AL-SHADHILI, A N O R T H AFRICAN SUFI,

ACCORDING T O IBN AL-SABBAGH

Part I
Sufism in the West before al-Shiidhili (d.A.D. 1248). ‘Ali
Abti’l-Hasan al-ShHdhili, founder of the Muslim religious
order bearing his name, has the distinction of being the
Muslim mystic whose influence has been more extensive,
more pervasive, and of longer duration than that of any
other religious leader of North Africa. T h e recori of his
life and teachings was preserved within a century of his
death by a comparatively inconspicuous devotee known as
Ibn al-Sabbigh in a book written in Arabic entitled Durrat
al-Asriir wa Tuhfat al-Abriir.
Before examining this work, however, it may be profit-
able to consider briefly the cultural and religious trends of
that period.
Al-Shadhili appeared in North Africa toward the end of
the twelfth century, a little over five hundred years after
Islam had become the established faith of the country.
These were five centuries of almost unceasing agitation and
revolution in which religious issues were hardly separable
from the political. Independence-loving Berbers submitted,
not without some struggle, to the new religion, but were
slow to comprehend the implications of its doctrines and
practice and were reluctant to abandon their autonomy for
the sake of the doubtful advantages of a foreign yoke.
T h e political controversies of the first Muslim century
over the rightful successorship of Muhammad early spread
to North Africa. Both the KhHrijis and Shi‘is were repre-
sented in this struggle, the former championing the demo-
cratic principles of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, and the latter rec-
ognizing only ‘Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, as
his legitimate successor. T h e power of Kharijism was broken
in the tenth century, although the sect has not entirely dis-
appeared to this day. Likewise Shi‘ism was reduced to im-
potence when the governor of Ifriqiyah publicly repudiated
257
258 THE MUSLIM WORLD

the Fatimid suzerainty in A.D. 1041. Thereafter the pre-

vailing party was the Sunni, which recognized the first four
khalifahs as rightful successors of the Prophet.
Beneath Sunni orthodoxy, however, flowed an under-
ground stream of free-thinking Mu'tazilism, springing up
here and there, but never strong enough to influence radi-
cally the political or religious situation. Theological con-
troversies and political upheavals had not yet subsided when
al-Shadhili came on the scene, and he was not insensible to
the issues involved.
T h e Berbers of North Africa, whether espousing the
cause of the Sunnis or that of heretical sects and schismatics,
manifested at times a zeal and fanaticism that their Arab
conquerors did not possess. Such were the Almoravids who
in the eleventh century arose in southern Morocco, p r o
claimed what they believed to be a purer form of Islam, and
insisted upon blind adherence to the letter of the law as
handed down by the Imam Milik bin Anas (d. 795) and in-
terpreted by canon lawyers of doubtful sincerity and integ-
rity, disregarding the Qur'an and Traditions as basic au-
thority and leaning toward plain anthropomorphisms in
theology. They compelled neighboring Berber tribes to con-
form, until Muslim Spain and North Africa west of Con-
stantine came under their domination. Such also were the
Almohads who in the twelfth century took up arms against
the Almoravids in the name of Allah's unity (tazuhtd),
whence their appellation muzua?zhidzin, unitarians, angli-
cized to Almohads), the Qur'an and the Traditions, and
conquered all of North Africa from the Atlantic to the bor-
ders of Egypt. This doctrine of tawhid al-Shadhili continued
to proclaim, but with a deeper mystical significance.
Thorough as were the reforms of the Almohads, they
were not durable. Religious fervor cooled and there took
place a gradual backward drift to Malikite rites. T h e hand
of central authority weakened, anarchy followed through-
out the empire, and in due time petty sovereignties were
set up in Fez, Telemcen and Tunis.
During the Almohad dynasty Sufism, the technical term
 AL-SHADHILI 259

for Muslim mysticism, flowered among the Berbers and Ar-

abs of North Africa and Spain. Obviously the frigidity and
rigidity of Almohad doctrine and practice failed to satisfy
the yearning of many pious souls who were seeking the
warming experience of drawing nigh to an accessible God.
The names of Abii Madyan in North Africa and of Ibnu’l-
‘Arabi in Spain shine forth amidst a host of lesser lights in
this period. Following them came al-Shadhili, one of the
many who were left unsatisfied with what formal Islam had
to offer.
In A.D. 1 2 2 8 Abii Zakariya’ of the Hafsid family be-
came governor of Ifriqiyah under Almohad suzereignty.
Nine years later he declared himself independent of the
AlmohadS and assumed the title of Amir. Within the follow-
ing decade he was able to extend his power by conquest
from Tripoli to Tangiers. Tunis became the most important
city in North Africa. Abii Zakariya’ beautified the city,
called learned men from Andalusia, constructed palaces,
baths, caravansaries, and gathered an important library. He
was the first to build a madrmah in Tunis. He died at Bane
in A.D. 1249.
It was in the year that this Abii ZakariyH’ became gov-
ernor that al-Shidhili came to Tunis. T h e apparent toler-
ance of Abii Zakariyi’ toward al-Shiidhili was due not to any
particular sympathies for the Sufis, of whom there were
many in Tunis, but to the fact that, out of a desire to ex-
tend his political power and expand his empire, purely reli-
gious questions assumed a place of only secondary impor-
tance. This tendency became accentuated with his son and
successor, Abii ‘Abd Allah Muhammad al-Mustansir who
sought to favor the two erstwhile enemy factions, the Mali-
kites and the Almohads. In fact, the Hafsid sovereigns, be-
ing in a period of transition from the strict Almohad doc-
trines in matters of religion and legislation back to the
Malikism of the Almoravids, which was deeply rooted in
the masses, were under obligation to move with caution to
avoid the displeasure of their subjects.
For Christian missionaries it is a matter of interest to
2 60 T H E MUSLIM WORLD

learn that during this period an effort was made to bring

the Gospel to the Muslims. In 12 i g St. Francis of Assisi ap-
pointed missionaries for Tunis and Morocco. Brothers Egid-
ius, Electus and others unnamed landed at Tunis. Immedi-
ately upon landing they began to preach the Christian faith
and to attack Muhammad and his doctrine. T h e people,
aroused by a “dervish” highly esteemed for his sainthood
in the city, were about to massacre them when they were
snatched away by Christian merchants, led to the Goulette
and most of them put on board ship for Europe. T h e Do-
minican Raymond de Pennafort, founder of the “Ordre de
Notre-Dame de la Merci,” championed the cause of mis-
sionary work also. Conscious of the necessity of knowing the
Arabic language in order to carry on such activities he pro-
posed to establish a school for the study of this language.
This was in 1241. It appears that a school for the study of
Hebrew was founded in Murcia for the conversion of the
Jews, while a school for the study of Arabic was founded at
Tunis. In 1250 the Provincial Chapter of Spain, held at
Toledo, appointed the first students upon these terms: “In
virtue of the authority of the Minister General and of our
own we appoint for the study of Arabic and impose it for
the remission of their sins upon the Brothers Arnauld de
Guardia, Pierre de Candireta, Raymond h.1 artini, etc.”’
There were eight to begin with; the number of twelve had
been fixed by the Master General.
When al-Shidhili removed from Tunis to Egypt, the
Aiyubid dynasty, which had been inaugurated by Salah al-
Din al-Aiyiibi in A.D. 1169 or i 17 1, was in power. If we as-
sume that al-Shidhili left Tunis shortly after 1227, the king
reigning over Egypt was al-Malik al-Kimil, who ruled from
1218 to 1238.
T h e biographer Ibn Khallikin (d. 1282) related that
this sovereign was a man of honorable reputation. I n reli-
gion he was a strict Sunni. He delighted in the company of
learned men, and every Thursday evening he would meet

J. Mesnage, Le Christianisme en Afrique, pp. 72, 73 et passim.

 AL-SHADH I LI 26 1

to share in their discussions on various sciences. I n Cairo

he founded a school for the study of the Traditions and pro-
vided endowments for its maintenance. One can readily
imagine al-Shiidhili assembled in like manner with his own
circle of Sufis, or even occasionally seated with those whose
gathering was graced by the presence of the sovereign.
In 1 2 5 0 the Mamliik Sultans replaced the Aiyubids. T h e
Mamltiks were Turkish or Circassian slaves who had served
as guards of the Aiyubid court. T h e first ruler was Queen
Shajar al-Durr.
Al-Shadhili was residing in Egypt during the short reign
of this queen and a part of that of her successor, al-Mansiir
Nur al-Din. With the accession of the Mamliiks, the slaves
of the masters of Egypt became the masters of the Egyptians.
T h e latter had little to say in the affairs of state; their part
was to obey, pay taxes, work the land, provide the judicial
and religious leadership for the masses. Between them and
the Xlainlfik overlords there existed an almost impassable
gulf of temperament and culture. Perhaps this fact helps to
explain why the biographer of al-Shadhili limits himself al-
most entirely to the religious sphere, for the sympathies of al-
Shadhili were undoubtedly with the oppressed class whose
consolation was in religion. It is noteworthy that he has noth-
ing to say regarding the political or social conditions under
which the Saint lived. No mention is made of the Christian
Crusaders in Egypt. Reference is made only indirectly to the
Tatars who were threatening the northern border. N o al-
lusion is made to the moral laxity, frivolity, wine-drinking,
luxuries and intrigues of the court. It is as if he were living
in an entirely different world. In reality he was. It was the
world of religion.
Upon his arrival in Egypt al-Shidhili must have found
great animation in intellectual and religious circles, for, in
spite of turmoil within the realm and strife on the frontiers,
among both Fatimid and Aiyubid sovereigns, as among the
Mamluks of a later date, there were some whose concern
was the cultural advancement of their people.
In A.D. 9 7 2 the Azhar Jlosque had been founded and
262 THE MUSLIM WORLD

opened by the Fatimids. I n the ensuing year it was endowed

with a library and provided with lodgings for students. It
appears that since a very early date endowments were avail-
able for the stay of Siifis at the Azhar.
I n A.D. 1005 the Fatimid sovereign al-Hikim had
founded in Cairo the D i r al-Hikmah, the House of Wis-
dom, for the study of all branches of knowledge, which in-
stitution was absorbed by the Azhar after the fall of the
Fatimid dynasty (1 17 1). T h e Fatimids had established li-
braries containing hundreds of thousands of volumes on all
subjects.
At the same time the number of madrasahs increased,
objects of the beneficence of rulers and private individuals
alike who vied with one another in the construction of these
edifices. Khanaqiihs and zGwiyahs also arose, buildings set
apart for the particular devotional uses of ascetics and Siifis.
T h e biographer of al-Shidhili makes no mention of the
Azhar, nor of the Saint’s relation to any educational institu-
tion in Cairo. Although it is claimed for al-Shidhili that he
was accomplished in all the sciences of his day, his continual
insistence was upon the importance of the mystical sciences
and upon their superiority over all other branches of knowl-
edge. Canon lawyers and theologians, whose interests were
confined to their respective fields to the neglect of the mys-
tical sciences, received scant praise from the Sufi master.
T h e emergence of al-Shidhili as mystic and as founder
of a great religious order should not be considered as an
isolated phenomenon. He was part, but withal a vital part,
of the general stream of Sufism whose branches touched the
remotest regions of the Muslim world. Eminent among his
Sufi contemporaries in the East were Farid al-Din ‘Attar (d.
1229), Ibnu’l-Firid (d. i2yj), and Jalil al-Din Riimi (d.
1273). Other religious orders rising into prominence at this
time were the Suhrawardiyah in Baghdad, the Qalandariyah
in Damascus, the Badawiyah and the Dasuqiyah in Egypt.
T h e origins of Sufism in the West go back to the early
years of Muslim Spain. T h e one to whom is generally at-
tributed the introduction of Sufism into Spain is Ibn Ma-
 AL-SHADHILI 263

sarra (d.A.D. 93 1). He was born in Cordova, and in his early

years he was initiated into the life of asceticism and the
study of speculative theology. Little is known with certainty
regarding his career except that he travelled to North Af-
rica and Mecca, founded a school on the Sierra of Cordova,
was suspected of heresy, practised asceticism and exercised
a profound influence upon his contemporaries through his
esoteric doctrines. Neither he nor his disciples left any
known literary works.
In spite of lacunae in our knowledge of the exac’. devel-
opment of philosophical thought during the period of Ibn
Masarra and the following years, it is certain that Sufism
continued to grow, and that Ibn Masarra was to a great ex-
tent responsible for this growth. T h e late Asin Palacios
points out that before Ibn Masarra no mention is made of
Sufi schools or societies in Muslim Spain, whereas after his
death two others continued to flourish besides his own,
namely, those of Seville and Cordova.*
T h e most important of all, however, was Almeria which,
in the beginning of the sixth century of the Muslim era,
during the Almohad period, became the “spiritual metrop-
olis of all Spanish Muslims.” T h e chief of the Sufis in Al-
meria was AbCi’L‘Abbis bin al-‘Arif (d. 1 143)’ a Berber of
the Sanhija tribe in hlorocco.3
At the same time Ibn Barrajiin was head of a Sufi school
in Seville. Both he and Ibn al-‘Arif were summoned to Mar-
rikush and accused of heresy.
T h e Sufi movement spread to Portugal. After the death
of the Almeria leader, Ibn Qasi of Algarve organized a “re-
ligious militia” composed of adepts and constructed a mon-
astery from which emanated both mystical doctrine and
political agitation. He left one literary work, the Khal‘u’l
Na‘layn, which Ibnu’L‘Arabi read while in Tunis. His
death occurred in A.D. 1151 after approximately ten years
of rule with intermittent warfare against Christians, Al-
moravids and Almohads.
Miguel Asin Palacios, Abenmasarra y SIL Escuela, Madrid, 1914,p. 10s.
‘ibid. p. 108.
2 64 THE MUSLIM WORLD

In the two centuries between Ibn Masarra and later

Sufis such as those just mentioned, Sufism underwent im-
portant changes, chiefly because of the infiltration and dis-
semination of Greek philosophy. T h e loth century Rusi’il
of the Ikhwin al-Safi’ were being widely read. Translations
of works attributed to Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplaton-
ists were in circulation. T h e names of Ibn Bijjah (d. 1 1 38),
Ibn Tufayl (d. 1 1sS), Ibn Rushd (d. 1 198) and the Jewish
scholar Ibn Maimfin (Maimonides) (d. 1204) of Cordova
and Cairo stand out as champions of philosophy in the
West, while Ibn Barrajin and other mystics were studying
and defending the works of earlier Sfifis such as al-Qushairi
(d. io74), al-Ghazzdi (d. 1 1 11) and al-Tirmidhi (d. 898).
These men, from Ibn Masara on, were laying the philo-
sophical foundation and providing the mystical urge for
the type of Sufism which we find in al-Shidhili.
In the latter half of the 12th century two names rise
above all others in the field of Sufism in the West. They are
Abii Madyan (d. 1198) and Muhyi al-Din Ibnu’l-‘Arabi (d.
1240). Both were born in Spain, the former near Seville and
the latter in Murcia.
Abfi Madyan was born between A.D. i 1 2 1 and A.D.
1 1 30. AEter attending school in Seville he went to Fez. T h e
greater part of his life was spent in this city and in Bougie.
As al-Shidhili was born but two years before the death of
Abii Madyan, it cannot be said that the latter exercised any
personal influence upon the former, but certainly the re-
nown and example of this extraordinary character could not
fail to leave its impress upon the fertile mind of the young
al-Shidhili. One of Abii Madyan’s disciples was ‘Abd al-
Salim bin Mashish who in turn became the spiritual guide
of al-Shidhili.
Abii Madyan passed away while responding to a sum-
mons to the Almohad court at Marrikush and was buried
near Tlemcen, of which city he is today the patron saint.
Ibnu’l-‘Arabiwas born thirty-three years after Abii Mad-
yan. He was a contemporary of al-Shidhili and his elder by
four years. It is not recorded that they ever met. Yet they
 AL-SHADHILI 265

must have travelled the same roads between Fez, Bougie,

Tunis, Cairo and Mecca.
As a youth he studied Sufism under a number of teach-
ers, both in Spain and in North Africa. It is noteworthy that
he spent nearly thirty years of his life in Seville, seat of the
Siifi school of Ibn Barrajin of the preceding generation,
during a portion of which time he served as secretary for
the governor of Seville.
T h e most important of his numerous writings are the
monumental Al-Futfihit al-Makkiyah and the Fusfis al-Hi-
kam.
T h e central theme of Ibnu’l-‘Arabi’s mystical philoso-
phy is the oneness of all being (wahdat al-wujzid), a pan-
theistical monism. It represents the apex in the develop-
ment of Sufism which began as asceticism, passed through
theosophical speculation, and finally yielded to the peril of
pantheism which al-Ghazzili and orthodox Muslims in gen-
eral strove to avoid.
In view of the fact that Ibnu’l-‘Arabiand al-Shidhili were
contemporaneous and subject to similar currents of theo-
logical, philosophical and mystical thought, it is only rea-
sonable to discover similarities in mystical expression. Yet
there are fundamental differences.
Sufism took root in North Africa during the Almoravid
dynasty and flourished during that of the Almohads. Siifi
saints wandering over the land exercised their power over
men of all classes. It is related that a son of ‘Abd al-Mu’min
was healed of an apparently incurable ill by a Sufi of the
Rif.* People of all walks of life joined the Siifi movement.
Old men, young men, even women were among those “con-
verted” to the new form of religion. Some were illiterate,
but found a place among the lower grades of the system.
Others were literate and versed in the sciences of the time;
they reached the higher grades and assumed positions of
leadership. Some of the “masters” of the Sufi sciences knew

‘Bel, Alfred, La Religion Musulmane e n Berbdric, Tome I, Pans 1938, P. 341.

2 66 T H E MUSLIM WORLD

only the Berber language, as, for example, Abii Ya‘zi, one
of the teachers of Abii Madyan at Fez.6
In the latter part of the twelfth century, when the works
of al-Ghazzili became popular again after the Almoravid
interdiction, very few traditionists or canon lawyers were
drawn into Sufism. Ibnu’l-‘Arabi mentioned that it was rare
that a legist was also an ascetic.6 This same Sufi wrote a
treatise entitled RiscIlat al-Quds in which he gave brief bio-
graphical accounts of fifty-five of his “spiritual masters,”
most of whom were ascetics and some of whom were illiter-
ate. We know that al-Shidhili encountered his most bitter
opposition in Tunis from the fuqahi’ group. Before the
close of his career, however, Sufism must have won the ap-
probation of at least some of them, for in his correspondence
he mentioned a number of canon lawyers who were also
commendable Sufis.
Sufism flourished at first in the cities. T h e story of the
development of Sufism in the West is inseparable from such
renowned centers as Almeria, Seville, Cordova, Fez, Bougie,
Tlemcen, and Tunis. But beginning with the thirteenth
century the movement was transported to rural areas by
disciples of eminent teachers. T h e ziwiyah, that is, school,
place of prayer, and hostel combined into one, became an
established institution connected with the homes of these
disciples and by means of which the number of adepts mul-
tiplied, spreading Sufism to the countryside. It was to such
a ziwiyah on Jabal ‘Alam in Morocco that young al-Shadhili
went to receive instruction from ’Abd al-Salim bin Rlashish.
T h e diffusion of the Muslim Brotherhoods in succeeding
centuries was due in large measure to the Sufism of the Ber-
ber population in the rural areas.
During his lifetime al-Shidhili was renowned primarily
as a teacher (shaikh) of Sufis, but after his death he was re-
vered, as he is today, as a saint (walt).
T h e conception of sainthood, the idea that men, by
meeting certain requirements of purity, abnegation, and
ibid., pp. 345-347.
ibid., pp. 355. 356.
 AL-SHADHILI 267

worship, may approach so near to God as to receive from

Him special blessings and powers which in turn may be
transmitted to other men, is an integral part of the Sufi
system, and has found fertile soil in the mind and heart of
the Berber. Veneration of the saints was common among
the Berbers long before the days of Islam. It is interesting
to note the relationship between the tombs of Muslim saints
and the remains of Christian chapels dating from Roman
times in North Africa. M. Andrt Berthier, in a recent ac-
count of his archaeological discoveries in ancient N imidia,
attributes the great number of churches to Donatism, a
characteristic of which was veneration of the saints. He indi-
cates certain points of similarity between saint worship of
Christian times and that of the present day among the Mus-
lims, especially the use of talismans, the sanctity of articles
closely associated with the saint, and the use of high places
and of caves for religious purposes. He also observed that
saint worship flourished particularly in the rural areas, even
as it does today. His conclusion is that saint worship is en-
rooted in the very soul of the Berber, has always been pres-
ent in North Africa, even in pre-Christian days, and con-
tinues with a firm grip upon the people to the present time.'
Certainly al-Shiidhili the saint has now for many centuries
held a large portion of the people of North Africa within
his grasp.

Part 11

Al-ShadhiZi: T h e Man and His Teachings. T h e chief source

of our information on al-Shiidhili is the work entitled Dur-
rat al-Asriir wa Tuhfat al-Abriir by Muhammad bin Abi'l-
Qiisim al-Himyari, known as Ibn al-Sabbiigh. This person
is without renown in the field of Arabic literature.
Ibn al-Sabbiigh claimed to have received his information
regarding al-Shiidhili from various reliable sources. H e was
evidently a devotee of the order of al-Shidhili. Out of a de-
'Berthier, Andre, Les Vestiges du Christianisme Antique dam la Numidie Cen-
trale, Alger, 1942, pp. nno-224 et passim.
268 THE MUSLIM WORLD

sire to gather together whatever he could learn of the

Shaikh, he travelled far and wide to talk with any person
who might have information concerning him. His chief
source of information was the recollections of the immedi-
ate disciples of al-Shadhili, such as al-Miidi who is reported
to have died when he was about i t 6 years old, and the dis-
ciples of the Shaikh’s disciples. Furthermore, he met one of
the sons of al-Shidhili in Demanhiir, a daughter in Alex-
andria, and some of his grandchildren. He mentioned a
book on Abii Sa’id al-Biji by ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Futfih, which
contained information regarding al-Shidhili. On the basis
of internal evidence, the date of his writing is some time be-
fore the middle of the fourteenth century.
Ibn al-Sabbagh has divided his work into five chapters.
T h e first deals with the life of al-Shidhili. Chapter T w o
contains letters which he supposedly wrote to some of his
disciples in distant places. Chapter Three is composed of
prayers of various k i n d s , - + % , adhkar, da‘aziGt. Chapter
Four gives a rather disconnected account of the Shaikh’s
teachings. It is a compendium of Shidhiliyah doctrine and
principles and may safely be considered as a fair picture of
Shadhiliyah teachings at the time of the writing. Chapter
Five begins with the account of the circumstances attending
the death of al-Shidhili and continues with the story of the
attainments of his disciple and successor al-Xlursi, together
with anecdotes pertaining to other disciples.
T h e author states that al-Shidhili was born in Ghumi-
rah. This is a mountainous region in Spanish hlorocco south
of Ceuta. T h e Ghumiirah were a Berber tribe which in-
habited these regions long before the Muslim invasions. Ibn
al-Sabbiigh recorded that at the time of his death in A.H.
646 (A.D. 1248) he was about sixty-three years old. This
would place his birth about A.H. 583, or A.D. I 1 8 7 .
Little information, if any, exists to throw light on the
early years of al-Shklhili. Undoubtedly he pursued the cus-
tomary Quranic studies in his youth. He is credited with a
mastery of both esoteric and exoteric knowledge. It is quite
probable that contact with Sufis early in life contributed to
 AL-SHADHILI 269

his formation for his later career as teacher and founder of

a SCfi brotherhood. If we may rely upon the account given
by Ibn al-Sabbigh, it was during his formative years that he
made a trip as far as ‘Iriq in search of religious truth, where
he was instructed by al-Wisiti to return to the Maghrib
where he would find his spiritual guide.
Before entering public life al-Shidhili had at least two
teachers of the Sufi way. One was Abfl ‘Abd Allih Muham-
mad bin Harzihiim, disciple of the disciple of the renowned
Siifi Shaikh Abu hladyan (d. 1198). His second teacher,
rendered famous through the superior attainments of his
pupil as well as his own merits, was ‘Abd al-SalHm bin
Mashish, pupil of Abu Madyan, who came originally from
the Bani ‘Arcs of the Jabal ‘Alam near Tetuan in Morocco.
Early in life al-Shidhili went to ‘Abd al-Salim bin
Mashish to take him as his spiritual guide. T h e venerable
teacher recognized the “saintly” qualities of the young man
and gave him his final injunction to refrain from men and
to depart to Tunisia.
His career may be divided into two periods. T h e first is
that of strict asceticism and the second is that of a renowned
theologian and teacher of mystical religion.
During the first period we find him, according to legend,
leaving ‘Abd al-Salim bin Mashish and proceeding to T u -
nis. He went about as a mendicant, trusting in Allih for
his daily bread and dwelling in secluded places. Following
the instructions of his spiritual guide, he went to the village
called Shidhilah, a short distance from Tunis, in the vicinity
of which he remained for an indefinite period, fasting and
devoting himself to long seasons of prayer. In the course of
his wanderings, according to the account of Ibn al-Sabbigh,
numerous thaumaturgical feats were attributed to him, such
as changing spurious coins into good ones, transmuting iron
into gold, quelling the growling of wild beasts. These mani-
festations of extraordinary power were considered to be “di-
vine gifts” (karcinzcit), special graces with which Allah pro-
tected or assisted his “saints.”
T h e number of his disciples increased, and his renown
270 T H E MUSLIM WORLD

grew to such proportions that the canon lawyers of Tunis,

incited by one of their numbers named Ibn al-Bars’, were
aroused to suspicion. Charges of being a Fatimid were laid
against him. Al-Shidhili withdrew with his companions to
Egypt.
T h e sequence of events thereafter, during the second
period of his career, cannot be determined with accuracy
from available acounts. It is known, however, that he re-
turned at least once to Tunis, that he had many disciples in
this place, that in Alexandria he had quarters in one of the
wall towers that had been placed at his disposal by the Sul-
tan for him, his family, and his disciples, that he was fre-
quently in Cairo, if he did not actually reside there, and that
he had at least three sons and two daughters whom our au-
thor mentions by name. His home resembled in every re-
spect a ziwiyah in which the Saint exercised full control
over the daily conduct of his followers. His gifts of thau-
maturgy, his superiority in exoteric and esoteric knowledge,
and his piety made him a person to be revered and feared
by people of high and low estate. Although he lived in a
state of affluence, his heart, so it is claimed, was detached
from worldly gain.
Often he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was
while passing through Upper Egypt in A.D. 1258 for this
purpose that he died at Humaithirah at the approximate
age of sixty-three. There he was buried by his disciples, after
having appointed as his successor Abii’l-‘Abbis al-Mursi
who had come from Spain in his boyhood and who had been
raised as an orphan by al-Shidhili.
Although al-Shidhili is reputed to have been versed in
all sciences, one should not expect to find an exemplifica-
tion of his erudition in his teachings as recorded by Ibn al-
Sabbigh. He was not a philosopher. No clear philosophical
system can be deduced from the material at our disposal. It
is true that occasionally he used the technical vocabulary
familiar to the logicians and likewise employed the termi-
nology of Neoplatonic philosophy to describe the process
whereby the soul of man reaches its present human state and
 AL-SHADH I LI 271

ultimately returns to its origin. But these thought forms

were common enough in his day in the West as in the East,
and al-Shiidhili adopted them as convenient vehicles of ex-
pression for his mystical theology.
In theology he was orthodox. His recognition of the first
four khalifahs marked him as a Sunni. T h e Sunnah of Mu-
hammad was coupled with the Qur’iin as basic authority.
Personal opinion was condemned. He opposed Mu’tazili
doctrine, and our story relates that a group of Mu‘tazilis
with whom he was having a discussion in Alexandria was
converted to orthodoxy. He upheld the faith (imiin) of Is-
lam and repeatedly emphasized the necessity of strict ob-
servance of the ordinances of Allah. It is noteworthy, how-
ever, that our account contains nothing regarding almsgiv-
ing or the fast.
To his orthodoxy he appended his mysticism. His affir-
mation of adherence to the six articles of the faith of Islam
was followed by an assertion of belief in all the prophets, in
conformity with the Quranic statement that no distinction
is made between the prophets (2:285). This is illustrative
of the Sufi method of interpreting the Qur’iin and the tradi-
tions according to their need or fancy in order to bolster
their particular principles and doctrines. Behind Scripture
and accepted doctrine they, through superior insight, dis-
covered hidden meanings which to them constituted the
reality of the matter. The Allah of the Qur’iin, whose quali-
ties, in conformity with the tenets 01 al-Ash‘ari,should be ac-
cepted as stated “without asking how,” who created all that
exists by His command “Be,” who wills everything, and
who will be seen with the eyes on the Day of Judgment, be-
came to the Sufi the Real (al-Haqq), the one metaphysical
reality behind all phenomena. Muhammad the Prophet be-
came the choicest of men, the greatest Sufi, the source of ev-
ery good thing, the fountain of light and knowledge, the
one who has been favored with the “Greatest Name” of
Allah, and the Logos. The Day of Judgment, the hour of
the great reckoning, became the day of rendezvous with
Allah; death was awaited with pleasant anticipation.
272 T H E MUSLIM WORLD

Faith meant more than intellectual assent to proposi-

tions; it involved viewing one’s attributes in the light of Al-
lah’s attributes. Religious terms were given deeper content;
each one contained a spiritual significance. Real reliance
(tawakkul) upon Allah meant turning the heart away from
everything except Allah and forgetting everything other
than Him. Real asceticism ( z u h d ) was more than stripping
one’s self of earthly pleasures and comforts; it meant empty-
ing the heart of everything except Allah. Real knowledge
(‘ilrn) was more extensive than intellectual acquisition; it im-
plied action, dwelling with what one knew to be good and
fleeing from what one knew to be evil. Real prostration ( S I L -
j i i d ) in prayer was more than prostration of the body; it
meant prostration of the heart to Allah’s judgments. Such
were the interpretations of all virtues and obligations per-
taining to the religious life.
Allah’s unity (tawhid), especially, took on a mystical
significance. This term may mean the doctrine of the unity
of Allah, the declaration of this doctrine, the science of the-
ology, or the mystical union of the soul with Allah. It has
been difficult, sometimes impossible, to determine from the
context which meaning was intended by the writer. Tawhid,
with al-Shadhill, is not identical with the metaphysical con-
ception of the oneness of being (zuahdat nl-zuujiid) as ex-
pounded by Ibnu’l-‘Arabi. It is an experience of witnessing
or contemplating Allah, of the soul’s uniting in rapture with
Allah, of the union of the will with the will of Allah. T h e
real unitarian is he who allows Allah to have complete sway
over his life. It is an experience of the inner man which
should not be divulged to the uninitiated.
If al-Shadhili appears to have had pantheistic tendencies,
it is because he used the terminology familiar to men of his
time, and, it must be admitted, some of his ideas have mean-
ing only when interpreted in the light of concepts of such
Sfifis as Ibnu’l-‘Arabi and al-Jili who were thoroughgoing
pantheists. Yet there is nothing in the teaching of al-Shsd-
hili resembling itti!zitl, identification of being, or huliil,
fusion of being. These considerations, together with his in-
 AL-SHADHILI 273

sistence upon a clear distinction between divine and human

attributes, his ever-recurring admonition to shun the world
and everything pertaining thereto out of the desire for spir-
itual benefits, following the words of his teacher, “Allah is
Allah and men are men,” and his dominating interest in
the practical problems of the Sufi Way rather than in phil-
osophical speculation, lead to the conclusion that his Unity
or Union was mystical and not metaphysical.
Furthermore, in consideration of the lapse of time be-
tween al-Shidhili and the writing by Ibn al-Sabbigp , which
was nearly a century, and because of the uncertainty of tra-
ditions, we are justified in questioning the exactitude of
some of the sayings attributed to him. T h e popularity of
the pantheistic ideas of Ibnu’l-‘Arabi would naturally in-
fluence the minds of al-Shidhili’s followers. For this reason
caution must be exercised in interpreting al-Shidhili in the
light of later writings on the Shidhiliyah school.
Among his teachings are expressions which are suscep-
tible of an illuministic interpretation. But he cannot be
placed in the category of such followers of the philosophy
of Illumination (ZshrZq) as, for example, Suhrawardi Maq-
tiil (d. 1 i g i ) , Abfi’l-Mawihib al-Shidhili (d. 1477, 8), or
Sadr al-Din al-Shiriizi (d. 1640), for whom Allah, the one
metaphysical Reality, is Light and the source from which all
else radiates. All Sufis have used the metaphor of light, and
have found Quranic justification for it. As early as the ninth
century the Neoplatonic metaphysics of light, which came
to the Muslims through the so-called “Theology of Aris-
totle,” was taken over by the Sufis, and in the tenth century
the Ikhwin al-Saf2’ incorporated it in their Epistles. Al-
Ghazzili expounded his theory of light in a treatise entitled
mishkit al-Anwiir. With al-Shidhili, light is symbolical of
mystical knowledge, gnosis (rna‘rifah), imparted by Allih to
the Siifi while he is in the proper state to receive it. “Anyone
whose light takes precedence over his reason (‘aql) is fortu-
nate,” he taught, “but anyone whose reason takes prece-
dence over his light is unfortunate.” He urged one of his
disciples to “be guided by the light of Allah deposited in
274 T H E MUSLIM WORLD

hearts, by which [light] they [i.e. Siifis] have observed, pon-

dered, studied, and attained unto the Truth.” It is a light
within the heart which guides or advises the saint aright in
matters of daily conduct. “Lights are spiritual insights,” he
said. In this respect al-Shadhili resembles the ninth-century
mystics al-Muhisibi and al-Makki.
T h e Sufism of al-Shidhili lies between the two extremes
of a rigid asceticism on the one hand and an unbridled pan-
theistic theosophy on the other. “Sufism,” he said, “is train-
ing the lower self (nafs) in servantship and returning it to
the judgments of lordship.” Again he taught, “This way is
neither one of monasticism, nor of the eating of barley and
bran, nor one of the other devices. It is only a matter of
patient endurance and firm belief in guidance.”
T h e real Siifi, he explained, is one whose mind and
heart are God-centered. He is “one who does not pay atten-
tion to mankind and who has leaned toward nothing except
the promises of Allah.” T h e true Sufi has four characteris-
tics: “being characterized by the characteristics of Allah.
abiding closely by the commands of Allah, relinquishing of
the defense of one’s self out of respect for Allah, continuing
to sit upon the carpet [of mystical practices] by truly passing
away with Allah.” T h e first implies moral integrity; the
second implies orthodox belief and action; the third implies
“quietism”; the fourth implies ecstatic experiences.
Ibn al-Sabbagh dwells at length upon al-Shadhili’s views
and recommendations with regard to the practical aspects
of the life of Siifis as they pursue the Path of mystical ex-
perience. Early Sufis were accustomed to observe certain
rules for the development of the spiritual life and to follow
a well-defined Way ([artqah) through various psychological
stages in order to enjoy the exalted religious experience of
direct access to Allah which was quite unknown to the or-
dinary believer and follower of the religious law. Examples
of the early exponents of the mystical stages and states ex-
perienced by Siifis are Abii Nasr al-Sarrij (d.A.D. 988)8 and
Abii T i l i b al-Makki (d.A.D. 996).’
- __
‘R.A. Nicholson. Kila‘b a1 Luma‘ fi’l-Twawwtrf, of Abii N q r al-Sarrdj, in
“E. J . W.Gihb Memorial Series vol. XXII, London, Lu73c & Co..1914, pp. 1 2 - 2 1 .
OAbG Talib al-Makki, Q ~ i al-Qulaib,
t Cairo, 1932, I1 p. 65.
 A L-SHAD H I LI 275

T h e passing of time brought modifications in the struc-

ture of the system, without, however, changing its basic con-
tent. Al-Shidhili said that “the Sufi Way is the holding of
one’s course toward Allah by four things: the recital of the
dhikr, meditation. poverty and love.” He taught that the
Way has five virtues: patience, piety, scrupulousness, cer-
tainty, mystical knowledge.
Since men are endowed with various capacities, all Scfis
could not be expected to attain to the same degree of ex-
cellence. God had ordained that some tread the pat5 of the
“commonality” while others ascend t o spiritual heights on
the path of the “elect.” Some engaged in daily occupations
while others devoted themselves entirely to religious prac-
tices. Yet even those in the lower category should maintain
certain ethical standards and be zealous in religious works,
even to the extent of five prayers daily with the congrega-
tion.
T h e religious retreat (khalwah) played an important
role in Sufi life. But if there were definite advantages in this
practice, he warned, there were perils also. Satan, involun-
tary thoughts, and man’s own lower nature were ever ready
to profit by one’s heedlessness. Watchfulness and continual
awareness of one’s inner state, as well as knowledge of the
correct measures to take in times of temptation, were neces-
sary.
Man was subject to passing states of spiritual well-being
and spiritual depression, mystical intoxication and sobriety,
union with Allah and separation from Him, presence and
absence, in all of which he should know how to act with
propriety to the pleasure of Allah.
Al-Shidhili made much of the use of the dhikr as a form
of worship supplementary to the canonical prayers. T h e
word dhikr means “remembrance” or “mentioning,” that
is, of Allah. It may be vocal or silent; it may be recited after
canonical prayers, in complete isolation, or in company with
other Sufis. It may consist of one word, “Allah” or “huwa”
(he), for example, repeated continually, or it may consist of
short phrases, or it may be a long prayer. T h e most excellent
276 T H E MUSLIM W O R L D

dhzkr, in any case, is that in which one loses his own con-
sciousness in mystical union with Allah.
In all phases of life, he insisted, whether in seclusion or
in the company of others, in worship or common acts, in
joy or sorrow, good fortune or adversity, the Sufi must al-
ways hold his own personal volition in abeyance out of
deference for the supreme will of Allah. If he does this, a
sense of satisfaction will pervade his being, and he may be
assured of the satisfaction of Allah. Love for Allah, to the
exclusion of love for every other thing, should be the dom-
inating motive.
I n the teachings of al-Shidhili the Way involves the
question of moral principles. T h e Sufi should strive to be
free from creaturely attributes and to possess those that are
approved by Allah. He should suffer injury with patience
and refrain from injuring others. Retribution is the right of
Allah. One should be reluctant to imprecate evil-doers,
though this be within his power, for Allah will be their
judge. Even the followers of Muhammad offered inipreca-
tions only by special permission OE Allah. After all, every-
thing that happens, of good or of ill, has its source in Allah.
Therefore the proper course in adversity is to turn to Him
with resignation and commitment.
‘Toward those in places of authority al-Sh5dhili advised
submission and resignation. Although they be evil-doers
and enemies of Allah, the proper attitude is to allow the
will of Allah to take its course. He urged his followers to
remain aloof from temporal affairs.
He taught that the responsibility for personal debts
should be placed directly upon Allah. When one removes
from his heart the love for material rewards and remunera-
tion, Allah in a wondrous way makes provision for him.
T h e temptations that arise from man’s lower nature can-
not, according to al-Shiidhili, be vanquished by man’s own
striving. Self-discipline avails little. T h e repetition of the‘
dhikr, constant watching over the inner states. thanksgiving,
and repentance are means to employ for the effectual work-
ing of Allah, but in reality only Allah has power to bring
 AL-SHADHI LI 277
on good or evil. Man’s lower self, his nafs, the active princi-
ple in him which pulls him down and distracts him from
Allah, cannot be conquered by fighting against it. It can be
subdued only by Allah who knows all about man. Knowl-
edge, both exoteric and esoteric, and fidelity to the religious
law and to the Sunnah of Muhammad are aids to this end.
In the field of epistemology al-Shidhili follows the the-
ory traditionally advanced by mystical thinkers. There are
two kinds of knowledge. One is knowledge received through
the intellectual processes, and this is called ‘iZm.T h : higher
type of knowledge, however, that by which the Sufis are
characterized, is mystical knowledge, called ma‘rifah. This
latter leads to an apprehension of the ultimate reality of all
that is, and in this sphere of learning a place of preeminence
was reserved for al-Shidhili by his followers. T h e apprehen-
sion of realities without a shadow of a doubt and with no
intervening veil is called yaqin, a term denoting absolute
certainty. This occurs in the state of ecstasy. By means of
mystical knowledge man may know Allah. This truth al-
Shidhili affirmed in reply to those who denied that Sufis
possessed this ability. Men spiritually blind cannot discern
Allah’s secrets; yet the hidden mysteries are clear to those
Sufis who have insight into the Realities.
Proof is of three kinds. T h e first is intellectual, and is
employed by the theologians and scholars who rely upon
their reasoning. T h e second is that which comes as a special
grace (karimah) from Allah, and is the property of the
saints. T h e third is that which comes through the inner soul,
and is the property of the prophets and most advanced
saints. Sufis have no need of the first kind. Their faith and
ability to apprehend hidden realities make them to dispense
with proof and argument.
Al-Shidhili counseled caution in the matter of forming
judgments. Both the intellect and personal opinion should
be distrusted. T h e only firm basis consists in a clear proof
from the Qur’in, a Sunnah of the Prophet, a consensus of
opinion, or the opinion of one of the authoritative ImPms.
T h e influence of al-Shiidhili and his teachings radiated
278 THE MUSLIM WORLD

in all directions. Isolated groups of adepts sprang up here

and there, which, although more or less autonomous, were
bound together at heart by the teachings of al-Shidhili. His
doctrines spread with the development of Sufi brotherhoods
to Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Roumania, and even as far away
as Sumatra. His teachings became the source of inspiration
for the Azhar University in Cairo. T h e same may be said
with regard to the Djami' al-Zaitiinah in Tunis. Pilgrims
still flock by the thousands to the shrine, the Mosque of
Sidi Belhassen, erected in his honor in Tunis over a cave
where he was wont to practise asceticism in the early days
of his career. The vast "Djellaz" cemetery about this mosque
preserves his memory. Of the sixteen principal North Afri-
can religious orders listed by Rinn in his Marubouts et
Khoum, eleven are branches of the Shadhiliyah, and it is
safe to say that the influence of al-Shidhili may be traced
in the remainder, either in doctrine, ritual, moral princi-
ples, or political attitude. Without exaggeration it may be
claimed that the influence of the young Seeker of the
Ghumirah has reached the confines of the Muslim world.
It is furthermore possible that the Christian world has
come under his influence in a way and to an extent that we
have hitherto little suspected. T h e striking resemblances
between Muslim and Christian mysticism lead to conjec-
tures as to the close relationship between the two. T h e emi-
nent Spanish Arabic scholar Miguel Asin Palacios, who
made a profound study of Muslim as well as Christian mys-
ticism, has pointed out the close connection that existed be-
tween the mysticism of the Shidhiliyah school and that of
the Christian mystics of Spain, especially of St. John of the
Cross. In his work entitled El Islam cristi~nizado'~he has
intimated the great surprise that awaits the historian who
will compare these two currents of mystical thought, observ-
ing that, as the brilliancy of the last followers of the school
of al-Shidhili wanes in Spain, an unexpected. unprece-
dented, and unexplained outburst of spirituality occurs
~

* Miguel Asin Palados, El Islam m'slianizado, Madrid, 1951,pp. 272-274.

 A L-SHADH I LI 379
among the Christians. T h e parallelisms of the two currents
may be traced in both their favorable and unfavorable as-
pects. Although there has been much discussion over the
nebulous origin of the Spanish “illuminati,” Miguel Asin
Palacios has insisted, the fact that not a few of the Spanish
adepts were converts from Islam is a factor that should not
be underestimated.
ELMERH. DOUGLAS
Constantine, A lgeria