that action
potentials typically last for 200–400 milliseconds,
depending on the cell type. In electrosurgery, the
triggering of action potentials and disruption of
nervous system processes is avoided by using
very high frequency currents of 100 kHz to
5 MHz, which have periods of microseconds.
1
Remember that frequency = period .
23.5 EXERCISE
1. Compare the resistivity of fat and muscle cells.
2. Why is an alternating source of potential difference more dangerous than a constant voltage source?
3. When using a defibrillator, special skin contact pads are used. If the patient has hair on their chest, it must
be shaved off before the pads are applied. Why is this essential?
4. What term is used to describe a resistance that depends upon the frequency of the current in the circuit?
5. The output power of a Bovie being used in an electrosurgery cutting procedure is 200 W. How much energy
is deposited in the cells in 1 minute?
6. An electrical tradesperson often wears thick rubber soled boots. Explain why this is an effective precaution
against electrocution.
7. Jane was hammering a nail into a wall and accidently contacted an active wire at 240 V. Her effective
resistance is 40 000 Ω. Calculate the amount of current that will flow through Jane to the ground. What is
the likely effect on Jane?
8. The overhead wires in the street are at a much higher potential difference of approximation 20 000V.
A possum stretches out its tail, connecting the supply and return wires. If the effective resistance of the
possum is 100 000 Ω, what is the likely outcome for the possum? Note: The thick fur of the possum
increases its effective resistance compared with a person.
9. High-voltage sources require particular care. The overhead wires in the street are at a potential difference of
22 000 V. However, when you see a bird sitting on the wire, it seems to be unaffected. How is this possible?


23.6 Applications of electricity involving the
human body
KEY CONCEPTS
• Apply electricity concepts to describe one of:
• use of potential difference in biomedical diagnosis with reference to electrocardiograms (ECGs)
and/or electroencephalographs (EEGs)
• the galvanic skin response and its use in polygraphs and/or biotherapy feedback devices
• neuroplasticity after spinal cord injury and use of activity-based therapies
• use of the brain, through activated muscles, to control remote devices.
In this subtopic we focus on applications of electricity to the detection, interpretation, stimulation and
manipulation of neural activity. This is the field of neuroscience, in which many extraordinary advances
are being made every day. The following is a brief introduction to some of those advances.
23.6.1 Monitoring electrical activity in the brain

The electroencephalograph (EEG) detects electrical potential differences across the brain (figure 23.27).
Just as the ECG is used to detect abnormal heart function, the EEG can be used to monitor brain function
and diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy. The EEG detects a signal when large numbers of neurons
are activated synchronously. Such signals have been studied for over 100 years, and over time, particular
waves with characteristic frequencies that are observed in the EEG have become associated with particular
types of brain activity, such as the phases of sleep and wakefulness.
FIGURE 23.27 Different characteristic electrical potential difference signals observed in EEG
Normal adult brain waves
Awake with Beta

mental activity 14–30 Hz
Awake and Alpha

resting 8–13 Hz
Sleeping Theta
4–7 Hz
Delta
Deep sleep < 3.5 Hz
1 second

Not all features of EEG images are well understood. The Glass Brain FIGURE 23.28 Patient with
project uses image reconstruction techniques similar to those used in electrodes attached to the
medical imaging techniques such as X-rays and CT scans to produce scalp recording an EEG
real-time 3D images of brain electrical activity from the potential
difference measurements.
Better understanding of normal brain function will lead to
improvements in treatments such as deep brain stimulation. In deep
brain stimulation a ‘pacemaker’ for the brain is inserted into the brain.
The pacemaker counteracts abnormal electrical signals associated with
Parkinson’s disease and Tourette’s syndrome that affect proper motor
function.
Direct stimulation of the brain with small electrical currents also
seems to show some promising benefits for mood and memory.
Nevertheless, the mechanism for and success of these treatments is not
yet fully understood. Neuroscientists hope to one day insert feedback
devices in the brain that can both detect electrical activity indicating the
onset of an epileptic seizure and counteract it with an electrical signal.
Resources
Weblink The Glass Brain project
23.6.2 Lie detectors and biotherapy feedback

Using measurement of skin conductivity to detect a person’s psychological state can be a component of
biofeedback therapy and is used therapeutically to assist patients with regulating the response of their
autonomous nervous system to stress.
FIGURE 23.29 Human skin structure
Sweat pore Hair shaft
Meissner’s
corpuscle
Sweat gland
Stratum comeum
(homy cell layer)
Epidermis
Papillary layer
Sebaceous
Dermis (oli) gland
Arrector pilimuscle
Reticular layer
Nerve
Subcutaneous
tissue
Pacinian Adipose (fat)

Hair follicle Vein Artery corpuscle tissue

Variations in the conductivity of skin are linked to the release of moisture through sweat glands known
as the eccrine glands, located on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The eccrine glands are
connected to the sympathetic nervous system, the body’s ‘fight or flight’ response system. Skin conductivity
measurements form one component of the polygraph or lie detector. An assumption is made that a person
who is lying is psychologically stressed, causing them to sweat more so that their skin becomes more
conducting. A research group at MIT has developed a wearable glove called the Galvactivator that has
an LED array to indicate the conductivity of the skin at that moment. The researchers are using the glove
to better understand how a person’s psychological state is connected to the activity of the eccrine glands.
Potentially, such gloves could communicate the mood of a class to the teacher!
Resources
Weblink MIT Galvactivator project
23.6.3 Neural stimulation: The bionic eye project

Neural stimulation is being used to assist people with vision impairment. The bionic eye project uses
the same principle as the cochlear implant, namely an electrode array that is implanted behind the retina
(figure 23.30). The electrode array takes a video image and stimulates the retina, which then sends an
electrical signal along the optic nerve to the visual cortex for processing. Other approaches bypass the retina
and stimulate the optic nerve instead, while others stimulate the visual cortex, directly bypassing both the
retina and the optic nerve.
FIGURE 23.30 The elements of the bionic eye: (1) a camera, (2) a sensor that tracks eye movement, (3) a wireless
transmitter of the electrical signal representing the digital image, (4) array of electrodes implanted in the brain that
stimulate the visual cortex
1. Camera 4. Implanted 5. Electrical

captures vision electrode array signals sent
and transmits stimulates retina. from retina via
data to an visual pathway
external, body to vision
worn processing processing
unit. centres in the
brain.
3. Implanted
receiver passes
signals onto
retinal implant.
2. Data
processed and
sent to
implanted
system via
external wire.
Source: © Bionic Vision Australia

The common feature of all of these systems is video cameras mounted on glasses attached to an image-
processing unit that reduces the video image to an appropriate input for the electrode array. As technology
advances, the electrode arrays contain more and more elements, increasing the resolution of the image that
can be ’seen’ by the visually impaired person. The biggest arrays contain more than 1000 electrodes! To
date, people who have received implants have been able to see black and white images and in some cases
read large-print books.
Resources
Weblink Bionic eye app
23.6.4 Bypassing neural damage: Bionic control devices and

activated muscles
In the field of myoelectrics, signals passed along motor neurons are detected by sensor electrodes and used
to direct electrically powered motors, allowing, for example, amputees to control bionic arms and hands
(figure 23.31). Motor-assisted prosthetic hands and arms have been available for some time. In 2014, a
bionic walking brace was developed that allows people who had previously lost motor control of their legs
to walk, stand and sit (figure 23.32).
FIGURE 23.31 A myoelectric prosthesis allows FIGURE 23.32 Bionic leg brace
better fine motor control for the wearer.
Source: © Touch Bionics Inc.
The same underlying principles can be used when a person has lost function in a limb. Sensor electrodes
detect the original signal from the brain, which is then delivered artificially to muscle tissue in the limb,
activating the muscle to stimulate movement.
23.6.5 Retraining neural networks

An important recent discovery has been the finding that even where a patient may be suffering from
paraplegia due to damage to the spinal column, there is often some residual nervous activity. This has led
to a new therapy — activity-based training, in which patients perform particular exercises that stimulate the
strengthening of the remaining neural connections. Remarkably, it has also been found that other neurons
will readapt their function to assist the remaining neurons. Some forms of therapy employ a sensor that
detects motor neuron signals and then amplifies the signal to drive a motorised device such as a bionic
brace to help the limb to move and thereby rebuild neural networks (figure 23.33). The ability of neural
networks to reorganise themselves in response to stimulation and form new synaptic connections is called
neuroplasticity.

Like all scientific advances, moral and ethical questions arise when considering the applications of these
technologies to enhancing the human experience. We live in a revolutionary age in which cross-disciplinary
fields such as biophysics and neuroscience have the potential to change the world for us all.
FIGURE 23.33 Robotic suit assisting in activity-based therapy for patients with paraplegia.
23.6 EXERCISE
1. How is the signal monitored by an EEG related to the action potentials generated by individual neurons?
2. Compare the cochlear and bionic eye devices.
3. Describe the role of neuroplasticity in activity-based training therapy.
4. Many current advances in biophysics and neuroscience could enhance experiences of ordinary humans with
normal neural function. Emergency workers such as firefighters could benefit from bionic aids to reduce
fatigue. It is also speculated that localised electrical stimulation of the brain can improve both mood and
memory. Identify ethical issues that might arise when such devices and techniques are employed on
ordinary individuals.
5. A person is wearing a Galvactivator glove powered by a 6 V battery with a light that flashes red when the
skin conductivity of the wearer changes by 50%.
(a) If the baseline resistance of the person’s skin is 100 000 Ω, what is the current that passes through the
person’s hand?
(b) When the person is excited, the current rises to 100 𝜇A. What is their skin resistance now?


23.7 Review
23.7.1 Summary
• Our bodies contain many electrically charged ions that are able to respond to electrical forces.
• Cells have a resting electrical potential difference due to a charge imbalance across the cell membrane.
This arises from the difference in concentration of ionic species inside and outside the cell combined
with the difference in mobility of the Na+ and K+ ions and the action of the ATP molecule transferring
Na+ ions out of the cell and K+ ions into the cell.
• Neurons respond to electrical stimulus at a point in the cell by allowing sodium ions to enter the cell at
that point, altering the local potential difference across the cell membrane. If the influx of sodium ions
exceeds a threshold number, a process of depolarisation and repolarisation of the cell occurs, known as
the action potential.
• The occurrence of the action potential at one point along the cell membrane triggers the onset of an
action potential at the neighbouring section of the membrane, allowing the transmission in a
domino-like fashion of the action potential along the length of the cell.
• The sheathing of axons in myelin for short sections increases the velocity of the transfer of the action
potential.
• Neurons communicate with other neurons through synapses, where a chemical transfer takes place via
a neurotransmitter. The transfer of electrical signals along axons is much faster than the transfer of
chemical signals.
• The behaviour of a cell can be modelled by a simple circuit consisting of a capacitor in parallel with a
resistor. The time taken to charge and discharge the cell as the action potential depolarises and
repolarises the cell can be modelled as the characteristic time associated with charging and discharging
the capacitor.
• Our bodies are able to conduct electricity. However, excessive currents damage cell tissue and disrupt
electrical processes in the heart and nervous system.
• Alternating current sources pose greater risk to the human body than direct current sources due to the
capacitative properties of body tissue.
• The nervous system can be stimulated artificially as seen in pacemakers, bionic eyes and cochlear
devices.
• Heart and muscle cells also respond to electrical stimulus.
• Electrocardiograms detect the potential differences between various parts of the heart and are used to
diagnose the quality of heart function.
• Stimulation of the heart generates a regular electrical signal with characteristic features that can be
seen in an electrocardiogram.
• The defibrillator is a device that deliberately disrupts the function of the heart in order to effect a
restart of the heart action.
• Electroencephalographs detect the potential difference between various parts of the brain and are used
to monitor brain function.
• Neural signals can be detected and amplified, allowing bionic control existing of artificial body parts.
Resources

23.7.2 Key terms
The action potential is an electrical pulse that is produced at the point where the cell membrane is stimulated.
Particles moving from areas of high concentration to low concentration diffuse.
Excitable cells respond to stimulus by producing an electrical signal.
When the heart fibrillates there is chaotic contracting of the heart, causing the pumping action to be ineffective.
A hyperpolarised cell is one that is even more polarised than in its resting, unstimulated state.
Mobility is the freedom of charged particles to move in response to electrical forces.
Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks to reorganise themselves in response to stimulation and form
new synaptic connections.
Paraesthesia is a sensation that is experienced in the absence of stimulus.
Polarisation is when an object contains positive and negative charge carriers that are held apart from one
another.
The refractory period is when a cell is unable to respond to stimulus.
Resistivity is a measure of how conductive a material is when electrical forces are applied to it. The resistance of
a particular object is proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its diameter.
The resting potential of a cell is the potential difference across the cell membrane due to the different
concentrations of ions on either side of the membrane.
Saltatory conduction is the relatively rapid passage of the action potential along a myelinated section of an
axon. The action potential ‘leaps’ from one node of Ranvier to the next.
A voltage-gated channel changes as the potential difference across the membrane changes.
Resources
Investigation 23.1
Conductance
Aim: To observe how the conductance of a solution depends upon the
concentration of ions in the liquid, and observe how the mobility of the ions
affects the conductance of the solution
Investigation 23.2
More on electrical potential
Aim: To observe how two charged objects respond to each other
Investigation 23.3
RC circuits
Aim: To compare the time internal, 𝜏, it takes to charge
a capacitor in an RC circuit with the stated time for
the capacitor and resistor used

Resources
23.7 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
23.7.1 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions

1. Electric currents in metals are due to the movement of valence electrons. In the human body, electric
currents are due to the movement of ions from dissolved salts in bodily fluids. Which of the following
statements is incorrect?
A. Valence electrons and ions are always negatively charged.
B. The concentration of valence electrons in metals is greater than the concentration of ions in the
human body.
C. The mobility of valence electrons in metals is much greater than the mobility of ions in the human
body.
D. The mass of a valence electron is much less than the mass of any ion in the human body.
2. When the nerve cell is stimulated, protein channels in the membrane initially allow which of the
following?
A. Sodium ions to move into the cell, making the negative electrical potential difference across the
membrane less negative, zero, and then increasingly positive
B. Sodium ions to move into the cell, making the negative electrical potential difference across the
membrane more negative
C. Sodium ions to move into the cell, until the electrical potential difference across the membrane
is 0 V
D. Potassium ions to move out of the cell, making the negative electrical potential difference across the
membrane more negative
3. Which of the following is when the electrical potential difference across a cell is made more negative
than the resting electrical potential?
A. Depolarisation
B. Hyperpolarisation
C. Polarisation
D. Repolarisation
4. When studying the electrical behaviour of cells, Huxley and Hodgson compared parts of cells to
electrical components, such as resistors and capacitors. In the Huxley and Hodgson model, what are the
cell membrane, intracellular fluid and protein channels, respectively, modelled by?
A. Capacitor, small resistance, large resistance
B. Capacitor, large resistance, small resistance
C. Small resistance, capacitor, large resistance
D. Large resistance, capacitor, small resistance
5. Which of the following would decrease the speed at which an electrical pulse travels along a
nerve axon?
A. Increasing the thickness of the axon
B. Removing the myelin sheath from an axon
C. Coating an axon with a myelin sheath
D. All of the above

6. A defibrillator contains a 1.5 𝜇F capacitor, charged to 6000 V. It is attached to a patient experiencing a
heart attack and fully discharges in 3.0 milliseconds. What is the effective resistance of the patient?
A. 5 × 10−2 Ω
B. 2 Ω
C. 400 Ω
D. 2000 Ω
7. A worker’s muscles contract and remain contracted as a result of an electric shock. What was the
magnitude of the current passing through the worker most likely to be?
A. 1–10 mA
B. 10–16 mA
C. 16–100 mA
D. 100 mA–2 A
8. Passing a current through the body delivers energy to the body, which in electrosurgery is used to
cauterise tissue. If a 300 mA current is passed through tissue with an effective resistance of 500 Ω,
what is the energy deposited in the tissue every second?
A. 45 J
B. 1500 J
C. 7500 J
D. 450 000 J
9. Which of the following statements about the electrical response of the human body is incorrect?
A. Wet skin has a lower resistivity than dry skin.
B. The effective resistance of a human body can be affected by mood.
C. The perception of taste can be affected by passing small currents through the tongue.
D. Fat cells have a lower resistivity than muscle cells.
10. Which of the following does not use artificial stimulation of human cells to improve human
performance?
A. Cochlear implant
B. Pacemaker
C. Bionic eye
D. Myoelectric hand

1. Compare the origin of charge carriers in the human body with those in metals.
2. Some of the ion channels in the cell membrane are voltage gated. How does this contribute to the
development of the action potential pulse?
3. What is the purpose of a neurotransmitter in the nervous system?
4. Electrical signals from nerves can be detected and used to make devices that enhance the function of the
body. Give an example of the use of signals from the brain to drive a device.
5. What is the name of the condition in which the sequence of the action potentials across the heart become
disrupted?

6. In the heart, initial stimulation of the sinoatrial node triggers a chain of action potentials. The change in
the electrical potential difference across the heart is measured by an ECG machine. Use the ECG trace in
the following figure to fill in the missing terms in the passage.
QRS
complex
ST
PR segment
segment
T
P
PR interval Q
S
QT interval
ECG of a heart in normal sinus rhythm
Initially the _____________ chambers are full of blood. The trigger from the SA node causes
contraction of the atrial muscle wall, seen as the _____________ on the ECG trace. Blood is pumped
into the _____________. The depolarisation in the atria stimulates the _____________ node, which in
turn stimulates action potentials that propagate along the _____________ and on to the _____________
fibres, which cause contraction of the _____________, observable in the QRS period of the trace. The
atria relax and refill with blood. The ventricles are fully relaxed by the end of the _____________.
7. The original artificial pacemakers simply consisted of an external voltage source that stimulated the
ventricles every heartbeat. Describe the improvements in technology in the current generation of
pacemakers.
8. Why do we refer to the effective resistance of the body, rather than simply the resistance?
9. When a capacitor is connected in series with a resistor, the time constant for the discharge of the
capacitor equals the product of the resistance and the capacitance. Does the time constant equal the
time taken for the capacitor to fully discharge? Give reasons for your response.
10. In the case of the lie detector, a voltage is applied to a person and the effective resistance of the person
is measured. How is this measurement used to tell if someone is lying?

Label the phases of the action potential in the following graph.
mV
+40
a b
-70
0 Time (ms)
1 2 3 4 5
a. _____________________________ 1 mark
b. _____________________________ 1 mark
c. _____________________________ 1 mark
You touch a hot surface and quickly remove your hand. Describe the processes experienced by your nervous
system.
The heart is controlled by a sequence of action potentials that synchronise the contraction of the atria and
ventricles, resulting in blood being pumped around the body.
a. What term describes the situation when the contraction of the atria and ventricles are not properly
synchronised? 1 mark
b. The key component of a defibrillator is a capacitor. Why is a capacitor so effective for the operation of a
defibrillator? 2 marks
When a potential difference is applied to the body, a current flows and can interfere with internal electrical
signalling. A smaller magnitude of AC current can be more dangerous than the same magnitude of DC
current. Explain this phenomenon.
Give an example of a device that artificially stimulates neural activity in order to enhance human function.
Explain how the device works and how it enhances human function.

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 3
PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
24 Practical investigation
24.1 Overview
24.1.1 Introduction
As part of Area of Study 3 of Unit 2, you will conduct a practical investigation exploring content you
have covered this year in Physics. The practical investigation allows you to follow your own interests
and passions using scientific method, exploring the answer to questions that are important to you. You
will improve your ability to solve problems, use resources and communicate ideas using appropriate
physics terminology. These attributes are useful in everyday life and highly valued in the workplace.
Being scientific means making use of observations, experiments and logical thinking to test ideas.
FIGURE 24.1 A student conducting a scientific investigation in the classroom

KEY KNOWLEDGE
After completing this topic you will be able to apply the following to practical investigations:
• the physics concepts specific to the investigation and their significance, including definitions of key terms,
and physics representations
• the characteristics of scientific research methodologies and techniques of primary qualitative and
quantitative data collection relevant to the selected investigation, including experiments (thermodynamics,
construction of electric circuits, mechanics), and/or the evaluation of a device; precision, accuracy,
reliability and validity of data; and identification of uncertainty
• identification and application of relevant health and safety guidelines
• methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships
including sources of error and uncertainty, and limitations of data and methodologies
• observations and experiments that are consistent with, or challenge, current physics models or theories
• the nature of evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis, model or theory
• the key findings of the selected investigation and their relationship to key physics concepts
• the conventions of scientific report writing including physics terminology and representations, symbols,
equations and formulas, units of measurement, significant figures, standard abbreviations and
acknowledgment of references.
Resources
24.2 Key science skills in Physics

KEY SCIENCE SKILLS
• Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions.
• Plan and undertake investigations.
• Conduct investigations to collect and record data.
24.2.1 The scientific method: why do we conduct investigations?

Physics relies on formulating and answering questions followed by communication of the findings in order
to progress. Scientists work through a series of steps to advance their knowledge as part of this procedure.
Experimental and other investigative work is central to this.
Figure 24.2 summarises this process of practical investigations and scientific method.
This investigation will draw upon a number of key skills that you have been developing in Units 1
and 2, and the specific skills in Unit 2, Area of Study 3. As part of this investigation you will be required
to produce a report — this is usually in the form of a scientific poster, but your teacher may ask for another
format such as a practical report, oral presentation or digital presentation. You will also be required to
produce a logbook.
In this investigation, you will have the opportunity to show your skill and imagination in experimental
design, display commitment to a task and demonstrate your communication ability in explaining
your results. You will need to develop a question, plan actions to answer this question, undertake an
investigation and interpret the data to form a conclusion. Your investigation will involve two independent
variables being explored, one of which must be a continuous variable.
TOPIC 24 Practical investigation 431

FIGURE 24.2 The scientific method
4. Design an experiment to test

Research question
hypothesis
1. Make observations; gather 5. Conduct experiment and

data record results
6. Analyse results: is the

2. Think and ask questions hypothesis supported or
rejected?
3. Formulate a working If the hypothesis is supported,

hypothesis communicate results
The investigation will require a significant amount of class time. Your teacher will set aside around two
to three weeks for the activity, so some planning and organisation on your part will be needed to achieve
a personally satisfying outcome. Table 24.1 will assist with your planning. The timeline may be different
depending on your school. Your teacher may also have set checkpoints regarding when you are required to
submit work and what specific components need to be included.
TABLE 24.1 Investigation planning with sample schedule
Task Due date
• Teacher introduces task and expectations. About two weeks before formal
• Brainstorm topics. experimentation begins
• Create a choice of topics of investigation.
• Return a list of possible topics for approval by teacher, who then A few days later
provides feedback, recommendations and finally approval.
• Submit of a detailed research proposal for your approved topic. At the beginning of the week
before your experiment begins
• Submit your completed and signed risk assessment. By the end of the week before your
experiment begins
• Requested equipment is assembled by the teacher and lab technician. By the end of the week before your
experiment begins
• Investigation begins. Week 1

• Set up equipment.
• Collect preliminary data.
• Troubleshoot any issues with equipment.
• Collect data and measurements; graph your results and evaluate
trends.
• Adjust and refine method.
• Continue the cycle of measurements and data analysis, leading to a Week 2
review of progress and more detailed measurements.
• Move on to investigating the second continuous independent variable.
• Finalise the investigation of the second variable. Week 3

• Begin preparing your overview of the investigation: summarising your
procedure, what you have found out, what difficulties you had and how
you addressed them.
• Finalise writing the sections of the report and paste them into a poster Beginning of week 4
template.
• Submit the logbook and finished report (and poster if required).

24.2.2 Using a logbook
As part of your practical investigation
FIGURE 24.3 All observations should be recorded in a logbook.
(as well as all practical experiments
throughout the year), it is a requirement
to keep a logbook.
Usually this logbook is a bound
exercise book (however, your teacher
may request a digital logbook instead).
It is vital to show all aspects of your
practical investigation within your
logbook using the scientific approach.
The logbook will be assessed by your
teacher. You must date all work that is
completed in your logbook to show
when it was completed and assist in
validating your work.
TABLE 24.2 Components of a logbook
Component of logbook What to include
Chosen question Information about your topic, how you chose it and the question you have selected
from this
Introductory material Background data on your topic, diagrams, notes and tables, information about key
terms and past experiments that were similar to the one you are conducting
Hypothesis and aim A clear hypothesis and aim
Methodology All equipment you plan to use and a clear method you plan to follow, with detailed
steps that could be reproducible by someone else
Results Observations and recorded results, in an appropriate form — tables are particularly
useful, can be used to construct graphs
Discussion Stated results and careful evaluation of results, referring back to hypothesis and
question
Discussion questions; can be set to help scaffold your thoughts and ideas, or
discussion may be more open
Thoughts and questions Any concerns or questions about the investigation; answers to them should be
researched
24.2.3 Developing aims and questions

Coming up with a topic
Your practical investigation will focus on one area of any of the following topics: thermodynamics, electric
circuits, matter, motion, astronomy, forces and the human body, AC to DC, flight, nuclear energy and
medical physics, light and vision, sound and music, ball games and bioelectricity.
Choosing a topic should not be rushed — it takes time and careful consideration. It is important you
don’t choose a topic just because it sounds interesting; you should choose one that is reasonable to complete
in the provided timeframe and uses the available resources.
The topic of your investigation can come from any of the content you are studying this year, so it may be
useful to go back what you have covered and use this to form some ideas.
A good suggestion is to brainstorm a variety of topics as a group. One way to do this is to draw a grid
on a large sheet of paper with headings across the top such as: Hobbies and interests, Sports, Science

in the news, Investigations you did in previous years and Course topics. Down the side put types of
investigations such as: Investigating the operation of a device or technology, Solving a technological
problem, Investigating a physical phenomenon. Brainstorm as many ideas as you can then narrow this down
to topics that you want to explore further.
Some topic examples are listed here.
Motion
• The performance of a CD hovercraft FIGURE 24.4 Energy changes on a trampoline
• The impact force on and the energy
loss by a bouncing ball
• Motion of a yoyo
• Flight of a table-tennis ball
• The energy delivered by a catapult
• Energy changes on a trampoline
(figure 24.4)
• Investigation of the phenomenon
that dry sand is soft, wet sand is
hard, wetter sand is soft again
• The energy stored in a spiral clock
spring
• Maximising the adhesion of Blu-Tack
• Factors affecting the design of a
good paddlewheel
Astronomy
• The resolution of close-spaced objects by the eye
• The field of view of a simple telescope
• The depth of focus of a simple telescope
Forces and the human body FIGURE 24.5 Broken bones can result
• Effect of force on a bone (beam, cantilever) from twisting forces
• Effect of a twisting force on a bone (figure 24.5)
• The physics of a bicep curl
• The strength of girders of different construction
(using balsa wood)
• The strength of human hair
AC to DC
• The design of an AC ammeter
• The value of fins for regulator heat sinks
Flight
• The thrust of a propeller (in air or in water)
• The resistance to water flow of various plumbers’
fittings (pipe, bends, etc.)
• The effect of changing the size or shape of the wings
of a glider
• Paper plane design (figure 24.6)
Nuclear energy and medical physics
• Variation in range of alpha particles with air pressure
• Variation in range of beta particles in different metals
• Scattering of beta particles back from various substances
• The natural radioactivity of potassium salts
• Reducing background radiation by screening

Light and vision
• Range of wavelengths different people can see FIGURE 24.6 Designing a paper plane
• Contraction of pupil in bright light
• Illumination and the resolution of the eye
• The adaptation to dark of the human eye
• The depth of focus of a microscope
• The resolution of a microscope
• Moiré fringes
Sound and music
• Frequency range of a microphone
• The behaviour of a loudspeaker cabinet at
low frequencies
• The frequencies of a stretched wire
• Diffraction of sound waves
Ball games
• The sweet spot of a tennis racquet
• Effect of the mass of a cricket bat on ball speed after impact
• The changeover from sliding to rolling
• Compare static and kinetic friction of running shoes
Bioelectricity
• Variation of resistance between two points on a conducting sheet with different distances
• Resistance between two flat plates in a tank of conducting liquid
A document containing weblinks and many more topics can be found in the Resources tab. Review
these lists and see what sparks your interest because choosing a topic that intrigues you will ensure a high
level of commitment and a sense of pride in the finished work.
Resources
Digital document Investigation topics (doc-16176)
Creating a question
Turning the topic into a question focuses your mind on what you want to discover.
The question needs to be:
• one that can be investigated through scientific method
• practicable — given your knowledge, time and the school resources
• asked in a way that indicates what you will do.
Example of formulating a question from a topic
Topic: Contraction of pupil in bright light
Question:
How quickly does the pupil of the eye contract when the light is made brighter?
Or
Does the contraction of the pupil in bright light differ between individuals?
There are many ways of formulating a question from a topic. Just make sure it is something that can be
measured, explored and answered in the scope of your practical investigation.
Developing an aim
Often, developing the aim of an investigation is done at the same time as formulating a question from your
topic. The aim outlines the purpose or the key objective of the investigation. It outlines what you are trying
to achieve in order to answer your question and either support or invalidate your hypothesis.

There are two different ways that you can format your aim.
1. To [determine/investigate/compare] how the dependent variable is affected by the independent
variable
2. To [determine/investigate/compare] how the independent variable affects the dependent variable
Your aim must:

• be no more than two lines
• be linked to your question
• link the independent and dependent variables.
Examples of aims
• To determine the acceleration of objects of different masses due to gravitational field strength
• To investigate momentum transfer involved in collisions between different size objects
• To compare resistors used in parallel and series circuits by determining the overall effective resistance
24.2.4 Formulating hypotheses and making predictions
Formulating a hypotheses is an important step in the scientific method.
FIGURE 24.7 Hypotheses are testable explanations for a concept
Explanations
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon, which
predicts the relationship between two variables or predicts the outcome of an investigation. A hypothesis
usually predicts the relationship between two kinds of variables: an independent and a dependent variable.
Variables will be explored further in subtopic 24.3.
To write a hypothesis, a good tip is to use the following format:

If (statement involving independent variable), then (prediction involving dependent variable) when
(change in the independent variable).
Typically, a scientific hypothesis also includes a tentative explanation for the predicted results.
TABLE 24.3 Example of good working hypotheses
IF THEN WHEN
If the angle of an incline affects then the speed of the cart will increase when a steeper incline is used.
the speed of a small cart and have a greater acceleration
If the thickness of a wire affects then the resistance will decrease in a when a thicker wire is used due to an
the current flowing through it circuit increased area for electrons to flow.

Consider the following statements and decide if each is an example of a well-formatted hypothesis.
Statement 1: The heavier the object, the faster it will fall.
No. This is simply a testable prediction. It does not include a tentative explanation.
Statement 2: If an object has a greater mass, then it will fall faster than other objects.
No. This does not identify a tentative explanation. The statement is a method followed by a predicted
outcome.
Statement 3: If an object with a greater mass causes an increased acceleration, then it will fall to the
ground when dropped compared to an object with a smaller mass.
Yes. This identifies a tentative hypothesis (explanation) and a predicted outcome by which the hypothesis
can be tested.
It is important to note that there are many different writing styles for hypotheses. The way you write your
hypothesis will be dependent on the investigation you are conducting.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Polly is putting the kettle on. Polly is very curious about science and wants to see how she can
change the speed the water boils. She has heard rumours that salt causes water to boil faster.
She has four different types of salt in her house: table salt, sea salt, Himalayan pink salt and
chicken salt.
Write an appropriate research question, aim and hypothesis for this scenario.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the variables to help write an aim, The independent variable is the salt type.
hypothesis and research question. The dependent variable is the time it takes
for the water to boil.
2. Create a research question based on Polly’s problem. Does the type of salt added to water affect
Make sure that the question is one that is testable and the time it takes for water to boil?
clearly outlines what is occurring in the investigation.
3. Write an aim, clearly outlining the purpose of the To determine if different types of salt
investigation. Be sure to link the independent variable affect the time it takes for water to boil
and dependent variable.
4. Write a hypothesis in the ‘If … then’ format. If table salt, sea salt, Himalayan salt or
Remember, a hypothesis needs to link the independent chicken salt is added to water, then the
variable and dependent variable. Your hypothesis may time taken for the water to boil will
not be correct, but it must be testable. (You may also decrease.
specify which salt you think would do this best.) (Pure table salt will cause the largest
decrease in time.)
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Jack wants to know if changing the material of the clothing that Jill is wearing will affect the speed at
which she rolls down the hill.
Write an appropriate research question, aim and hypothesis for this scenario.
Resources
Interactivity Formatting a hypothesis (int-7732)

24.2.5 Planning and undertaking experiments
Planning experiments
Once your teacher has approved your topic and you have written a question, aim and hypothesis, it is time
to start planning an investigation.
One way that planning may begin is through the use of a practical proposal.
FIGURE 24.8 A practical investigation proposal
Practical investigation proposal

Name: Jill
Partner’s name: (optional) Jack
Title of your investigation: The efficiency of a DC motor
Briefly describe its purpose. To investigate how efficiently a DC motor converts electrical energy into
(A brief sentence, but needs to be gravitational potential energy by raising a mass
precise)
Write down three starting What is the most efficient voltage for a given mass?
questions you want to answer. How does this voltage vary with the mass?
( To help focus your planning) For a given voltage is there a mass the motor cannot lift?
Is the mass raised at a constant speed?
List independent variables, Independent: voltage supplied to the DC motor, the mass being raised, the
indicating which are continuous diameter of the spindle about which the string from the mass is wrapped, the
and which are discrete, as well as type of DC motor (discrete)
dependent variables. Dependent: The current drawn by the DC motor, energy supplied to the
(For your teacher to see if you DC motor, the time for the mass to travel a measured distance, gain in
have thought of all the obvious gravitational potential energy
variables)
List the physics concepts and Electric energy consumption, W = VIt
relationships that you expect to Gain in gravitational potential energy = mg∆h
use in your investigation.
( To give your teacher an indication mg∆h
of the extent of your understanding Efficiency =
VIt
of the topic)
List the equipment and measuring DC motor with spindle on the shaft
instruments that you plan to use. Masses — either slotted masses and/or plasticine
( For your teacher to see whether Light, thin string, possibly with a small card of known length attached near the
you have the right tools for the bottom to trigger a photo gate
task) Variable power supply, voltmeter and ammeter, switch
Ruler and balance
Timer, preferably electronic, e.g. a photo gate
Sketch your experimental set up. DC
( This will make your first day of motor String
investigating smoother, and your
teacher may be able to suggest photo gate
refinements.) Card
Slotted
mass
List the steps in your 1. Connect the circuit and attach a mass to the string. Set to a low voltage and
experimental design. turn on the power supply. Adjust arrangement of equipment and voltage and
( An important stage in your mass values to get a safe set-up that is capable of producing data without
planning and it will enable your damaging the motor.
teacher to see if there is anything 2. Adjust timer, card and photo gate set-up to produce consistent readings.
you have forgotten.) 3. Set the mass at a known value, set the voltage at a low value, and measure
the current and time at least five times.
4. Increase the voltage settings in increments of 1 V and repeat the measurements.
Use a voltage divider circuit if in-between voltage values would be useful.
5. Increase the mass progressively and repeat steps 3 and 4 each time.
6. Check for possible intermediate mass values to identify maximum efficiency.
Any special requests None
(For example, equipment may need
to be left set up between classes,
or access at lunchtime or after
school may be needed.)

It is important that your experiment:
• produces results that are reliable, accurate, precise and valid
• clearly shows the link between the dependent and independent variables
• controls variables that are not being tested
• minimises uncertainties and errors where possible
• allows the use of equipment and skills that are cost and time effective
• includes control group where possible and numerous experimental groups.
Control groups provide a point of comparison for results when the independent variable is not applied.
An example of control and experimental groups may occur in a practical exploring the effect of adding
resistors in a circuit on the brightness of a light globe. The experimental groups would be trialled
with different number of resistors. The control group would be a trial with no resistor in the circuit.
At the end of your planning, you should be able to produce three written documents, which should be in
your logbook:
• a risk analysis based on the hazards that you have identified (refer to section 24.6.1 for detail on risk
assessments)
• a detailed list of equipment required, along with quantities (refer to section 24.5.3 for detail about
different equipment used in Physics)
• explicit, step-by-step method that takes all of your planning into consideration, including diagrams
an
if relevant.
Conducting investigations
When conducting investigations, it is vital to:
• follow all health and safety protocols
• ensure you know how to use any chosen equipment correctly to minimise errors
• carefully follow your methods; if any changes are required, note these down in your logbook
• ensure you are controlling variables outside your independent variable to keep your results accurate
and precise
• clearly record any results obtained, along with the date; this includes any results that did not go
according to plan and results of both control and experimental groups
• ensure you carefully pack up equipment after use. If equipment is required to be set up for a few days,
make sure it will be in a location where it cannot be affected by other individuals or environmental
factors.
It is also recommended, if time allows, that you repeat your experiment to improve accuracy and
reliability.
24.2 EXERCISE
1. Using the following topics, create a testable question that could be used for a practical investigation.
(a) Exploring the difference in the decrease of water temperature from boiling in an insulated thermos versus
a normal mug
(b) Comparing the brightness of globes in series and parallel circuits
(c) Investigating the time it takes a ping pong ball to fall in normal conditions compared to within a vacuum
2. What is the purpose of a logbook in practical investigations?
3. Which of the following is an acceptable hypothesis?
A. Do water and cordial have the same freezing temperature?
B. If water has a higher freezing temperature than cordial, then it will change from a liquid to a solid at a
faster rate when cooled.
C. If the temperature of water decreases, then it will change form into a solid.
D. Water will freeze faster than cordial.
4. List the main steps required in planning an investigation.

5. A student has a made three parachutes with the same paper, but cut them into three different shapes — a
circle, square and triangle. They want to see which stays in the air the longest when dropped from the
20 metres.
(a) Provide an aim for this investigation.
(b) Provide a hypothesis for this investigation.
24.3 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Variables

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
Use this subtopic to review the types of variables.
• Describe and identify independent, dependent and controlled variables.
24.3.1 Types of variables

In an experiment, a variable is any factor that the researcher can control or change or measure. Three kinds
of variables are commonly recognised (see figure 24.9). For some variables you will set the value at the start
of each experiment; others will be determined by your experiment.
FIGURE 24.9 Diagram showing the relationships between variables in an experiment
Cause Effect/outcome
(independent variable) (dependent variable)
Other factors
(controlled variables)
• An independent variable is a factor that is deliberately manipulated by the investigator and affects the
dependent variable. For example, you may be running a simple test to examine the bounce height of
different types of balls when dropped from 2 metres. In this case, the independent variable is the type
of ball. When graphing results, the independent variable is usually placed on the horizontal axis.
• A dependent variable is the factor that the investigator measures. The dependent variable is affected
by the independent variable. In the investigation to examine the bounce height of different balls, the
dependent variable would be the bounce height. The dependent variable is usually placed on the
vertical axis of a graph.
• Controlled variables are all the other factors that the investigator must maintain at constant values
through the course of an experiment. In the bounce height investigation, controlled variables would
include the height the ball is dropped from, the instrument used to record data (you wouldn’t estimate
for one measurement and use a ruler for another) and the surface you dropped the ball on. If these
factors are not kept constant, they can confound the experimental results because they can cause
changes in the dependent variable. Often controlled variables also include environmental factors such
as temperature and humidity, but these are harder to control.

Example of variables
Consider the following example. Allira and Hunter are investigating the effect of paper size on the distance
a paper plane can be flown. They are trialling different sizes of paper to explore if a specific paper size
allows for the greatest distance travelled.
• Independent variable. The factor that is FIGURE 24.10 Different paper sizes being investigated
being manipulated is the size of paper.
• Dependent variable. The factor that is
being measured is the distance the plane
travels.
• Controlled variables. Examples include
the same type of paper being used,
same wind when plane is thrown,
same person throwing the paper plane,
same folding of the paper plane.
Variables can also be considered as
numerical (quantitative) or categorical
(qualitative). Refer to section 24.5.2 for
further detail on this.
Resources
Interactivity Variables (int-7731)
24.3 EXERCISE
1. Describe the difference between a dependent and an independent variable.
2. Why is it important to control variables in an investigation?
3. Belinda and Paul plan to investigate the best way to win a game of tenpin bowling. They are exploring the
following variables: (i) the weight of the ball, (ii) the material the ball is made of, (iii) the angle they bowl, (iv) if
they hit the bumpers or not, (v) which fingers they use to hold the ball, (vi) the speed they bowl.
(a) Describe how you know these variables are independent.
(b) Determine for each of these variables if they are numerical (quantities) or categorical (qualities).
(c) List as many dependent variables as you can that Belinda and Paul might consider for their investigation,
including ones that can be calculated from others.
4. The following table list two topics with some variables identified. Complete the table for three others.
Independent variables Dependent variables

Numerical Categorical
Bouncing basketball Drop height, Surface ball lands Rebound height,
pressure of the on, ball type impact time, energy
ball loss, change in
momentum, average
force of impact
(a) Performance of a parachute
(b) Movement of a ball down a hill
(c) Ice cube melting

24.4 Concepts specific to investigation, key terms
and representations
KEY CONCEPT
• The physics concepts specific to the investigation and their significance, including definitions of key terms,
and physics representations.
KEY SCIENCE SKILL
• Communicate and explain scientific ideas.
24.4.1 Concepts specific to investigation

As part of an investigation, it is vital to link key physics concepts that are relevant and clearly explain their
significance. This shows your understanding of a topic and allows others who read your report to see the
connection between theory and practical applications.
Background information
Concepts should be researched prior to commencing your investigation, recorded in your logbook (and
referenced). This background information will also form part of your introduction in your poster.
Concepts that are relevant to your investigation include:
• explanations of key formulae
• definitions of key terms
• detail about the theories being examined
• information about other practical investigations exploring similar concepts.
An example of this may be in an exploration of effective resistance in series and parallel arrangements.
In your background information, it is important to explain any findings and experiments about this topic
completed in the past, information about its application, information about circuit electricity and resistors,
and a description of key formulae relevant to the investigation (such as RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn for series
1 1 1 1
and = + + ... + for parallel).
RT R1 R2 Rn
You should also have clear concepts linked to theory from your background information in your
discussion section of an investigation.
24.4.2 Key terms

It is vital in practical investigations to define any key terminology.
This can be done in two ways:
• within a report itself
• as part of an appendix or glossary at the end of the report.
Read the following excerpt of an introduction from a scientific report written by a student. This
investigation was conducted to examine differences between AC and DC circuits.
Electric current is the movement of charged particles from one place to another. This is usually through the use
of negatively charged electrons. Current flows around a circuit.
In this investigation, two types of current in circuits are being explored. Direct current (DC) is when the net
flow of charge is in one direction; alternating current (AC) is when charged particles can move in either direction
in a circuit.
This student has clearly defined key terms as part of their introduction within their report itself. What
terms have they defined?
Read the following excerpt of an introduction from a scientific report written by a different student,
conducting the same practical.

In this investigation, electric current is being investigated. Two types of current around a circuit are being
explored and compared: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).
Glossary of key terms
Electric current: movement of charged particles from one place to another
Direct current: net flow of charge is in one direction
Alternating current: charged particles can move in either direction in a circuit
In this situation, the student has not defined the terms in their introduction itself, but has bolded key
words that later appeared in their glossary.
Both formats are valid methods to define key terms. The method used depends on the format of the report
or personal preference. Be sure to check which method is most suitable for the practical investigation you
are conducting with your teacher.
24.4.3 Physics representations

A variety of representations are used in physics. This includes the use of models, sketches, graphs,
equations, formulae, symbols and diagrams. Additionally, there are many vital conventions related to the
use of numerical data including significant figures and scientific notation.
FIGURE 24.11 Representations, such as equations and diagrams, form a vital part of physics reporting.
Some examples of representations in physics are outlined below. For whichever topic you choose, it is
important to use correct representations for your information. It might be worth going back to that topic and
observing how different information is represented.
Vectors
Vectors are commonly used in physics, particularly in the forces topic. A vector has both force and
magnitude. We can represent vectors as directed lines, in which the size represents the magnitude and the
arrow represents the direction as shown in figure 24.12.
FIGURE 24.12 The use of vectors, showing force and magnitude
40 N 30 N
Fnet

In texts vectors often appear in bold italic font (for example, F = ma, in which F and a are vectors).
Alternatively, they may be written with a right facing arrow above them as an accent ⃗ F = m a⃗ . This is
particularly useful when bold cannot be used to distinguish the vector, such as when handwritten or when
all the text is bold.
Electric circuit representations

Many different symbols can be used in electric circuits to show the various components.
In sketches or diagrams of these models, it needs to be clear what component each of these symbols
represent.
FIGURE 24.13 Some representations of electric FIGURE 24.14 Representation of a simple electric
circuit components circuit showing a battery, light globe, switch and
connecting wires
Connecting wire
+ –+ –
Two wires crossing over one another
Resistor
+ –
Battery (single cell)
+ –+ –
Battery (two cells in series)
Light globe
A Ammeter
V Voltmeter
2 wires joined
Switch closed
Switch open
Scientific notation
Very large and very small quantities can be more conveniently expressed in scientific notation. In scientific
To write in scientific notation, follow the form N × 10a , where N is a number between 1 and 10 and a is
notation, a quantity is expressed as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10.
an integer (positive or negative).

When converting numbers into scientific notation the following steps should be followed.
1. Determine where the decimal point needs to go so that N is between 1 and 10.
2. Count the number of places the decimal point is moved to determine a (the power of 10 or the
exponent). If the decimal point was moved to the left, a will be positive, if it was moved to the right,
a will be negative.
3. Write the number in scientific notation.
conveniently expressed in scientific notation as 3.8 × 108 m.

For example, the average distance between the Earth and the moon is 380 000 000 metres. This is more
In physics, scientific notation is generally used for numbers less than 0.01 and greater than 1000.
Quantities in scientific notation can be entered into your calculator using the EXP, 10x or ˆ button
(depending on the type of calculator you use).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
a.The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 149 600 000 kilometres. Write this in
scientific notation.
b. The mass of a proton is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 grams. Write this in scientific
notation.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the position a decimal point needs to go in a. The decimal point would need to go
order for the number to be between 1 and 10 and between 1 and 4 to form 1.496.
remove any 0s that are not between non-zero digits.
2. Determine the exponent by establishing the number of The decimal point was moved eight
times the decimal point was moved. spots to the left so the exponent is
If the decimal point was moved to the left, the 8: 108 .
exponent should be positive, if the number was
1.496 × 108 km
moved to the right, the exponent should be negative.
b. 1. Determine the position of the decimal point in order b. The decimal point would need to go
for the number to be between 1 and 10 and remove between 1 and 6 to form 1.67.
any 0s that are not between non-zero digits.
2. Determine the exponent by establishing the number of The decimal point was moved 24
times the decimal point was moved. spots to the right so the exponent
If the decimal point was moved to the left, the is –24: 10–24 .
exponent should be positive, if it was moved to the
1.67 × 10−24 g
right, the exponent should be negative.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
a. Diameter of Saturn’s rings: 282 000 km
b. Number of metres that sound travels in one hour: 1 235 000
c. Uncertainty of a highly precise clock: 0.000 000 000 000 000 003 seconds
24.4 EXERCISE
1. Identify two ways that key terms can be defined in your report.
2. Why are representations useful in scientific reporting?
3. Draw a simple circuit using figures 24.13 and 24.14. Your circuit should contain wires, a single cell battery, a
resistor, a light globe and a voltmeter.
4. Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
(a) Distance to Pluto from Earth: 7 500 000 000
(b) Number of kilometres in a light year: 9 460 730 472 580 km
(c) 7.8 millimetres into kilometres: 0.0000078

5. A student is writing a simple report about the addition of two vectors (A and B). Vector A is 8 centimetres
gives vector C. This relationship can be expressed as A + B = C.

long and goes to the right. Vector B is 6 centimetres long and also goes to the right. Adding these vectors
Rewrite this using appropriate representations for the vectors, and draw a diagram to represent the addition
of the two vectors.
24.5 Scientific research methodologies

and techniques
KEY CONCEPT
• the characteristics of scientific research methodologies and techniques of primary qualitative and
quantitative data collection relevant to the selected investigation, including experiments (thermodynamics,
construction of electric circuits, mechanics), and/or the evaluation of a device; precision, accuracy,
reliability and validity of data; and identification of uncertainty
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

• Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models.
24.5.1 Characteristics of scientific research methodologies

It is important to carefully follow scientific research methodology in conducting practical investigations,
to ensure that your results are as precise, accurate, reliable and valid. This includes minimising errors and
uncertainties in data in order to draw conclusions in relation to your question.
Each type of research method has its specific purposes, procedures, advantages and limitations. The
researcher’s choice depends on which method is most appropriate for the specific topic of research interest
and hypothesis being tested.
There are different types of scientific inquiry and research methods that can be used, shown in table 24.4.
TABLE 24.4 Types of scientific inquiry methods
Method Use
Controlled experiment Determining the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. All
other variables are controlled.
Example: testing how the size of a parachute affects the rate it falls to the ground
Single variable investigation Exploring how a variable changes over time and understanding causes of the
observations and how other factors affect it
Example: investigating how electric fields change over time
Identification Investigating if objects or events belong into specific sets or are part of new sets
Example: exploring if gravity is a contact or non-contact force
Designing Designing a device using scientific knowledge
Example: designing, constructing, testing and evaluating a motor or making a
bridge that can hold a maximum mass
Investigating models Exploring everyday phenomena and collecting evidence to test the model
Example: devising an investigation to test Newton’s First Law of Motion

24.5.2 Techniques of primary qualitative and quantitative
data collection
Data is a set of facts that are collected, observed or
FIGURE 24.15 Recording data is vital in
generated. Data that you gather may come from primary investigations.
sources or from secondary sources. Typically, data that you
collect is raw data that must later be analysed and interpreted
to produce useful information.
Primary sources of data provide direct or firsthand
evidence about some phenomenon. For example, in a
practical investigation, your completed logbook will be a
primary source of data.
Secondary sources of data are comments on or summaries
and interpretations of primary data. Sources of secondary
data include review articles in scientific journals, books,
newspapers and popular science magazines written as a
summary and comment on the research of others.
Qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative data (or categorical data) are expressed in words. They are descriptive and not numerical and
can be easily observed but not measured. Bar graphs or pie graphs are often used to display the frequencies
of categorical variables. (Graphs are explored in section 24.7.1.)
There are two types of categorical data:
• Ordinal data can be ordered or ranked — for example, ionisation energies (first, second, third) or
opinion polls (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree).
• Nominal data cannot be organised in a logical sequence — for example, types of sub-atomic particles
(proton, neutron or electron) or the type of surface a ball rolls down.
Quantitative data (or numerical data) can be precisely measured and has values that are expressed in
numbers. Line graphs or scatterplots are often used to display the frequencies of numerical variables.
There are two types of numerical data:
• Continuous data can take any numerical value, such as the release height of a parachute (12.2 m,
16.9 784 m, 1.02 m) or the temperature of an object. These values are usually measured.
• Discrete data can only take on set values (integers) that can be counted, such as the number of protons
in an atom or the number of electron shells.
TABLE 24.5 Examples of data types
Attribute Qualitative Quantitative
Length of pendulum Long 52 cm
Colour Green 520 nm
Sound Loud 85 decibels
Speed Fast 120 kph
Temperature Hot 100 °C
Gravitational force Strong 9.8 m s−2
When collecting data, it is vital to consider what is most appropriate for your investigation. Normally,
the best evidence is primary quantitative data, and for a majority of your investigations this is what should
be collected and recorded as a minimum. However, sometimes an investigation may only allow for the
collection of qualitative data. Qualitative data can be subjective — if you record the speed as fast, what does
that mean? Be clear and detailed in the data collected, particularly if using qualitative data.

It is also important that results are carefully checked to make sure that recorded data are correct. Many
people interpret measurements slightly differently, or use the wrong units, so make sure you are double
checking data. All your collected data should be recorded in your logbook, note down all observations
(usually in a table) regardless of if you think they are important or not.
24.5.3 Choosing techniques relevant to an investigation

It is important to select techniques that will best suit your investigation.
When selecting appropriate techniques, it is important to ensure that the:
• technique can be performed in an appropriate timeframe
• technique is appropriate to your investigation and serves a purpose to answering the question and
supporting or rejected your hypothesis
• data are easily recorded, measured and interpreted, with a particularly emphasis on quantitative data
• technique can be safely performed; this is particularly important in a school where health and safety
restrictions are closely regulated
• equipment used in the technique is available and cost effective. If it is not available in a school, can it
be used with permission at other locations?
• technique allows for the control of other variables. If there are too many factors that cannot be
controlled and will affect results, the technique may not be suitable for an investigation.
Selecting your measuring instruments

You should also consider the most appropriate equipment to
FIGURE 24.16 Different types of
use for a particular purpose. measuring equipment vary in precision
Your school will have a range of measuring instruments.
They will vary in precision and ease of use.
You won’t always need to use the most accurate
instrument. A simple instrument that allows for quick
measurements will be enough more often than not.
Sometimes a simple stopwatch is just as good as an
electronic timer and a voltmeter may compare well to a very
accurate multimeter.
Some instruments that you might consider are listed,
categorised according to what they measure. There are many
more devices you may choose to use.
Mass
• Slotted masses of known mass (figure 24.17). Simple to use and accurate. It comes only in multiples of
a set weight, for example, 50 grams.
• Beam balance (figure 24.18). Accurate with a large range of values; can be time consuming to measure
several masses. Not used as often, but a good option particularly if object is quite heavy.
FIGURE 24.17 Slotted masses FIGURE 24.18 Beam balance

• Spring balance (figure 24.19). Quick to use, covers a large range of masses but not very accurate.
• Top loading balance (figure 24.20). Very accurate, very good for small masses and simple to use. With
equipment set up above the balance, it can be used to measure small variations in attractive and
repulsive forces such as magnetic force, electric force and surface tension. If the balance sits on a
laboratory jack, force against distance can be easily measured.
FIGURE 24.19 Spring balance FIGURE 24.20 Top loading balance
Length
• Metre ruler. Accurate, good for a range of distances and can be read to about 0.5 millimetres.
• Laboratory jack. For fine adjustment of height.
• Vernier calliper (figure 24.21). For precision measurement of short distances, such as in determining
the refraction of light through a prism. Takes some time to learn how to use.
• Micrometer (figure 24.22). For precision measurement of thicknesses. Takes some time to learn how to
use and can be easily damaged.
FIGURE 24.21 Vernier calliper FIGURE 24.22 Micrometer
Time
• Stopwatch. Simple to use, accurate down to your response time, not reliable for short time intervals.
• Electronic timer. Requires some instruction, very accurate, best suited for short time intervals and can
be used with electrical contacts and photogates.
Temperature
• Glass thermometer. Very easy to use, but often work for set temperatures only (will not work if
temperature is too high or too low). They are not as precise due to limited number of markings.
• Digital thermometers. Very easy to use and give more precise measurements, however, can be easily
affected by external air temperature if used incorrectly.
Motion
• Ticker timer (figure 24.23). Simple to use, however, limited in accuracy. Works best with objects
moving over a short distance. Can be time consuming to analyse.
• Air track (figure 24.24). Very accurate, particularly if used with photogates, very effective in studying
collisions. Takes some time to set up, but data collection is very efficient once done.

• Ultrasonic motion detector (figure 24.25). Quite accurate, useful with real motions, creates large
amounts of data which means data analysis can be time consuming.
• Video with analysis software. Quite accurate. Requires some setting up, data obtained from software,
data analysis can be time consuming. Free video motion analysis software are Tracker and PhysMo.
Digital cameras, such as GoPros, with high-speed video are useful for measurement of short, fast
events.
FIGURE 24.23 Ticker timer FIGURE 24.24 Air track FIGURE 24.25 Ultrasonic
motion detector
Electrical
• Meters: voltmeters (figure 24.26), ammeters, galvanometers. Easy to set up but care is needed to
ensure the meter is wired into the circuit correctly, otherwise the meter can be damaged. Large range
of values, usually analogue displays.
• Multimeters (figure 24.27). Easy to set up. More tolerant of incorrect use but can be damaged if
incorrectly connected to a high current. Large range of values, usually digital displays.
FIGURE 24.26 Voltmeter FIGURE 24.27 Multimeter
Specialist equipment
You may also have access to some specialised equipment that you can use in your practical investigation.
These are unlikely to be available in a general school laboratory, however, it is important to note that
the following equipment is all highly accurate and precise. Discuss with your teacher if any of these are
available for use at your school or nearby. Alternatively, you may wish to explore these as a point of
discussion in relation to uncertainties and possible errors in the data and results you obtained.
• Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) (figure 24.28). Even though the
CRO is basically a visual voltmeter, it is a versatile instrument. FIGURE 24.28 Cathode-ray
oscilloscope
It can measure both constant and varying voltages. The sweep of
the trace across the screen can be used to measure time intervals
of the order of millionths of a second.
• Data loggers. There are sensors now available for most physical
quantities, such as temperature, pressure, light intensity, motion,
force, voltage, current, magnetic field, ionising radiation. The
recording of data by these sensors for later analysis greatly
facilitates practical investigations.
• Apps. There are increasing numbers of apps that perform measurement functions. The accuracy of
each needs to be confirmed before being used in a formal investigation, but it is an area worth
exploring. Some sources include Physics Toolbox and Sensor Kinetics.

Resources
Video eLesson Using Vernier callipers (eles-2558)
24.5.4 Precision, accuracy, reliability and validity

For your investigation, it is important to carefully consider the data you obtain and the confidence you can
have in the conclusions drawn. Understanding the precision and accuracy of your data are important to
ensure your findings are both reliable and valid.
Precision
Precision refers how close multiple measurements of the same investigation
FIGURE 24.29 Results
are to each other. Results that are precise may not be accurate. It is often vary in precision when
difficult to have completely precise results due to random error. measuring the height of a
Table 24.6 shows two investigations by different students measuring tennis ball.
the height a tennis ball bounces upon being dropped from a height of
1 metre. Student 1’s investigation is more precise as the range of their data
is smaller compared to that of student 2.
TABLE 24.6 Two investigations measuring the height a tennis ball bounces
Investigation by student 1 Investigation by student 2
Height of bounce (cm) Height of bounce (cm)
Trial 1 39.3 Trial 1 39.3
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close an experimental measurement is to a known
value. If an archer is accurate, their arrows hit close to the target. Another FIGURE 24.30 Comparing
example is in the experimental calculation of gravity, which is known to be precision and accuracy
9.8 m s−2 on Earth.
Table 24.7 shows two investigations by different students
to determine the acceleration of gravity from a simple
pendulum by determining the length of the pendulum and
time of oscillation. Values for gravity were then calculated.
Student 1’s investigation is more accurate, as their results had a
much smaller deviation from the expected result of 9.8 m s−2 .
TABLE 24.7 Two investigations to determine the acceleration of

gravity from a simple pendulum
Investigation by student 1 Investigation by student 2
Calculation of g Calculation of g
Trial 1 9.85 m s−2 Trial 1 12.59 m s−2
Trial 2 9.75 m s−2 Trial 2 12.62 m s−2
Both accuracy and precision are vital in investigations. In table 24.7, student 1 has the most accurate
result, with a value closest to 9.8 m s−2 , however, student 2 has the most precise results. In order to obtain
the best experimental data, we want results that are both accurate and precise.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Students conducted an experiment to determine the temperature of a substance as it changed
from a solid to a liquid (melting point). They repeated the experiment four times and achieved
the following results.
• Student 1: 56.5 °C; 58.0 °C; 60.0 °C; 55.0 °C
• Student 2: 60.5 °C; 61.0 °C; 60.5 °C; 62.0 °C
• Student 3: 56.5 °C; 58.5 °C; 57.0 °C; 56.0 °C
Students were then provided with the exact value of the melting temperature of the substance,
which was found to be 56.48 °C.
a. Which student had the least accurate data? b. Which student had the least precise data?
c. Was the student with the most precise data also the student with the most accurate data?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Review what accuracy a. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to a known
means. value.
2. Explore the data of the Student 1 had data 1.48 °C lower and 3.52 °C higher than the
three students. actual data.
Student 2 had data that was up to 5.52 °C higher.
Student 3 had data that was 0.48 °C lower and 2.02 °C higher.
3. Determine which student Student 2 had the least accurate data, as their values were the
had the least accurate data. furthest from the actual value.
b. 1. Review what precision b. Precision refers to how close multiple measurements of the
means. same investigation are to each other.
2. Explore the data of the Student 1 had a data range of 5.0 °C.
three students. Student 2 had a data range of 1.5 °C.
Student 3 had a data range of 2.5 °C.
3. Determine which student Student 1 had the least precise data.
had the least precise data.
c. 1. Identify the students with c. Using the results from parts (a) and (b) it can be seen that
the most accurate and student 3 had the most accurate data and student 2 had the
most precise data. most precise data.
2. State the solution. The student who had the most precise data was not the same
student who had the most accurate data. Students may have
measurements very close together (precise), but they may not
be accurate. This may be due to errors in the measuring device
or interpretation of the melting point. Data may also be
accurate without being precise; that is, close to the target but
with inconsistent readings. For reliable and valid results, data
should be both accurate and precise.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Students conducted an experiment to determine the temperature of a substance as it changed from a
liquid to a gas. They repeated the experiment four times and achieved the following results.
• Student 1: 85.4 °C; 92.0 °C; 82.0 °C; 75.5 °C
• Student 2: 83.5 °C; 85.0 °C; 85.5 °C; 86.5 °C
• Student 3: 85.5 °C; 90.0 °C; 89.5 °C; 81.0 °C

Students were then provided with the exact value of the boiling temperature of the substance, which
was found to be 85.4 °C.
a. Which student had the least accurate data? b. Which student had the least precise data?
c. Was the student with the most precise data also the student with the most accurate data?
Reliability
Reliability refers to whether another researcher could repeat your investigation by following your method
and obtain similar results. As well as this, the more times an experiment is replicated, the more reliable the
results are considered to be.
Experiments that are reliable shouldn’t just be able to be carried out by the investigator, but also by the
third party. The investigation should be reproducible, with the same results obtained by an individual who
repeats the investigation in the same conditions using the same methodology. If a test is reliable, it usually
has both accuracy and precision, as errors are reduced through repetition.
Validity
The validity of data refers to the credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations.
Validity factors in both experimental design and implementation. Experiments that are valid usually are
using the results from one manipulated variable, where other variables are controlled. Valid experiments
also have minimised factors such as experimental bias.
Validity applies more to Biology and Psychology, where precise measurement is more difficult and there
is a higher risk of bias on the part of the researcher. In Physics and Chemistry, the variables are quantifiable
and physically measurable.
If your experimental method clearly relates to the purpose of the investigation and you take care to be
precise in your measurements and thorough in your analysis, your results should be valid and meaningful.
Validity can be:
• internal. The focus is on whether the results can be believed and if they have been affected by factors
that were unsuccessfully controlled: did the experiment measure the variable that was being examined
in the experimental question and outlined in the hypothesis?
• external. The focus is on whether the results obtained in a sample are indicative of the results expected
for the entire population. This can be reduced by removing bias and using a large and random sample.
Measurements that are valid must also be reliable, and therefore must have accuracy and precision.
24.5.5 Identification of uncertainty FIGURE 24.31 Thermometers can have

Uncertainty is acknowledging that no matter how precise issues with precision and accuracy.
an instrument might be, there is a limit to that precision. The
uncertainty is a range within which a measurement lies. An
error bar is a way of representing that uncertainty graphically.
Every instrument has a limit to how precisely it measures.
The scale or digital display imposes a constraint on how many
digits you can record. Further information about uncertainty and
errors will be covered in section 24.7.4.
For example, there are both errors and uncertainties associated
with using thermometers. Two individuals may look at this
and not get the exact same result. The results may not be identical
between two different thermometers. The thermometer only gives
measurements to the accuracy of 1 °C and not decimal values.

24.5 EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between validity and reliability.
2. Is it essential that the results of an experiment can be replicated in order for the experiment to be considered
reliable? Explain your answer.
3. Give an example of when results would not be considered reliable.
4. List two procedures that could adversely affect the internal validity of an experiment.
5. Explain how an experiment can be reliable but not valid, whereas an experiment that is valid must also
be reliable.
6. Explain, with examples, the difference between precision and accuracy.
7. Give an example of a strength and a weakness of quantitative and qualitative data.
8. Describe why primary data is often stronger evidence than secondary data.
24.6 Health and safety guidelines

KEY CONCEPT
• Identification and application of relevant health and safety guidelines.
KEY SCIENCE SKILL

• Comply with safety and ethical guidelines.
24.6.1 Health and safety guidelines

Part of the enjoyment of a practical investigation is that the topic may be unconventional or use an
innovative method. Such situations, however, can present some risk, so special care needs to be taken to
ensure yourself and others are safe.
General safety rules

Some general safety precautions will help to ensure that you and others are not injured in the laboratory.
• Wear protective clothing. This might include laboratory coat, safety glasses and gloves.
• Be aware of the position of safety equipment such as fire blanket, fire extinguisher, safety shower and
eyewash.
• Ask if you are unsure how to operate equipment or how to use apparatus.
• Read labels carefully to confirm contents.
• Clean and return all equipment to the correct places.
• Check for the correct disposal of equipment and chemicals, including damaged equipment (i.e. broken
glasswear).
• Read instructions carefully before commencing an experiment.
• Prepare a risk assessment for required chemicals and equipment.
• Do the investigation as outlined in your approved plan. Don’t vary your plan without approval from
your teacher.
• Don’t do experimental work unsupervised unless you have prior approval from your teacher.
• When first setting up electrical experiments, ask your teacher to check the circuit.
• Don’t interfere with the equipment set-up of others.
It is important to address health and safety concerns through the use of a risk assessment.
An example of a risk assessment is shown in figure 24.32. Risk assessments may also be created online
using various websites.

FIGURE 24.32 Risk assessment
RISK ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITY Energy transferred by an electric current
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT
AIM To calculate how much energy is transformed from electrical potential energy into the internal energy of
a load
METHOD 1. Find the mass of the copper vessel in the calorimeter.
2. Add 100 mL of water to the vessel.
3. Note the initial temperature of the water.
4. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
5. Set the power supply on 6 V and close the switch. Start the stopwatch.
6. Record the current passing through and the voltage drop across the calorimeter.
7.
initial value.
8. Open the switch and stop the stopwatch.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES
GLASSES GLOVES DUST MASK LAB COAT FUME HOOD
x x
SAFETY INFORMATION
CHEMICAL
Water
Hazards Safety precautions
• Temperature of water will increase during this • Use hot hands or metal tongs when handling hot water
investigation, which may lead to burns. vessel.
• Allow water to cool before packing away equipment.
EQUIPMENT
Wire

• Wire may be use as a restraint. • Only provide enough material for the investigation.
• Wire may be wrapped around neck, which may lead to • Ensure cotton or wire is not wrapped around students.
strangulation.
EQUIPMENT
Power supply

• If cable or power supply is not properly maintained, it may • Regularly inspect for damage, particularly around cords
lead to electric shock or electrocution. or outlets and get tagged and tested.
• Water may splash up onto power supply, leading to • Ensure water is kept away from power supply.
electric shock.
EQUIPMENT
Thermometer
• There is a risk of glass breakage, especially if there are • Wear gloves, safety glasses and a lab coat.
chips or cracks present. • Try to substitute mercury thermometer with alcohol
• Some thermometers contain mercury, so if a thermometer thermometer.
breaks, toxic mercury is released.
CONCLUSION
• Ensure all equipment has been maintained and checked for damage before use.
• Allow equipment to cool before packing away.
Signed:______________________________ Date:_______________________

A risk assessment is a procedure for identifying hazardous chemicals, what the risks are and how to
work safely with them. Table 24.8 lists the usual requirements for a written risk assessment. This assesses
potential hazards with equipment being used and standard handling procedures to ensure health and safety
of individuals and the environment.
TABLE 24.8 Requirements for a written risk assessment
Outline of investigation Title, date and location of task
Summary of method Brief list of steps indicating how the chemicals and equipment will be used
Equipment/chemicals used List of materials used in the experiment
Equipment/chemical risk and hazards List of hazards associated with the equipment
Risk control measures General precautions taken to limit risks
Risk assessments should also take into consideration correct disposal of equipment and chemicals to
adhere to safety and bioethical guidelines. Many chemicals are harmful to the environment, so correct
disposal is paramount. While chemicals on their own are not used often in practical investigations in
Physics, it is still important to understand their disposal. Batteries, for example, can corrode or sustain
damage and chemicals within them may leak.
24.6.2 Ethics
Ethics relate to acceptable and moral conduct —
FIGURE 24.33 Ethics are about the idea of moral
this does not apply only to scientific investigations, choice.
but many aspects of life, determining what ‘right’
and what is ‘wrong’.
Science interacts with ethics in several ways,
including:
• the way an experiment is conducted
• confidentiality around research
• conflicts with religious and personal beliefs.
Ethical standards and considerations also apply
to any type of research or data collection method
involving people (or animals).
Due to the nature of practical investigations in
physics, ethical considerations usually are not a
factor. However, it is an important consideration to
take into account, as situations may arise when data collection involves humans. For example, you may be
conducting surveys on issues regarding the greenhouse effect and climate science. The confidentiality of
individuals who provide responses needs to be considered and permissions gained.
It is important to be mindful of individuals’ personal beliefs. For example, many individuals are opposed
to experimentation on animals. This is an ethical consideration that needs to be evaluated and understood
when teaching and reporting on these topics.

24.6 EXERCISE
1. Identify possible hazards with the following equipment:
(a) battery
(b) light globe used in a circuit
(c) Bunsen burner
(d) beaker
(e) thermometer.
2. Provide two examples of when ethics may be important in a physics investigation.
3. List five purposes of a risk assessment.
4. What other things do you think should be added to a risk assessment?
5. Draw a plan of your laboratory and label the positions of safety equipment.
24.7 Methods of organising, analysing and

evaluating primary data
KEY CONCEPT
• Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships
including sources of error and uncertainty, and limitations of data and methodologies.
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS
• Analyse and evaluate data and methods.
24.7.1 Organising primary data

Scientists gather raw data from their observations.
FIGURE 24.34 Using logbooks is an easy way to
Data must be recorded at the time in a suitable record data.
form, for example, text entries, sketches, tables and
diagrams in logbooks or in field notebooks. These
may be supplemented by audio and video recordings.
Using tables
Tables should be used when you initially record data
and help separate and organise your information.
All tables should:
• have a heading
• display the data clearly, with the independent
variable in the first column and the dependent
variable in later columns
• include units in the column headings and not with every data point
• be easy to read. If a table becomes too complicated, it is better to break it down into a number of
smaller tables
• use appropriate significant figures (or decimal places) that are consistent across data sets (for example,
if one data point is 2.5, the other data point cannot be just 1, it should be 1.0).

FIGURE 24.35 Format of a scientific table
Always include a title

for your table.
Include the measurement units

Temperature of the Earth at different depths
in the headings.
Depth Temperature
(km) (°C)
The column headings show clearly
what has been measured.
0 15
1 44
Use a ruler to draw lines for
rows, columns and borders.
2 73
3 102
4 130
5 158
Enter the data in the body of the table. Do

6 187 not include units in this part of the table.
7 215
8 242
Using graphs
Presenting results as a graph makes it easier to see patterns and trends in your data, allowing more accurate
result analysis.
When drawing graphs:
• Decide on the type of graph to be used. Different types of information are better suited to different
types of graphs. When one piece of data is qualitative, a pie, column or bar graph is better; however, if
they are both quantitative, a line graph or scatterplot (or scattergram) is preferred.
• Include a title; this should link the dependent and independent variables that are shown in the graph.
• The independent variable should be on the horizontal (x) axis and the dependent variable on the
vertical (y) axis in most graph types (excluding pie graphs).

• Axes should be ruled and each should be clearly labelled. Those displaying numerical variables should
have a clearly marked scale and units.
• Make sure your scale is suitable and the numbered are evenly distributed.
• For continuous variables, it is often appropriate to draw a line (or curve) of best fit. This is a smooth
curve or line that passes as close as possible to most of the plotted points.
• Include the origin, the zero value for the variables, on both axes.
• Include error bars to show uncertainty, particularly vertical error bars.
The most common representations include:
• scatterplots
• line graphs
• histograms
• bar/column graphs.
Scatterplots
Scatterplots require both sets of data to be numerical or quantitative. Each dot represents one observation,
recorded in regards to the independent and dependent variable. A scatterplot can easily show trends between
data sets and correlations can be seen.
FIGURE 24.36 Example of (a) scatterplot and (b) scatterplot with a line of best fit
(a) Force measured from different masses (b) Inlet pressure versus outlet pressure in
first catalyst bed
60
10
Outlet pressure (kPa × 104)
50
Force (N)
40
30 5
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 10
Mass (kg) Inlet pressure (kPa × 104)
A line of best fit can be used to show the general trend of data and provides a quick summary of a
relationship. The line of best fit doesn’t need to pass through each data point but should be as close as
possible to them. This can be seen in figure 24.36b, in which A is a better line of best fit, despite not going
through all points. As a general rule, try to have as many data points above your line as you have below.
Don’t assume your line must pass through the origin (0, 0). A line of best fit does not always need to be a
line, but may instead be a curve, or show an exponential relationship.
Line graphs
In a line graph, a series of dots represents the values of a variable and the dots are joined using a straight
line (this is different to a line of best fit, which shows a general relationship and does not have to go through
each point). Line graphs are often used to show changes over a continuous period of time, or over space.
In particular, line graphs can identify patterns, trends and turning points in a dataset. Line graphs are
sometimes curved rather than straight point to point.

FIGURE 24.37 Setting up a line graph
3. Setting up and labelling the axes 2. Title 1. Grid

Graphs represent a relationship Tell the reader what the graph is Graphs should always be drawn on
between two variables. When about. The title describes the results grid paper so values are accurately
choosing which variable to put on of the investigation or the relationship placed. Drawing freehand on lined or
each axis, remember that there is between variables. plain paper is not accurate enough for
usually an independent variable (which most graphs.
the investigator chooses) and a
dependent variable. For example, if Distance covered by a runner in
students wish to find out how for a 15 seconds Data table
runner could run in 15 seconds, they 100
may choose to measure the distance Time Distance
over set times. The time of each (s) (m)
measurement was chosen by the
students and is the independent 4 0
variable. The distance measured is 80
5 8
therefore the dependent variable.
Usually the independent variable is
10 37
plotted on the x-axis and the 15 96
dependent variable on the vertical
60
y-axis.
Distance (m)
After deciding on the variable for 5. Putting in the values

each axis, you must clearly label the
A point is made for each
axes with the variable and its units.
The unit is written in brackets after the pair of values (the
40 meeting point of two
name of the variable.
imaginary lines from
each axis). The points
should be clearly visible.
Include a point for (0, 0)
4. Setting up the scales 20 only if you have the data
Each axis should be marked into units for this point.
that cover the entire range of the
measurement. For example, if the
distance ranges from 0 m to 96 m,
then 0 m and 100 m could be the 0
0 5 10 15
lowest and highest values on the
Time (s)
vertical scale. The distance between
the top and bottom values is then
broken up into equal divisions and
marked. The horizontal axis must also
have its own range of values and
uniform scale (which does not have to
be the same scale as the vertical axis).
The most important points about the
scales are:
• they must show the entire range of 6. Drawing the line
measurements A line is then drawn through the points, connecting them together. Some points
• they must be uniform, that is, show follow the shape of a curve, rather than a straight line. A curved line that touches
equal divisions for equal increases all the points can then be used.
in value.
Bar graphs
Bar graphs are often used when one piece of data is qualitative and the other is quantitative. The bars are
separated from each other. The horizontal or x-axis has no scale because it simply shows categories. The
vertical or y-axis has a scale showing the units of measurements.
Bar graphs can also be used to compare two sets of data by using side-by-side bars, as shown in
figure 24.38b.

FIGURE 24.38 Bar graphs: (a) showing differences in gravity of the four terrestrial planets and (b) comparing the
height of bouncing balls on different surfaces
(a) Gravity on different terrestrial planets (b) Height of bounce of balls on

12 different surfaces
60
Tennis ball
10 Bouncy ball
50
8
Gravity (m s–2)
40
Height (cm)
6
30
4
20
2
10
0
0
ry
rth
s
nu
ar
Concrete Grass Gravel
cu
Ea
M
Ve
er
Type of surface
M
Histograms
A histogram is a special kind of bar graph, showing continuous categories. The bars are not separated,
unlike in a bar graph. Histograms are often used when examining frequency. In figure 24.39, the exact
values cannot be determined, as data are displayed in intervals. For example, it can be seen that there were
40 cars that had a speed between 10–20 km h−1 . We do not know what specific values these are.
FIGURE 24.39 Histogram showing speed deceleration for airbag deployment of 166 tested cars
Minimum speed of deceleration for

deployment of airbag
120
100
Frequency of tested car
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Minimum speed of deceleration
(km h−1) for airbag to deploy

Using Microsoft Excel
The Excel spreadsheet is a very useful tool
FIGURE 24.40 Excel is a useful data tool.
to the experimenter. It can:
• store your measurements. Make
sure you save your data every few
minutes and do a backup every day
• calculate any derived physical
quantities, such as speed and
acceleration of a parachute or the
percentage of energy lost by a
bouncing ball. The ‘Fill down’
command is a time saver
• be a powerful graphing tool, but must
be controlled by the user. You will
have to select the graph and choose
what aspects of your graph you want
to show and what scale on the axis
you want, what you want to label your axis and whether you want the data displayed on the
graphed points
• generate a line of best fit. If you right-click on any data point, a window pops up with the option ‘Add
Trendline’. This is the Excel command to create a line of best fit. Once selected, you have several
choices. If your graph looks like a straight line, choose ‘Linear’
• create error bars (however, all error bars are usually the same for each data point, rather than
calculated separately).
Resources
Interactivity Selecting a graph (int-7733)
24.7.2 Analysing primary data

When analysing primary data, it is important to explore trends and patterns that can be seen.
This may include asking questions such as:
• Is there a clear positive or negative correlation in data? (Positive correlation is when one variable
increases in response to another increasing.)
• Are there any outliers (unusual data)?
• What results would you expect for specific data that you didn’t observe experimentally?
• Can you calculate the average for your data? Does this differ for the median or the mode?
Analysis of your data often depends on the type of graph selected, as it alters the way that trends and
patterns can be seen.
For example, the graphs in figure 24.41 show the same data presented in three ways.
If you were analysing the data from each of the three graphs, the following information may emerge.
• Graph (a). There is a clear downwards trend (or negative correlation) in the data, as temperature
decreases over time. However, the temperature at 25 minutes is slightly higher than the expected
pattern based on trends and the temperature at 30 minutes is slightly lower than expected.
• Graph (b). There is a clear downwards trend in data, as temperature decreases over time. The rate of
temperature drop slows after 15 minutes, before the rate increases again between 25 and 30 minutes.
• Graph (c). There is a clear downwards trend in data, as temperature decreases over time. The
temperature is lowest at 30 minutes, where it is half the temperature seen at 15 minutes.

FIGURE 24.41 Various graphs showing temperature change over time: (a) scatterplot using a line of best fit,
(b) line graph and (c) bar graph
(a) (b)
Change in temperature over time Change in temperature over time
100 100
80 80
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)
(c)
(c) Change in temperature over time

100
80
Temperature (°C)
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
It is clear that from analysing data, the type of graph is quite

FIGURE 24.42 Outliers in data are
important in interpreting it. In this case, the data represented in unusual results.
graphs (a) and (b) is far more powerful than graph (c). Regardless, it
is important to note any clear trends and patterns seen in the data
and any outliers that can be seen. Outliers, which are unusual
results that lie well outside the patterns or trends observed, should
be accounted for and analysed, but are often not included when
calculating averages. However, it is important to consider why
outliers occured.
Graph analysis can also be used to predict and make assumptions
about data that was not gathered experimentally. This can be
through interpolation (predicting data points within the data set that were not measured) or
extrapolation (predicting data points outside data set based on predicted relationship).
Based on the graphs in figure 24.41 you might estimate:
• the temperature at 35 minutes
• the temperature at 13 minutes
• the time that the temperature was 45 °C.
The prediction you get may vary greatly between all the graphs, so it is important to carefully consider
which you use. Table 24.9 shows the varying predictions obtained from the different graphs in figure 24.41.

TABLE 24.9 Analysing data from different graph types
Graph (a) Graph (b) Graph (c)
Temperature at 35 minutes (°C) 25 15 20
Temperature at 13 minutes (°C) 65 62 66
Time the temperature was 45 °C (minutes) 24 27 26
Direct variation
When analysing data, you may find they a change in one variable results in a change in the other by the
same proportion. This is known as being directly proportional and is a way to describe and analyse the data.
Consider, for example, the relationship described by the equation y ∝ x. This type of relationship is known
as a direct variation. The relationship can be written as:
y = kx
where k is a constant of proportionality.
y
The ratio x is constant; that is, if x is doubled, y doubles, if x is tripled, y triples, if x is halved, y halves.
Many relationships in physics involve direct variation or direct proportion. For example, the power,
P, delivered to an electric appliance is directly proportional to the voltage, V, across it and the current, I,
passing through it. In symbols:
P ∝ VI
If either V or I are doubled, P changes by the same proportion — that is, it doubles. If both V and I are
doubled, P changes by a factor of four.
When one quantity is directly proportional to the reciprocal of another, the relationship is defined as an
inverse variation. For example, the electrical resistance, R, of a length of wire is directly proportional to the
reciprocal of the cross-sectional area, A, of the wire. In symbols:
1
R ∝
A
k
⇒R =
A
where k is a constant of proportionality.

R is said to be inversely proportional to A. The product of R and A is constant. If A is doubled, R is
halved. If A is tripled, R is divided by three. If A is halved, R doubles.
24.7.3 Evaluating primary data

When you evaluate data, it is important to link back to the initial question.
• Does the data provide an answer to the question of your investigation?
• Does the data support or refute your hypothesis?
• If there were any outliers, errors or uncertainty in your data, why may these have occurred?
• Does your data link to correctly supported models and theories?
• Are there further improvements that you could make to improve your data in future investigations that
may reduce errors or limitations?
It is important when evaluating data that you can explain and justify this in relation to your question.
For the data in figure 24.41, two examples of two students evaluating data are as follows.
Student 1. It can be seen from the results that temperature decreased.
Student 2. From the table, it is clear that temperature decreases over time, dropping from an initial
temperature of 90 °C to a final recorded temperature of 30 °C. While there is a clear trend in

temperature decreasing over time, the rate of decrease was inconsistent, particularly between 25 and
30 minutes. This may be due to a decrease in external air temperature, causing the rate of heat loss through
convection to change.
It is clear that student 2 had a better grasp on evaluating the data, being able to describe trends and a link to
theory. What else should they add?
24.7.4 Sources of uncertainty and error

As mentioned in section 24.5.5, uncertainty is a range within which a measurement lies. Errors, on the other
hand, are differences between a measurement taken and the true value that is expected. Errors lead to a
reduction in the accuracy of the investigation.
Several sources of error can be identified in an
FIGURE 24.43 Liquids should be measured from the
investigation: bottom of the dip (meniscus) to avoid errors.
• Systematic errors are errors that affect the
accuracy of a measurement, that cannot be
improved by repeating an experiment. They are
usually due to equipment or system errors. They
produce measurements that are consistently too
high or too low, for example:
– instrumental errors that arise because an
instrument, such as a weighing balance is
uncalibrated and incorrectly set to zero
– errors that arise because of malfunctions,
such as a power outage, that affect the
conditions under which an experiment is
being conducted.
• Random errors are chance variations in measurements that affect the precision of measurements and
are always present in measurements of continuous data. An example of a random error is an error of
judgement when reading the smallest division on the scale of a measuring instrument, such as a ruler.
Unlike systematic errors, this can usually be resolved with repetition of measurements.
It should be noted that so-called ‘human errors’ are not errors but are mistakes that result from
carelessness. Examples include gross misreading of an instrument and writing the wrong result in your
logbook, such as 40 instead of 4.0.
Measuring errors and uncertainties

Reading rulers
A metre ruler has lines to mark each
FIGURE 24.44 Errors in rulers
millimetre but there is space between these
lines. You could measure a length to the
nearest millimetre but because of the space
between the lines, if you look carefully, you
can measure to a higher precision. You can
measure to the nearest 0.5 millimetre.
The best estimate for the length of the
red line in figure 24.44 is 2.35 centimetres. The actual length is closer to 2.35 centimetres than it is to
either 2.30 centimetres or 2.40 centimetres. The measurement of 2.35 centimetres says the actual length
is somewhere between 2.325 and 2.375 centimetres (0.025 cm lower than and higher than the recorded
measurement of 2.35 cm).
The way to write this is:
The length of the red line = 2.35 ± 0.025 cm

The 0.025 represents the tolerance or uncertainty in the measurement (half of the precision that can be
recorded). It is important to note that the tolerance will depends on the ruler- sometimes you may not be
able to determine if a measurement is halfway between two points, so your uncertainty will be larger.
Reading top-loading balances

Consider the scales shown in figure 24.45. The reading on these digital FIGURE 24.45 Top-loading
scales may be 8.94 grams. This means the mass is not 8.93 grams balances measure to a certain
number of significant figures.
nor 8.95 grams. The actual mass is somewhere between 8.935 and
8.945 grams. We can also calculate this uncertainty by calculating
half of the smallest unit that can be recorded. For the scales, the
smallest unit that can be recorded is 0.01 g, so the uncertainty is half
of this (0.005 g). The way to write this is:
The mass = 8.94 ± 0.005 g
FIGURE 24.46 What is the tolerance in these measuring instruments?
(a) (b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
a. Record the reading on the scales shown in figure 24.46a including the tolerance (uncertainty).
b. Record the reading on the thermometer shown in figure 24.46b including the tolerance
(uncertainty).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the reading on the scale. a. 128.93
2. Determine the range of the measurement. The measurement can be between 128.925
and 128.935.
Determine the tolerance. 0.01 g is smallest measurement possible.
= 0.005 g
3.
One way to calculate this is half of the 0.01
The mass is 128.93 ± 0.005 g.

smallest unit that can be measured. 2

b. 1. Determine the reading on the thermometer. b. 47 °C
2. Determine the range of the measurement. The measurement can be between 46.75 and
In this case, you can tell if the thermometer 47.25.
is in 0.5 increments due to the gaps in the
thermometer, so our range is smaller.
3. Determine the tolerance. 0.01 g is smallest measurement possible.
One way to calculate this is half of the 0.5
= 0.25
smallest unit that can be measured (our 2
smallest unit is 0.5).
4. State the solution. The temperature is 47 ± 0.25 °C.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. Record the reading on scales including the tolerance (uncertainty) that show a reading of 0.12.
b. Record the reading on scales including the tolerance (uncertainty) that show a reading of 0.195.
Repeated measurements
Measurements of independent variables are usually precise and careful, so one measurement should be
enough. However, measurements of the dependent variables are often prone to some variation.
Whether the variation is caused by the human reaction time when using a stopwatch, judging the rebound
height of a basketball or in the case of the parachute, the unpredictable way the canopy will open each
time, each reading may be different. It is sensible to take several readings to obtain an average. You would
expect that at least three measurements would be needed, and possibly five, but more than five is generally
unnecessary. For example, if your partner dropped the basketball from a height of 80 centimetres and you
judged the rebound height of the ball for five trials as 68 cm, 69.5 cm, 68.5 cm, 68.5 cm and 69.5 cm. The
average is 68.8 centimetres.
Graphing error bars

To represent the measure of uncertainty we use errors bars. The
FIGURE 24.47 Error bars
measurement is shown in as the middle dot and error bars are
added based on the degree of uncertainty, as shown in figure y
24.47.
Calculating error 10
Working out the size of an error bar takes more effort. If the two
pieces of data are 69 ± 1 cm and 80 ± 0.3 cm, we can just add
the uncertainties to get ± 1.3 cm, but that doesn’t make sense 5
when the calculated value is 0.86. Dividing the uncertainties

would produce another unusual result.
The method used is to first express the uncertainty for each 0
data value as a percentage. For example:

(1) x
2 4 6 8 10
Percentage error of 69 ± 1 cm = 69 × 100 = 1.4%
( 0.3 )
Percentage error of 80.0 ± 0.3 cm = 80 × 100 = 0.4%

Now add the two percentage errors together:
Total percentage error = 1.4% + 0.4% = 1.8%
Next use this total percentage error to find the error in the calculated answer.
Error = 0.86 × 1.8% = 0.016, which would be rounded to one digit as 0.02.
The full calculated answer would now be 0.86 ± 0.02.
Resources
Video eLesson Calculating error (eles-2560)
24.7.5 Limitations of data and methodology

The data that is gathered from the experimental results will have limitations. Limitations arise from several
sources that can affect the quality of the data:
• Experiments create artificial situations that do not necessarily represent real-life situations.
• While every effort may be made to identify controlled variables and keep them constant throughout
the course of an experiment, it is not always possible to identify and control every one of this type
of variable.
• The degree on which results obtained in the laboratory can be generalised to other situations and
applied in the real world is limited.
It is important to consider limitations when analysing data and drawing conclusions from data.
Limitations should be factors that are out of your control but need to be discussed in regards to how they
might affect your results. As part of your practical investigation, you need to clearly outline limitations and
suggest improvements to the method or data collection to avoid these.
24.7 EXERCISE
your learnON title at w.ww.jacplus.com.au.
1. Describe the difference between a random and systematic error and provide two examples of each.
2. List two ways that you can minimise uncertainty in an investigation.
3. Identify which graph type would be most appropriate for the following investigations. Justify your choice.
(a) Calculating the height of a rocket over time
(b) Determining the volume of an airbag upon crashing in six different brands of car
(c) Measuring the surface area of a melting ice cube every minute for 20 minutes
(d) Showing the frequency of goals scored out of 200 attempts for 1000 students
4. Using the following data, construct an appropriate graph.
Time (mins) Height of candle (cm)

0 32 cm
5 29 cm
10 25 cm
15 23 cm
20 19 cm
25 15 cm
Once you construct the graph, analyse and evaluate the data shown.
5. Describe how an outlier should be treated in analysing and evaluating data.

6. Determine the length of each line in the following diagram, showing the tolerance (error) in each case.
(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(b)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(c)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
7. The power delivered to an electrical device is directly proportional to the voltage across the device and the
electric current flowing through the device. If the power delivered to the device is initially 20 W, what will
it be if:
(a) the voltage is tripled
(b) the current is doubled
(c) the voltage and electric current are both tripled
(d) the voltage is doubled and the current is halved?
24.8 Models and theories to understand

observed phenomena
KEY CONCEPT
• Observations and experiments that are consistent with, or challenge, current physics models or theories.
KEY SCIENCE SKILL
• Analyse and evaluate scientific models.
As well as data limitations, limitations exist in the models FIGURE 24.48 Different
and theories that we use in physics. It is important to be able to models of methane, a gas
involved the greenhouse
use models and theories to allow us to understand a variety of
effect. How do you think this
observed phenomena, but also to understand the limitations and differs from a ‘real’ methane
the idea that they may change as more observation and research molecule?
is conducted.
H H
24.8.1 Models
Models are representations of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes. C H C H
H
They can be physical models, mathematical models or conceptual H
models. Models can provide an explanatory framework that explains H H
observed phenomena and helps with the understanding of abstract
concepts. In physics, many concepts are hard to visualise, so models CH4 methane
help contextualise the idea on a smaller and simpler scale.

While they are very useful, models have their limitations:
• Because of the complexity of the
processes, models cannot include all FIGURE 24.49 A model showing the Higgs
the details of the processes or the things boson particle (known as the god particle)
that they represent.
• Models are necessarily approximations of the
real world; for example, we can use Newton’s
law of motion to make predictions about
motion, however, this model cannot be used
in certain conditions, particular at very high
speeds and therefore predictions would not always
match what happens in the real world.
• Models often have limits in their accuracy
and are often simplified and stylised, for
example, a ball-and-stick model of methane (see
figure 24.48) is useful but is a very highly simplified
and stylised representation that reduces bonds to
sticks and atoms to solid balls.
• Models are based off current observations and
knowledge at the time. This means that they aren’t
definite and can change as observations allow for
different ideas to come to light.
Models are constantly being refined as new information becomes available. One model that has
continuously changed is that of the atom.
FIGURE 24.50 Various models of the atom including John Dalton’s model and J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding
model
1803 1904 1911 1913 1926

John Dalton J.J. Thomson Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr Erwin Schrödinger
24.8.2 Theories
A theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomena. It is based on the interpretation of facts that have
been obtained through investigations, research and observations.
There are limitations that can exist with theories, such as:
• There is often a reliance on theories rather than observations made during practical investigations.
Often, theories are treated as perfect, when in fact they can be disproven as new observations and
evidence come to light.
• Theories often rely on a very specific set of conditions to be met. For example, Newton’s laws of
motions cannot be used at very small scales or very high speeds.
• Often a phenomenon needs to be described using multiple theories. Sometimes, aspects of theories
may have some contradictions to each other.

Theories can change overnight or take a very
FIGURE 24.51 The Flat Earth theory has been
long time to change. Theories that were once popular replaced with the idea that the Earth is spherical.
and well accepted may be discarded when too
much evidence builds up against them. They are
replaced by a theory which better fits the observations.
Some examples of theories that have been
superseded by other theories are:
• miasma theory of disease — the idea that
diseases were caused by bad air
• that the Sun and planets orbit the Earth
(geocentrism)
• Flat Earth theory.
Another example of changing theories is seen is
astrophysics, where some of Newton’s theories (and
Einstein’s theory of relativity) are being contested.
A new theory known as Modified Newtonian
Dynamics (MoND) has new predictions about the universe, particularly around dark matter and astronomy.
TABLE 24.10 The changing theories in astrophysics
1933 Fritz Zwicky coins the term ‘dark matter’ to describe unseen mass or ‘gravitational glue’ in galaxy clusters.
1978 Astronomers show that many galaxies are spinning too quickly to hold themselves together unless they are
full of dark matter.
1983 Mordehai Milgrom publishes a modified gravity theory called MoND. It explains why galaxies don’t fly apart
without using dark matter, but remains at odds with Einstein’s relativity.
1990s Studies of galaxies and galaxy clusters show that their gravity bends light more strongly than is expected
without dark matter. MoND researchers start devising improved theories to explain extra light bending.
1994 Jacob Bekenstein and Roger Sanders prove that any theory that resolves the light-bending issue and
meshes MoND with relativity must involve at least three mathematical fields.
2000 New data on the cosmic microwave background reinforce the standard, dark matter picture of the universe.
2004 Jacob Bekenstein devises a version of MoND that is consistent with relativity.
2005 Constantinos Skordis and others show that relativistic MoND provides a good fit to the microwave
background data.
Refinements to existing theories come about in a number of ways:

• carefully planned laboratory-based or field-based experiments designed to support or refute a
particular hypothesis
• critical reinterpretation of previously accepted facts, producing a new framework
• collection and analysis of new data
• identification and exploration of patterns or anomalies
• new technologies that allow for changes to understanding and more depth of knowledge.
24.8 EXERCISE
1. Describe three ways that models can be useful.
2. Describe three limitations of models.

3. What is the difference between a model and a theory?
4. How can theories help us understand phenomena?
24.9 Nature of evidence and key findings

of investigations
KEY CONCEPT
• The nature of evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis, model or theory.
• The key findings of the selected investigation and their relationship to key physics concepts.
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS
• Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models.
• Draw evidence-based conclusions.
24.9.1 Nature of evidence: supporting or refuting a hypothesis,

model or theory
Evaluating a hypothesis, model or theory uses the evidence from the results obtained in an investigation. In
your investigation, it is important to understand how to best use evidence in order to correctly support or
refute your hypothesis.
Evidence can be strong or weak, as summarised. It is vital that the evidence you choose allows the
provision of strong and clear conclusions.
Strong evidence should:
• be based on facts derived from studies with high validity and minimal bias
• use data to support conclusions
• clearly link to the aim and hypothesis of an experiment
• be obtained from an investigation that has a reproducible and reliable method.
If the prediction from your hypothesis was validated by your experimental results, you should evaluate
your hypothesis as ‘supported’ and if your hypothesis was not supported by results, it is termed as ‘rejected’
or ‘disproven’. This is a reminder that a scientific hypothesis can be disproven, but can never be proven
true — it can only be supported. This is because the nature of evidence is that as new technologies and
information becomes available, evidence can change and be interpreted in different ways. This may than
disprove a previously made hypothesis.
TABLE 24.11 Examples of results that can support or disprove a hypothesis
Test of
Observation Hypothesis hypothesis Result Conclusion
The phone is not charging. The charger is Use a different The phone still Hypothesis
faulty. charger. does not charge. disproved
The globe in the circuit is The power pack Replace with a Light globe Hypothesis
not working. is faulty. new power pack. turns on. supported
The reading on the The wires are the Swap the wires. The reading is Hypothesis
voltmeter is below zero. wrong way. now above zero. supported

24.9.2 The key findings of investigations
In your investigation, you would have written a question and a hypothesis, created a clear reproducible
methodology, and collected and analysed data.
From this point, it is then important to determine the key findings of your investigation.
Your key findings should include:
• information about the data obtained in the practical investigation and any patterns and trends
• the relationship of your findings to physics concepts including thermodynamics, matter, motion and
electric circuits
• an answer to the question of your investigation.
For example, your question may have been, ‘How does mass
FIGURE 24.52 Exploring the impact
affect the change of temperature of gold?’ and you may have of different masses on temperature
obtained the results shown in figure 24.52. change
Your key findings that you should include in the discussion,
may be as follows: Change in temperature (K) of gold of different
masses at 800 kJ of heat energy
It is expected that based on the formula q = mc∆T, in which q is 70
the heat energy, m is the mass, c is the specific heat and ∆T is the
change in temperature, that increasing the mass of gold would 60
increase the heat energy required.
Temperature change (K)

In this situation, the heat energy and specific heat are controlled 50
across all experiments, with the mass being the independent

Q 40
variable. By rearranging the equation to ∆T = , it can be
mc 30
seen that the change in temperature is inversely proportional to
the mass as an object. Therefore, increasing the mass would lead
20
to a reduction in the change in temperature.
From the investigation, it can be observed that the mass of gold 10
does have an impact on the change in temperature as observed in
the graph in figure 24.52, however, this relationship is not linear.
0
This supports the hypothesis of this investigation. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Mass of gold (kg)
24.9 EXERCISE
1. Why do we only say that we ‘support’ a hypothesis rather than ‘prove’ it?
2. Provide three examples of strong evidence.
3. Describe what key findings you should communicate in a discussion.
4. Why is it important to show the relationship of your results to concepts such as waves, fields and motion?

24.10 Conventions of scientific report writing and
scientific poster presentation
KEY CONCEPT
• The conventions of scientific report writing including physics terminology and representations, symbols,
equations and formulas, units of measurement, significant figures, standard abbreviations and
acknowledgment of references.
KEY SCIENCE SKILL
24.10.1 Conventions of report writing

It is vital in scientific report writing to follow the protocols of scientific written communication (see
table 24.12).
TABLE 24.12 Aspects of a written report
Section Description
Title A precise and complete description of what you investigated
Abstract An optional section, used to outline the key findings and information
Introduction A paragraph explaining the relevant physics and background concepts and relationships
and how they apply to this investigation. It should explore any prior investigations
conducted on this topic. This should also include a clear aim and hypothesis.
Methodology A detailed section that describes your selection of equipment and measuring instruments,
and your step-by-step method. This may include diagrams and photos. Refer to how you
controlled variables, achieved the desired accuracy and overcame, avoided or anticipated
difficulties. It should be clear enough for someone else (at your level) to repeat your
experiment. Do not forget to highlight how the relevant ethical and safety concerns have
been addressed. This section is often detailed in your logbook and summarised in your
final report.
Results (and A clear representation of your results includes your data and graphs. If there is too much
observations) data, then refer to your logbook for the full set. Make sure you present your results in
an organised and clear manner, following accepted conventions (such as numbered
sequentially). Make sure you include the appropriate units and use the correct number
of significant figures. Try to organise this in such a way that any patterns or relationships
start to become obvious, thus making it easier to analyse in the discussion. Show sample
calculations if required.
Discussion A detailed analysis and evaluation of your results. How does your data support your
initial intentions and link to relevant physics concepts? What trends and relationships
are apparent as a result of your investigation? How much is your analysis limited by
uncertainties? Were there any outliers in your investigation and how were they treated?
What limitations and sources of error were present in your investigations and how would
you improve this in future repetitions? What would the next steps in the investigation be if
you had more time?
Conclusion A paragraph relating to the aim and based entirely on the evidence obtained in the
experiment. It should state whether the hypothesis is supported, summarising the meaning
of your results in response to your question. No new information should be included.
References and A list of the sources of any content you include that is not your own original work.
acknowledgements Unaltered tables, diagrams and graphs are examples that fit this description, as are direct
quotes. In your introduction, you may have mentioned previous work that your investigation
is based on. This also needs to be acknowledged, along with any sources that inform your
discussion of concepts and theory in a more general sense. This section is not counted in
your final word count.

Remember, your teacher will also mark both your scientific report (or poster) and the work in your
logbook, so make sure that all required work is there. You may have some of the above information that
only appears in your logbook; some that appears in both and some that only appears in your report. Your
logbook and report are all part of practical investigation skills.
Some other things that are important to a scientific report:
• Try to avoid subjective language — where possible, use third-person language and write in past tense.
• Don’t just record the data you believe supports your hypothesis, you should also include any errors,
uncertainties and outliers.
• If you used any calculations, show your workings.
• Use subheadings throughout your report. Make it clear to read.
• Provide headings for all graphs, tables and figures and label them sequentially (graph 1, graph 2, etc.).
24.10.2 Terminology and representations
It is important throughout your report to use clear and concise terminology relevant to the related physics
concept. The use of key terms was covered previously. In addition, physics representations are required
to be accurate and use common conventions. These representations were discussed in 24.4.3. There may
be other representations used that are appropriate to your specific investigation. These should be used
consistently in both your logbook and your poster.
24.10.3 Symbols
Table 24.13 lists some commonly used symbols in physics. Many of these are from the Greek alphabet.
TABLE 24.13 Some common symbols used in physics

Symbol Name Representation
𝜆 Lambda Wavelength (nm)
𝛼 Alpha Type of particle
𝛽 Beta Type of particle
𝛾 Gamma Type of particle
𝜏 Tau Torque (in forces) or time constant (in electricity)
𝜂 Eta Efficiency
𝜀 Epsilon Strain (in Young’s modulus) or electromotive force (emf)
𝜎 Sigma The uniaxial stress (in Young’s modulus)
𝜃 Theta Angle
𝜔 Omega Angular frequency
Δ Delta Change in variable
⊥ Perpendicular to
∝ Proportional to
Due to the sheer quantity of variables we have to represent, it is important to note that the capital
and lowercase letter usually represent different things. For example, t represents time, and T represents
temperature (or may be used to represent the orbital period). Factors such whether a symbol is in bold,
italics or a roman typeface also affect their meaning. Additionally, sometimes the same symbol is used to
represent different variables.
𝜇 for example, can be used to represent:
• mean in statistics
• micro in measurement
• coefficient of friction.
It is important to carefully use the correct symbol in your report to minimise confusion. It is important to
know various symbols, including those used in equations.

24.10.4 Equations and formulas
During your exam, you will be provided with a formula sheet for your reference.
When provided these in your scientific investigation, it is important to:
• define all variables
• provide any figures for constants (for example Planck’s constant).
Some key formulas in Physics are as follows.
Thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics: Q = U + W
• Raise of temperature of a substance: Q = mc∆T
• Raise the state of a substance: Q = mL
• Wien’s law: 𝜆max T = constant
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law: P ∝ T4
Electric circuits
Q
• Electric current: I =
t
E
• Potential difference: V =
Q
E
• Power: P = = VI
t
• Resistance in series: RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
1 1 1 1
• Resistance in parallel: = + + ... +
RT R1 R2 Rn
V
• Resistance: I =
R
• Power: P = VI
Matter
• Conservation of mass: E = mc2
Motion
• Formulas for constant acceleration:
• v = u + at
• v2 = u2 + 2as
1
• s = (u + v)t
2
1
• s = ut + at2
2
1 2
• s = vt + at
2
• Momentum to linear motion: p = mv
∆p
• Change in momentum: Fnet =
∆t
• Force due to gravity: Fg − mg
F
• Acceleration: a = net
m
• Torque: 𝜏 = r⊥ F
• Work: W = FS
• Hooke’s law: F = −k∆x

• Changes in gravitational power: Eg = mg∆h
1
• Transfer in potential energy in springs: Es = k∆x2
2
1 2
• Transfer in kinetic energy: Ek = mv
2
E
• Rate of energy transfer: P =
t
useful energy out
• Efficiency of an energy transfer system: 𝜂 =
total energy in
• Impulse in an isolated system: I = ∆p
24.10.5 Units of measurements

In Physics, it is vital to use the correct unit of measurement for accurate and clear scientific communication.
Prefixes
TABLE 24.14 Prefixes for units of measurement
Pico (p) Nano (n) Micro (𝜇) Milli (m) Centi (c) Deci (d) Kilo (k) Mega (M) Giga (G)
10−12 10−9 10−6 10−3 10−2 10−1 103 106 109
These values are off the base or SI unit, which does not have a prefix (for example, metre, seconds,
grams). These have the value of 100 or 1. All other prefixes are compared to this base unit.
Understanding different prefixes allows the correct units to be used in practical investigations and allows
for easy conversion between different units.
The following formula is used when converting between units:
initial unit (10n )

× value
new unit (10n )
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Convert:
a.12.412 millilitres to microlitres
b. 26 153 milligrams to decigrams
c. 8.7 metres to nanometres.
THINK WRITE
millilitres
a. 1. Determine the conversion between the a.
units. microlitres
10−3
−6
= 103
10
2. Multiply by the value to be converted. 103 × 12.412 mL = 12 412
3. Add the new unit. 12 412 𝜇L
4. State the solution. 12.412 millilitres equals 12 412 microlitres.
milligram
b. 1. Determine the conversion between the b.
units. decigram
10−3
= 10−2
10−1

2. Multiply by the value to be converted. 10−2 × 26 153 mg = 261.53
3. Add the new unit. 261.53 dg
4. State the solution. 26 153 milligrams equals 261.53 decigrams.
metre
c. 1. Determine the conversion between the
units. nanometre
We use 100 for metres as it is our 100
= 109
standard unit, so is equal to 1. 10−9
2. Multiply by the value to be converted. 109 × 8.7 m = 8700 000 000
3. Add the new unit (round if required) 8700 000 000 nm
4. State the solution. 8.7 metres equals 8700 000 000 nanometres.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Convert:
a. 7823 decigrams into kilograms
b. 213 microlitres into picolitres.
SI units of measurement
SI units or Système Internationale is our metric system of measurements, that is internationally
standardised.
TABLE 24.15 Common SI units used in Physics
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Energy Electron volt eV
For units named after an individual, such as André-Marie Ampère, Lord Kelvin and Sir Isaac Newton,
the symbol (or first letter of the symbol) is capitalised. However, when the full word is written out it is not
capitalised. For example, 60 A would be written as 60 amperes.
Derived units
Derived units are units of measurements derived from the SI units. Table 24.16 shows some commonly used
derived SI units.
Speed is another example of a quantity that is measured in derived SI units. The SI unit of speed is the
metre per second, written as m/s or m s−1 .
Derived units are often expressed with negative indices. For example, the unit of speed is usually
expressed as m s−1 rather than m/s. This is because:
1
1 m/s = 1 m ×
s
= 1 m × 1 s−1
= 1 m s−1

TABLE 24.16 Common derived units used in Physics
Quantity Unit Symbol Unit in terms of other units
Force (F) Newton N kg m s−2
Energy and work (E and W) Joule J Nm
Pressure (p) Pascal Pa N m−2
Power (P) Watt W J s−1
Electric charge (q) Coulomb C As
Voltage (V) Volt V J C−1
Resistance (R) Ohm Ω J C−1
Radiation dose Sievert Sv J kg−1
Temperature Celcius °C 273.15 K
24.10.6 Significant figures

There is a degree of uncertainty in any physical measurement. The uncertainty can be due to human error or
to the limitations of the measuring instrument.
In most physical measurements, the last significant figure shows a small degree of uncertainty. For
example, the length of an Olympic competition swimming pool is correctly expressed as 50.00 m. The last
zero has a small degree of uncertainty.
Two simple rules can be used to help you decide if zeros are significant.
• Zeros before the decimal point are significant if they are between non-zero digits. For example, all of
the zeros in the numbers 4506, 27 034 and 602 007 are significant. The numbers therefore have four,
five and six significant figures respectively. The zero in the number 0.56 is not significant.
• Zeros after the decimal point are significant if they follow a non-zero digit (or a 0 that follows a
non-zero digit). For example, in the number 28.00, the two zeros are significant. The number has four
significant figures. However, in the number 0.0028, the zeros are not significant. They do not follow a
non-zero digit and are present only to indicate the position of the decimal point. This number therefore
has only two significant figures. The number 0.002 80 has three significant figures (the last zero is
significant as it follows a non-zero digit).
FIGURE 24.53 Examples of significant figures: (a) three significant figures, (b) five significant figures
(a) (b)
Leading zero; Non-zero digit; Non-zero digit; Non-zero digit;
not significant significant significant significant
0.00820 12.040
Follows a non-zero Follows a non-zero
Follows a non-zero digit;
digit; significant digit; significant
Does not follow non-zero significant
digits after decimal; not
significant

Working with significant figures
When multiplying or dividing, the answer is written to the least number of significant figures in the initial
values provided. For example, if you travelled a distance of 432 metres in a car for 25 seconds, your average
speed would be given by:
distance travelled
average speed =
time taken
432 m
=
25 s
= 17.28 m s−1
The result should be rounded off to two significant figures as this is the least significant figure we were
given and can be confident to determine the distance and time, and should be expressed as 17 m s−1 .
When adding or subtracting, the answer is written to the least number of decimal places in the initial
values provided. For example, if you travelled three consecutive distances of 63.5, 12.2517 and 32.78
metres, the total distance travelled would be given by:
63.5 m
+ 12.2 517 m
+ 32.78 m
108.5317 m
= 108.5 m
The result should be rounded off to one decimal place as the minimum number of decimal places used in
the data is one (in the distance of 63.5 metres).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
In determining the density of a particular liquid, a student measured the volume of a sample as
8.3 millilitres. She then weighed the same sample and obtained a mass of 7.2 136 grams.
Calculate the density to the correct level of significant figures.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the number of significant figures you 7.2 136 = five significant figures
have been provided. 8.3 = two significant figures
2. Determine the least number of significant figures; Two significant figures
this is what your answer will be in.
mass
3. Calculate the density. density =
volume
7.2 136
density = = 0.8 691
8.3
4. Round down to the appropriate number of Round 0.8 691 to two significant figures
significant figures. = 0.87 g mL−1
5. State the solution. The density is 0.87 g mL−1 .

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
In determining the density of a particular liquid, a student measured the volume of a sample as
21.1 millilitres. She then weighed the same sample and obtained a mass of 9.762 grams. Calculate
the density to the correct level of significant figures.
Resources
Video eLesson Determining significant figures (eles-2559)
24.10.7 Standard abbreviations

Often, it is appropriate to abbreviate terms rather than writing it out in full on each appearance, which can
make a report bulky and hard to follow.
Some common abbreviations used in Units 1 and 2 Physics:
• AC: alternating current
• DC: direct current
• LPG: liquefied petroleum gas
• LED: light-emitting diode
• CT: computed tomography
• PET: positron emission topography.
For other words that can be abbreviated, either the full word needs to be shown, or the meaning of the
abbreviation needs to be acknowledged.
This is done by clearly showing the full term the first time the abbreviation is used. In subsequent uses,
the abbreviation alone may be used.
An example of this is:
In direct current (DC) the current applied only flows in one direction. Portable electronic sources, such as
laptops and mobile phones, use DC.
24.10.8 Acknowledgement of references

In-depth scientific reports require a depth of research for concepts relating to an investigation.
This may be:
• using other sources for definitions and background material
• finding examples of similar investigations
• research on the obtained results to link to scientific understanding.
If you use any material that is the work of another person, you must acknowledge its source. Do not
claim it as your own work. Acknowledgments come in two formats: a short version when it occurs in the
body of your poster or report and a longer version when it occurs in the Reference and Acknowledgments
section at the end of your poster or scientific report.
There are many ways to make such acknowledgments and various institutions and publications often use
different systems. Details of these systems can be found online and can be quite complicated. You should
check with your teacher as to how this is expected to be done.
Acknowledging sources within your report: in-text referencing

An in-text reference is a shortened abbreviated form of a reference and should be used in the body of your
report in the location in which the sourced information is referred to. This is used not just for direct quotes,
but also for tables, images and any information that has been paraphrased.
There are numerous ways to do this and it depends on what style you are using, so again, check with
your teacher.

Author-date system
This style of in-text referencing is more commonly used, particularly in the APA and Harvard styles of
referencing (the two styles most commonly used in science). As well as the shortened in-text referencing,
a full reference is included in the reference list.
Text that has been sourced has the in-text at the end of the information being used. This may be in the
middle of a sentence as seen here.
. . . over the past 10 years, the number of eligible children has increased (Kringle, 2008) and a need has therefore
developed for sleighs to travel faster to meet the required delivery schedule. More efficient fuels are required for
this purpose.
Tables, diagrams, graphs, and so on that are being inserted without being substantially altered can often
be acknowledged by stating the details directly underneath them as shown in table 24.17.
TABLE 24.17 Energy content of commonly

available sleigh fuels
Fuel Energy content (kJ L−1 )
Rudolphene 45
Polar plus 29
Super sleigh 53
(Claus, 2016, p. 45)
Notes
• If an online article is undated, put (n. d.) in place of the date.
• If there is no author listed, use the title in place of the author’s name.
• If there are up to three authors, list them all.
• If there are more than three authors, only use the name of the first author and follow it by the phrase
‘et al.’ (meaning ‘and others’).
• you quote directly from an author or cite a specific idea or piece of information from the source, you
If
need to include the page number of the quote in your in-text reference.
Footnotes system
This style of in-text referencing is usually used in the Chicago and Vancouver style of referencing.
In this style, the citation is should below, which a superscript number showing the point in which a
reference have been used.
. . . over the past 10 years, the number of eligible children has increased5 and a need has therefore developed for
sleighs to travel faster to meet the required delivery schedule. More efficient fuels are required for this purpose.
5
Kringle, K. (2008). Journal of Polar Transport, vol. 34, p. 356.
In the footnotes section of the page (depending on the format of the report) the work is referenced with the
corresponding number, and then again included in the reference list.
Acknowledging sources at the end of your report: Reference list
At the end of a scientific report or poster, a reference list is included.
In your reference list, references should be listed alphabetically. If the footnotes version of in-text
referencing was used, references should be listed in order of footnote number.
The following provides examples of the use of Harvard style in creating references.
Book
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title. Edition (if applicable). Place of publication, publisher.
Example:
Langley, P & Jones, M (2013). The search for Richard III: The king’s grave. London, John Murray.
Do not use et al. in your reference list. This is only appropriate in your in-text referencing.

Journal
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title of article. Title of Journal. Volume number. Page
numbers.
Example:
Boiero, D & Bagaini, C (2018). S-wave splitting intensity analysis and inversion. Geographical
Prospecting. Vol. 67(2). 362–378.
If available, you may also include the DOI (digital object identifier) after the page numbers. A DOI is a
permanent identifier for a journal article and is often used in place of a URL.
TV programs
Title of program (date) (TV program) Channel identification.
Example:
Gene editing made simple (2016), Four Corners, ABC Sydney.
Websites
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title of page. Name of website, date and URL of retrieval
Example:
Fein, B 2011, ‘The Patriot Act is at war with the constitution’, The American view: God, family,
republic, accessed 8 November 2011, http://archive.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=1770
24.10.9 Presenting a scientific poster

Your logbook will form a key part of your assessment. You will also be required to deliver a scientific
report. This may be in the form of a poster, oral communication or digital communication as selected by
your teacher.
A sample format of the poster is shown in figure 24.54, but similar sections will be found in other reports.
FIGURE 24.54 Format of scientific poster
TITLE
SCHOOL LOGO/
The question under investigation with a clear link to the NAME
OTHER IMAGE
independent and dependent variables
INTRODUCTION RESULTS/OBSERVATIONS CONCLUSION

• Aim • Presentation of collected data/evidence in an • Conclusion that provides
• Hypothesis appropriate form to illustrate trends, patterns and/or a response to the
• Purpose of the investigation relationships question referring to
• Background information • This may include graphs, images and tables with the aim and hypothesis
clear headings
METHODOLOGY DISCUSSION REFERENCES/

• Summary of the materials and • Analysis and evaluation of primary data — does it ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
method used that can be support your initial intentions and relevant theory • Referencing and
authenticated by logbook • Identification of outliers and their subsequent acknowledgement of all
entries treatment quotations and sourced
• Information about the choice • Discussion of sources of error content from your poster
of equipment and how • Identification of limitations in data and methods
variables were controlled and suggested improvements
• Identification and management • Linking of results to relevant physics concepts
of relevant risks, including • What would the next steps in the investigation be?
health, safety and ethics

24.10.10 Practical investigation checklist
⃞ Your name, the title and the aim/hypothesis are listed.
⃞ An introduction describes the purpose and outlines the investigation in a logical and concise manner.
Key terms are defined and variables are stated clearly. Relevant theory is addressed.
⃞ The method is outlined clearly in step form including a consideration of ethics, health and safety.
A risk assessment is provided.
⃞ Your logbook contains dates, headings and complete records.
⃞ Any abbreviations are explained.
⃞ Results are presented in an organised way, in a table if possible. All relevant measurements are
recorded with appropriate accuracy and units.
⃞ Observations are clear and concise, as are all diagrams, graphs and tables used.
⃞ Any calculations are shown.
⃞ There is a concise summary and interpretation of key findings, including trends and any unexpected
results with connection to theory.
⃞ The experimental design is evaluated and possible improvements are included.
⃞ There are suggestions for future investigations.
⃞ The conclusion concisely summarises how your results support or contradict your original hypothesis.
⃞ All sources are acknowledged and references correctly cited.
⃞ The use of key terms, symbols and equations is appropriate.
A poster or other form of scientific report should address the all sections in your logbook without going
into too much detail. For example, you would display only a subset of the data to convey your findings and
accuracy, often as a graph.
24.10 EXERCISE
1. Convert the following units to the SI base unit shown.
(a) 2487 mA (to A)
(b) 0.871 km (to m)
(c) 684 𝜇s (to s)
2. Convert the following to the unit shown.
(a) 0.652 kV (to mV)
(b) 487 234 𝜇s (to ms)
3. Describe the following aspects of a scientific report.
(a) Introduction
(b) Discussion
(c) Conclusion
4. Write a reference in Harvard style for this textbook. Show both the in-text referencing and the full reference
for the reference list.
5. How many significant figures are in the following?
(a) 1289.2
(b) 0.08 234
(c) 0.8 003
(d) 121.400
6. Calculate the following and express in the appropriate number of significant figures.
(a) The total length of three pieces of wire of 1.82 m, 0.1 m and 9.13 m
(b) The area of a rectangular building that is 12.2 m by 11 m

24.11 Review
24.11.1 Summary
• It is important to choose a topic that allows for the development of a question and observations to be
made.
• An aim is a one- to two-sentence outline of the purpose the investigation, linking the dependent and
independent variables.
• A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon and acts as a
prediction for the investigation.
• Part of scientific method or process is in designing an experiment, conducting the experiment and
analysing the results.
• Variables are factors that an investigator can control, change or measure. An independent variable is
manipulated by the investigator (e.g. the type of ball used). A dependent variable is measured by the
investigator and is influenced by the independent variable (e.g. how high a ball bounces). A controlled
variable is one that is kept the same in an investigation. There are usually numerous controlled
variables in an experiment (e.g. the surface the ball bounces on, the size of ball and the height the ball
is initially dropped from). It is important to control variables in order to examine one independent
variable at a time to better understand the relationship to the dependent variable.
• Key terms can be defined as part of a scientific report or in a glossary. Key terms that are selected
should be those that are vital to understand the investigation.
• There are various representations used in Physics, including symbols, models, equations and formulas.
Understanding various representations helps make communication easier and clearer.
• Primary sources of data are direct or firsthand evidence, often gained through practical investigations.
Data can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative.
• It is vital to carefully choose the best techniques and equipment for an investigation. These should be
precise, accurate and easy to conduct and use within a school environment.
• In an investigation, it is vital to consider the accuracy, precision, reliability and validity. The best
designed experiments are accurate, precise, reliable and valid, while minimising errors and
uncertainties.
• Accuracy is how close a measurement is to a known value (like hitting the target on a bullseye).
• Precision is how close multiple measures are to each other (like hitting a 6 on a target three times in
a row).
• Reliability shows that if an experiment is replicated (by oneself or another researcher), the results
should be similar.
• Validity is how much credibility can be given to the results: do the results measure what they intended
to and back up their claims?
• Both errors and uncertainty can affect the results gained. Errors are a measurement of the difference
between a measured value and the true value (the accuracy), whereas uncertainty limits precision and
the range of values that can be measured.
• In an investigation, care must be taken to follow ethical, health and safety guidelines. Ethics are
involved in moral conduct, in particular when humans and animals are involved as test subjects. This
does not tend to be an issue is Physics compared with Biology and Psychology.
• Health and safety is often evaluated using a risk assessment, where different hazards are analysed and
safety requirements are made.
• Data can be organised in a variety of ways, including through the use of tables and graphs. Scatterplots
and line graphs are used when both variables are quantitative. Bar graphs are used when one piece of
data is qualitative and the other is quantitative. Histograms are used when intervals and frequency are
being explored.
• It is important to choose an appropriate type of organising data in order to analyse trends, patterns and
relationships. Graphs can be used to predict data outside of the investigated set.

• When evaluating data, it is important to link this to scientific concepts, models and theories, link it
back to your aim and hypothesis, describe trends and patterns, and identify any outliers or limitations.
• Models represent of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes. They can be physical models,
mathematical models or conceptual models. Limitations of models include an oversimplification of
concepts, an inability to be completely accurate and being specific to a set of conditions, which may or
may not reflect the real world.
• Theories are well-supported explanations of phenomena. Similar to models, they are often over-
simplifications of concepts, specific to a set of conditions and subject to change as new information
becomes available.
• Evidence can be used to support or reject a hypothesis. A hypothesis is not stated to be confirmed or
proven true as new evidence may come to light which later leads to its rejection.
• When reporting key findings, it is important to provide information about the data obtained in the
practical investigation and any patterns and trends, show the relationship of your findings to physics
concepts including waves, fields or motion and provide an answer to the question of your investigation.
• Both your logbook and scientific poster are forms of scientific reporting and combine for your mark
for Unit 2 AOS 3.
• Components required in a scientific report include a title, date, name, introduction, aim, hypothesis,
methodology (method and materials), results, discussion, conclusions and references.
• A variety of key symbols, formulas, equations, terminology, representations and abbreviations are used
in physics and are required for effective communication.
• All sourced information must be correctly and clearly references using a style such as Harvard or APA.
• Your poster will not have every piece of information that your logbook will, but will show the
important and key points that will allow for a clear understanding of your investigation.
24.11.2 Key terms
Accuracy relates to how close an experimental measurement is to a known value.

The aim is a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation, linking the dependent and independent
variables.
In a bar graph data are represented by a series of bars. They are usually used to when one variable is
quantitative and the other is qualitative.
Categorical data, also known as qualitative data, has labels or names rather than a range of numerical
quantities.
A control group is not affected by the independent variables and is used as a baseline for comparison.
Controlled variables those that are keep constant across different experimental groups.
The dependent variable is the variable that is influenced by the independent variable. It is the variable that is
measured.
The discussion is a detailed area of a report in which results are discussed, analysed and evaluated,
relationships to concepts are made, errors, limitations and uncertainties are assessed and suggestions for
future improvements are made.
An error is the difference between a measurement taken and the true value that is expected. Errors lead to a
Ethics are related to acceptable and moral conduct determining what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’.
The experimental group is the group exposed to the independent variable.
Falsifiable means that there has to be a way to be prove the hypothesis wrong.
In a histogram data are sorted in intervals and frequency is examined. This is used when both pieces are data
are quantitative. All columns are attached in a histogram.
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon and acts as a
The independent variable is the variable that is changed or manipulated by an investigator.
Limitations are factors that have affected the interpretation and/or collection of findings in a practical
investigation.

In a line graph points of data of are joined by a connecting line. These are used when both pieces of data are
quantitative (numerical).
The line of best fit is a trend line that is added to a scatterplot to best express the data shown. These are
straight lines and are not required to pass through all points.
A model is a representation of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes; can be a physical model, mathematical
model or conceptual model.
Numerical data, also known as quantitative data, involves numbers and can be measured or counted.
Outliers are results that are a long way from other results and seen as unusual. They should be accounted for
and analysed, but are often not included when calculated averages.
Precision is how close multiple measurements of the same investigation are to each other.
A primary source is direct or firsthand evidence about some phenomenon.
Qualitative data are categorical data that examines the quality of something (e.g. colour, gender) rather than
numerical values.
Quantitative data are numerical data that examines the quantity of something (length, time).
Random errors are chance variations in measurements.
Reliability relates to whether another researcher could repeat the investigation by following the same method
and obtain similar results.
Results is a section in a report in which all data obtained is recorded. This is usually in the form of tables and
graphs.
A risk assessment is a document that examines the different hazards in an investigation and suggested safety
precautions.
In a scatterplot two quantitative variables are plotted as a series of dots.
Sometimes referred to as scientific process, the scientific method is the procedure that must be followed in
scientific investigations, which consists of questioning, researching, predicting, observing, experimenting and
analysing.
The scientific research methodology is the principles of research based of the scientific method.
A secondary source comments on or summaries and interpretations of primary data.
Systematic errors are those that affect the accuracy of a measurement, that cannot be improved by repeating
an experiment. They are usually due to equipment or system errors.
Testable means that a hypothesis can be easily tested by observations and/or investigations.
A theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomena, based on facts that have been obtained through
investigations, research and observations.
An uncertainty limits the precision of equipment, it is a range within which a measurement lies.
Validity relates to the credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations. Validity shows
how much results measure what they intending to and how well they show the claims they make.
Resources

24.11 Exercises

1. Rani conducted an investigation to test the effect of the brand of tennis racquet on the speed of a serve.
In this investigation, what is the speed of the serve?
A. A dependent variable
B. An independent variable
C. A controlled variable
D. A control group
2. Students were conducting an investigation to explore the voltage in an electric circuit using both a
voltmeter and a digital multimeter.
Each measurement was taken three times using a voltmeter and recorded by the student. A digital
multimeter was also used.
Digital multimeter
Student Recorded voltage recorded on voltmeter reading
Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3
Steph 12.50 12.25 13.50 11.23
Alex 10.50 10.50 10.25 11.25
Caitlin 11.25 10.75 10.75 11.00
Simonne 12.25 11.75 10.50 12.28
A.Steph had the least precise measurements.

B.Alex had the most precise measurements.
C. Caitlin had the least accurate measurements.
D. Simonne had the most accurate measurements.
3. In physics, what does the symbol ∆ represent?
A. Force
B. Proportional to
C. Change in quantity
D. Torque
4. What would the measure of uncertainty be in the following ruler?
A. 0.5 cm
B. 0.1 cm
C. 0.05 cm
D. 0.025 cm

5. Which of the following is correct in relation to systematic errors?
A. They can affect the accuracy of a reading.
B. They can be caused by human fault.
C. They can be improved by repeated an experiment.
D. They can be caused by deliberate changing of the results due to bias.
6. Melissa was investigating the resistance of different types of metal. The results of her investigation are
as follows.
Type of metal Resistance (×10−8 Ω)
Silver 1.78
Gold 2.51
Copper 2.03
Zinc 5.03
Iron 10.42
Aluminium 3.12
Which of the following graphs is most appropriate to show and analyse trends in the data from
question 3?
A. Resistivity of different metals Silver B. Resistivity of different metals
Silver
Gold
Gold
Copper Copper
Zinc Zinc
Iron Iron
Aluminium Aluminium
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Resistance ( × 108 Ω )
C. Resistivity of different metals D. Resistivity of different metals

12 12
10 10
Resistance (× 108 Ω)
Resistance (× 108 Ω)
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
Silver Gold Copper Zinc Iron Aluminium Silver Gold Copper Zinc Iron Aluminium
7. What is the difference between an aim and hypothesis?

A. The aim of an experiment is a statement, but the hypothesis is a question.
B. The aim includes the dependent and independent variables, but a hypothesis doesn’t.
C. The aim explains the expected data, but the hypothesis explains how you will get the data.
D. The aim outlines the purpose of the investigation, but the hypothesis is a testable prediction.

8. Olivia and Vanessa both ran a lap of a 400-metre track. On a very close finish, it was found that Vanessa
was 874 milliseconds faster than Olivia.
Which of the following is correct about her result?
A. It is equal to 874 000 microseconds.
B. It contains 2 significant figures.
C. It can be written as 87.4 × 10−2 milliseconds.
D. It can be shortened to 874 𝜇s.
9. Theories are which of the following?
A. Concepts that were once accurate, but have now been rejected
B. Diagrammatic representations of abstract concepts
C. Ideas that are unable to be rejected due to the amount of evidence they have
D. Well supported ideas where evidence has been gained from investigations, research
and observations
10. In order to identify hazards and outline safety requirements in an experiment, what is it important
to complete?
A. Hazard form
B. Repeatable methodology
C. Risk assessment
D. Project proposal

1. An investigation was conducted to observe the differences in voltage between a series and parallel
circuit.
a. Identify two pieces of quantitative data that you could record and measure.
b. What instruments, if any, would you need to make these observations?
c. Identify two pieces of qualitative data that you could observe.
d. What instruments, if any, would you need to make these observations?
2. Identify a key difference between the members of the following pairs.
a. Independent and dependent variables
b. Qualitative and quantitative data
c. Control group and experimental group
d. Primary and secondary sources of data
e. Uncertainty and error
3. In an investigation conducted in class, Ben recorded a voltage of 0.01 430 V.
a. How many significant figures does this recorded voltage have?
b. Write this voltage in scientific notation.
4. Chris observes that when a droplet of water falls on a hot plate, it fizzes and shoots around the plate for
some time. The droplet slowly gets smaller and finally disappears to nothing. Chris decides to investigate
how long the droplet lasts and how that might be affected by the temperature of the hot plate and the size
of the droplet.
The equipment used was a hot plate, several droppers and a stop watch. The time was measured three
times for each eye dropper and for six different temperature settings. The middle reading of the three
readings was plotted, as shown on the following graphs.

Drop time against eye dropper
25
20
Drop time (s)
15
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Eye dropper
Drop time against temperature setting
35
30
25
Drop time (s)
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Temperature setting
a. Write an aim for this investigation.

b. List the variables in Chris’s investigation. For each variable, indicate whether it is an independent or
dependent variable, and for each independent variable, indicate whether it is a continuous variable or
a discrete variable. Give a reason for each answer.
c. Write a conclusion for this investigation.
d. A number of limitations may be identified in this investigation. Discuss these limitations and suggest
some suitable improvements. Your discussion could address the following: selection of variables,
experimental design, scientific method, data analysis, interpretation of results.
e. Suggest another independent variable.
f. Suggest a method for estimating the size of a water droplet.

5. Ammie conducted an experiment to explore how temperature affects the speed of sound travelling
through the air. Her data are shown in the following table.
Temperature (°C) Speed (m s–1 )

0 329
10 335
20 340
30 351
40 358
50 362
a. Sketch a graph of the data, including a correct scale and labels.

b. Describe the trends and patterns in the graph.
c. What conclusions would you make from this investigation?

Vicki decided to investigate the following experiment she found on YouTube.
An investigator constructed a Newton’s Cradle. They connected five balls on separate strings, pulled the
last ball back and released, and investigated how long it took to stop. Vicki wanted to take this investigation
further and determine how the size of the balls affected the time for movement to stop.
a. Identify the dependent variable in this investigation. 1 mark
b. List two variables that need to be controlled in this investigation. 1 mark
c. Describe what measuring equipment should be used in this investigation and identifyone factor that
could affect the accuracy of this piece of equipment. 2 marks
d. Write a clear experimental method for Vicki to investigate how the size of the balls affects the time for
the Newton’s Cradle to stop. 4 marks

An investigation was being conducted to examine how the current in a circuit is affected by the length of a
resistor. The devices explored where resistors, light bulbs and diodes.
a. Write a suitable aim for this investigation. 1 mark
b. Identify the hypothesis for this investigation. 1 mark
c. Describe one piece of qualitative data and one piece of quantitative data that may be collected in this
investigation. 2 marks
d. Explain two factors that may lead to differences in results between different students. 2 marks
A student conducted an experiment, examining the relationship between current and voltage in a circuit
containing a light globe.
The results from this investigation are as follows.
Current (A) Voltage (V)

0.3 1.5
0.4 3.0
0.5 4.5
0.6 6.5
0.7 8.5
The student also calculated the uncertainty and found that their voltages all had an uncertainty of ± 1.2 V.
a. Using graph paper:
• plot the graph showing the data provided, ensuring that voltage is shown on the vertical axis
• label the graph and axes as appropriate
• draw a line of best fit
• show error bars for voltage. 4 marks
b. Describe any trends in the data. 2 marks
c. Determine the gradient of the line of best fit. Show all working. 2 marks
Two students, Joe and Paul, conducted an investigation to confirm that momentum is conserved in a system
in which two cars collided. They explored the velocity and momentum of two model cars before and after a
collision.
Their results are shown in the following table.
Joe Paul
Before collision After collision Before collision After collision
Mass of car 1 (g) 251.0 270.0
Mass of car 2 (g) 265.0 271.0
Velocity of car 1 (cm s–1 ) 0.60 0.14 0.26 0.13
–1
Velocity of car 2 (cm s ) 0 0.14 0 0.13
Momentum of car 1 (g cm s–1 ) 150.6 35.14 70.2 35.1
–1
Momentum of car 2 (g cm s ) 0 37.10 0 35.23

a. Describe one error that may have occurred which reduced the accuracy of the data for both Paul and Joe,
and identify how this error may be avoided? 2 marks
b. Calculate the total momentum for ‘after the collision’ for Paul, using appropriate significant figures
based on the data provided. 2 marks
c. Describe, with reference to the Law of Conservation of Momentum, why the results obtained by Paul are
more accurate than those obtained by Joe. 2 marks
d. Momentum is often calculated in kg m s–1 . Convert the momentum of car 1 after the collision into
kg m s–1 . 2 marks
A student conducted an investigation to determine the rate in which the temperature of water decreases
when in different types of insulating material.
The student’s report is as follows.
Introduction: In this experiment, three materials are being examined: aluminium foil, paper and wool.
This experiment was conducted over three days, with aluminium foil explored on the first day, paper on
the second day and wool on the third day. All materials were wrapped around a polystyrene cup in which
boiling water was placed.
Aim: To determine how different materials affect the temperature decrease of water
Hypothesis: If aluminium foil, paper and wool are used as insulation material, then aluminium foil will
work best.
Method:
1. Collect a polystyrene cup and wrap a piece of aluminium foil around it.
2. Place 100 mL of boiling water in the cup and record the temperature.
3. Record the temperature every five minutes.
Results:
Aluminium Paper Wool

Initial 100 °C 98 °C 95 °C
5 minutes 95 °C 85 °C 80 °C
10 minutes 92 °C 78 °C 71 °C
15 minutes 85 °C 62 °C 60 °C
20 minutes 80°C 50 °C 48 °C
25 minutes 75 °C 40 °C 39 °C
a. Describe an issue with the hypothesis written by the student. How would you adjust this to make it
testable? 2 marks
b. The experiment was conducted over three days. Explain why this may lead to errors in the data
obtained. 2 marks
c. Students were only able to use a thermometer in which temperature could be measured to the
nearest 0.5 °C only. Identify the tolerance of this device and describe the uncertainty expected in
the data. 2 marks
d. Outline two limitations in the experimental method or data collection process that would affect the
conclusions drawn? 2 marks
e. Describe the most appropriate graph that the student should use to represent their data. Justify your
choice. 2 marks
f. Based on the student’s results, write a conclusion for this investigation, linking back to the hypothesis.
2 marks

GLOSSARY
An 𝛼 particle is a relatively slow-moving decay product consisting of two protons and two neutrons. It is
equivalent to a helium nucleus and so can be written as 42 He. 𝛼 particles carry a positive charge.
A 𝛾 ray is the packet of electromagnetic energy released when a nucleus remains unstable after 𝛼 or 𝛽
decay. 𝛾 rays travel at the speed of light and carry no charge.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of an object taken in the scale using absolute zero.
vibrate. It is equal to 0 K or approximately −273 °C.

Absolute zero is the lowest temperature that is physically possible. At this temperature, particles cease to
Absorption bands are the range of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum that are absorbed by
atmospheric gases.
Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity.
Accuracy relates to how close an experimental measurement is to a known value.
The active wire in a circuit is connected to the 240 VRMS supply at the switchboard.
The aim is a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation, linking the dependent and independent
variables.
Air resistance is the force applied to an object, opposite to its direction of motion, by the air through
which it is moving.
Albedo is the proportion of solar radiation reflected by a surface.
Alternating current (AC) refers to circuits where the charge carriers move backwards and forwards
periodically.
An ammeter is a device used to measure current.
The ampere is the unit of current.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in its nucleus.
In a bar graph data is represented by a series of bars. They are usually used to when one variable is
quantitative and the other is qualitative.
Baryons are hadrons with three quarks.
The Big Bang is the name for the dramatic beginning of the universe from an infinitely dense, small point.
The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that is required to split a nucleus into individual nucleons.
A black body is an object that absorbs all radiation that falls on it.
Blackbody radiation is the characteristic radiation emitted by a black body when heated.
Bosons are particles, such as photons that mediate the interactions between other particles.
Categorical data, also known as qualitative data, has labels or names rather than a range of numerical
quantities.
The centre of mass of an object is the point at which all of its mass can be considered to be.
A Cepheid variable is a type of star that has a relationship between its period of variation in luminosity and
its maximum luminosity. They are useful for measuring distances to galaxies.
A circuit breaker carries out the same function as a fuse by breaking the circuit when the current through it
exceeds a certain value.
Components are parts. Any vector can be resolved into a number of components. When all the components
are added together, the result is the original vector.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance as a result of collisions between neighbouring
vibrating particles.
A control group is not affected by the independent variables and is used as a baseline for comparison.
Controlled variables those that are keep constant across different experimental groups.
GLOSSARY 499
Convection is the transfer of heat in a fluid (a liquid or gas) as a result of the movement of particles within
the fluid.
A convection current is a movement of particles during the transfer of heat through a substance.
Conventional current is defined as the movement of positive charges from the positive terminal of a cell
through the conductor to the negative terminal.
The cosmic microwave background is radiation that can be found in all regions of empty space. It is left
overenergy from the Big Bang.
Cosmic rays are very energetic charged particles that enter our atmosphere. They are mainly protons and
originate from beyond the solar system.
Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, has evolved and will end.
The coulomb is the unit of electric charge.
A daughter nucleus is the nucleus remaining after an atom undergoes radioactive decay. It is more stable
A decay chain also known as a decay series, is the sequence of stages a radioisotope passes through to
become more stable. At each stage, a more stable isotope forms. The chain ends when a stable
isotope forms.
A decay curve is a graph of the number of nuclei remaining in a substance versus the time elapsed. The
half-life of a substance can be determined by looking at the time that corresponds to half of the substance
remaining.
A decay equation is a representation of a decay reaction. It shows the changes occurring in nuclei and lists
the products of the decay reaction.
The dependent variable is the variable that is influenced by the independent variable. It is the variable that
is measured.
A diode is a device that allows current to pass through it in one direction only.
Direct current (DC) refers to circuits where the net flow of charge is in one direction only.
The discussion is a detailed area of a report in which results are discussed, analysed and evaluated,
relationships to concepts are made, errors, limitations and uncertainties are assessed and suggestions for
future improvements are made.
Displacement is a measure of the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity.
Distance is a measure of the length of the path taken by an object. It is a scalar quantity.
The earth wire is used in power circuits as a safety device; it connects the case of the appliance being used
to the earth.
Eccentricity is a measure of how elliptical an object’s orbit is.
Electric charge is a basic property of matter. It occurs in two states: positive (+) charge and negative (−)
charge.
Electric current is the movement of charged particles from one place to another.
In an electric insulator the electrons are bound tightly to the nucleus and are not free to travel through the
material.
An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the nervous system caused by an electrical discharge or current
through the body.
Electrocution is death brought about by an electrical shock.
An electromagnetic radiation is an electromagnetic wave or radiation that includes visible light, radio
waves, gamma rays and X-rays.
Electromotive force is a measure of the energy supplied to a circuit for each coulomb of charge passing
through the power supply.
An electron is a negatively charged particle found around the nucleus of an atom.
Electron current is the term used when dealing with the mechanisms for the movement of electrons.
An electrostatic force is the force between two stationary charged objects.
An element is a substance that consists only of atoms of the same name.
500 GLOSSARY
Enhanced greenhouse effect is the greenhouse effect due to human civilization which is greater than that
caused by natural forces alone.
An error is the difference between a measurement taken and the true value that is expected. Errors lead to a
Ethics are related to acceptable and moral conduct determining what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’.
An excited nucleus emits 𝛾 radiation to become more stable.

An excited nucleus is one that does not have an ideal arrangement of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
The experimental group is the group exposed to the independent variable.

Falsifiable means that there has to be a way to be prove the hypothesis wrong.
Feedback is when a system’s input is fed by its previous output.
Fermions are the fundamental particles that make up all of matter.
Fibrillation is the disorganised, rapid contraction of separate parts of the heart so that it pumps no blood;
death may follow.
ΔU = Q − W or Q = U + W
First Law of Thermodynamics:
Where:
Q is the heat energy in joules
ΔU is the change in internal energy in joules.

W is the work done in joules
Fission fragments are the products from a nucleus that undergoes fission. The fission fragments are smaller
A force is a push or a pull. Forces model interactions between objects. Force is a vector quantity.
The force due to gravity is the force applied to an object, due to gravitational attraction.
Frequency is a measure of how many times per second an event happens.
Friction is the force applied to the surface of an object when it is pushed or pulled against the surface of
another object.
A fuse is a short length of conducting wire or strip of metal that melts when the current through it reaches
a certain value, breaking the circuit.
A galaxy is a collection of hundreds of billions of stars. Stars are organised into galaxies, with very few
starsexisting between galaxies.
A globular cluster is a very old, densely packed cluster of stars in the shape of a sphere.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the force of gravity on a unit of mass.
Hadrons are composite particles made up of either two or three quarks.
A half-life is the time taken for half of a group of unstable nuclei to decay.
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy from one body to another due to a temperature difference.
In a histogram data is sorted in intervals and frequency is examined. This is used when both pieces are data
are quantitative. All columns are attached in a histogram.
Hubble’s constant is the constant of proportionality relating the speed that galaxies are receding from Earth
and their distance from Earth.
Hubble’s Law states that the speed of recession of galaxies is proportional to their distance from Earth.
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon and acts as a
An idealisation makes modelling a phenomenon or event easier by assuming ideal conditions that don’t
exactly match the real situation.
The impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. Impulse is a
vector quantity.
The independent variable is the variable that is changed or manipulated by an investigator.
Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time.
GLOSSARY 501
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instant of time.
The internal energy of an object is the sum of all kinetic energy of the particles that make up that object.
An ion is a charged particle.
The joule is the SI unit of work or energy. One joule is the energy expended when a force of 1 newton acts
through a distance of 1 metre.
A kilowatt-hour (kW-h) is the amount of energy transformed by a 1000 W appliance when used for
one hour.
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object. Like all forms of energy, kinetic
energyis a scalar quantity.
Latent heat is the heat added to a substance undergoing a change of state that does not increase the
temperature.
Leptons are the simplest and lightest of the subatomic particles. They are fundamental particles with no
internal structure.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a device that has a resistance which varies with the amount of light
falling on it.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a small semiconductor diode that emits light when a current passes
through it.
Limitations are factors that have affected the interpretation and/or collection of findings in a practical
investigation.
In a line graph points of data of are joined by a connecting line. These are used when both pieces of data
are quantitative (numerical).
The line of best fit is a trend line that is added to a scatterplot to best express the data shown. These are
straight lines and are not required to pass through all points.
A load is a device where electrical energy is converted into other forms to perform tasks such as heating
or lighting.
Luminosity is the amount of radiated electromagnetic energy emitted by a light-emitting or luminous
object.
The mass defect is the difference in the mass of the products and reactants in a nuclear reaction.
A mechanical interaction is one in which energy is transferred from one object to another by the action
of a force.
Mesons are hadrons with two quarks.
A model is a representation of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes; can be a physical model,
mathematical model or conceptual model.
Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and its velocity. It is a vector quantity.
Negative feedback occurs when the response to the feedback is in the opposite direction to the input.
A quantity that is negligible is so small that it can be ignored when modelling a phenomenon or an event.
The vector sum of the forces acting on an object is called the net force.
A neutral object carries an equal amount of positive and negative charge.
The neutral wire in a circuit is connected to the neutral link at the switchboard, which is connected
to the earth.
A neutron is a nucleon with no charge.
The normal force is a force that acts perpendicularly to a surface as a result of an object applying a force to
the surface.
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a large nucleus to form two smaller, more stable nuclei.
Nuclear fusion is the process of joining together two nuclei to form a larger, more stable nucleus.
Nucleons include protons and neutrons and are the particles that are found in the nucleus.
The nucleus is the solid centre of an atom. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
502 GLOSSARY
Numerical data, also known as quantitative data, involves numbers and can be measured or counted.
Obliquity is a measure of the angle tilt of a planet against its plane of orbit.
Outliers are results that are a long way from other results and seen as unusual. They should be accounted
for and analysed, but are often not included when calculated averages.
Devices connected in parallel are joined together so that one end of each device is joined at a common
point and the other end of each device is joined at another common point.
Period is the amount of time one cycle or event takes, measured in seconds.
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction that takes place in the chloroplasts of a plant cell consuming carbon
dioxide and releasing oxygen.
Positive feedback occurs when the response to the feedback is in the same direction to the input.
A positron is a positively charged particle with the same mass as an electron.
The potential difference, or voltage drop, is the amount of electrical potential energy, in joules, lost by
each coulomb of charge in a given part of a circuit.
A potentiometer is a variable voltage divider, with a fixed resistor that can slide up and down.
Precession is a change in direction of the rotational axis of a spinning object.
Precision is how close multiple measurements of the same investigation are to each other.
A primary source is direct or firsthand evidence about some phenomenon.
A proton is a positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom.
Qualitative data is categorical data that examines the quality of something (e.g. colour, gender) rather than
numerical values.
Quantitative data is numerical data that examines the quantity of something (length, time).
Quantum numbers are values used to describe various properties related to the energy levels of atoms or
molecules, such as charge and orbitals.
Quarks are the fundamental particles that combine to form hadrons.
Radiation is heat transfer without the presence of particles.
Radioactive decay is the process in which unstable isotopes spontaneous decomposes into a stable
daughter isotope through the emission of radiation.
A radioisotope is an unstable isotope.
Random errors are chance variations in measurements.
Recombination is the event when electrons could remain bound to nuclei to form atoms. Prior to 380 000
years after the Big Bang, electrons had too much energy due to the temperature to remain bound to nuclei.
Reliability relates to whether another researcher could repeat the investigation by following the same
method and obtain similar results.
A residual current device operates by making use of the magnetic effects of a current to break a circuit in
the event of an electrical fault.
through it.
Results is a section in a report in which all data obtained is recorded. This is usually in the form of tables
and graphs.
A risk assessment is a document that examines the different hazards in an investigation and suggested
safety precautions.
Rotational kinetic energy is the energy due to the rotational motion of objects.
Scalar quantities specify magnitude (size) but not direction.
In a scatterplot two quantitative variables are plotted as a series of dots.
GLOSSARY 503
Sometimes referred to as scientific process, the scientific method is the procedure that must be followed in
scientific investigations, which consists of questioning, researching, predicting, observing, experimenting
and analysing.
The scientific research methodology is the principles of research based of the scientific method.
A secondary source comments on or summaries and interpretations of primary data.
Devices connected in series are joined together one after the other.
A short circuit can occur when frayed electrical cords or faulty appliances allow the current to flow from
one conductor to another with little or no resistance. The current increases rapidly, causing the wires to
get hot and potentially cause a fire.
The specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a substance
from a solid to a liquid without a change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the quantity of energy required to change 1 kilogram of a
substance from a liquid to a gas without a change in temperature.
Speed is the rate at which distance changes over time. Speed is a scalar quantity.
Strain potential energy is the energy stored in an object as a result of a reversible change in shape. It is
also known as elastic potential energy.
The strong nuclear force is the force that holds nucleons together in a nucleus of an atom. It acts over only
very short distances.
Synchrotron radiation is the electromagnetic radiation produced when electric charges move in circular
motion. It is radiated at a tangent to the curve.
Systematic errors are those that affect the accuracy of a measurement, that cannot be improved by
repeating an experiment. They are usually due to equipment or system errors.
Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of particles.
Tension is a pulling force along the length of an object (such as a rope or cable) that is being stretched.
Testable means that a hypothesis can be easily tested by observations and/or investigations.
A theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomena, based on facts that have been obtained through
investigations, research and observations.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when the temperature of two regions in contact is uniform.
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one from to another form.
Translational kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of an object from one location to another.
An uncertainty limits the precision of equipment, it is a range within which a measurement lies.
Validity relates to the credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations. Validity
shows how much results measure what they intending to and how well they show the claims they make.
A vector quantity specifies direction as well as magnitude (size).
Velocity is the rate at which displacement changes over time, or the rate of change in position. Velocity is a
vector quantity.
Vibrational kinetic energy is the energy due to the vibrational motion of objects.
The voltage divider is used to reduce, or divide, a voltage to a value needed for a part of the circuit.
A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference.
The weak nuclear force is the force that explains the transformation of neutrons into protons, and
vice versa.
Work is done when energy is transferred to or from an object by the action of a force. Work is a scalar
quantity.
504 GLOSSARY
APPENDIX 1
Periodic table
Group 1
1
metals
Hydrogen
Period 1
H
1.0 Group 2
Key
3 4 1 2 Atomic number
Lithium Beryllium Hydrogen Helium Name
Period 2
Li Be Period 1 H He Symbol
6.9 9.0 1.0 4.0 Relative atomic mass
11 12
Sodium Magnesium
Period 3
Na Mg
23.0 24.3 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
Period 4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
Period 5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 96.0 (98) 101.1 102.9
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77
Caesium Barium Lanthanoids Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium
Period 6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
Period 7
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
(223) (226) (261) (262) (266) (264) (267) (268)
Alkali metal Lanthanoids

Alkaline earth metal
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Transition metal
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium
Lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
Actinoids 138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0
Unknown chemical properties
Actinoids
Post-transition metal
Metalloid 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
Reactive non-metal Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am
Halide
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243)
Noble gas
496 APPENDIX 1 Periodic table

Group 18
2
Helium
He
Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 4.0
5 6 7 8 9 10
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
B C N O F Ne
10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
13 14 15 16 17 18
Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(271) (272) (285) (280) (289) (289) (292) (294) (294)
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
APPENDIX 1 Periodic table 497

APPENDIX 2
Astronomical data
Mean radius of orbit Orbital period
Equatorial
(AU) (m) (years) (seconds) radius (m) Mass (kg)
Sun 6.96 × 108 1.99 × 1030
Mercury 0.387 5.79 × 1010 0.241 7.60 × 106 2.44 × 106 3.30 × 1023
Venus 0.723 1.08 × 1011 0.615 1.94 × 107 6.05 × 106 4.87 × 1024
Earth 1.00 1.50 × 1011 1.00 3.16 × 107 6.37 × 106 5.98 × 1024
Moon 2.57 × 10−3 3.84 × 108 27.3 days* 2.36 × 106 * 1.74 × 106 7.35 × 1022
Mars 1.52 2.28 × 1011 1.88 5.94 × 107 3.39 × 106 6.42 × 1023
Jupiter 5.20 7.78 × 1011 11.9 3.74 × 108 6.99 × 107 1.90 × 1027
Saturn 9.58 1.43 × 1012 29.5 9.30 × 108 5.82 × 107 5.68 × 1026
Titan 8.20 × 10−3 1.22 × 109 15.9 days* 1.37 × 106 * 2.57 × 106 1.35 × 1023
Uranus 19.2 2.87 × 1012 84.0 2.65 × 109 2.54 × 107 8.68 × 1025
Neptune 30.1 4.50 × 1012 165 5.21 × 109 2.46 × 107 1.02 × 1026
Pluto 39.48 5.91 × 1012 248 7.82 × 109 1.15 × 106 1.31 × 1022
* The orbital period for the Moon and Titan is the time it takes to complete one orbit around Earth and Saturn
respectively. All other listed measurements for the orbital period shows the time to orbit the Sun.
The Milky Way 1.50 × 105 light-years across

Alpha Centauri 4.37 light-years away
Andromeda 2.25 × 106 light-years away
Edge of observable universe 4.65 × 1010 light-years away
Source: Data derived from https://solarsystem.nasa.gov.
498 APPENDIX 2 Astronomical data

Answers 1.4 Transferring heat
1.4 Exercise
1 Thermodynamic principles 1. Some of the kinetic energy of the particles in the hot region
1.2 Explaining heat: the kinetic theory is transferred to the particles in the cooler region. Thus, the
temperature in the cooler region increases.
1.2 Exercise
Particle moving slowly
1. The particles of the air are in constant motion; this enables
Particle moving faster
the molecules that make up the aroma of the food to travel
from the kitchen to the front door.
2. Translational energy describes the displacement of particles
from one position to another; other types of kinetic energy Heat flow
involve motion within the particles or potential energy from
atomic and subatomic interactions.
3. The particles in the hot tea are moving rapidly and High-energy Low-energy
experiencing many collisions with each other and the sides particles (hot) particles (cold)
of the cup. The collisions with the cup transfer the kinetic
2. Liquids and gases have particles that are much further apart
energy to the cup particles and they start to move faster. The
than those in solids. The particles have to travel further to
temperature of the tea drops and temperature up the cup rises.
transfer kinetic energy, so the process of conduction is
4. As the translational kinetic energy of the soup particles is
generally slower in gases and liquids than in solids.
transferred to its surroundings, the particles slow down thus
3. Warmer water moves upwards as it is displaced by the more
exerting much less pressure on the cling film. The cling film
dense, cooler water. Warm water does not generally move
is pushed into the bowl from the external air pressure.
down the test tube because it is less dense than cooler water.
5. Examples may include a meteorite crashing into Earth, a car
4. In solids, the particles are tightly bound together and unable
hitting a wall, rubbing your hands together, or a spoon
to move to regions of different temperatures.
stirring a cup of tea.
5. 3.0 × 108 m s−1 . This is the same value as the speed of light.
6. A red-hot pin has less internal energy, less kinetic energy
6. a. The water on the surface of a still body of water becomes
and fewer molecules to vibrate than a nail of the same
warmer than the water deeper down due to absorbing
material at the same temperature. There is just less matter to
radiated energy from the Sun and heat transfer from the
vibrate. So there is less energy to transfer to the water.
warm air near the surface. There will be no convection
7. While you are swimming in the sea, your body maintains an
currents as the cooler water is under the warm water.
even core temperature of 37.6 °C. The sea around Melbourne
b. If a wind is blowing, chopping up the surface, the cold
is a lower temperature than this. The water particles do not
water underneath mixes with the warm water on the top.
vibrate as quickly as your molecules. Your molecules
The heat transfer from the surface water reduces its
transfer their greater kinetic energy to the water.
temperature. The wind also evaporates some of the
surface water.
1.3 Measuring and converting temperature 7. a. The feeling of warmth is caused by the concrete wall
Sample problem 1 radiating infra-red energy due to its temperature being
higher than its surroundings.
273 K
b. The walls of the building would have become warm due to
heat transfer by radiation from the Sun warming them and
Practice problem 1
by conduction from the warm air surrounding the walls.
−270 °C 8. Aluminium is a good conductor. It will conduct energy from
the coffee to the surrounding air. The coffee will cool
1.3 Exercise quickly. The aluminium will also transfer energy to the hand
1. The Celsius scale is commonly used because it is based on holding the cup, making this an unpleasant, painful
the properties of water and is easy to reproduce anywhere in experience before it cools below 50 °C.
the world, unlike Kelvin, where 0 K is hard to reproduce in a 9. Floor ducts used for heating rely on the warm air leaving the
school or ordinary laboratory. The freezing of ice and the duct and rising up through the room. Ceiling ducts need more
boiling of water with 100 divisions between is convenient. powerful blower fans to counteract the tendency of the warm
2. The Kelvin scale is an absolute by which everything in the air to stay at ceiling level. It needs to be forced down to mix
universe can be referenced. with the cold air to warm it by conduction and convection.
3. a. 310 K b. 275 K c. 298 K
d. 288 K e. 373 K 1.5 Thermal equilibrium and the laws
4. The large thermometer is also surrounded by the air in the of thermodynamics
school laboratory. The liquid in the test tube might be cold,
but the thermometer is also measuring the surrounding air, Sample problem 2
giving a falsely high reading. a. 150 J b. 100 J
5. 194.5 K
6. −17 °C and − 107 °C
ANSWERS 505
Practice problem 2 attractive bonds between the particles as the substance
−5500 J changes state from liquid to gas.
6. 8.2 kg
7. A simmering saucepan loses heat by convection and
1.5 Exercise
evaporation. By keeping the lid on, the water is prevented
1. When a cool thermometer is placed in a warm liquid, from evaporating.
thermal energy transfers from the liquid to the thermometer 8. A reduction in the kinetic energy of the water particles and
until the two substances are at the same temperature. In that the temperature of the body of the liquid.
sense, the thermometer is measuring its own temperature.
2. a. Q = 500 J, W = 0, ∆U = 500 J; increase 1.7 Review
b. Q = −250 J, W = −250 J, ∆U = 0; no change
c. Q = 0 J, W = −150 J, ∆U = 150 J; increase 1.7 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
d. Q = 0 J, W = 5 J, ∆U = −5 J; increase 1. D
3. Temperature decreases. 2. A
4. The gas in the bottle is under pressure. As the valve is 3. D
opened, the exiting gas expands as the pressure is now much 4. C
lower. This expansion in volume lowers the temperature. 5. B
5. 6. B
(a) (b) (c)
7. D
Heat (+ is in) 0 + + 8. C
9. B
Work (+ is out) – 0 + 10. D
∆U + + +
1.6 Specific heat capacity 1. Testing your own temperature is a subjective exercise.
2. Absolute temperature is measured using the Kelvin scale.
Sample problem 3 On the Kelvin scale 28 °C is not twice as hot as 14 °C
a. 2.4 × 103 kJ b. 37 °C (301 K and 287 K, respectively).
3. The warm, less dense liquid rises, while the cooler, more
Practice problem 3 dense liquid sinks.
227.5 kJ Saucepan
Sample problem 4
a. 5.5 × 103 J b. 660.3 °C Warm water rising
Water
Practice problem 4
3.45 × 104 J
Heat
1.6 Exercise 4. After a major bushfire, the air is full of small particles of
1. a. Cooking oil b. Ethylene glycol smoke. These particles restrict the transmission of radiant
2. a. 400 kJ b. 1200 kJ heat energy from the Sun. As a result, the daytime
3. a. The human body is mostly water, so you would expect the temperatures are reduced.
specific heat capacity to be similar to that of water. 5. Pies cooked in a microwave oven are cooked by the transfer
b. Desert sand is dry, containing no moisture. Fertile soil is of energy by vibrating particles. When the microwave
usually damp, so its specific heat capacity will be higher magnetron is turned off, the water molecules continue to
than that of desert sand because the specific heat capacity vibrate until their energy is transferred.
of water is large. 6. Conventional ovens have heating elements at the bottom to
c. Steel pan allow air to become warmed, and then rise. This sets up
d. Metals have low heat capacities; water and things convection currents, which move around the food. Food is
containing water have high specific heat capacities. then warmed by conduction and convection as well as by
4. 1.2 × 106 J radiation from the element. The advantage of having an
5. a. 230 °C oven with a fan is that the inside of the oven is kept at an
b. The energy is used to increase the potential energy of the even temperature.
particles as they change state from solid to liquid. 7. a. Work is done by the gas in pushing up the plunger
c. Liquid against the force of gravity.
d. 160 kJ kg
−1 b. Gas B cools, but is insulated and so stays cool. Gas A
e. Solid candle wax cools initially but eventually thermal energy from
f. Over the interval DE, the temperature remains the same. outside comes in to bring the gas back to its original
The energy put into the wax does not result in an increase temperature. Therefore, gas A has a greater transfer of
in the kinetic energy of the particles; it just breaks the heat from its surroundings than gas B.
506 ANSWERS
c. The work done by the gas lowers the internal energy, 2. a. 12.8 times b. 1066 °C
then the energy, Q, from the outside increases the 3. 953 nm
internal energy. Overall, ∆U = 0 and W = −Q. 4. 5690 K
d. The work by the gas lowers the internal energy; there is 5. 1.00 × 10−5 m
−6
no transfer of thermal energy: ∆U = −W and Q = 0. 6. a. 9.4 × 10 m b. Infra-red
8. There is no energy in or out: Q = 0, W = 0, ∆U = 0. 7. a. 16 times
9. Vegetables cook faster if steamed than if boiled because b. Maximum wavelength is halved.
more energy is being transferred to them in the same
amount of time. 2.3 The enhanced greenhouse effect
10. a. The water evaporates by gaining energy from the skin to
change state. Taking energy from the surface of the skin
Sample problem 3
results in a reduction in the temperature of the skin. 107 W m−2 + 235 W m−2 = 342 W m−2
b. You feel cooler when the wind is blowing because the Energy in = 342 W m−2 = energy out
rate of evaporation of moisture from your skin is So conservation of energy holds for the Earth system.
increased, lowering your skin temperature.
c. Sweating in humid weather does not cool the body Practice problem 3
because the sweat does not evaporate. Reflected by surface = 30 W
Absorbed by the atmosphere = 67 W
1. Adam is wrong, a thermometer measures its own 2.3 Exercise
temperature, not the average between itself and the object
1. Absorbed by ozone, carbon dioxide and other gases of the air
it is measuring.
before it reaches Earth
Katie is wrong as the thermometer only indirectly measures
2. Many species can survive only within specific conditions
the temperature of the object.
(such as temperatures and gas concentrations). The
2. a. The heat sink has fins that enable the air to flow around
greenhouse effect may change these conditions so they are
the metal enabling a greater surface area and thus more
not compatible to life on Earth.
conduction to the air. The convection of the air will move
3. Transfer of energy from the Earth’s surface
the hot air away to be replaced with cooler air. The device
4. High specific heat capacity, and evaporative and convective
is painted black, which enables it to act as a black body
properties
and effectively radiate heat energy away from the sink.
5. a. i. CO2 : 1.8–2.0 μm, 2.5–2.7 μm, 4.0–4.8 μm, 9–19 μm
b. The heat sink is made of aluminium, which is a conductor
ii. H2 O: 0.8−0.85 μm, 1.0−1.1 μm, 1.2−1.6 μm,
of heat. This means it will retain the heat from the device,
1.75−2.0 μm, 2.2−3.5 μm, 4.5−9.0 μm, 13−100 μm
but will easily conduct the heat to the surface where it can
b. 4.0−4.5 μm and 9–13 μm
transfer to the air.
6. a. The lighter one
3. 68.46 °C
b. Because the lighter one is travelling faster, it may
4. 6.1 MJ
penetrate the water surface further.
5. In an oven at 300 °C, your hand is bombarded by only a
7. a. In: 67 + 350 + 24 + 78 = 519 W m2
limited number of fast-moving air particles.
Out: 324 + 165 + 30 = 519 W m2
Touching the metal tray at the same temperature brings your
8. a. i. ≈ 0.01 ii. 0.2−0.3 iii. 0.1−0.2
hand into contact with more fast-moving particles thus
b. i. Positive feedback. Methane is an effective greenhouse
causing injury.
gas. This increases the surface temperature.
ii. Negative feedback. The more clouds there are in the
2 Thermodynamics and sky, the greater the amount of visible light that is
reflected back into space.
climate science
2.2 Earth’s energy systems 2.4 Climate models
Sample problem 1 2.4 Exercise
a. 44 times b. 248 °C 1. a. The volcanic eruptions caused the Earth’s surface
temperature to drop.
Practice problem 1 b. The volcanic dust in the atmosphere prevented some of
the Sun’s energy reaching the Earth’s surface, so the
1.413 × 1027 W
surface cooled.
2. a. 1907−15, 1939−47
Sample problem 2
b. Military conflict may have limited the capacity to collect
−7
a. 2.64 × 10 m b. Ultraviolet reliable data from across the globe.
3. 1960−70
Practice problem 2 4. a. Atmosphere
6440 K b. Air temperature is used because of the large variance in
the composition of rocks and bodies of water.
2.2 Exercise 5. The temperature increase is erratic due to factors such as
1. a. 0.01 W b. 73 W c. 3300 K sunspot activity, ocean currents and volcanic eruptions.
ANSWERS 507
2.5 Investigating issues related to • while radiant energy is being absorbed, the body is also
thermodynamics cooling by conduction, convection and/or evaporation.
2.5 Exercise 2.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions

Student responses will vary as they are being asked to apply 1. a. For any point on the graph, the product of the x- and
thermodynamic principles to investigate at least one issue y-values are the same.
related to the environmental impacts of human activity, with b. i. 7000 K ii. 11 000 K
reference to the enhanced greenhouse effect. c. i. 193 nm ii. 523 nm
For this task, students should: 2. a. Sand heats in one-quarter of the time it takes to heat the
• explain the issue they are exploring same mass of water. Sand cools four times faster than the
• link the issue to various thermodynamic principles same mass of water.
examined in topics 1 and 2 (for example, linking to Wien’s b. The temperature of dry sand increases rapidly during the
law or the Stefan–Boltzmaan law) day due to its low specific heat capacity. The temperature
• describe the environmental impact of the issue of the water increases very slowly due to its high specific
• explain how the issue leads to enhanced greenhouse effect heat capacity.
• use data to show either the issue or the impact of the issue In addition, there is a much greater mass of water to heat
• analyse the reliability, validity and uncertainty of the data than sand.
they have obtained. c. The cooling effect of evaporation from bodies of water,
the modifying influence of the sea breezes and the
2.6 Review coolness of the air above the oceans due to the high
2.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions specific heat capacity of water all contribute to a lower air
temperature above beach sand than desert sand.
1. D 2
2. B 3. 22 km
3. A 4. The temperature of the Earth and the atmosphere as a whole
4. C is in balance. The differential warming of the atmosphere
5. B and ocean causes heat transfer from the tropics to the poles
6. D by convection in the form of winds and ocean currents.
7. C 5. a. 0.052 °C b. 1000 °C
8. D
9. A 3 Concepts used to model
10. A
electricity
2.6 Exercise 2: Short answer questions 3.2 Electric circuits
1. a. 6.7 × 1025 W
3.2 Exercise
b. As temperature increases the peak wavelength gets
shorter. As Antares is colder than the Sun, it will have a 1. Rubbing the plastic pen with wool left the pen with a net
longer peak wavelength than the Sun, appearing redder in negative charge and the wool a net positive charge.
colour. Therefore, the negatively charged paper is attracted to the
2. 285 K positively charged pen.
3. a. 7.25 × 103 K b. 4.14 × 103 K 2. Your hair has transferred electrons to the balloon, giving it a
4. The star at 5800 K will appear yellow be in the infra-red net negative charge. Your hair now has a net positive charge.
region. The hotter star will be brighter by 16 times. 3. Each balloon will have a net negative charge, which means
5. The specific heat capacity of water is greater than that of they will repel each other.
soil. It is, therefore, more resistant to change in temperature. 4. Your socks rub electrons off the carpet, leaving you with a
6. Ein = 67 + 24 + 78 + 350 = 519 J net negative charge. You get an electric shock when electrons
jump from you to the metal doorknob.
Eout = 324 + 165 + 30 = 519 J
5. Rubbing the balloon on her hair caused it to become
∴ Ein = Eout negatively charged. The electrons in the can moved away
7. Some wavelengths of the infra-red radiation emitted by the from the balloon and caused the can to roll.
Earth’s surface are not absorbed by water molecules but are 6. After leaving the negative terminal, the electron can move
absorbed by carbon dioxide molecules. freely through the conductor, as other electrons further along
8. The similarity is the amounts; they are the same. The the conducting wire move. Like the electrons ahead of it,
difference is the spread of wavelengths. when the electron reaches the globe, it makes repeated
9. 1.6 MJ collisions with atoms in the filament of the globe, converting
A major assumption is that the sky is clear. The value seems electrical energy into internal energy, increasing the
high but one must remember that: temperature of the filament and causing the globe to glow.
• some of the incident energy is reflected by the body and After leaving the globe, the electron travels towards the cell’s
not absorbed positive terminal.
7. Pushing the button creates a closed circuit, which is needed
for electric current to flow and operate the bell.
508 ANSWERS
3.3 Current 2.7 C
31 C
Sample problem 1 −5
3. 3.4 × 10 J
2.0 A 4. 60 𝜇C
Practice problem 1 3.5 Energy and power in an electric circuit

5.0 A Sample problem 6
Sample problem 2 240 V
9.6 × 102 C Practice problem 6

Practice problem 2 12 V
3.0 seconds Sample problem 7

Sample problem 3 1.2 kW
0.450 A Practice problem 7

Practice problem 3 0.60 W
0.280 A Sample problem 8

Sample problem 4 16 kJ
25 000 seconds Practice problem 8

Practice problem 4 175 mA
16 000 seconds Sample problem 9

3.3 Exercise 30 W
1. Conventional current is the direction that positive charges Practice problem 9

would flow if they were free to do so. Electron current is
the direction that electrons flow. 12 W
2. Direct current: the charge carriers move in only
one direction. 3.5 Exercise
Alternating current: the charge carriers periodically 1. a. 0.25 A b. 3.3 A c. 1.1 A d. 5.00 A
change direction. 2. a. Each coulomb of charge passing through the heater will
3. 37.5 C transform 240 J of energy.
3
4. 0.045 A b. 6.0 × 10 J
4
5. 0.23 mA 3. a. 4.3 × 10 J b. 24 W
6. 4.5 × 10−4 A 4. 90 s
7. No. Electrons cannot be destroyed. Current is not used up 5. 2.4 kW
in a light globe. 6. 40 s
8. 4.2 × 103 C 7. 1.5 V
9. 0.30 A
10. 8.0 × 10−5 m s−1 3.6 Resistance
3.4 Voltage Sample problem 10

3 3
a. 27 × 10 Ω ± 1350 Ω b. 1.0 × 10 Ω ± 100 Ω
Sample problem 5
−19
a. 0.75 J b. 2.4 × 10 J Practice problem 10
a. 39 Ω ± 2 Ω
Practice problem 5 b. 56 000 Ω ± 5600 Ω
14 800 J c. 750 kΩ ± 37.5 kΩ
3.4 Exercise Sample problem 11

1. 1.5 V 20 Ω
2. 3.3 V
6.0 V Practice problem 11
31.5 J 40 Ω
1.02 J
ANSWERS 509
Sample problem 12 b. Voltage (V)
2.0 W
9
Practice problem 12
6
1.2 kW
3
Sample problem 13
0
a. 3.3 A A B C D E F A
b. 72 Ω c. Current (mA)
Practice problem 13
30
a. 2.5 A
b. 96 Ω 20
3.6 Exercise 10
1. 1.08 kJ
2. 32 V 0
A B C D E F A
48 V
d. 360 Ω
2.0 A
6. a. 0.25 A b. 12 Ω c. 0.75 W
3.0 mA
7. a.
1.5 Ω V
33 Ω
3
3. a. 61 × 10 Ω ± 3050 Ω A
5
b. 49 × 10 Ω ± 490 kΩ
c. 1200 Ω ± 60 Ω
4. a. Non-ohmic. The graph of current versus voltage is
non-linear.
b. 0
c. ∞
d. 32.5 Ω b. 5.0 A
5. 0.45 W 8. a. 15 Ω
6. a. 960 Ω b. 5.7 Ω c. 3.6 Ω b. For voltages up to 4.5 V, there is a constant relationship
7. 1.2 kW between the voltage across the globe and the current
8. a. i. 5 kΩ ii. 1 kΩ flowing through it. In this range, the globe exhibits
b. i. 24 °C ii. 52 °C ohmic characteristics. However, for higher voltages the
9. a. 5000 Ω b. 200 °C relationship is not constant and therefore non-ohmic.
9. a. A device that has a varying resistance.
3.7 Review b. 20 mA
3.7 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions c. 2.5 Ω
10. a. 73 Ω b. 32 kJ
1. A
2. C 3.7 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions
3. D
4. B 1. Disagree. When a light switch is turned on the light comes
on almost instantaneously. Similarly, Luke should feel the
5. B
pull on the rope almost immediately. Electrons carry the
6. C
electric charge in a circuit, they move more slowly than the
7. D
energy that is transferred to the loads in the circuit.
8. D
2. a, b and e. See the following figure.
9. C
10. D e−

8
1. 2 × 10 V V
−19
2. a. i. 4.8 × 10 J ii. 3.0 J
−3
b. 2.0 × 10 W
3. a. 11 A A
b. 405 kJ
a. From the negative terminal to the positive terminal
4. a. 110 V
b. Ammeter could be placed anywhere in the circuit.
b. The current would also increase.
c. 3.0 A
5. a. 0.2 W
d. 0
510 ANSWERS
e. See figure above for voltmeter location. Practice problem 5
f. No current will flow in the open circuit.
a. 0.6 A b. 9 V c. 15 V d. 25 Ω
3. a. Direct current flows in one direction only, whereas AC
flows back and forth. Sample problem 6
b. 0.8 A
c. 4Ω 2.9 Ω
4. a. 330 kJ b. 11.5 A
5. a. Non-ohmic; the resistance is not constant. Practice problem 6
b. 10 mA 2Ω
c. 20
d. 5 × 10−3 W Sample problem 7
a. 9 V b. 0.90 A c. 0.45 A
4 Circuit analysis d. 20 Ω e. 6.7 Ω
4.2 Electric circuit rules
Practice problem 7
Sample problem 1 a. V1 = V2 = 24 V b. 0.6 A c. 0.2 A
1.2 A d. 120 Ω e. 30 Ω
Practice problem 1 Sample problem 8

1.5 A 9.99 Ω
Sample problem 2
Practice problem 8
a = 7.4 mA
960 Ω
b = 15.3 mA
c = 13.2 mA
d = 6.7 mA
Sample problem 9
e = 2.1 mA 0Ω
f = 15.3 mA
Practice problem 9
Practice problem 2
330 Ω
a = 11.1 A
b = 2.4 A Sample problem 10
Sample problem 3 4.4 kΩ
3.8 V Practice problem 10
Practice problem 3 730 Ω
7.2 V
4.3 Exercise
4.2 Exercise 1. a. 12.5 Ω b. 62 Ω c. 15.4 Ω
1. a. A connection between two or more conducting paths 2. Va = 9 V
b. The flow of electrons through the circuit Vb = 9 V
c. The amount of electrical potential energy converted in a Vc = 4 V
load for every coulomb of charge passing through it Vd = 0 V
d. The wire connecting the elements in an electric circuit 3. Ia = 1 A
2. a. 4.5 A b. 1.1 A V1 = 4 V
3. Vcd = 16 V = Vef V2 = 2 V
R2 = 2.0 Ω
4.3 Series and parallel circuits 4. a. 12 Ω b. 3.0 Ω c. 10 Ω
5. a. 5 Ω b. 3.0 A
Sample problem 4 c. I1 = 1.5 A
74 Ω I2 = 1.5 A
6. a. 10 Ω
Practice problem 4 b. 9.0 A
13.9 kΩ c. 60 Ω = 1.5 A
30 Ω = 3.0 A
Sample problem 5 20 Ω = 4.5 A
a. 1 A b. 60 V c. 40 V d. 40 Ω
ANSWERS 511
7. a. Ia = 1.5 A c. 25 Ω = 1.0 W
V1 = 6 V 15 Ω = 0.6 W
V2 = 6 V 10 Ω = 0.4 W
I1 = 1.0 A d. 2.0 W
I2 = 0.5 A 2. a. 2.1 A
b. 10 V
R2 = 12 Ω
c. 25 Ω = 4.0 W
8. a. R1 = 6.0 A
15 Ω = 6.7 W
R2 = 2.0 A
10 Ω = 10 W
R3 = 4.0 A
b. 12 A d. 21.7 W
3.
c. 3.0 Ω
9. a. G1 , G2 , G3
b. G1 , G3
c. G1
10. a. 3.0 V
b. 6.0 V E
4.4 Non-ohmic devices in series and parallel

Sample problem 11 4.6 Review
a. 10 V b. 3 A
Practice problem 11 1. C
2. A
a. 6 V b. 5 mA
3. C
4. B
Sample problem 12
5. A
750 Ω 6. D
7. A
Practice problem 12 8. C
2.5 kΩ 9. C
10. C
Sample problem 13
The resistance must be increased.
1. a. 2 A b. 60 V c. 10 Ω d. 40 Ω e. 80 V
Practice problem 13 2. a. 12 V b. 12 V c. 12 V d. 0.30 A e. 40 Ω
3. 3A
The voltage sensitive switch should be connected to the fixed
4. a. 4.4 Ω
resistor so that it turns on the cooling system as the temperature
b. No. The 24 W lamp will be brighter. The larger current
increases.
flowing through the 24 W lamp means that more energy
A 2.5 kΩ fixed resistor
is being dissipated per second.
5. a. 0.30 A b. 7.2 W c. 1.2 A d. 29 W
4.4 Exercise 6. Light globe
1. a. 6 mA b. 140 V c. 8.8 kΩ
2. a. 30 V b. 6.0 mA c. 100 V d. 130 V
3. a. 100 V b. 100 V c. 6 mA d. 26 mA
4.5 Power in circuits

Sample problem 14
8.91 A
Practice problem 14 Switch 1

5.04 A Switch 2
7. a. 4.0 V b. 3.0 V
4.5 Exercise 8. a. 3.3 kΩ b. 2.5 kΩ
1. a. 0.20 A 9. a. The lamp will dim.
b. 25 Ω = 5.0 V V2
b. The power provided to the circuit P is given by P = .
15 Ω = 3.0 V R
10 Ω = 2.0 V Vsource is constant, so as the resistance of the series
circuit increases the power in the circuit will decrease.
512 ANSWERS
c. No effect on the brightness of the lamp. wire accidentally contacts the outer case, a low resistance
d. Power consumed in the circuit will increase. path is provided for the electricity to return to earth.
10. a. 20 Ω b. 5 Ω 6. The earth wire is used in household lighting circuits when
the light fittings have a metal case.
4.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 7. $ 411.02
1. a. 10 mA 8. a.
Product Energy kW-h
b. 15 V
c. 25 mA through the first person Laptop computer 127.0
17 mA through the second person
d. 25 V Modem 29.8
2. Substituting in V = IR, where V = 0, R must be equal to 0.
Cordless phone equipment 32.4
3. a. 625 Ω b. 0.01 W c. Increase
4. a. 400 Ω b. R1 = 5000 Ω DVD player 21.0
5. a. 1.5 kΩ b. 0.7 V
Television 54.3
b. 381.9 kg CO2
5 Using electricity and electrical
safety 5.3 Electrical safety
5.2 Household electricity and usage Sample problem 4
a. Total current in the circuit:
Sample problem 1
4.35 + 1.36 + 5.22 + 2.61 + 0.26 = 13.8 A
a. 6.09 A b. 37.8 Ω The fuse will not melt.
b. The 2400 W heater will draw an additional 10.4 A, so the
Practice problem 1 total current in the circuit will be 24.2 A. This is much
a. 65 mA b. 3.5 kΩ greater than 15 A and the fuse will blow.
Sample problem 2 Practice problem 4

3.6 MJ a. 760 mA b. 1.7 A c. 3.4 A
Practice problem 2 5.3 Exercise

28.8 MJ 1. An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the nervous
system caused by an electrical discharge or current through
Sample problem 3 the body. Electrocution is death resulting from an electric
shock.
a. 85 W b. 12 kW-h c. $1.97
2. Breaks or cuts in the skin; water, oil and other fluids reduce
the resistance of human skin.
Practice problem 3
3. The size of the current will influence the size and type of
a. 10 mA b. 1.45 MJ c. $48.38 muscle contraction.
4. Fibrillation is the disorganised rapid contraction of separate
5.2 Exercise parts of the heart so that it pumps no blood.
1. •It is an alternating current. 5. Your muscles would contract and you could grip onto the
•The voltage varies between +325 V and −325 V. victim and not be able to let go.
•The voltage oscillates 50 times per second. 6. The longer the time of exposure, the more severe the shock.
•The voltage provides heating effects equivalent to a DC 7. Double insulation is a way to protect the user of hand-held
voltage of 230 V. appliances. There are two separate layers of insulation
2. Excessive current can cause wires to melt or materials between the functional parts of the appliance and the user.
surrounding the wires to catch fire. 8. Voltage doesn’t flow; current does. The paper should have
3. Active: brown reported that there was a voltage drop across his body of
Neutral: blue 50 000 V. The human body is not resistant to current flow at
Earth: green-and-yellow striped large voltage. However, it is the size of the current that
4. determines the amount of injury; it is not the voltage
that kills.
A N N
A 5.4 Review
E
E 5.4 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
1. C
5. The neutral wire is used to provide an insulated path for the 2. B
electricity to return to the generator. The earth wire connects 3. A
the metal case of the appliance to earth so that, if a live active
ANSWERS 513
4. B 5.4 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions
5. C 1. Factors that improve the safety of the person include not
6. B having wet hands or standing on a wet floor. It would be
7. D better if they were wearing shoes with an insulating sole and
8. C were not touching an easier path to earth such as a kitchen
9. B tap. Letting go of the appliance is also important because a
10. B longer contact causes more harm.
2. a.
5.4 Exercise 2: Short answer questions Switch
1. a. 3942 kW‐h b. $1104.00 A Circuit
2. a. Connect the speakers in parallel because each speaker Fuse breaker
or fuse
can be independently controlled and the failure of one
or residual
does not result in a total loss of sound – the second
Appliance
current device
speaker can still function.
b. P = 4.6 kW
c. $8.83 N
d. Just larger than 10 A
3. a. 4.35 A b. 52.9 Ω c. $0.85 Casing
4. a. The metal casing on the appliance is connected to the
Casing
earth wire and not the live wiring that provides energy to (earthed)
the appliance. This keeps the voltage of the casing b. i. The earth wire in main circuit provides a low
at zero. resistance conducting path for current should there
b. A shock could occur if the insulation between the casing be a short circuit.
and the functional parts of the appliance broke down. ii. Insulation between the appliance and the case
5. a. The difference between electrocution and an electric insulates the metal case from the live circuit.
shock is that electrocution is fatal. iii. Separately earthing the metal case provides a low
b. An electric shock is more likely to be fatal if there is a resistance conducting path for current to flow to earth
large amount of current flowing through the body, the if the insulation ‘barrier’ breaks down.
pathway of the current is through the trunk of the body iv. A fuse, circuit breaker or residual current device on
or there is an extended time of exposure to the current. the active wire between the power supply and the
6. Both fuses and circuit breakers provide overload protection appliance breaks the circuit if the current to the device
in circuits. A fuse comprises a metal wire that melts when is excessive, or in the case of a residual current device,
its current limit is exceeded. Fuses can be used in a variety there is a current leakage.
of places including plugs, appliances and household 3.
circuits. They are also readily used in DC circuits. After the
source of an electrical problem is resolved a melted fuse N
E
must be replaced.
A
Circuit breakers comprise resettable switches activated by
either using the heat generated by an excessive current or Fuse
by the electromagnetic effect in a circuit to activate a
switch. They are initially more expensive to install but are
readily reset. They also allow the isolation of circuits within 4. a. E = 8.76 × P kW‐h
a system of circuits as found in households.
7. a. 2.63 A b. 13.07 A Product Power (W) Power kW-h
8. As the magnitude of the current passing through the body per year
increases it takes less time to cause fibrillation. It is
therefore important to safely remove a person in shock Laptop computer 14.5 127.0
from the source. Microwave 4.2 36.8
9. Dry skin has a higher resistance than wet hands. Wet hands
provide an easier pathway to earth and therefore attract a Laser printer 8.5 74.5
larger current that can cause damage when travelling
Set top box 11.2 98.1
through the body.
10. Whereas a circuit breaker provides overload protection in a Television 6.2 54.3
circuit by detecting increasing current, a residual current
device effectively detects a leakage of current as might b. 564.2 kg CO2
happen when there is a short circuit. Residual current c. $195.35
devices can be activated quickly and at low currents, 5. a. I = 0.38 mA
providing good safety protection as long as the leakage of The person will experience a shock, but provided the
current is to earth. However, a residual current device is person does not continue to hold the appliance it should
ineffective when a person acts as a conductor between the not be dangerous.
active and neutral wires of a circuit.
514 ANSWERS
b. Fibrillation could occur at 50 mA. she knew that the difference in brightness of the stars was
V = 30 kV due to their different luminosities, not just their distances.
c. 76.7 mA 3. The light coming from all distant galaxies was red shifted.
With this current, there is a risk that the person’s muscles 4. The first spectrum is from the most distant galaxy as it is the
will contract and they will be unable to let go of the most red shifted.
appliance. Fibrillation is likely and the person must be 5. The General Theory of Relativity
safely removed from the source of electricity. 6. Consider any dot on the rubber band. It does not matter
which you choose; as the rubber band is extended, all of the
other dots move away from it. The view of the expanding
6 Origins of atoms universe occurs from all points of observation.
7. Scientists had long believed that the universe had existed as
6.2 Early developments of the Big Bang Theory
it was forever.
Sample problem 1 8. Einstein thought the universe was static, neither expanding
Leavitt discovered that a type of star called a Cepheid variable nor contracting. He had no explanation for why it did not
varied in luminosity in such a way that the more luminous the collapse on itself due to gravity so added an unexplained
star, the longer its period of variation. This provided a method cosmological constant to make the mathematics work for a
to determine the luminosity of the star and therefore its distance static universe.
could be determined by the difference between its luminosity 9. Although the space between the Milky Way and Andromeda
and its brightness when viewed from Earth. galaxies is expanding, the gravitational attraction is strong
Hubble used this discovery to show that clouds of stars were enough that the galaxies are being pulled closer together.
well beyond the limits of the Milky Way galaxy and therefore This causes the light to be blue shifted instead of red shifted.
separate galaxies in their own right. He also found that the more
distant the galaxies, the faster they were receding from us. 6.3 Further developments of the Big
Bang Theory
It is not possible to determine the luminosity from only its The universe is 1.8 × 109 years old. This is 2 billion years to one
brightness because the brightness of the star diminishes with significant figure, so consistent with Hubble’s estimate.
distance.
Practice problem 4
Sample problem 2
The gradient of the line is too steep.
When Hubble measured the red shift of distant galaxies he
noticed that it increased the further the galaxy was from us. 6.3 Exercise
This was interpreted by physicists as meaning that the universe
must be expanding. Prior to this discovery they thought it was 1. The Big Bang Theory describes the universe as beginning
static. very small and hot. As it expanded that heat energy would
have spread throughout the universe, cooling as the universe
Practice problem 2 expanded. That is consistent with what we can observe today
as the cosmic microwave background.
As the light from distant galaxies travels through space to reach 2. The observation of an expanding universe led astronomers
us, the space it travels through expands, expanding the and physicists to imagine what that meant for the history of
wavelength of the light. the universe. They could imagine that space must have been
much smaller and if traced back far enough, took up no
Sample problem 3 space at all.
Gravity is a force that weakens with distance. Gravity can cause 3. Time and space began with the universe, there was no time
galaxies near to each other to move toward each other but for and space before.
galaxies separated across a greater distance, the gravity becomes 4. According to the Big Bang Theory, space has expanded
too weak and the expansion of space overwhelms its effect. throughout the universe’s existence.
5. The expansion of the universe has resulted in the light waves
Practice problem 3 travelling through it from the early intense heat to be
stretched as the space they passed through stretched. These
Hubble noticed that all of the galaxies apart from those local to
waves have travelled for billions of years so the wavelengths
the Milky Way were moving away from it.
are much longer, corresponding to much lower temperatures.
They correspond to a temperature of only 2.7 K.
6.2 Exercise
6. The longer the light from distant galaxies has travelled
1. A galaxy is a gathering of many billions of stars held through the expanding universe, the more it is stretched and
together by gravity. therefore red shifted. Light from closer galaxies has travelled
2. a. The longer the period of variation in luminosity, the shorter distances so has been stretched less.
greater the maximum luminosity of the star. 7. In the past, the universe had a smaller volume. The galaxies
b. Luminosity and distance were therefore packed into a smaller universe resulting in a
c. Stars, like all lights, get dimmer as they get further away. higher density of galaxies.
By using stars of relatively uniform distance from Earth
ANSWERS 515
6.4 Measurements of the universe Practice problem 11
Sample problem 5 Prior to recombination, the universe was filled with charged
particles that scattered the light, making the universe opaque.
At aphelion: 250 500 000 000 m
At perihelion: 207 000 000 000 m
Sample problem 12
Practice problem 5 The quark era was when particles such as quarks, electrons and
neutrinos began to appear in large numbers and matter began to
a. 108 000 000 000 m
dominate over antimatter.
b. 0.00257 AU
Prior to the quark era particles were annihilated by their
antiparticles as soon as they formed. Quarks existed as
Sample problem 6 individual particles.
198 times further away
Practice problem 12
Practice problem 6 In the electroweak era, the strong nuclear force first separated
16 times further away from the other forces so that there were three separate forces in
the universe: gravity, the strong nuclear force and the
Sample problem 7 electroweak force (which is the combination of the
The light has travelled for 2.5 million years to reach us. electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force).

It has taken the light 643 years to reach Earth. 10

1.45 × 109 2.4 × 1031
Practice problem 8 6.5 Exercise

2.73 × 10 7 1. Quarks, electrons and neutrinos started to dominate in the
quark era but would have been rare in the Electroweak era.
Sample problem 9 Matter began to be dominant over antimatter in the quark
era, in the electroweak era matter tended to annihilate with
1 989 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg antimatter as soon as it was created.
2. Quarks formed three quark particles (hadrons) such as
Practice problem 9 protons and neutrons.
4 540 000 000 years 3. In the transition from the Planck era to the grand unified era.
This was about 10-43 seconds after the beginning of the
Sample problem 10 universe.
1.5 × 107 K 4. Protons and neutrons began to appear 10-6 seconds after the
beginning of the universe.
Practice problem 10 5. Particles of matter were created with their own antiparticles.
They tended to annihate each other when they came in
5.683 × 1026 kg contact.
6. The flatness of the universe and the uniformity of the cosmic
6.4 Exercise microwave background.
1. 4 515 000 000 000 m 7. The universe was too hot for protons and neutrons to exist.
2. 513 AU 8. Once protons and neutrons were available for fusion, protons
3. The solar system is about half way between the centre and outnumbered neutrons 7 to 1. Two protons fused with two
edge of the Milky Way. neutrons to make helium-4 nuclei and this occurred until the
4. 8.6 years neutron supply was exhausted. To make one helium-4
5. 4.495 × 1012 m nucleus would require 2 protons and 2 neutrons but given the
6. 13 390 000 000 years ratio of 7:1, there would be 12 excess protons. In other
7. 1010 K words, the ratio of H to He was 12:1 in terms of number of
8. 6.05 × 1024 kg nuclei. Each helium-4 has four times the mass of hydrogen-1
9. 3.2 × 102 so by mass the ratio was 4:12 or 1:3. This is equivalent to
25% helium-4 and 75% hydrogen.
6.5 The formation of the first atoms 9. Above 3000 K, electrons have too much energy to remain
bound to the nucleus. The universe needed to expand and
Sample problem 11 cool to around 3000 K before the electrons would bond to
Photons of energy were able to propagate through space after the nuclei forming the first atoms, which happened 380 000
this point and it is the greatly red shifted photons that are years after the beginning of the universe.
observed as the cosmic microwave background.
516 ANSWERS
6.6 Review b. Hubble measured the red shift of the spectral lines of light
coming from each galaxy in order to determine the speed
6.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions of recession of galaxies.
1. A c. Cepheid variables
2. C 2. a. The source of the cosmic microwave background
3. B radiation is the Big Bang itself.
4. A The event involved vast amounts of energy, some that
5. D should remain. This energy was able to travel freely
6. D through the universe after recombination when
7. A electrons bonded with nuclei to form the first atoms.
D −4
8. b. 5.7 × 10 K
9. B 3. Particle accelerators
10. D 4. Energy needs to be increased.
5. Gravity separated first, then the strong nuclear force,
6.6 Exercise 2: Short answer questions then electromagnetism separated from the weak
1. Hubble discovered that the more distant galaxies had a nuclear force.
greater red shift, suggesting they were receding from us at a 6. a. The vast majority of protons and neutrons formed
greater rate than the galaxies closer to us. hydrogen-1 and helium-4.
2. Andromeda and the Milky Way are close enough that the Small amounts of lithium and beryllium were also formed.
force of gravity between them has a greater impact than the b. There is no stable nucleus with a mass number of 5.
expansion of the universe. This meant that simply adding more protons or neutrons
3. Normal explosions involve matter being thrown outwards was not enough to go beyond helium, larger nuclei needed
so that in a very short time it moves through space. The to fuse. Fusing helium-4 nuclei takes more time than was
Big Bang created matter as space expanded and time was available as the universe rapidly expanded to the point
created. The matter is not moving through space but is where the energy and density were insufficient for this
being carried away from other matter by an expanding fusion to occur.
universe. The Big Bang did not happen at a point in time
but was the beginning of time.
4. The red shift of the galaxies, the ratio of hydrogen and
7 Particles in the nucleus
helium in the universe, the density of galaxies and the 7.2 The discovery of subatomic particles
cosmic microwave background
Sample problem 1
5. Prior to the discovery of the CMB, the theory was
challenged by other theories. However, the theory predicted Six:
the existence of the CMB and when it was discovered no • electron
one had any other explanation for it. • muon
6. It is easier to read, compare and perform calculations with. • tau
7. 10−36 = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 s • electron neutrino
10−32 = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 01 s • muon neutrino
8. Heavier elements required fusion of helium nuclei, which • tau neutrino.
required more time than was available as the universe was
rapidly expanding. Practice problem 1
9. Particle–antiparticle annihilation, inflation, nuclear fusion, Electrons and the neutrinos are stable — they never decay.
the formation of atoms, ignition of the first stars Muons and taus usually decay within tiny fractions of a second.
10. Stephen Hawking likened trying to understand time before
the Big Bang to trying to go south of the South Pole. It is Sample problem 2
not possible to go past 90° latitude South. The geometry of
Mesons
the Earth results in us heading north again. A similar
geometry could explain the beginning of the universe.
Practice problem 2
6.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions Protons and neutrons
1. a.
Sample problem 3
In a similar way to atoms and nuclei, a spectrum of allowable
energies has been detected for protons and neutrons.
Red shift
Atoms produce electromagnetic spectra containing particular

allowable energies that are interpreted as energy released by
electrons as they change state in the atom. If the atom had no
structure, but was a fundamental particle, this would be
impossible as there would be no electrons or energy states.
Similarly with protons and neutrons, the existence of possible
Distance energy states within these particles reveals that they have
internal structure. They are not fundamental.
ANSWERS 517
Practice problem 3 3. There are six quarks in the Standard Model. They are the
One up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom.

4. The Standard Model predicts six leptons: electron, muon,
Sample problem 4 tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino and tau neutrino.
5. The atomic nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear
A proton has a charge of +1 so an antiproton has a charge
force, which is an attractive force between quarks. An
of −1.
2 electron is a lepton. Leptons are not acted on by the strong
An up quark has a charge of + and a down quark has a charge force so the only force holding electrons to a nucleus is the
3 electromagnetic force.
1 2
of − . Therefore, an up antiquark has a charge of − and a 6. Protons have charge, size and considerable mass. Most of
3 3 the mass of Earth is made from protons and the similar
1 sized neutrons. Protons cannot pass through the Earth
down antiquark has a charge of + .
3 because they interact both electromagnetically with other
An antiproton is made of two up antiquarks and one down protons and strongly with other protons and neutrons if they
2 2 1 become particularly close. Electrons have much less mass
antiquark. These have a total charge of − + − + = −1.
3 3 3 and size than protons but have the same sized charge. The
The sum of the antiquark charges is the same as the antiproton electromagnetic force ensures that they cannot travel far
charge as expected. without being scattered or absorbed into other atoms.
Neutrinos, however, do not interact via either the strong or
Practice problem 4 the electromagnetic forces. They are leptons without
The electron and the antiproton have the same charge: −1. charge. Therefore, their interactions with other matter is
The electron is a lepton and the antiproton is a baryon (hadron) very weak, through the weak force. These interactions are
because it is made of three quarks. so weak and rare that most pass straight through the Earth
The electron is a fundamental particle but the antiproton is a unaffected.
composite particle. 7. A neutron has no charge. The antineutron must have the
The proton has a mass of nearly 2000 times that of an electron same mass as the neutron and also have no charge. The
so the antiproton is nearly 2000 times as heavy as an electron neutron is made from two down and one up quarks. The
because antiparticles have the same mass as their particle. antineutron must therefore be made from two up antiquarks
and one down antiquark.
Sample problem 5 8. They would annihilate each other, producing photons of
energy.
The strong nuclear force acts on quarks and particles made from
9. The matter that appeared in the early universe was
quarks — hadrons, including protons and neutrons.
produced in pairs of particles and antiparticles. These
The weak nuclear force acts on leptons such as electrons and
quickly annihilate each other. After those first moments, for
neutrinos, as well as quarks. While the strong force holds
a reason that is not well understood, matter dominated over
quarks to each other, the weak force changes properties of the
antimatter. Therefore, there was nothing to annihilate the
particle. (It can change an up quark to a down and change the
protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and electrons
momentum of a neutrino.)
are stable particles. The neutrons have survived due to
The strong force acts over a distance of the order of a proton
being bound in helium and later other nuclei.
diameter. The weak force acts over a distance only about
10. The quark era was when energy conditions were such that
one-thousandth of this distance.
quarks formed the bulk of the mass of the Universe. At this
Practice problem 5 stage the universe was so hot and dense that the mass of
quarks could not yet separate into individual hadrons.
Weak nuclear force. Later, when the universe had cooled a little further, the
quarks separated into a new level of structure — hadrons
Sample problem 6 (including protons and neutrons).
The neutron, neutrino, positron and Higgs boson were all 11. Zero
predicted by scientific theory prior to their detection.
7.3 Nuclear radiation
Practice problem 6
Sample problem 7
The Big Bang Theory predicted the existence of the cosmic
microwave background, which was subsequently detected by Thorium-234
Penzias and Wilson.
Practice problem 7
7.2 Exercise Iron-56
1. The Large Hadron Collider was built to explore particle
physics and test predictions of the Standard Model, Sample problem 8
including the existence of the Higgs boson. There is an attractive force called the strong nuclear force that
2. A hadron is the name given to any particle made of quarks. acts between protons and neutrons.
There are two groups of particles made of quarks The strong nuclear force can only hold a nucleus together when
— mesons and baryons. Mesons are made of a it is stronger than the electromagnetic force pushing the protons
quark–antiquark pair. Baryons are made of three quarks. apart.
518 ANSWERS
( )8
The force holding protons and neutrons together to form nuclei 24 1 1
11. = 8 half-lives so = of the sample remains
must be an attractive force that works between neutrons and 3 2 256
protons and is stronger than the electromagnetic force at after 24 hours. You would need to order 20 × 256 = 5120
close range. grams or 5.12 kilograms of the isotope to have enough left
when you receive it.
Practice problem 8
7.4 Types of nuclear radiation
The strong nuclear force acts between the two protons and each
proton and the neutron. It is a small nucleus so the strong Sample problem 10
234 230
nuclear force extends to all nucleons from each of the other a. 92U → 90T h + 42H e + energy
nucleons. The electromagnetic force also acts to repel the 210 210
b. 82P b → 83B + −10e + energy
two protons but not as strongly as the strong nuclear force
11 11
attracts them. c. 6C → 5B + 01e + energy

1 1 241 237
a. b. a. 95A m → 93N p + 42H e + energy
4 256 197 197
b. 78P t → 79A u + −10e + v + energy
Practice problem 9 23 23
c. 12M g → 11N a + +10e + v + energy
21.08 years
Sample problem 11
7.3 Exercise In a decay chain, a nucleus may decay to a less stable nucleus.
1. Sodium-23. This, however, is a step towards increased stability as the final
2. a. One proton and one neutron. nucleus is always stable.
b. 95 protons and 146 neutrons
c. 63 protons and 101 neutrons Practice problem 11
3. The force between a proton and neutron is the strong a. Uranium-238
nuclear force, but it only acts if the proton and neutron are b. If the decay chain started with an unstable nucleus with a
very close together (within about 2 × 10−15 m). shorter half-life, it would have all decayed by now.
1
4. of the initial sample remains. 7.4 Exercise
32
222 218
5. A stable isotope is one that never decays. 1. 86R n → 84P o + 42H e + energy
6. A nucleus can be unstable because the electromagnetic 214 214
+ −10e + v + energy
2. 82P b → 83B i
force becomes greater than the strong nuclear force at only 60 60
a very small separation distance. Therefore, the sum of all 3. 27C o∗ → 27C o + γ
of the repulsive electromagnetic forces can total more than 4. a. 2
the sum of the strong nuclear forces in large nuclei. b. 4
7. 45 minutes. c. An alpha particle.
5. Both the neutrino and the gamma ray have a mass number
8. and atomic number of zero.
Radioactive decay 6. Kinetic energy of the emitted particles.
120 7. Beta particles have atomic numbers of –1 or +1, however,
they are only electrons or positrons. There are no protons. In
100
these cases the atomic number refers to the charge of the
particle.
Mass (g)
80
60
7.5 Review
40
20
1. A
0 2. D
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (h)
3. C
4. C
9. Nuclei decay at random. It is impossible to predict when
5. A
any individual nucleus will decay but if a large sample of 6. B
nuclei are decaying, it is possible to determine when a 7. C
proportion (such as a half) of them will decay. 8. A
10. After each half-life, half of the sample remaining decays.
9. C
Only half of the nuclei are left to decay so the number of 10. A
decays that will happen per second will halve.
ANSWERS 519
7.5 Exercise 2: Short answer questions b. Nuclei stability follows a curve of neutron number versus
1. a. uuu or ccc or ttt or any combination of these three

proton number. Adding a neutron takes the nucleus away
flavours of quarks will have a charge of +2. from that stability curve. Of the decay options 𝛼, 𝛽 + and
b. Any of the answers in part (a), as an antibaryon would
𝛽 − , and 𝛾, only 𝛽 − decay moves the nucleus back
have a charge of –2, for example, ūūu.̄ towards the line of stability.
c. Alpha emission relies on the bonding between a group of
c. Any combination of three quarks whose charge adds to
zero is an acceptable answer. An example is up down nucleons being stronger than the bonding of that group to
bottom. the entire nucleus. As the strong nuclear force is stronger
2. Mesons are particles containing one quark and one than the electromagnetic force for adjacent nucleons, this
antiquark. If the quark and antiquark are of the same will only happen when the combined electromagnetic
‘flavour’ (for example, up and anti-up), then it will be its repulsion from a large nucleus affects protons that are less
own antiparticle. For example, the antiparticle of uū is uu,̄ attached by the strong nuclear force.
225 221 4
which is exactly the same. 5. a. 89A c → 87F r + 2H e + energy
3. Charged particles interact strongly with other charged 1
particles, and it is because of their effects on other particles b.
8
that we know particles are there. In particular, charged c. Four alpha particles cause a mass number change of
particles tend to ionise atoms, leaving a trail showing where 4 × 4 = 16. The beta decays do not change the mass
they have been. In the case of neutral particles, such as the number.
neutron, neutrino and Higgs boson, they interact weakly Four 𝛼 decays reduce the atomic number by 4 × 2 = 8.
with other matter making them difficult to detect. Two 𝛽 − decays increase the atomic number by 2. The
4. a. Number of protons = 30
total change in atomic number is –6. The resulting
Number of neutrons = 36 mass number of the bismuth is 225 – 16 = 209.
b. Number of protons = 90
The atomic number is 89 – 6 = 83.
Number of neutrons = 140
c. Number of protons = 20
Number of neutrons = 25 8 Energy from the atom
d. Number of protons = 14
Number of neutrons = 17
8.2 Energy from mass
4 13 234
5. a. 2H e b. 7N c. 91P a Sample problem 1
− −
6. a. 𝛽 particle b. 𝛽 particle c. 𝛼 particle 4.1 MeV
226 222 4
7. a. i. 88R a → 86R n + 2α + energy
214 210 4 Practice problem 1
ii. 84P o → 82P b + 2α + energy
241 237 4 7.487 177 × 10−30 kg
iii. 95A m → 93N p + 2α + energy
60 60
b. i. 27C o → 28N i + −10𝛽 + v + energy 8.2 Exercise
90 90 0 2
ii. 38S r → 39Y + −1 𝛽 + v + energy 1. The equation E = mc expresses the fact that energy and
32 32 0 mass are equivalent. Mass and energy cannot be considered
iii. 15P → 16S + −1 𝛽 + v + energy
independently.
8. Eight 𝛼 decays and six 𝛽 decays have occurred.
2. 9 × 1015 J
9. Approximately 2 hours
3. 1.638 × 10−13 J
10. 17 190 years
4. 2.8 × 1025 eV
5. 5.0 × 10−11 kg
1. Baryons 8.3 Energy from the nucleus
2. a. The mass is equal.
The charge is opposite.
Sample problem 2
b. Gamma rays are produced when the positron that is a. 160.000 732 MeV
−28
emitted is annihilated with an electron. b. 2.857 62 × 10 kg
−11
3. a. Neutrino, neutron, positron or Higgs c. 2.568 301 × 10 J or 160.300 789 MeV
b. A scientific theory might require certain observations, for
example, the conservation of mass. The proton had a Practice problem 2
charge equal to half the charge of the alpha particle. a. 166.744 812 MeV
Therefore, they determined that the alpha particle would b. 2.972 28 × 10
−28
kg
contain two protons, however, the mass of the alpha c. 2.671 352 × 10
−11
J = 166.733 MeV
particle was about four times that of a proton, so
assuming the mass of two protons should be around twice Sample problem 3
the mass of one proton, there must be another particle
present with zero charge. a. 12.566 671 MeV
−29
4. a. Adding a neutron to a stable nucleus makes it more likely b. 1.863 × 10 kg
−12
to undergo 𝛽 − decay. c. 1.674 × 10 J or 10.45 MeV
520 ANSWERS
Practice problem 3 Practice problem 4
a. 5.639 928 MeV When electrons move in a circular or elliptical orbit they emit
−29
b. 1.0541 × 10 kg synchrotron radiation. If they were orbiting a nucleus in this
−13
c. 9.473 778 × 10 J = 5.913 070 MeV way they would lose energy to this radiation and spiral into the
nucleus. The electrons can be in stable atoms indefinitely,
8.3 Exercise therefore, they cannot be orbiting the nucleus like planets.
1. Fission is the name given to the process where a very large 8.4 Exercise
nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei. Fusion is the process
1. Electrons or other charged particles moving around in circles
of two small nuclei combining to form a single nucleus.
2. Fusion at high speed leads to the production of synchrotron
3. Energy is released in a fission or fusion reaction if the radiation. The motion involves changing direction, which
binding energy per nucleon (the energy required to remove a involves acceleration. Whenever charged particles are
nucleon from the nucleus) increases in the process. When accelerated, they emit electromagnetic radiation. When the
uranium-235 nuclei are split into two roughly equal-sized acceleration results in them moving in circles or arcs, the
nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon for each of these new radiation is called synchrotron radiation.
nuclei is greater than that in uranium-235. When fusion of 2. Atoms emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation only at
two hydrogen atoms occurs, the binding energy per nucleon particular energies, producing emission and absorption
also increases. spectra. This is explained if the electrons are only allowed to
4. According to the graph, each nucleon in uranium-235 has have particular energy levels in the atom. If they could take
7.6 MeV. This is a total of 235 × 7.6 = 1786 MeV. Each any energy in the atom, it would be difficult to explain the
nucleon in barium-141 has 8.4 MeV according to the graph. emission and absorption spectra observed.
This is a total of 141 × 8.4 = 1184.4 MeV. Each nucleon in 3. Acceleration of charged particles, particularly oscillating
krypton-92 has 8.7 MeV, according to the graph. This is a back and forth, produces electromagnetic radiation.
total of 92 × 8.7 = 800.4 MeV. The total energy of the 4. The electrons in the antenna for frequency 621 kHz are
fission products is 800.4 + 1184.4 = 1984.8 MeV, which is oscillating back and forth with a lower frequency than
199 MeV greater than the uranium-235 nucleus. This agrees for 774 kHz.
well with the measured value of 200 MeV. 5. The energy of gamma rays from the nucleus is usually much
5. When two small nuclei are fused together to form a larger higher than the energy of electromagnetic radiation emitted
one, energy is released because the new nucleus exists in a by electrons.
lower energy state than the two nuclei that formed it. Energy 8.5 Review
is conserved so the difference in energy needs to be released
in some form. 8.5 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
6. For light elements (mass number less than 56) the binding 1. A
energy per nucleon graph is much steeper than for heavy 2. D
elements. 3. A
7. Fusion occurs when combining two light nuclei results in an 4. B
increase in binding energy per nucleon. This means that 5. C
energy has been released to bind the nuclei more tightly 6. D
together. The release of energy is equivalent to a release of 7. A
mass so the nucleus after fusion is lighter than the two nuclei 8. C
that it was fused from. 9. B
8. The fission of uranium-236 results in two nuclei with higher 10. D
binding energy per nucleon. This involves energy release so
the sum of the masses of all of the particles after the fission 8.5 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
is less than the mass of the nucleus that underwent fission. 1. Different elements produce different emission and
absorption spectra because the energy levels available to
8.4 Energy from accelerating charges electrons in each element are different — they depend on
how many protons are in the nucleus.
Sample problem 4 2. The re-emitted light does not necessarily go in the same
Include any three of the following: direction as it was initially heading. In fact, it is emitted in
• Electrons in atoms in a hot metal move between energy random directions, so very little of it will be available to fill
levels and emit electromagnetic radiation. in the gap.
• Electrons moving in circles in a synchrotron produce 3. The different lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum
intense electromagnetic radiation tangent to the path. reveals that there are different energies that the electron in
• Electrons passing through a gas at high voltage excite the the atom can absorb or release.
electrons in the gas which then emit electromagnetic 4. Neutrons have no charge so are not repelled by positively
radiation as they return to ground state. charged nuclei. They can easily come close enough to a
• Electrons accelerate in an antenna. nucleus to combine with the nucleus, making it unstable so
that it decays to form a different, more stable isotope.
ANSWERS 521
5. Kinetic energy of a neutron and a fused nucleus and some Sample problem 2
gamma radiation. 2700 kilometres
6. Extremely high temperatures and pressures—such as exist in
the centre of the Sun. These conditions are required to bring Practice problem 2
the protons close enough together for the strong nuclear
force to exceed the electromagnetic repulsion. 720 kilometres
7. a. Einstein found that energy and mass are equivalent.
Neither mass nor energy are conserved, but the total of Sample problem 3
mass and energy is conserved. −1 −1
a. 11 m s b. 5 m s north
b. In radioactive decay and nuclear fission and fusion, it is
observed that neither mass nor energy are conserved. Practice problem 3
c. The amounts of energy normally encountered are such a −1 −1
a. 3.5 m s b. 1.2 m s east
small proportion of the object that is radiating them. In
atoms the mass and energies of particles are known so
Sample problem 4
precisely and the energies of interactions so significant
that the effects can be detected. a. 2.5 m s−2 towards the letterbox
b. 5 m s−2 away from the letterbox
8.5 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions c. 4 m s−2 towards the letterbox
d. Braking at the letterbox and accelerating back towards home
1. a. 173.334 717 MeV
from the letterbox.
b. 3.089 62 × 10−28 kg
e. A decreasing speed in the negative direction is a positive
c. 2.776 812 × 10−11 J = 173.315 040 MeV
change in velocity, and hence a positive acceleration.
2. a. 174.007 690 MeV
b. 3.107 62 × 10−28 kg
Practice problem 4
c. 2.792 990 × 10−11 J = 174.324 766 MeV
−2
3. a. i. 17.589 279 MeV a. 15 m s
−1 −1 −2
ii. 3.1353 × 10
−29
kg b. i. 70 km h s ii. 19.4 m s
−12
iii. 2.817 867 × 10 J = 17.587 750 MeV
b. i. 4.032 675 MeV 9.2 Exercise
−30
ii. 7.188 × 10 kg 1. a. Scalar b. Vector c. Scalar
−10
iii. 6.460 252 × 10 J = 4.032 174 MeV d. Vector e. Vector
c. i. 22.372 209 MeV 2. 27.8 m s−1
−29
ii. 3.9879 × 10 kg 3. 5.4 km h
−1
−12
iii. 3.584 146 × 10 J = 22.370 487 MeV 4. a. 88 km h
−1
b. 24 m s
−1
4. Fission is the process in which a large nucleus divides into 5. a.

two smaller nuclei. Fusion is the process where 2 light nuclei Event (m) Average speed (m s −1 )
join to form a single larger nucleus. In both fission and
100 = 9.53 m s−1
fusion, the binding energy per nucleon is higher in the
products than in the starting nuclei. Both fission and fusion 200 = 9.37 m s−1
release energy corresponding to the increase in binding
energy per nucleon. 400 = 8.40 m s−1
5. Responses will vary but should include any two of the
following: 800 = 7.06 m s−1
• Fusion has an abundant fuel source — hydrogen 1500 = 6.52 m s−1
— whereas the fuel for fission is rare — rare isotopes of
uranium and a couple of other elements. 3000 = 6.17 m s−1
• The waste from fission is radioactive. The waste from
fusion is different harmless isotopes of hydrogen and 5000 = 5.87 m s−1
helium.
10 000 = 5.69 m s−1
• Fusion generates more energy per mass of fuel than
fission. b. The acceleration from rest to the maximum speed takes
place over a significant fraction of the time taken for the
100-metre event.
9 Analysing motion c. 1 h 47 min 52 s
d. Only Florence Griffith Joyner. Her event is the only one
9.2 Describing movement that involves straight-line motion.
Sample problem 1 6. a. 800 metres b. 400 metres c. 0 metres
−1 −1
7. a. i. 10 km h ii. 2.8 m s
a. 100 metres north b. 220 metres
b. 12 s
c. 100 metres d. 60 metres south
8. a. 15.00 m s−1
b. 2 h 48 mins
Practice problem 1
c. 1 h 53 mins
a. 16 km b. 5.7 km c. 0 metres d. i. 75.5 km h
−1
ii. 0 km h
−1
522 ANSWERS
9. Approximately 3 hours 37 minutes. 3. a. v
10. 3.3 m s−1
11. 89 km h−1
−1
12. a. i. −40 km h
−1
ii. 40 km h south
−1
b. i. −20 m s
−1
ii. −20 m s in original direction t
−1
c. i. +5 m s
−1
ii. –55 m s in original direction
b.
13. Yes, there is an acceleration. Even though the speed has not
v down
changed, the velocity has changed. The acceleration is
therefore not 0. Terminal
−1 −1
14. For a car that accelerates from rest to 60 km h (17 m s ) velocity
−2
in 5 seconds: a = 3.4 m s
−1
15. vav for a 100-metre sprint in say 10.49 s = 9.5 m s .
−1
Estimate vmax = 12 m s is reached after 2 seconds:
∆v
a=
∆t
12 m s−1
=
2s
Parachute opens t
= 6 m s−2
c. vup
Constant
9.3 Analysing motion graphically gradient
Sample problem 5
Approximately 4.7 seconds.
≈T T t
2
Practice problem 5
a. 30 m b. 28 m 4. (a) x
9.3 Exercise
1. a. B and C t
b. B and C
(b) x
c. A and E
d. A and E
e. C
2. a. A: Constant negative acceleration with an initial positive
velocity
B: Constant positive acceleration from rest
t
C: Constant positive velocity, followed by an interval of
constant negative acceleration until a negative velocity (c) x
equal in magnitude to the initial velocity is reached. The
velocity then remains constant.
b.
A B C
t
x x v 5. a. B b. A, D, E
c. 40 seconds d. 20 metres north
0 e. 260 metres f. D
−1
g. E h. 3.3 m s
−1 −1
0 t 0 i. 6.0 m s south j. 3 m s
6. a. B, D, F
b. +20 m
a v a
c. 0.25 m s−1
d. 30 seconds
0 t 0 0 e. It didn’t.
f. C, G
g. The first half of intervals C, E and G.
ANSWERS 523
h. A negative acceleration doesn’t always decrease the speed 9.4 Exercise
and a positive acceleration doesn’t always increase the 1. 1.8 s
a. b. 5.0 s
speed. A negative acceleration increases the speed if the 2. 2.7 s
a. b. 27 m s
−1
velocity is negative and decreases the speed if the velocity 3. 12 m s−1
a. b. −6 m s
2
is positive. Similarly, a positive acceleration decreases the 4. −8.0 m s
a.
−2
b. 3.5 s
speed if the velocity is negative and increases the speed if The reaction time of the driver needs to be known to
c.
the velocity is positive. determine the distance travelled between the instant
i. 0.20 m s−2 that the branch is seen and the instant that the brakes
j. 0.050 m s−2 are applied. An estimate of 0.2 seconds would be
k. First 10 seconds: The toy robot started from rest and reasonable for the reaction time. At a constant speed of
increased its speed at a constant rate until reaching a 100 km h−1 (27.8 m s−1 ), the car would travel a distance
speed of 1.0 m s−1 after 10 seconds. of 27.8 m s−1 × 0.2 s = 5.6 m. The total distance required
10 s to 20 s: It maintained a constant speed of 1.0 m s−1 . to stop is, therefore, 5.6 m + 48 m = 53.6 m. The car
20 s to 30 s: It slowed down at a constant rate. It was at would not stop in time.
rest for an instant, 30 seconds after starting. 5. The leap would take 0.8 seconds. The leap is not possible.
30 s to 40 s: It increased its speed at the same constant rate 6. 793 metres
as the first interval, but in the opposite direction, to reach 7. a. 32 m s
−1
a maximum speed of 1.0 m s−1 . b. The balls meet 50 metres from the ground.
40 s to 50 s: It maintained a constant speed of 1.0 m s−1 .
50 s to 55 s: It decelerated to rest at a constant rate. 9.5 Review
55 s to 60 s: It increased its speed at a constant rate in the
original direction. The acceleration was twice that of the 9.5 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
first interval. 1. C
60 s to 70 s: It maintained a constant speed of 1.0 m s−1 . 2. A
70 s to 80 s: It decelerated to rest at a constant rate. 3. C
7. a. The acceleration of the jet ski becomes zero first, after 8 4. D
seconds. 5. B
−1 −1
b. i. 21 m s ii. 33 m s 6. A
c. Car 7. C
8. D
30
9. B
10. C
Jet ski 9.5 Exercise 2: Short answer questions

Speed (m s−1)
20
1. 3 m north
2. 185 m s−1
3. 660 m s−2 away from the racket
4. 4 m s−1
10 5. 117.5 m
6. 10 m s−2
7. −3.375 m s−1
8. 2.5 m s−1
9. 458.3 m
0 2 4 6 8 10 10. u = 43.2 km h−1
Time (s) Yes, the driver was travelling faster than the speed limit
when they braked.
9.4 Equations for constant acceleration
Sample problem 6 1.
−1
a. 29 m s b. 44 metres
Practice problem 6
Top speed
a. 6.0 seconds b. 36 metres
x (m)
Sample problem 7
−1 −2 Accelerating
a. 12 m s b. −6 m s Jogging
Practice problem 7
−2 t (s)
a. 18 metres b. −16 m s
524 ANSWERS
2. In this instance, the magnitude of the velocity (the speed) has d.
not changed, but the direction has. Normal
Therefore, there has been a change in velocity, and thus an Friction force, FN
acceleration.
3. a. 8.5 metres
b. Assuming that the baton change starts at the 3-second Force due to
mark and is just inside the interchange area at that point. gravity, Fg
From the calculations for the previous question, Bo starts
7 metres before the interchange, so therefore complies
with the 10-metre maximum rule. Practice problem 2
The exchange happens at a constant speed of 7 m s−1 and a.
takes 2 seconds, so by inspection Alex and Bo will travel Air resistance
14 metres together during the interchange.
Therefore, they also comply with the 20-metre
interchange area rule.
4. 4.23 seconds Force due to gravity, Fg
5. a. 3.2 seconds
−2
b. 2.5 m s
b.
c. 10 seconds
Normal force, FN
d. 80 metres
Friction, Ffr Tension, FT
10 Forces in action
10.2 Forces as vectors
Sample problem 1 c.
a. 490 N downwards b. 80 N downwards
Tension, FT
Practice problem 1
N Magnetic force
a. Force at North Pole = 688 N
Force at equator = 685 N Force due to gravity, Fg
b. Denver
Sample problem 2
Sample problem 3
a.
a. 20 N b. 15 N c. 21.2 N
Normal force, FN
Practice problem 3
89 N

10.2 Exercise
1. Vector quantities have magnitude and direction. Scalar
b.
quantities have magnitude only.
Tension, T 2. Force due to gravity and gravitational field strength
3. a. 13 720 N b. 5040 N c. 1400 kg
4. a. 0.98 N b. 9.8 N c. 784 N
5. a. 588 N b. 216 N c. 60 kg
6. a.
Force due to Force on
gravity, Fg parachute
by air
c.
Normal
force, FN Force on
parachute by
Earth
Friction
Force due to
gravity, Fg
ANSWERS 525
b. 8. Forces on person Ffloor on person
Force on ball by
Earth
c.
FN
Ffr
FEarth on person
Forces on floor Fbuilding supports on floor

Fg
d.
Force on rocket
by exhaust gas
Force on rocket FEarth on floor Fperson on floor

by Earth
7. a. Force on rock
by string Forces on Earth Ffloor on Earth
Force on rock
by string
Fperson on Earth
Force on rock
by Earth
9. a. 3 N east b. 141.4 N east
b. Force on rock 10. a. 346 N east b. 53.6 N east
by surface 11. Normal force
Force on rock
by block
Air resistance Driving
and road friction force
Force on rock
by Earth
c. Force on rock
by string 12. a. 181 N b. 100 N c. 0 N
Force on rock
by air 10.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion
10.3 Exercise
1. For a coin flicked across a table to maintain a constant speed
Force on rock
by Earth
there must be no unbalanced forces on the coin. Though the
vertical forces cancel out, there will always be a horizontal
d. friction force opposing the direction of motion.
Force on These horizontal forces act in the same direction, so there is
block by spring a non-zero net force acting on the coin. According to
Newton’s first law, the net force will cause the motion of the
coin to change, slowing until it comes to a stop.
Force on block
2. The vehicle experiences a non-zero net force that slows it
by Earth
down. No such force acts on you. The net force on you is
zero. Therefore, you continue in your state of constant
velocity.
526 ANSWERS
−2 −1
3. There is an unbalanced force on the bike and so its velocity 5. a. 7500 N b. 6.250 m s c. 31.25 m s d. 78.13 m
6
changes. Your inertia keeps you moving forward as there is 6. 6.944 × 10 N
no unbalanced force to change your motion (apart from 7. 100 N
gravity). 8. a. 700 N b. 557 N c. 840 N
9. 1.8 m s−2
−1 −2
10.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 10. a. 0 m s b. 9.8 m s c. 4.9 N down
Sample problem 4 10.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

9.3 m s−1
Sample problem 8
Practice problem 4 Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
a. 696 N b. 0.8 kg
Sample problem 5
−2
a. 5.2 m s upwards
b. No
Practice problem 5 Fon Jack by Jill
8259 N
Sample problem 6
−2
a. 160 N north b. 3 m s north
c. 80 N south
Practice problem 6
a. 2 m s
−2
b. 320 N Practice problem 8
a.
Sample problem 7
a. −15 N b. 4.5 Fon boy by girl
Practice problem 7
a. 400 N b. 1800 N
10.4 Exercise
1. Idealisations can be made to allow the use of a simple
mathematical model to solve a physical problem. For
example, in order to use simple equations to analyse the
motion of a falling ball, the idealisation can be made that
the air resistance is insignificant and the ball does not spin.
6 7
2. a. 6.6 × 10 N b. 2.8 × 10 N
3. a. Both the bowling ball and gold bar have a very small
air–resistance-to-mass ratio, so they will experience a
very similar acceleration. Therefore, they will fall at the b.
same rate, hitting the ground simultaneously.
b. The air resistance on the doormat is significant when
compared with the force due to gravity acting on it.
Therefore, the net force on the doormat is less than that
of the bowling ball (which has the same mass as the
Fnet
doormat) and the acceleration of the doormat is
m
smaller than that of the bowling ball (and the gold bar).
4. a. 686 N downwards
b. i. The upwards force is greater when the jumper is
accelerating upwards.
ii. The force due to gravity is greater than the upwards
pull when the jumper is accelerating downwards.
c. The tension in the bungee cord must be equal in
magnitude to the force due to gravity acting on the Fon gas by rocket
jumper in order for the speed to be constant.
ANSWERS 527
c. 2. a. Fski on skier
Fair on skier
Frope on skier
FEarth on skier
b. Fsurface on trolley
Fon apple by Earth
Fsurface on trolley
d.
30°
Fgy
Fgx
30°
FEarth on trolley
3. The dinghy
Force Action–reaction pair

Resistance forces Fdinghy on air and water , Fair and water on dinghy
Gravity FEarth on dinghy , Fdinghy on Earth
Fon ball by club Tension Frope on dinghy , Fdinghy on rope
Normal force Fdinghy on water , Fwater on dinghy
The boat
10.5 Exercise
Force Action–reaction pair
1.
Force 1 Pair of force 1
Resistance forces Fboat on air and water , Fair and water on boat
You push on a wall with the The wall pushes on your Gravity FEarth on boat , Fboat on Earth
palm of your hand. palm in the opposite
direction. Tension Fboat on rope , Frope on boat
Normal force Fboat on water , Fwater on boat
Your foot pushes down on a The bicycle pedal pushes
bicycle pedal. up on your foot. Driving force Fboat on water , Fwater on boat
The ground pushes up You push down on the
4. All swimmers move forwards in the water because the water
on your feet while you are ground when you are
pushes them forwards. This is the unbalanced force that
standing. standing.
provides the acceleration during each stroke (Newton’s first
The Earth pulls down on your Your body pulls up on the law). The size of the forward force is equal to, and opposite
body. Earth. in direction to, the force that the swimmer applies to the
water (Newton’s third law). A freestyle stroke pushes water
You push on a broken-down The broken-down car back with a greater force than a breaststroke stroke.
car to try to get it moving. pushes on you in the Therefore, the forward force is greater for a freestyle
opposite direction. swimmer.
5. The student is correct but needs to make it clear that the two
A hammer pushes down on The nail pushes up on the friction forces are not an action–reaction pair. The best way
a nail. hammer. to do this is to identify the two action–reaction pairs
involved. If the car is a front-wheel drive, the friction on
each of the rear tyres is a reaction to the backward push of
the front tyres on the road. The rear tyres are being pulled
forward. So the friction on the rear tyres is a reaction to the
forward push of the rear tyres on the road.
528 ANSWERS
10.6 Forces in two dimensions 3.
Sample problem 9 Normal force, Air resistance, Fon car by air

4058 N Fon car by road Normal force,
Fon car by road
Practice problem 9 Driving force,
Road friction, Fon tyre by road
Fon tyre by road
a. i. 16 759 N ii. 46 045 N
Force due to gravity, Fon car by Earth
b. i. Zero ii. 15 146 N
4. a. Zero b. 392 N c. 402 N d. 679 N
Sample problem 10 5. a. Down the slope.
−1 b. FN
a. 3.6 m s b. 16.2 m
Practice problem 10
Friction
−2
a. 35.2 N
−1
b. 0.35 m s down the slope
c. 4.2 m s
Sample problem 11
−2
a. 2 m s right b. 1800 N
30º
Practice problem 11
−2
Fg = mg
a. 2 m s b. 200 N c. 300 N c. 294 N
d. 286 N
10.6 Exercise
−2
6. 174 N
1. a. Normal force 7. 5.85 m s
8. a. 42 N
b. 19°
Friction
9. a. Traction (friction) on your blades
b. The component of gravity down the slope and the force
of the ground on your poles if you use them
c. The tension in the rope attached to the handle that you
are holding
Force due to d. The traction (friction) as you push back on the ground
gravity
e. The force exerted by the water on your hands, arms, legs
30º
and feet as you push back with your hands and kick
b. The direction of the net force on the ball is down the f. The force exerted by the water on the oar as the oar
hill (parallel to the hill) since the ball is speeding up pushes back on the water
as it rolls down the hill. 10. The driving force, the forward force applied to the tyres by
c. Force due to gravity. the road, is a reaction to the force applied backwards to the
d. The ball slows to a stop because of the effect of the road by the tyres. The size of the driving force is, therefore,
friction acting on the ball. On a horizontal surface, the controlled by the driver’s use of the accelerator. The driving
normal reaction is equal in magnitude to the force due to force acts on the front wheels of a front-wheel-drive
gravity, so the friction force is the net force, which vehicle, whereas it acts only on the rear wheels of a
causes the ball to decelerate. rear-wheel-drive car. The front wheels of a rear-wheel-drive
Normal force car are pushed forward as a result of the driving force on
the rear wheels. So the force applied to the front wheels
Direction cannot be controlled directly by the driver.
of motion
11. a. A sample spreadsheet is shown here.
Friction A B C D E
1 Speed Driving Friction Force due to air Net force (N)
(km h–1) force (N) (N) resistance (N)
2 20 1800 –300 –240 1260
3 25 1800 –300 –375 1125
Force due to gravity 4 30 1800 –300 –540 960
2. When you attempt to push the car you are unable to provide 5 35 1800 –300 –735 765
enough force to overcome the friction between the
6 40 1800 –300 –960 540
stationary tyres (which cannot rotate due to the hand brake
being on) and the road. This friction balances out your 7 45 1800 –300 –1215 285
push, so the net force remains zero. 8 50 1800 –300 –1500 0
ANSWERS 529
b. 1400 10.7 Momentum and impulse
1200 Sample problem 12
Net force (N)
1000
1.2 × 108 kg m s−1 north
800
Practice problem 12
−1 −1
600 a. 18 000 kg m s east b. 25 200 kg m s east
400
Sample problem 13
200 −1 −1
a. 0.81 kg m s b. 0.81 N s c. 540 N
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Speed
Practice problem 13
−1
a. 28 000 kg m s
c. −1
A B C D E b. 28 000 kg m s
1 Speed Driving Friction Force due to air Net force (N) c. 20 000 N
(km h–1) force (N) (N) resistance (N)
2 20 1800 –300 –240 3302.124
Sample problem 14
3 25 1800 –300 –375 3167.124
490 N
4 30 1800 –300 –540 3002.124
12.25 m s−1
5 35 1800 –300 –735 2807.124
6 40 1800 –300 –960 2582.124
Practice problem 14
7 45 1800 –300 –1215 2327.124
−1 −2
a. 5.5 m s b. 5.0 m s c. 245 N
8 50 1800 –300 –1500 2042.124
3500
10.7 Exercise
3000 −1
1. 23 kg m s east
3
2. a. 3.5 × 10 N b. 784 N
Net force (N)
2500
−1 4 −1
c. 800 kg m s d. 1.3 × 10 kg m s
2000 −1
e. 560 kg m s f. 2 N s
−1
1500 g. 3 kg m s
−1
3. a. 0.84 kg m s up
−1
1000 b. 0.84 kg m s down
c. No. The ground does not move a measurable amount.
500
The impulse applied to the ground is 0.84 kg m s−1 but
0 the mass of the Earth is so large that the change in
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
velocity is negligible.
Speed 2
−2 d. 4.2 × 10 N up
12. 0.9 m s
e. 4.2 × 102 N up
13. The friction on the rear wheels is the driving force, which
4. a. 240 N s up
pushes the bicycle forward. The friction on the front wheel
b. 3.1 × 103 N up
opposes the motion of the bicycle. When the driving force
c. 0.52 metres
is greater than the friction on the front wheel, the bicycle
5. a. 2.3 × 104 N s
will accelerate. 5
−2 −2 b. 2.9 × 10 N opposite to initial direction of motion
14. a. 2.0 m s b. 6.0 N c. 8.0 N d. 3.5 m s −2
c. 2.1 × 102 m s
15.
6. The airbags allow the change in momentum (impulse) of the
driver’s head to take place over a longer time interval than
would be the case if it collided directly with the steering
wheel. The average net force on (and the magnitude of the
P
R12 40 kg acceleration of) the driver’s head is therefore less.
30 kg 7. The change in momentum (impulse) on the legs takes place
R21
over a longer interval, reducing the force exerted by the
Fricticon
ground on the knee joint and muscles, tendons and
R12 = Force exerted by 30 kg crate on 40 kg crate ligaments in the leg.
R21 = Force exerted by 40 kg crate on 30 kg crate 8. a. 220 N s
−1
a. 4.0 m s−2 to the right b. 3.7 m s
b. 160 N to the right c. heavier
c. 240 N to the left
d. 240 N to the right
e. 4.0 m s−2 to the right. It is no easier.
530 ANSWERS
d. The graph describing the force on the occupant with the Sample problem 17
seatbelt shows that the force is applied immediately and R1 = 637 N and R2 = 343 N.
is applied for a relatively large amount of time compared
with the force applied to the occupant without the
seatbelt. The occupant without the seatbelt experiences Practice problem 17
no immediate force as she or he continues to move a. 7500 N
forward at the same speed as the car was moving before b. i. 800 N ii. 8300 N
impact. The force applied to this occupant increases
rapidly to a magnitude greater than the force applied to
10.9 Exercise
the occupant with the seatbelt. The multiple peaks in
force on the second occupant can be explained by 1. a. The reaction from the left abutment decreases and the
multiple impacts with the dashboard or other parts of reaction from the right abutment increases.
the car. b. 2.4 tonne
9. a. 95 N s upwards 2. a. The wall resists the loads from the balcony and the person
b. 0.58 m s
−1 with an upwards force and an anticlockwise torque.
c. 950 N up b. As the person moves towards the wall, the total reaction
d. The normal force is present as the basketballer is remains constant. However, the torque on the wall
initially pushing down on the floor with a force equal to decreases.
the basketballer’s weight. 3. 36 tonnes
10. Bouncing off during collision results in a greater change in 4. RR = 1833 N
momentum of the cars in a similar or smaller time interval. RL = 1767 N
The rate of change in momentum of the cars and the 5. 1.6 m
resulting net force on the passengers, would therefore be
greater (F∆t = m∆v). In low-speed collisions with small 10.10 Review
vehicles (such as dodgem cars), this is not a problem.
However, in real cars at typical road speeds, more injuries 10.10 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
would occur. 1. B
2. A and D
10.8 Torque 3. D
4. C
Sample problem 15
5. B
100 N 6. A
7. D
Practice problem 15 8. B
30 N m 9. C
10. C
10.8 Exercise
1. a. 50 N m 10.10 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
b. Increase the force that they are applying. 1. Gravity: the force due to gravity of the Earth on the object
Increase the distance from the nut that they are applying Air resistance: the force of the air on the object; opposite
the force at. direction to the motion
2. 80 N 2.
3. Solution will depend on chosen example and estimates made.
Calculate using 𝜏 = r⊥ F with estimated quantities in Normal force,
Air resistance, Fon car by air
appropriate units (m and N). For example, turning a steering Fon car by road Normal force,
Fon car by road
wheel in a car might require a force of 15 N acting over a
Road friction, Fon tyre by road
distance of 0.2 metres. Driving force,
4. As Sam moves beyond the left of the fulcrum, the seesaw Fon tyre by road
will rotate anticlockwise. This will happen when the torque Force due to gravity, Fon car by Earth
from Sam about the fulcrum is larger than the torque of the 3. Horizontal component = 21.7 N
bag. Vertical component = 12.5 N
4. Magnitude of 336 N; acts in the direction 115.7° true
10.9 Equilibrium 5. 15 792 N
6. 1.4 × 106 kg
Sample problem 16 −1
7. a. 3.9 m s b. 4018 N
1.5 metres −1
8. a. 1.8 m s b. 85 N
−1
9. a. −25.6 kg m s b. −2793 N
Practice problem 16 10. 180 N s
38 kg
ANSWERS 531
−1
10.10 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 5. a. 15 m s
b. 10 500 N s in the initial direction of motion
1. For two forces to be a Newton’s third law pair, they must be
c. 420 N s opposite to the initial direction of motion
equal and opposite in magnitude and act on different objects,
d. 105 000 N in the initial direction of motion
such that Fon A by B = –Fon B by A .
6. The two forces act on different objects. Forces are what
In the given scenario, while the forces are equal and
opposite, they are both acting on the book. objects do, rather than something that objects have, so force
The normal force is the force of the table on the book. The cannot be conserved.
pair of this is the force of the book on the table.
The force due to gravity is the force of the Earth on the book. 11.3 Work and energy
The pair of this is the force of the book on the Earth. Sample problem 2
2. 38 N
a. 750 J b. 150 J c. 600 J
3. 0.64 m s−2
4. −261 250 N
5. 335 527.5 N
Practice problem 2
a. 600 J b. 120 J
11 Energy and motion Sample problem 3

11.2 Impulse and momentum in collisions 300 J
−1
a. 1 m s to the right
−1 3.75 J
b. ∆pA = 15 kg m s to the left
∆pB = 15 kg m s−1 to the right 11.3 Exercise
−1
c. 15 kg m s to the left 1. 4000 J
−1
d. 3.5 m s to the right 2. 60 J
3. None
Practice problem 1 4. a. Zero
a. 15 kg m s−1 east b. Zero
b. 1.5 m s−1 east
c. 2.5 kg m s−1 west 11.4 Energy transfers
d. 2.5 kg m s−1 east
Sample problem 4
e. 2.5 kg m s−1
f. The impulses on the two cars are equal in magnitude, but 62 times
opposite in direction.
Practice problem 4
11.2 Exercise a. 64 000 J
−8
1. By releasing a high-pressure propellant, the astronaut gains b. i. 1000 J ii. 2 × 10 J
momentum in one direction while the propellant gains the
same amount of momentum in the opposite direction. The Sample problem 5
total change in momentum of the astronaut and the contents 3.2 m s−1
of their backpack is zero.
−1
2. a. 0.3 m s Practice problem 5
−1
b. 0.6 m s
2 m s−1
3. a. 40 kg
b. 60 N s
Sample problem 6
c. 60 N s
d. Zero. As there is no external net force acting on the 2.5 J
system of the two girls, momentum is conserved.
e. If they pushed each other harder they would have greater Practice problem 6
speeds but still in the same ratio as before. The total a. 0.40 J b. 1.6 J
momentum would remain zero as there are no external
horizontal forces acting on the girls. Sample problem 7
−1
4. a. 1.7 m s
a. 5.0 N b. 0.25 J c. 0.25 J
b. −120 N s
−1
c. 120 kg m s
−1 Practice problem 7
d. 120 kg m s
e. They would have different speeds but the total momentum a. i. 12 N ii. 7.5 J iii. 1.2 kg
would be conserved as there are no external horizontal b. 80 N m
forces acting on the boys.
−1
f. 0.92 m s
532 ANSWERS
Sample problem 8 14.
−1
C
5.4 m s B
A
Practice problem 8
−1
a. 0.4 J b. 1 m s
11.4 Exercise
1. Work = Fs
Unit = N m
D
Water
but 1 N = 1 kg m s−2
⇒ Unit = kg m s−2 × m
E
= kg m2 s−2
The energy transformations include the following.
A–B: Chemical energy is transformed into strain potential
Kinetic energy = mv2

1 energy of muscles, tendons and ligaments.
B–C: Kinetic energy and some gravitational potential
Unit = kg (m s−1 )2
2
energy are transformed into strain potential energy of
= kg m2 s−2
the springboard until the springboard reaches its
maximum deflection.
C–D: Gravitational potential energy of the diver is
2. a. 100 000 J b. 23 J
transformed into kinetic energy until the diver strikes
3. 90 J the water.
4. a. 1715 J b. 588 J c. 510 J D–E: Kinetic energy of the diver is transferred to the water
5. a. 196 J (as kinetic energy) and eventually transformed into
b. 196 J thermal energy of the water particles.
c. 196 J 15. a. The energy transformations can be displayed with a
d. It is better to use the ramp. Although the amount of work graph of energy versus time or energy versus position, as
needed to move the crate is the same, the force that follows.
needs to be applied to the crate is less if the ramp is used. Kinetic energy
6. So that as little of their kinetic energy as possible is Gravitational potential energy
transferred to gravitational potential energy. Subsequently, Energy input from rider
a greater proportion of their kinetic energy is available to
cover the horizontal distance as fast as possible.
7. a. Spring X: 40 N
Spring Y: 20 N
b. Spring X: 4.0 J
Spring Y: 2.0 J
−1
a. 235 J
−1
8. b. 20 m s A B C D E F G
−1
9. a. 32 400 J b. 20 m s c. 27 metres
As the rider moves down and up the slope, gravitational
3.2 m s−1
10. a. 900 000 J b. 360 000 J c. 30 m s
potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and
11.
back again to gravitational kinetic energy. However, the
12. a. The force applied by the spring is proportional to its
total mechanical energy is not quite conserved and the
−1
compression. rider needs to provide some additional energy ‘input’ to
b. 18 750 N m
reach the top of the slope and point C. Further energy
c. 60 J
input is needed from the rider in order to gain the
d. 60 J
gravitational potential energy required at point D.
e. 0.2 m
Gravitational potential energy is then transformed into
13. As the child falls through the air from maximum height,
kinetic energy as the rider returns to point F and
gravitational potential energy is transformed into kinetic transformed into gravitational potential energy at
energy. point G. At points A, D and G, the rider’s kinetic energy
After the child touches the trampoline after falling through is zero.
the air, kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy are b. The rider therefore needs to make little effort to remain
transformed into strain potential energy until the trampoline in contact with the skateboard. There is some skill
is at maximum extension. involved in ensuring that the frictional forces made
After maximum extension, strain potential energy is possible by the contact are used to turn the skateboard so
transformed into gravitational potential energy and kinetic that it lands on the ramp before the feet or any other part
energy until contact is lost with the trampoline. of the rider’s body.
After contact is lost, kinetic energy is transformed into
gravitational potential energy until maximum height is 11.5 Efficiency and power
achieved.
Sample problem 9
80%
ANSWERS 533
Practice problem 9 11.6 Review
0.82 m 11.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
1. A
Sample problem 10
2. C
a. 118 W b. 500 W 3. B
4. B
Practice problem 10 5. D
a. 1.5 m 6. B
b. 600 W 7. A
8. D
11.5 Exercise 9. B
10. C
1. a. 3.1 J b. 1.0 J c. 0.64 m
2. a. 241 000 N
−2 11.6 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
b. 161 m s
−1
c. 965 m s
−2 1. a. −2.7 kg m s b. −54 N
−1
d. The kinetic energy of the car is transformed into 2. −22 m s
potential energy of the materials in the crumple zone, 3. 32 J
which undergo a permanent change in shape. This leaves 4. 1.35 × 109 J
a smaller amount of kinetic energy to be transferred to 5. a. 10.8 N b. 1.1 kg c. 0.65
the passengers. 6. 130 000 J
−1
e. One could argue that a large car is safer. For a given 7. a. 720.3 J b. 58.6 m s
force applied by an obstacle or another vehicle, the 8. 32 m s−1
deceleration of a large car is less than that of a small car. 9. a. EK before = 48 J b. 19%
Therefore, the deceleration of the occupants inside is Ek after = 9.0 J
less. For example, consider a car of mass 1500 kg 10. 34 500 W
coming to rest from 20 m s−1 when a concrete wall
applies a force of 48 000 N to the car. 11.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions
The deceleration of an occupant with a correctly fitted
seatbelt would be 40 m s−2 . Without seatbelts, an 1. Total energy is conserved, however, not all of the
occupant would strike the interior of a larger car with a gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic
smaller relative speed. energy.
3. a. 1920 J The most likely cause for the discrepancy is the work done
b. 5 N on the object by friction acting to oppose its motion down
c. 3600 J the ramp. This will decrease the amount of gravitational
d. 8500 J potential energy that is transformed into kinetic energy.
−1
e. Some of the gravitational potential energy is transformed 2. a. 6.4 m s
into thermal energy and sound, due to the frictional force b. −559 kN
and air resistance. 3. The student is not doing any work on the tray during the
4. a. 2079 J b. 0.15 m motion described.
5. Speed and momentum before impact, speed and momentum For work to be done there must be a force applied and a
after impact, change in momentum on impact, average displacement in the direction of that force. In this instance
force during impact, loss of gravitational potential energy the student would be exerting an upwards force on the tray to
on falling, gain in kinetic energy on falling, gain of balance the downwards force due to gravity on the tray. This
gravitational potential energy on rebounding, loss of kinetic is perpendicular to the horizontal motion of the tray.
energy on rebounding, percentage of energy lost. 4. 21.2 kW
6. 50% 5. 19 m s−1
7. As human muscle has an efficiency of 20% the total work
12 What are stars?
done is: 392 W
13 Is there life beyond Earth’s solar system?
8. 400 610 N
9. 22 375 W 14 How do forces act on the human body?
10. 49 W 15 How can AC electricity charge a DC device?
11. a. 3200 J 16 How do heavy things fly?
b. 1100 W 17 How do fusion and fission compare as viable nuclear energy
c. None power sources?
12. 14 400 W 18 How is radiation used to maintain human health?

13. 35 W 19 How do particle accelerators work?
−1
14. a. 4.6 m s 20 How can human vision be enhanced?
b. 1691 W 21 How do instruments make music?
22 How can performance in ball sports be improved?
23 How does the human body use electricity?
534 ANSWERS
24 Practical investigations c. Some dependent variables include how many pins get
knocked down, the final score of the game, how many
24.2 Key science skills in Physics
strikes an individual gets or the speed in which a pin is hit.
Sample problem 1
4.
Research question: Does the type of salt added to water affect
the time it takes for water to boil? Independent Dependent
Aim: To determine if different types of salt affect the time it variables variables
takes for water to boil
NUMERICAL CATEGORICAL
Hypothesis: If table salt, sea salt, Himalayan salt or chicken
salt is added to water, then the time taken for the water to boil (a) • Size of the • Type of • Time to
will decrease. Performance of parachute material used reach
a parachute • Angle of the • Shape of the
Practice problem 1 parachute parachute ground
Research question (example): Does the type of material of • Height from • Conditions in • Speed
clothing affect the speed in which a person will roll down a hill? which the which the • Force of
Aim (example): To determine if different clothing materials parachute is parachute is impact
have an impact on the speed a person rolls down a hill dropped dropped (i.e. on the
Hypothesis (example): If an individual wears a smooth fabric • Speed of the rainy, windy, ground
such as silk, they will have a faster speed when rolling down a wind indoors)
hill compared to a rougher fabric (such as wool).
(b) • Angle of the • Type of ball • Time to
24.2 Exercise
Movement of a slope • Surface of the reach
ball down a hill • Size of the hill the
1. a. How much of a difference does placing water in an ball bottom
insulated thermos have on the drop in temperature? • Speed
b. What is the difference in brightness between globes in of ball
series and parallel circuits?
c. Does being placed in a vacuum affect the speed in which a (c) • Temperature • Shape of ice • Time to
ping pong ball falls to the ground? Ice cube melting • Size of ice cube melt
2. A logbook is important as it shows evidence of each step of cube • Solution that • Volume
an investigation, allowing work to be validated as your own. ice cube is of ice
It shows the different components of scientific approach and made of cube
contains all results obtained in your practical. • Rate of
3. B melting
4. • Decide on a topic.
• Formulate a question.
• Create an aim and hypothesis. 24.4 Concepts specific to investigations, key
• Select equipment. terms and representations
• Create a clear and reproducible method that will
produce precise, accurate, valid and reliable results. Sample problem 2
• Complete a risk assessment. a. 1.496 × 10 km
8
b. 1.67 × 10
–24 g
• Submit a practical proposal to your teacher.
5. a. To investigate how the shape of a parachute affects the Practice problem 2
time it remains floating in the air 5 6 −18
a. 2.82 × 10 km b. 1.234 × 10 m c. 3 × 10 s
b. If circular, square and triangular parachutes are dropped
from a similar height, the circular parachute will take the
longest to hit the ground due to a larger surface area and
24.4 Exercise
increased air resistance. 1. Within a report and included as part of a sentence or in a
glossary at the end, with the key words bolded throughout
24.3 Variables and defined later.
2. Representations are useful in scientific reporting as they
24.3 Exercise allow us to show complex and abstract concepts in an easy to
1. The dependent variable is measured by the investigator and is understand form, enhancing the clarity in scientific
influenced by the independent variable. The independent communication.
variable is manipulated and changed by the investigator. 3.
+ –
2. It is important to control variables to make sure that the
dependent variables measured are only influenced by the
independent variable and not influenced by other factors.
3. a. Independent, as they are being manipulated and changed V
by Belinda and Paul.
b. i. Numerical ii. Categorical iii. Numerical
iv. Categorical v. Categorical vi. Numerical
ANSWERS 535
9
4. a. 7.5 × 10 6. Precision is a measure of how close various measurements
12
b. 9.46 × 10 are to each other. For example, you record the room
−6
c. 7.8 × 10 temperature three times with a thermometer and get 20.1 °C,
5. A + B → C 20.3 °C and 20.2 °C, therefore, these results are fairly
precise. Accuracy on the other hand, is how close to the
A B
expected and known quantity a result is. For example, if the
C room temperature is known to be 23.5 °C, 23.4 °C would be
accurate but 20.1 °C would not be.
24.5 Scientific research methodologies and 7. A strength of quantitative data is it provides a clearer
techniques understanding of trends and patterns in results. A weakness is

in that it can be harder and more time consuming to collect.
Sample problem 3 A strength of qualitative data is that it is often easy and quick
a. Student 2 to collect. A weakness is that it can be subjective.
b. Student 1 8. Primary data is going from the initial source, often through
c. Using the results from parts (a) and (b) it can be seen that direct investigation, which allows for patterns to be observed
Student 3 had the most accurate data and Student 2 had the more clearly without the impact of another source.
most precise data. Secondary data has often been interpreted, evaluating and
The student who had the most precise data was not the same analysed, so sometimes the message is misinterpreted and
student who had the most accurate data. Students may have may not be specific to the investigation being conducted.
measurements very close together (precise), but they may not
be accurate. Data may also be accurate without being precise; 24.6 Health and safety guidelines
you can be close to the target but with inconsistent readings. 24.6 Exercise
1. a. The contents of batteries are corrosive so it’s important to
Practice problem 3
be careful in case of leakage. Battery can heat up easily,
a. Student 1 which can lead to rupture of case.
b. Student 1 b. Light globes can reach high temperatures, which may lead
c. The student with the most precise data was student 2 and the to burns. Light globes are made of glass, so may break or
student with the most accurate data was also student 2. chip leading to lacerations.
c. Bunsen burners are sources of ignition. The blue roaring
24.5 Exercise flame is extremely hot and difficult to see and can lead to
1. Reliability is linked with the repeatability and reproducibility burns. Damage to the bases, jet and tubes can cause flames
of an investigation and whether or not someone could follow and increased temperatures, which may also lead to burns.
the same protocol and get similar results. It relies on results d. Beakers, being made of glass, can break or chip, leading
being accurate and precise and can be affected by errors. to possible cuts or lacerations.
Validity, however, is more about if the credibility of data and e. Thermometers are made of glass and can break leading to
if it shows what it was intended to. This is often more cuts. Some thermometers contain mercury, which is toxic.
affected by bias and variables not being correctly controlled. 2. Ethics may be important when confidentiality is involved. If
2. Yes. An experiment needs to be replicated in order to be seen an individual is conducting an opinion survey, it is important
as reliable. they have all relevant information and their personal
3. Results would not be considered reliable if repetitions of an information is kept private. It can also relate to personal
investigation lead to vastly different answers. An experiment beliefs, particularly if concepts go against the participant’s
would also not be considered reliable if the method is not own ideas and ethics.
clear enough that an individual cannot replicate the process 3. Purposes of a risk assessment include:
and achieve similar results. • identifying hazards with equipment or chemicals
4. Examples of procedures that could affect the internal validity • suggesting standard handling procedures
of an experiment include: • outlining the correct disposal of chemicals
• not correctly testing the variable outlined in the • outlining any first aid that may be required
hypothesis • providing information for the practical, including the
• misinterpreting measurements location, time and date.
• not controlling variables correctly. 4. Other things that could be added to a risk assessment may
5. Reliability can be affected by the validity of an experiment. include information about devices used such as specific
An experiment might be invalid as the technique used did not voltages, further information about allergies, contacts to
control variables properly and not reliable as others would emergency hotlines and clear information about how many
get very different results due to other factors influencing the students will be in each group and at each bench.
dependent variable. Similarly, a valid experiment that 5. In any plan drawn, students should show the emergency gas
accurately addresses the variables and controls factors will and electricity shut-offs, the location of fire blankets and
also be reliable, as others would get the same results. extinguishers, the exits, windows, location of safety glasses,
However, a method can be reliable (get the same results lab coats and gloves, and the location of the fume cupboard,
every time) but not address the hypothesis and the question, taps, eyewash and emergency shower. Other safety features
meaning it is not valid. may include the location of locked cupboards, the location of
cleaning equipment (including spill kits) and the location
where broken glass should be disposed.
536 ANSWERS
24.7 Methods of organising, analysing and 7. a. 60 W b. 40 W c. 180 W d. 20 W
evaluating primary data
24.8 Models and theories to understand
Sample problem 4 observed phenomena
a. 128.93 ± 0.005 g
b. 47 ± 0.25 °C
24.8 Exercise
1. Models can be useful as they:
Practice problem 4 • allow us to visualise objects and concepts we can’t see
a. 0.12 ± 0.005 g
(i.e. atoms)
b. 0.195 ± 0.0005 g • make abstract concepts tangible
• provide explanatory frameworks for a variety of
24.7 Exercise chemical concepts, allowing for more in-depth
concepts to be explored.
1. A random error is chance variation in measurements and 2. Some limitations of models include:
usually affects the precision of data and can be improved by
repeating an experiment. A systematic error usually affects
• an oversimplification of complex situations, as models
cannot show every detail
the accuracy of an experiment and is often due to equipment
errors and therefore cannot be improved by repeating the
• a misrepresentation of the concept in the real world
when conditions are not carefully controlled
experiment using the same equipment.
Examples of random errors are not lining up a ruler correctly
• the ever-changing nature of models and research means
that models aren’t definite.
with the edge of an object being measured. Examples of 3. A model is a representation of a phenomena, whereas a
systematic errors are a faulty scale that has been incorrectly theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomena.
calibrated. 4. Theories allow us to understand phenomena as they are
2. You can minimise uncertainty by taking multiple results and based on investigations and observations, provid us with a
averaging them out or by using more precise equipment. structured idea that can be applied to different concepts. For
3. a. A line graph would be most appropriate as a variable example, theories around relativity and motion have allowed
(height of rocket) is being observed over time. us to better gain an understanding of astronomy.
b. A bar graph would be most appropriate, as one variable is
qualitative (brand of car) and the other is quantitative 24.9 Nature of evidence and key findings of
(volume of airbag). investigations
c. A line graph would be most appropriate as both variables
(pH and temperature) are quantitative and a line graph 24.9 Exercise
would allow for trends to be seen. However, a scatterplot 1. Hypotheses are supported based on the evidence we have at
with a line of best fit may also be appropriate. the time and how this is interpreted. However, the nature of
d. A histogram would be most appropriate as frequency and evidence is that new knowledge may become available,
intervals are being used in the data. which may affect the outcome we obtain. Therefore, we
4. Height of candle over time cannot definitively prove a hypothesis, but rather support it
35
with what we have at that point in time.
30 2. Three examples of strong evidence are quantitative data that
was obtained when investigating a single variable, data that
Height of candle (cm)
25 was not influenced by bias and data that has been obtained
through a reliable method and repeated and obtained by
20 other investigators.
3. Key findings communicated in your discussion should
15 include information about trends and patterns in your data,
the relationship to chemical concepts and theory and a clear
10 answer to the question of your investigation.
4. It is important to link results to concepts to show the
5 information is how theory can be used to show and support
phenomena observed in a practical investigation.
0 5 10 15 20 25
24.10 Conventions of scientific report writing
Time (mins)
It can be seen that as time passes, the height of the candle and scientific poster
decreases, showing a negative correlation. On average, it Sample problem 5
decreases by around 4 centimetres per minute, except
a. 12 412 µL
between 0 and 5 minutes and between 10 and 15 minutes,
b. 261.53 dg
where the rate of size reduction is slower.
c. 8 700 000 000 nm
5. An outlier should be mentioned and discussed, with an
outline of possible reasons. However, it usually is excluded
Practice problem 5
when calculating averages or trying to add a line of best fit.
6. a. 9.6 ± 0.25 cm b. 8.5 ± 0.125 cm a. 0.7823 kg
c. 11.9 ± 0.005 cm b. 213 000 000 pL
ANSWERS 537
Sample problem 6 c. A control group does not have the independent variable
0.87 g mL −1 applied to it and is a point of comparison, whereas, the

experimental groups have been affected by the
Practice problem 6 independent variable.
d. Primary sources of data are from the initial source of data
0.463 g L−1 collection, often through direct investigation. Secondary
data is a summary of analysed primary data.
24.10 Exercise e. Uncertainty involves a limit to the precision of a piece of
1. a. 2.487 A b. 871 m c. 0.000 684 s equipment (i.e. is a measurement on a ruler 0.011,
2. a. 6 520 000 mV b. 487.234 ms 0.012 cm). It cannot be improved by repeating an
3. a. The introduction is used to summarise key background investigation. An error relates to factors affecting the
concepts, explain any other research that has been done in accuracy of the experiment and how close results are to
this field, outline key terms, explain the purpose of your their true value. These can be improved by repeating an
investigation (and why you choose the question) and to investigation.
outline the hypothesis being explored. 3. a. 4
b. The discussion is used to outline any trends and patterns b. 1.43 × 10−2
in your data, describe any outliers and how they were 4. a. To determine how the temperature of the hot plate and size
treated, evaluate your results and link them to theory, of a water droplets affects how long the water stays on the
discuss any errors, uncertainties and limitations, describe hot plate.
the precision, accuracy, reliability and validity of your b. The independent variables are size of droplet (numerical:
investigation and suggest improvements and future discrete, as it was based on the number of drops) and
investigations. temperature setting (numerical: discrete, as it was set to a
c. The conclusion acts to sum up your investigation, provide specific setting). The dependent variable is the time the
a clear answer to your question and link back to your aim drop lasted (numerical: continuous, as it can be any value
and your hypothesis. above 0 seconds).
4. In-text: (O’Keeffe et al., 2020) c. It can be seen that the larger the size of the water droplets,
Reference list: O’Keeffe, D, Lofts, G, Pentland, P, Phillips, the longer the drop will last. In regards to hot plate
R, Coyle, J & Rosenbrock, M (2020). Jacaranda Physics 1. temperature, the higher the temperature setting, the shorter
4th edition. Milton: John Wiley & Sons the time the droplet will last.
5. a. 5 b. 4 c. 4 d. 6 d. Chris tested too many variables and did not show how he
2 controlled variables. He also chose a method of selecting
6. a. 11.1 m b. 130 m
water droplet size as number of droplets, which means
24.11 Review things such as the shape and diameter of the droplet were
not well controlled.
24.11 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions e. Another independent variable might be different types of
1. A water (tap water versus bottled), water with different
2. B initial temperatures and water with different surface areas.
3. C f. Using a ruler to estimate the size would be appropriate in
4. D this case.
5. A 5. a.
6. C Effect of temperature on speed of sound
7. D 365
8. A
360
9. D
Speed of sound (m s−1)
10. C 355
350
345
1. a. You could record the voltage, the current or the resistance.
b. You would use a voltmeter, ammeter or multimeter. 340
c. You could observe the brightness of globes in a circuit or
335
connect to a motor to see if it can be rotated by the
voltage supplied. 330
d. Observations would be visual; you would use instruments
0
such as globes or motors to observe. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2. a. Independent variables are manipulated by the investigator.
Temperature (°C)
Dependent variables are measured and are the result of
changes to the independent variable. b. As temperature increases, the speed of sound also
b. Qualitative data is categorical data (i.e. eye colour, type of increases. It appears that the rate of increase is most rapid
metal), whereas quantitative data is numerical (i.e. between 20 °C and 30 °C.
distance, voltage). c. Increasing temperature causes an increase in the speed of
sound.
538 ANSWERS
24.11 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 3. a.
The relationship between voltage and current in a light globe
1. a. The dependent variable in this investigation is the time it
took the movement of the balls in the Newton’s Cradle to 12
stop.
b. Any two of the following: 10
• the height the balls were pulled back and released
from 8
Voltage (v)
• the length of the string
• the material the balls are made from 6
• the force in which the ball is released
• environmental conditions (for example, don’t 4
conduct one test outside in a windy location and the
other inside). 2
c. Measuring equipment that should be used in this
experiment are the a ruler (to measure the balls) and a 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
stopwatch.
Current (A)
Some factors that may affect the accuracy of the results,
b. Some trends shown in the data include:
using this piece of equipment, include:
• not using the ruler correctly on the curved surface •
There was a positive correlation (upwards trend), in
which the voltage increases as current increases.
• inaccuracy with reaction recorded time • Data was all very close to the line of best fit, but the
• different interpretation of when the balls have voltage at 0.5 A was slightly lower than expected and
stopped
at 0.7 A and 0.3 A was slightly higher than expected,
• different precision on rulers. however, they were well within the margins of the
d. An example of a method is:
error bars.
i. Collect five small metal balls with a diameter of
c. The gradient of the line of best fit is:
2 centimetres.
rise
ii. Set up a frame to hang the balls from using two large Gradient =
run
sturdy metal loops attached to a base.
y2 − y1
iii. Cut five pieces of string of 30 centimetres. =
iv. Fold the string in half and attach the metal ball at the x2 − x1
fold between the string. Attach each end of the string =
6.5−4.8
0.6−0.5
to each side of the frame, ensuring that there is equal
spacing between each ball. =
1.7
0.1
v. Pull the ball from the furthest end back 5 centimetres
and release, beginning the timer. = 17
vi. Record how long it takes for the movement to stop. 4. a. Errors that may have occurred includes:
vii. Repeat this two times and take an average.
viii. Repeat steps (i) to (vii) using balls of 4 cm, 6 cm and
•
systematic errors such as an incorrectly calibrated
scale, stopwatch or a ruler that was inaccurate
8 cm diameter. (markings not correct)
To investigate how the current in a circuit is affected by
2. a.
the length of a resistor
• random errors such as the mass being incorrectly
recorded (or the scales not being set to 0 before use),
b. Student responses will vary; one example of a hypothesis the speed relying on reaction times and different
is: If the length of a resistor in a circuit is increased, then interpretations of the point just before and just after
the current will decrease, due to the increased resistance. the collision.
c. Qualitative data could be if the current increases or A way to avoid the error may include:
decreases. It might also be that another device (e.g. a light
globe) placed in the circuit provides qualitative data
• faulty scales. Make sure all scales have been
calibrated or record the mass using three different
through the brightness of the globe. Quantitative data will scales and get an average.
be the current that is recorded on the ammeter.
d. Factors that may lead to different results by students
• faulty stopwatches. Make sure all stopwatches have
been calibrated and repeat the experiment multiple
include: times.
• differences in the use of the ammeter (one student b. 70.3 g cm s
−1
may use the smaller scale and one may use the larger c. According to the Law of Conservation of Momentum,
scale) the momentum before the collision should equal the
• differences in the material of the resistor momentum after the collision, so to be accurate, the data
• differences in how the circuit is set up should show this. Joe had a ‘before’ momentum
• differences in the power supply provided. of 150.6 g cm s−1 and an ‘after’ momentum of 72.24 g
cm s−1 , which has a significant difference, whereas Paul’s
‘before’ momentum was 70.2 g cm s−1 and ‘after’
momentum of 70.3 g cm s−1 , showing much more
accurate results.
−1
d. 0.000 3514 kg m s
ANSWERS 539
5. a. The student hasn’t shown the dependent variable in their • the inability to completely control room temperature
hypothesis, so it is not testable. An improved hypothesis • the lack of accuracy in the recorded results
might be: • the source of the boiling water not being consistent
If aluminium foil, paper and wool are used as an as it was done over multiple days
insulating material on water, then aluminium foil will • the lack of repetition in the method
cause the temperature of the water show the smallest • the starting temperature of the water was not
decrease, as it is the best insulating material. consistent.
b. The experiment conducted over three days leads to a loss e. Line graph with the three types of variables superimposed
of some controlled variables. This means that it is not a on the same graph
fair test, and other factors could have resulted in the f. It was found that aluminium provides the greatest
change of temperature of the water. insulation for boiling water, leading to the slowest
c. The tolerance of a device is half the smallest measurement decrease in temperature (25 °C drop over 25 minutes).
(0.5 °C), therefore, it is 0.25 °C. This means that there is a This is followed by wool (55.5 °C drop over 25 minutes)
level of uncertainty with the data. and finally by paper (58.5 °C drop over 25 minutes). The
d. Limitations include: hypothesis in this investigation was supported, as
• the inability to exactly interpret boiling point (as it is aluminium worked best in insulating water.
a subjective)
540 ANSWERS
INDEX
Note: Figures and tables are indicated by italic f and t, respectively, following the page reference.
A B components, of vectors 344, 369

absolute temperature 39, 59 background radiation 187, 188 compression 319–20
absolute zero 11, 30 bar graphs 460, 486 computer crash modelling 357
absorption bands 45, 59 baryons 212–13, 236 conduction 14–15, 30
absorption patterns, spectra 213 batteries 74 conductors 30, 70, 74, 104
acceleration beam balance 448 speed of electrons travelling
average acceleration 283 Becker, Herbert 219 through 81–3
Becquerels (Bq) 226 continuous data 447
constant acceleration without
beta decay control group 439, 486
graphs 299–305
beta+ decay 230 controlled variables 440, 486
definition 283, 306
types 230 convection 14, 30
from velocity-versus-time
beta particles 229, 231 and energy transfer 14
graph 293–5
Big Bang model of the universe 177, convection currents 15, 31
acceleration-versus-time graphs, area
184, 186 conventional current 78, 104
under 295–6
Big Bang Theory 185, 203 conventions of report writing 474–5
accuracy 451, 486
binding energy 247–8, 262 cosmic microwave background
acknowledgement of references
black body 37, 59 radiation (CMB) 187, 195, 203
481–3
blackbody radiation 37, 59 cosmic rays 217, 218, 218f, 236
active wire, in electric
blue shift 182 cosmology 180, 203
circuits 147, 162
Boltzmann, Ludwig 39 coulombs (C) 76, 104
aim, developing 435, 486
Bothe, Walter 219 crash testing 358
air resistance 318, 342, 369
burns, from steam or Curie, Marie 219
air track 449
boiling water 28
albedo 51, 59 D
alpha decay 228–30 C Dark Ages (in history of
alpha particles 228, 234, 236
cantilevers 365–7 universe) 195
Alpher, Ralph 200
carbon dioxide, in greenhouse data loggers, for
alternating current (AC) 79, 104
blanket 45–8 practical
ammeter 79, 104
carbon-12 48 investigations 450
amperes (A) 76, 104 daughter nucleus 228, 236
carbon-13 48
Ampère, André-Marie 76 de Coulomb, Charles-
categorical data 447, 486
Anderson, Carl 217, 218 Auguste 76
cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) 450
Andromeda galaxy 180, 181 De Sitter, Willem 184
Celsius temperature scale 10
Andromeda nebula 180 Celsius, Anders 10 decay chain (or series) 233, 236
antimatter 215–16 centre of mass 315, 369 decay curve 225, 236
apps, for practical investigations 450 Cepheid variables 179, 203 decay equation 228, 236
Aristotle 325 Chadwick, James 219 defibrillation 155
astronomical unit (AU) 189 chain reactions 248f dependent variable 440, 486
astrophysics, changing changing theories, derived SI units 478
theories in 471t in astrophysics 471, 471t derived units 478
atomic bomb, development 249 charge carriers 76, 104 diodes 97, 104
atomic number 222, 223, 236, 262 Charles, Jacques 11 Dirac, Paul 215
atomic structure, and nuclear radiation circuit breakers 147, 156–8, 162 direct current (DC) 79, 104
222 circuit diagrams, symbols used 114t discrete data 447
atoms climate discussion 442, 486
definition 73 and albedo 51 displacement
formation 197, 200 models 55–6 definition 276, 306
origins of 176, 196 collisions as vector quantity 276
Rutherford’s nuclear model 229 impulse and momentum in 375–9 from velocity-versus-time graph
Australian Synchrotron 256 modelling of 379–81 291–3
542 INDEX
distance current-versus-time parameters Fermi, Enrico 220, 248
definition 276, 306 155t fermions 210
as scalar quantity 276 effect of current on human body fibrillation 154, 162
double insulation 160–1 154–5 First Law of Thermodynamics
driving force 342 resistance of human body 154 20, 31
electrical devices, examination of 93 fission fragments 248, 262
E electrical shock fluid friction 318–19
Earth definition and nature of 153–4 following through 355
age of 187 electrical tools and appliances, double footnotes system 482
blackbody radiation 38–42 insulation 160 force due to gravity 316, 369
energy budget 49–51 electricity 147 forces 314, 369
energy from the Sun 37–42, 49 household use 146–9 adding together 322
heat trapped by greenhouse blanket paying for 150–3 describing 314–15
45–8 electrocution 155, 162 investigation 314
surface air temperature 45 electromagnetic circuit breakers in pairs 337–40
temperature observed from 156, 157 SI unit of 315
space 45 electromagnetic force 197 turning effect of 360–2
earth wire (earthing) 148, 158–9, electromagnetic radiation 31 in two dimensions 342–51
162 electromagnetic spectrum 17f as vector quantity 315
eccentricity 43, 59 electromotive force 90, 104 forward motion 340
efficiency 397–8 electron current 78, 104 Fosbury Flop high-jump
Einstein, Albert 184, 188 electronic timer 449 technique 389
general relativity electrons 222, 236 fossil fuels 48–9
theory 184, 188, 196 definition 222 Franklin, Benjamin 73
mass-energy equivalence positively and negatively frequency ( f ) 147, 162
theory 249, 250 charged 215 friction 318, 325, 342, 369
electric charge 72, 73, 104 electrostatic forces 72, 104, 223 Friedman, Aleksandr 184
electric circuits 104, 476, see also electroweak era of universe 198 Frisch, Otto 248, 249
household power circuits; elements 222, 236 fuses 156, 157, 162
parallel circuits; series circuits definition 222 fusion, specific latent heat of 26
accounting for electrons 114–16 discovery of 222
conductors and insulators 74 periodic table 222f G
conservation of electrical energy energy galaxy 180, 204
116–19 concept of 381–2 discovery 178–81
definition and operation 70, 112 units of 6 Local Group 181
diagrams 113–14 energy transfer movement 181
and electric charge 71–3 conduction 14 Galileo 325
modelling 74–5 convection 14–16 gamma decay 232–3
power delivered by 87–90 processes 14 gamma rays 17, 232, 236
providing energy for 90–91 radiation 14 Gamow, George 200
representations 444 enhanced greenhouse effect 47, 59 gases, movement of atoms in 7
rules 114–16 equations and formulas 476–7 Gay-Lussac, Joseph 11
transformation of energy 86–7 equilibrium 362–7 Geiger, Hans 229
electric current 104 errors 446, 487 Gell-Mann, Murray 214
alternating current (AC) 79 ethics 456, 487 globular clusters (stars) 179, 180,
conventional current 78 evaporation 27–30 204
direct current (DC) 79 excited nucleus 232, 237 grand unified era of universe 197
effect on human body 154–5 experimental groups 439, 487 graphs, primary data 458–62
heating effects 98–9 external validity 453 gravitational field strength 316, 369
hydraulic model 80–81 gravitational potential energy 5, 31,
measuring 79–80 F 388–90, 403
nature of 78 Fahrenheit temperature scale 10 gravity
units of 76 Fahrenheit, Daniel 10 Einstein’s theory 184
electric insulator 74, 104 falling down 333–7 force of 316–18
electric shock 153, 162 falsifiable statement 436, 487 Newton’s theory 184
assisting victims of 155 feedback 51, 59 greenhouse effect 45–8
INDEX 543
greenhouse gases 45 ions 74, 104 liquids, movement of atoms in 7
Guth, Alan 198 isotopes 48, 59, 222–3, 237, 262 load (electrical energy) 74, 104
Local Group of galaxies 181
H J logbook 433
hadron era of universe 199 Joliot, Frédéric 219, 249 Lucretius 6
hadrons 212, 237 Joule, James Prescott 5 luminosity 37
Hahn, Otto 248, 249 joules (J) 6, 31
half-life 225, 237 M
nuclei decay 225–7 K Magellanic Clouds (stars) 180, 181
Hawking, Stephen 188 Kelvin temperature scale 11–13 Manhattan Project 249
heat 4, 31 key terms 442–3 Marsden, Ernest 229
and kinetic theory of matter 6–9 kilowatt-hour (kW-h) 150, 162 mass, measuring 448
helmets 356 kinetic energy 31 mass number 222, 237, 262
Higgs boson particles 198, changes in 385–8 matter 476
220–1, 244 definition 5, 385, 403 and light 256–7
histogram 461, 487 formula for 385 Maxwell, James Clerk 18
Hooke’s Law 391–3 and speed 387 measurements, of independent
household lighting circuit 148f types 7 variables 467
household power circuits kinetic particle model of matter, and measuring instruments 448–51
active wire 148 latent heat 25–7 mechanical energy transformations,
circuit breaker 147 kinetic theory of matter 6–9 conservation and efficiency
earth wire (earthing) 148, 158 393–7
faults and safety devices 156–8 L mechanical interaction 382, 403
fuses and circuit breakers 156–8 Large Hadron Collider (CERN, Meitner, Lise 248, 249
neutral wire 147 Switzerland) 220, 256 mesons 212, 215, 237
short circuits 125–7, 156 Large Magellanic Cloud meters 450
Hoyle, Fred 188 (stars) 179, 181 micrometer 449
Hubble, Edwin 180, 181, latent heat 31 Microsoft Excel, primary
184, 186 definition 25 data 462
Hubble’s constant (H) 186, 204 and kinetic particle model of matter microwaves 17f
Hubble’s Law 186, 204 25–7 Milankovic, Milutin 43
hydraulic model of electric specific latent heat of common Milky Way 178, 179, 181
current 80–1 substances 26t models 104, 469–70, 487
hypothesis 435, 487 specific latent heat of fusion 26 momentum
specific latent heat of in collisions 375–9
I vaporisation 26 definition 351, 369
idealisations 329, 369 Law of Conservation of Energy 219 following through 355
impulse Law of Conservation of investigation 351
definition 352, 369 Momentum 379 protecting human body from
following through 355 Leavitt, Henrietta 179 changes in 355–60
from a graph 354–5 Lemaître, Georges 185 as vector quantity 351
in collisions 375–9 length, measuring 449 motion 476–7
investigation 352 leptons 210–11, 237 explaining 326
as vector quantity 352 lie detectors 92 forward motion 340
independent variable 440, 487 light Newtons laws 326
inflation era of universe 198 from atoms 257–61 motion graphs
infra-red radiation 17, 45, 46 as electromagnetic radiation 256 acceleration-versus-time graphs
instantaneous speed 282, 306 and matter 256–7 295–6
instantaneous velocity 282, 306 speed of 195 investigation 296–9
insulation, double insulation of light-dependent resistors position-versus-time graphs
electrical devices 160 (LDR) 98, 104 287–90, 296
insulators 15, 74 light-emitting diodes (LED) 97, 104 velocity-versus-time graphs
internal energy 7, 31 light-year 192, 195 290–6
internal validity 453 limitations 468, 487 motor vehicle safety, in
investigations see practical line graph 459, 487 collisions 357
investigations line of best fit 459, 487 movement, describing 276–87
544 INDEX
multimeters 79, 450 O acknowledgement of references
muons 211 obliquity 43, 59 481–3
Ohm, Georg Simon 92, 92f aims and questions 433–6
N checklist 484
ohmic devices 97, 104
negative charge (electricity) 72 ohms 92 concepts specific to 442
negative feedback 51, 59 Ohm’s Law 96 conventions of report writing
negligible quantities 329, 369 Oliphant, Mark 252 474–5
net force 321–5, 369 ordinal data 447 equations and formulas 476–7
neutral 104 outliers 462, 487 ethics 456
neutral objects (electric charge) 72 experiments 438–9
neutral wire, in electric circuits P formulating hypotheses 436–8
147, 162 parallax 191 identification of uncertainty
neutrinos 211, 219–20 parallel circuits 453–4
neutrons 222, 237, 262 connection of devices 119 key findings 473
definition 73, 222 hydraulic model 122–5 key terms 442–3
prediction and discovery of investigation 119–30 making predictions 436–8
219, 220f modelling resistors in 122–5 measuring instruments 448–51
Newton, Isaac 184, 326 non-ohmic devices 130–5 models and theories 469–72
newtons (N) 315 resistors in 121–5 nature of evidence 472–3
Newton’s First Law of Motion short circuits 125–7 organising, analysing and
325–7, 385 uses 125 evaluating primary data 457–69
Newton’s Second Law of Motion parsec 191 physics representations 443–6
327–37, 352 particle accelerators 234 planning 432t
Newton’s Third Law of Motion Pauli, Wolfgang 219 precision, accuracy, reliability and
337–41, 348 Penzias, Arno 187 validity 451–3
nichrome 99 period (T) 147, 162 presenting scientific poster 483–4
Nishijima, Kzuhiko 214 periodic table of elements 222f scientific method 431–3
nominal data 447 photons 187, 210 scientific research methodologies
non-ohmic devices 104 photosynthesis 48, 59 and techniques 446–54
definition 97 physics representations 443–6 significant figures 479–81
𝜋-mesons (pions) 212, 217

diodes 97 Planck era of universe 197 standard abbreviations 481
elements 97 symbols 475
LDRs 98 position-versus-time graphs, terminology and
LEDs 97 instantaneous speed and velocity representations 475
in series and parallel circuits 287–90, 296 units of measurements 477–8
130–5 positive feedback 51, 59 using logbook 433
thermistors 97 positron 217–19, 230, 237 variables 440–2
normal force 319, 342, 369 potential difference 104 precession 43, 59
nuclear fission 248–52, 262 measuring 84–6 precision 451, 487
nuclear fusion 248, 252–6, 262 potential energy prefixes 477–8
nuclear radiation forms 388 primary data
alpha decay 228–30 gravitational potential energy analysing 462–4
and atomic structure 221–5 388–90 evaluating 464–5
beta decay 230–2 Hooke’s Law 391–3 primary data, organising 457–62
gamma decay 232–3 strain energy 388, 390–3 scatterplots 459
half-life 225–7 potentiometers 134–5 using graphs 458–62
neutrinos 219 Powell, Cecil 217 using Microsoft Excel 462
timeline of discoveries 207 power 104 using tables 457–8
nuclear transformations 234 definition 87, 398 primary sources 447, 487
nuclei (singular; nucleus) 222 delivered by electric circuits protons 73, 217, 222, 237
binding energy 247–8 87–90
daughter nuclei 228 in electric circuits 135–6 Q
excited nuclei 232 and resistance 99–103 qualitative data 447, 487
nucleons 222, 237 transposing formulae 89 quantitative data 447, 487
nucleus 222, 237 power ratings 149–50 quantum numbers 210
numerical data 447, 487 practical investigation 430 quark era of universe 198
INDEX 545
quark model 213–14 sensors 132–134 energy falling on the Earth 43
quarks 210, 212, 237 series circuits fusion reactions 252–6
names 244 connection of devices 119 switches 74, 104
non-ohmic devices 130–5 symbols 475
R resistors in 119–21 synchrotron radiation 257, 262
radiation 14, 16–18, 31 voltage divider 127–30 systematic errors 465, 487
radio waves 17f Shapley, Harlow 179, 180
radioactive decay 42, 232–3 short circuits 125–7, 156, 162 T
radioisotopes 237 SI units tables, primary data 457–8
production of 234 derived units 478 tau particles 211
random errors 465, 487 of measurement 478 temperature 31
recombination 187, 204 and negative indices 478 conversion between degrees Kelvin
red shift 182, 184, 204 system of 382 and Celsius 9
reliability 453, 487 significant figures 479–81 definition 9
residual current device 159–60, 162 Small Magellanic Cloud (stars) 179, measuring 9–11
resistance 104 181 temperature scales 10
definition 91 solids, movement of atoms in 7–9 tension 319, 320
and heating effects of current space between connected bodies 347–51
98–9 beginning of 195 terminology and representations 475
of human body 154 expansion of 181–2, 184 testable statement 436, 487
ohmic and non-ohmic devices specific heat capacity theories 470–2, 487
97–8 of common substances 23t Theory of General Relativity
Ohm’s Law 96 definition 22–5 184, 196
and power 99–103 differences in 23 thermal circuit breakers 156, 157f
resistors 104 evaporation 27–30 thermal equilibrium 18, 31, 43
colour code 94t and latent heat 25 thermal radiation 43
modelling in parallel circuits specific latent heat thermistors 97, 104
122–5 of common substances 26t thermodynamics 476
in parallel circuits 121–5 of fusion 26, 31 issues 56–7
in series circuits 119–21 of vaporisation 26, 31 laws of 19–22
types 93 speed thermometers 10
resources, evaluating 57–8 average speed 278 Thompson, Benjamin (later Count
results 431, 487 converting units of 279–80 Rumford) 5
risk assessments 454, 456, 487 definition 278 Thomson, William (later Lord Kelvin)
road friction 342 instantaneous speed 282 10
rolling downhill 344–7 and kinetic energy 387 three-point power sockets 148–9
rotational kinetic energy 7, 31 as scalar quantity 278 ticker timer 449
Royal Institution (RI), London 5 units of 278 time
Rutherford, Ernest 219, 234, 252 and velocity 282 beginning of 195
Röntgen, Wilhelm 207 spring balance 449 measuring 449
standard abbreviations 481 top loading balance 449, 466–7
S stars torque
safety rules 454–6 fusion in 252 description 360–2
Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy movement 181, 182 net torque and rotation 360
181 Stefan, Jozef 39 problem-solving strategy 362–5
scalar quantities 276, 306, 315 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 35, 39, 45 transducers 132–4
scatterplots 459, 487 stopwatch 449 translational kinetic energy 7, 31
scientific method 431–3, 436, 487 strain energy 388, 390–3
scientific notation 444–6 strain potential energy 388, 403 U
scientific poster 483–4 Strassmann, Fritz 248 ultrasonic motion detector 450
scientific research methodologies strong nuclear force 197, 217, 223, ultraviolet radiation 17f, 45
446–54, 487 237, 262 uncertainty 446, 453, 487
characteristics of 446–7 subatomic particles, discovery uncertainty and errors
sea ice in Arctic, melting of 51 208–21 calculating 467–8
seatbelts 357 Sun graphing 467
secondary sources 447, 487 electromagnetic radiation 37, 43 measuring 465–7
546 INDEX
repeated measurements 467 V voltage divider 127–30, 137
sources of 465–8 validity 453, 487 voltage drop 104
units of measurements 477–8 vaporisation, specific latent heat of measuring 84–6
universe 26 voltmeters 84, 104, 450
age of 186, 187 variables 440–2 volts (V) 90
as infinite and timeless 184 vector quantities 276, 306, 315
W
big bang model 177, 184, 186 vectors 443–4
Dark Ages era 195 velocity 443, see also acceleration water vapour, in greenhouse blanket
discovery of galaxies 178–81 average velocity 281 45–8
electroweak era 198 constant velocity 282, 291 weak nuclear force 197, 237
expansion of space 181–2, 186 definition 280 weight
instantaneous velocity 282, 296 as force 315, 344
grand unified era 197
position-versus-time graphs and gravity 315
hadron era 199
287–90, 296 Wien, Wilhelm 40
inflation era 198
and speed 282 Wien’s Law 37
looking back in time 195
as vector quantity 280 Wilson, Robert 187
nucleogenesis 199 work
velocity-versus-time graphs
origins of 181, 198 definition 381, 382, 403
to determine acceleration 293–5
Planck era 197 as scalar quantity 382
to determine changes in velocity
prior to formation of atoms 196
291–3
quark era 198 X
to determine displacement 291
recombination 187 features 296 X-rays 17f, 207
significant events 201t vernier calliper 449f
size of 178–81 vibrational kinetic energy 7, 31 Y
universe, measurements of video with analysis software 450 Yukawa, Hideki 217
light-year 192 visible light 17f, 45
metres 192 visible spectrum of light 182 Z
numbers 193 voltage Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
parsec 191 batteries 83 19–20
time 193 as electric potential 84–6 Zweig, George 214
INDEX 547

Physics Cover

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Cover

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Cover

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

UNIT 1 WHAT IDEAS EXPLAIN THE PHYSICAL WORLD? 1

AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN THERMAL EFFECTS BE EXPLAINED?

2 Thermodynamics and climate science 35

AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW

AREA OF STUDY 2 HOW DO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS WORK?

3 Concepts used to model electricity 70

4 Circuit analysis 112

AREA OF STUDY 2 REVIEW

AREA OF STUDY 3 WHAT IS MATTER AND HOW IS IT FORMED?

6 Origins of atoms 176

7 Particles in the nucleus 207

8 Energy from the atom 242

AREA OF STUDY 3 REVIEW

UNIT 2 WHAT DO EXPERIMENTS REVEAL ABOUT THE PHYSICAL WORLD? 273

AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN MOTION BE DESCRIBED AND EXPLAINED?

9 Analysing motion 275

10 Forces in action 313

11 Energy and motion 374

AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW

AREA OF STUDY 2 OPTIONS: OBSERVATION OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD

12 What are stars?

18 How is radiation used to maintain human health?

24 Practical investigation 430

Appendix 1: Periodic table ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 496

Print learnON eBookPLUS PDF eGuidePLUS

Fully aligned to the VCE Physics Study Design

• practice SACs clearly linked to each

What you will learn

Key concepts approach

3.2 Electric circuits cloud

Students can easily understand which aspect

Key Knowledge dot points highlighted at the

Concepts in each sub-topic. while for others it was a force of repulsion.

TOPIC 3 Concepts used to model electricity

Engaging resources and rich media

learning styles, including:

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE ix

students to highlight areas of strength and weakness

Prepare for exams with every relevant

A wealth of teacher resources

Visibility of student results

x ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME TOPICS

TOPIC 1 Thermodynamic principles 3

PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS

1.2 Explaining heat using the kinetic theory

1.2.1 What is heat?

4 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fourth Edition

TOPIC 1 Thermodynamic principles 5

6 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fourth Edition

The kinetic theory of matter assumes that:

TOPIC 1 Thermodynamic principles 7

Translational Vibrational Rotational kinetic energy

8 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fourth Edition

studyON: Practice exam questions

1.3 Measuring and converting temperature

1.3.1 Measuring temperature

TOPIC 1 Thermodynamic principles 9

THE LOWEST TEMPERATURE