A Project Report on

FAILURE OF FOUNDATION

DUE TO EARTHQUAKE

Submitted by:
KURESH CHANDRA TRIPATHY (1301210349)
SUBIN KUMAR BEHERA (1301210457)
SURAJ KUMAR AGRAWAL (1301210527)
ABHISHEK KUMAR SAHU (1301210573)
SATYAJIT BEHERA (1301210657)
In partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Under the esteemed guidance of
Miss. TRUPTIMALA
PATTNAIK
ASST. HOD (CIVIL)
AT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GANDHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, GUNUPUR – 765022 2013-2017

i
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “FAILURE OF FOUNDATION

DUE TO EARTHQUAKE” submitted for the B. Tech Degree is my original work and

the project has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate-ship,

fellowship or any other similar titles.

Signature of the Students:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Place:

Date

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 ISO
9001:20001
Gandhi Institute of Engineering & Technology
Certified
Institute
GUNUPUR – 765 022, Dist: Rayagada (Orissa), India
(Approved by AICTE, Govt. of Orissa and Affiliated to BijuPatnaik University of Technology)

: 06857 – 250172(Office), 251156(Principal), 250232(Fax),

e-mail: [email protected] visit us at www.giet.org

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “ FAILURE OF FOUNDATION DUE TO

EARTHQUAKE” submitted by KURESH CHANDRA TRIPATHY (1301210349), SUBIN

KUMAR BEHERA (1301210457), SURAJ KUMAR AGRAWAL (1301210527),

ABHISHEK KUMAR SAHU(1301210573), SATYAJIT BEHERA(1301210657) to the Biju

Patnaik University of Technology Rourkela, Odisha in partial fulfilment for the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil engineering is a bonafide record of the project

work carried out by him under my supervision during the year 2016-2017.

To the best of our knowledge, the results embodied in this dissertation have not been submitted
to any University/Institute for the award of any other degree.

Miss. TRUPTIMALA PATTNAIK Mr. ASHIS KUMAR SAMAL

Asst. Prof. (CIVIL) (Project guide) HOD(CIVIL)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a great pleasure and privilege to express my profound sense of gratitude to our

esteemed guide & HOD Mr. ASHIS KUMAR SAMAL, Asst. HOD Miss.

TRUPTIMALA PATTAN & all the teachers for their suggestions, motivation and

support during the project work and keen personal interest throughout the progress

of my project work.

I express my thanks to all my friends, my family for their timely, suggestions

and encouragements.

KURESH CHANDRA TRIPATHY (13CV001)

SUBIN KUMAR BEHERA (13CV011)
SATYAJIT BEHERA (13CV019)
SURAJ KUMAR AGRAWAL (13CV029)
ABHISHEK KUMAR SAHU (13CV032)

4
 Abstract
As we know, shaking due to seismic waves causes damage to buildings. The
damage may be influenced by the characteristics of soil in the affected area.
The objective of the paper is to show the effect of the earthquake on different
types of foundations such as shallow, mat/raft, pile and structures like gravity
dam, arch dam etc. The reaction of soil to the loading of the building when a
building undergoes an earthquake disturbance as a behaviour of deflection is
known as the soil structure interaction. The movement of ground during the
Earthquake induces kinematic and inertial loading which decreases the bearing
capacity and increments the settlement of shallow foundations. In seismic
regions, where kinematic interactions have been observed, the mat foundations
experiences overturning moments. Pile foundations are influenced by both
kinematic and inertial interactions which causes many failures. The convoluted
oscillating arrangement of acceleration and ground motion in a gravity dam,
developing ephemeral dynamic loads because of inertia of dam and confined
water is the seismic activity generated in these dams. The arch dam foundations
undergoes effects of inertia and flexibility due to the propagation of seismic
waves.

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 CONTENT
Title Page
 AKNOWLEDGMENT
 ABSTACT
 LIST OF FIGURE
 ABBREVIATIONS
 NOMECLATURE

1. INTRODUCTION 09
2. DEFINATION OF,FOUNDATION & ITS TYPES 10
2.1 Types of earthquake
2.1.1 Tectonic 10
2.1.2 Volcanic 11
2.1.2 Collapse and explosion 11
2.1.3 Measurement of earthquake 12
2.1.4 Characterises of earthquake 12
2.1.5 Seismic zones 13
2.2 Types of foundation
2.2.1 Shallow foundation 15
2.2.2 Deep foundation 16
3. FAILURE OF FOUNDATION 17
4. GENERAL PRINCIPLE AND DESIGN CRITERIA 22
2.4.1 General principles
5. THE SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION 23
5.1 Addition to existing structures 24
5.2 Change in occupancy 24
5.2.1 Assumptions
5.3 Load combination and increase in permissible stresses 25
5.3.1 Load combinations
5.3.2 Load factors for plastic design of steel structures 25
5.3.3 Design horizontal earthquake load 26
5.3.4 Design vertical earthquake load 26
5.3.5 Combination for two or three component motion 26

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 5.4 Increase in permissible stresses
5.4.1 Increase in permissible stress in materials 27
5.4.2 Increase in allowable pressure in soils

6. GENERAL PRINCIPLE AND DESIGN CRITERIA

6.1 Design spectrum 28
6.2 Design lateral force 32
6.2.1 Design seismic base shear 33
6.3 Fundamental natural period 33
6.4 Distribution of design force 34
6.5 Buildings with soft storey 35
6.6 Deformation
6.6.1 Storey drift limitation
6.6.2 Deformation compatibility of non-seismic members 36
6.6.3 Separation between adjacent units 36
7. CONCLUSION 40
8. REFERENCE 41

7
 List of figure
SL. Title Page
No.
1 Image of tectonic earthquake 10
2 Image of volcanic earthquake 11
3 Figure of an explosion earthquake 11
4 Details of earthquake zone in India 14
4 Shallow foundation 15
5 Deep foundation 16
6 Post earthquake pile configuration 18
7 Building at SanFernado Vally hall, California earthquake 19
8 Crossection of pile configuration of Rokko Island 20
9 Waterfront side, exposing foundation elements 21
10 Beam-to-column stiffness ratio 22
11 Relative distribution of story shear 37

8
 INTRODUCTION
A member of a structure that connects it to the ground and distribute loads to the
ground is Foundation. There are different types of foundation for different
purposes. Modern types of foundation are Shallow foundation and Deep
foundation. [3]Foundations are constructed to bear sufficient load capacity
depending on the type of subsoil aiding the foundation. The settling of the
foundation below the level of initial construction to a point where damage has
already been happened is known as foundation failure. The extent of damage
ensuing from earthquakes in the earthquake affected area is stimulated by the
behaviour of the soil. Here the damage is linked to the overall vulnerability of the
soil which leads to enormous permanent movements of the lower surface. Thus,
for an example, deposition of granular soils is compressed by the vibrations
caused by the earthquake that develops massive and differential settlements in the
lower surface. During earthquake, the soil consisting of loose granular materials,
leads to inclination and settlement of structures. The soil-structure interaction
(SSI) influences the structures' seismic response. Collapse of buildings resting on
piles in damp soils are noticed after most earthquakes, like the survey after 1995
Kobe earthquake Niigata earthquake in 1964 and the 2001 Bhuj earthquake the
application to the ground motion for site specific SSI analysis is presented. In
several earthquake-prone regions shallow foundations are used for small size
structures. The bearing capability of a shallow foundation is decreased when the
horizontal loads and rocking moments acts on the foundation. The reaction of pile
during seismic loading includes the evaluation of kinematic curving that occurs
due to the sideward displacement of a pile along with the mechanical
phenomenon forces acting on the cap mass that imitates the structure. Here we
discuss about the impact of earthquake on different types of foundation.

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Definition:-
Earthquake:
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of
the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in
the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
Foundation:
A foundation (or, more commonly, base) is the element of an architectural
structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure
to the ground
Types of earthquake:-

1. Tectonic

2. Volcanic

3. Collapse and explosion

o A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when the earth's crust breaks due
to geological forces on rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical and
chemical changes.

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o A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from tectonic forces
which occur in conjunction with volcanic activity.

o A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes in underground caverns and

mines that are caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of
rock on the surface.
o An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that is the result of the
detonation of a nuclear and/or chemical device.

11
Measurement of Earthquakes:-
Earthquake strength is commonly measured in two ways: with the Richter scale
and with the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. The Richter scale measures
magnitude as an indirect measure of released energy based on instrument
recordings according to certain defined procedures. The scale runs from zero at
the low end and is open at the upper end, although the largest earthquake ever
recorded had a Richter magnitude of nine. The scale is logarithmic, each whole
number value on the scale represents a tenfold increase in amplitude. In terms of
energy released, each scale number represents about 32 times the amount of
energy below it. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is a measure of an
earthquake’s intensity. It is an entirely subjective rating based on the observed
damage to structures and other physical effects. The scale ranges from I to XII,
with the upper rating being the most severe. Each scale includes a verbal
description of the effects and damage of an earthquake. The Modified Mercalli
Scale is imprecise because it depends on people’s observations, but it does
provide information on how an earthquake affects structures and how the same
earthquake affects areas at different distances from the epicentre, both of which
cannot be accounted for with the Richter scale. Unfortunately for building design,
neither scale is useful. This is because neither provides any information on the
acceleration or duration of an earthquake, both of which are critical in the analysis
and design of structures. However, they are used for risk analysis and
determination of seismic zones. Objective, quantified data useful for building
design is provided by the strong motion accelerograph. This machine measures
the acceleration of the ground or a building. The BIS requires that in seismic
zones 3 and 4 every building over 6 stories with an aggregate floor area of 60,000
square feet or more, and every building over 10 stories regardless of floor area,
be provided with not less than three accelerographs. These must be placed in the
basement, midportion, and near the top of the building. Some jurisdictions may
have additional requirements. The records obtained by these instruments provide
valuable data for research and design of similar buildings in the same
geographical area. The acceleration they measure is usually expressed as a
fraction of the acceleration of gravity, g, which is 32 feet per second per second.
Thus, an earthquake may be recorded as having an acceleration of 0.55g.

Characteristics of Earthquakes:-
Earthquakes are caused by the slippage of adjacent plates of the earth’s crust and
the subsequent release of energy in the form of ground waves. Seismology is
based on the science of plate tectonics, which proposes that the earth is composed
of several very large plates of hard crust many miles thick, riding on a layer of
molten rock closer to the earth’s core. These plates are slowly moving relative to
one another, and over time tremendous stress is built up by friction. Occasionally
12
the two plates slip, releasing the energy we know as earthquakes. One of the most
well known boundaries between two plates occurs between the Pacific plate and
the North American plate along the coast of California. Earthquakes also occur
in midplates, but the exact mechanism, other than fault slippage, is not fully
understood. The plates slip where the stress is maximum, usually several miles
below the surface of the earth. Where this occurs is called the hypocenter of the
earthquake. The term heard more often is the epicenter, which is the point on the
earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter. When an earthquake occurs,
complex actions are set up. One result is the development of waves that ultimately
produce the shaking experienced in a building. There are three types of waves: P
or pressure waves, S or shear waves, and surface waves. Pressure waves cause a
relatively small movement in the direction of wave travel. Shear waves produce
a sideways or up-and-down motion that shakes the ground in three directions.
These are the waves that cause the most damage to buildings. Surface waves
travel at or near the surface and can cause both vertical and horizontal earth
movement. The ground movement can be measured in three ways: by
acceleration, velocity, and displacement. All three occur over time, with most
earthquakes lasting only a few seconds. It is the acceleration of the ground that
induces forces on a structure. The interaction of the various waves and ground
movement is complex. Not only does the earth move in three directions, but each
direction has a different, random acceleration and amplitude. In addition, the
movement reverses, creating a vibrating action. Even though there is vertical
movement, the BIS allows it to be neglected under certain types of seismic design.
The weight of a structure is usually enough to resist vertical forces. It is the side-
to-side movement that causes the most

Seismic Zones:-
Based on seismic records, experience, and research, some areas of the India are
determined to have a greater probability of earthquakes than others, and some
areas have more severe earthquakes (areas where two major plates abut, for
example). This is taken into account by dividing the country into different zones
that represents times of future earthquake occurrence and strength. The map used
by the BIS is shown in Figure . The procedure for incorporating the zones will
be discussed in a later section.

13
 Bureau of Indian Standards
Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
IS 1893 : 2002

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Types of foundation:-
Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep.

Shallow foundation:
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a metre
or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or
pads of concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and
transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.
Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation
where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab
placed at the surface. Slab-on-grade foundations can be reinforced mat slabs,
which range from 25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size of the
building, or post-tensioned slabs, which are typically at least 20 cm for houses,
and thicker for heavier structures.

15
Deep foundation:
A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down through the
upper weak layer of topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are
different types of deep footings including impact driven piles, drilled shafts,
caissons, helical piles, geo-piers and earth stabilized columns. The naming
conventions for different types of footings vary between different engineers.
Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned
concrete.

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FAILURE OF FOUNDATION:-
Failure in foundations can be due to various reasons such as Lateral movement
of soil adjacent to the structure, Unequal settlement of sub-soil, Overturning of
the structure due to lateral pressure, Unequal settlement of the masonry,
contraction due to removal of moisture from the soil beneath the foundation,
Action of atmosphere, Lateral escape of the soil below the foundation etc. The
effects of foundation failures can range from bulging floors to cracked walls to
displaced mouldings. The external signs are wall rotation, cracked and/or broken
foundation, separation around garage door, windows and/or walls, cracked bricks.
While the internal hints are cracks on floors, disordered door sand windows,
broken sheetrock. The ground deformations which are permanent completely
break the structure. Some foundation types can resist these permanent ground
deformity. Most damage in a building is a result of ground movement. The
building’s foundations vibrate in the same way as the surrounding ground when
the ground shakes at the building site. The building reaction to an earthquake
movement occurs over a few seconds. During this time, many kinds of seismic
waves combine to vibrate the building in ways that are distinct in detail.
Additionally, as an outcome of various geological nature of every site, deviations
in fault seepage, different rocks in which the waves travel, overall shaking at
every site is different. The aspect of every buildings are varied in method of
analysis configuration, dimension, age, architectural system, or quality of
construction. The above aspects affects the reaction of the building. Instead of the
complex nature of the interactions among the building and ground within the few
seconds of movement there is wide understanding of how differently building
types can perform under the different conditions. During earthquakes, when
external forces act on the system, neither the structural displacements nor ground
displacements are independent of each other.

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18
 Building at San Fernando Valley Juvenile Hall pulled apart by lateral
spread during 1971 San Fernando, California earthquake

(Les Youd photo)

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Cross section showing pile configuration for a building on Rokko
Island, Kobe , Japan. Area was shaken by 1995 Kobe, Japan
Earthquake. Liquefaction and ground settlement (average 0.75 m)
occurred without significant structural damage to buildings on pile
foundations. Piles have proven effective structural mitigation measure
against liquefaction at sites with tolerable lateral ground displacement

20
Waterfront side of Ferry Building showing pavement
that settled and pulled away from building due to
liquefaction and lateral spread, exposing foundation
elements

21
Moment frame with small beam-to-column stiffness ratio, and (b) equivalent
static lateral force distribution from dynamic analysis and IBC expression
(Chopra 2005).

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN CRITERIA

General Principles:

Ground Motion
The characteristics (intensity, duration, etc) of seismic ground vibrations
expected at any location depends upon the magnitude of earthquake, its depth of
focus. Distance from the epicentre, characteristics of the path through which the
seismic waves travel, and the soil strata on which the structure stands. The
random earthquake ground motions, which cause the structure to vibrate, can be
resolved in any three mutually perpendicular directions. The predominant
direction of ground vibration is usually horizontal. Earthquake-generated vertical
inertia forces are lo be considered in design unless checked and proven In
specimen calculations to be not significant Vertical acceleration should be
considered in structures with large spans, those in which stability is a criterion for
design, or for overall stability analysis of structures Reduction in gravity force
due to vertical component of ground motions can be particularly detrimental in
22
cases of prestressed horizontal membe and of cantilevered members Hence,
special attention should be paid to the effect of vertical component of the ground
motion on prestressed or cantilevered beams, girders and slabs.

The response of a structure to ground vibration is a function of the nature of

foundation soil: materials, from, size and mode of construction of structures and
the duration and characteristics of ground motion I Ins standard specifies design
forces for structures standing on rocks or soils which do not settle, liquefy or slide
due to loss of strength during ground vibrations.

The design approach adopted in tins standard is to ensure that structures

possess at least a minimum strength to withstand minor earthquakes (<DBE),
which occur frequently, without damage; resist moderate earthquakes (DBE)
without significant structural damage though some non-structural damage may
occur; and aims that structures withstand a major earthquake (MCE) without
collapse Actual forces that appear on structures during earthquakes are much
greater than the design forces specified in this standard However, ductility,
arising from inelastic material behaviour and detailing, and over strength, arising
from the additional reserve strength in structures over and above the design
strength, are relied upon to account for this difference in actual and design lateral
loads. Reinforced and prestressed concrete members shall be suitably designed to
ensure that premature failure due to shear or bond does not occur, subject to the
provisions-of IS 456 and IS 1343. Provisions for appropriate ductile detailing of
reinforced concrete members arc given in IS 13920. In steel structures, members
and their connections should be so proportioned that high ductility is obtained.
Avoiding premature failure due to elastic or inelastic buckling of any type. The
specified earthquake loads are based upon post-elastic energy dissipation in the
structure and because of this fact. the provision of this standard for design,
detailing and construction shall be satisfied even for structures and members for
which load combinations that do not contain the earthquake effect indicate larger
demands than combinations including earthquake.

Soil Structure interaction:-

The soil-structure interaction refers to the effects of the supporting foundation
medium on the motion of structure. The soil-structure interaction may not be
considered in the seismic analysis for structures supported on rock or rock-like
material.

The design lateral force sped tied in this standard shall lie considered in each
of (lie two orthogonal horizontal directions of the structure). For structures which
have lateral force resisting elements in the two orthogonal directions only, the
design lateral force shall be considered along one direction at a time, and not in

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both directions simultaneously. Structures, having lateral force resisting elements
(for example frames, shear walls) in directions other than the two orthogonal
directions, shall be analysed considering tin; load combinations Where both
horizontal and vertical seismic forces are taken into account, load combinations
shall be considered.

Equipment and oilier systems, which are supported al various floor levels of
the structure, will be subjected to motions corresponding to vibration al their
support points. In important cases, it may be necessary to obtain floor response
spectra for design of equipment supports.

Additions to Existing Structures

Additions shall be made to existing structures only as follows:

a) An addition that is structurally independent from an existing structures shall

be designed and constructed in accordance with the seismic requirements for new
structures.

b) An addition that is not structurally independent from an existing structure shall

be designed and constructed such that the entire structure conforms to the seismic
force resistance requirements for new structures unless the following three
conditions are complied with

1) The addition shall comply with the requirements for new structures,

2) The addition shall not increase the seismic forces in any structural elements
of the existing structure by more than 5 percent unless the capacity of the element
subject to the increased force is still in compliance with this standard, and

3) The addition shall not decrease the seismic resistance of any structural
element of the existing structure unless reduced resistance is equal to or greater
than that required for new structures.

Change in Occupancy
When a change of occupancy results in a structure being re-classified to a higher
importance factor (I), the structure shall conform to the seismic requirements for
a new structure with the higher importance factor.

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Assumptions:-
The following assumptions shall be made in the earthquake resistant design of
structures:

a) Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions, which are complex and

irregular in character, changing in period and amplitude each lasting for
a small duration. Therefore, resonance of the type as visualised under
steady-state sinusoidal excitations, will not occur as it would need time
to build up such amplitudes.
b) Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or
maximum flood or maximum sea waves.
c) The value of elastic modulus of materials, wherever required, may be
taken as for static analysis unless a more definite value is available for
use in such condition

Load Combination and Increase in Permissible Stresses

Load Combinations
When earthquake forces are considered on a structure, these shall be combined.
Where the terms DL, IL and EL stand for the response quantities due to dead
load, imposed load and designated earthquake load respectively.

Load factors for plastic design of steel structures:

In the plastic design of steel structures, the following load combinations shall be
accounted for:

1) 1.7 (DL + IL)

2) 1.7 (DL ± EL)

3) 1.3 (DL + IL ± EL)

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Partial safety factors for limit state design of reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete structures:
In the limit state design of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, the
following load combinations shall be accounted for:

1) 1.5 (DL + !L)

2) l.2 (OL + IL ± EL)

3) l.5 (DL ± EL)

4) Q.9DL ± l.5EL

Design Horizontal Earthquake Load:

When the lateral load resisting elements are oriented along orthogonal horizontal
direction, the structure shall be

designed for the effects due to full design earthquake load in one horizontal
direction at time.

When the lateral load resisting elements are not oriented along the
orthogonal horizontal directions, the structure shall be designed for the effects
due to full design earthquake load in one horizontal direction plus 30 percent of
the design earthquake load in the other direction.

Design Vertical Earthquake Load:

When effects due to vertical earthquake loads are to be considered, the design
vertical force shall be calculated in accordance.

Combination for Two or Three Component Motion:

When responses from the three earthquake components are to be considered, the
responses due to each component may be combined using the assumption that
when the maximum response from one component occurs, the responses from the
other two component are 30 percent of their maximum. All possible combinations
of the three components (ELx, ELy and ELz) including variations in sign (plus or
minus) shall be considered. Thus, the response due earthquake force (EL) is the
maximum of the following three cases:

26
1) ± ELx ± 0.3 Ely ± 0.3 ELz

2) ± ELy ± 0.3 ELx ± 0.3 ELz

3) ± ELz ± 0.3 ELx ± 0.3 ELy

where x and y are two orthogonal directions and z is vertical direction.

As an alternative to the procedure in the response (EL) due to the combined

effect of the three components can be obtained on the basis of' square root of the
sum of the square (SRSS)’ that is

𝐸𝐿 = √(𝐸𝐿𝑥)2 𝑓 + (𝐸𝐿𝑦)2 + (𝐸𝐿𝑧)2

When two component motions (say one horizontal and one vertical, or only two
horizontal) are combined, the equations should be modified by deleting the term
representing the response due to the component of motion not being considered.

Increase in Permissible Stresses:

Increase in permissible stresses in materials:-
When earthquake forces are considered along with other normal design forces,
the permissible stresses in material, in the elastic method of design, may be
increased by one-third. However, for steels having a definite yield stress, the
stress, the stress) limited to the yield stress; for steels without a definite yield
point, the stress will be limited to 80 percent of the ultimate strength or 0.2 percent
proof stress, whichever is smaller; and that in prestressed concrete members, the
tensile stress in the extreme fibers of the concrete may be permitted so as not to
exceed two-thirds of the modulus of rupture of concrete.

Increase in allowable pressure in soils:

When earthquake forces are included, the allowable bearing pressure in soils shall
be increased as per Table 1, depending upon type of foundation of the structure
and the type of soil. In soil deposits consisting of submerged loose sands and soils
falling under classification SP with standard penetration N-values less than 15 in
seismic Zones III, IV, V and less than 10 in seismic Zone II, the vibration caused
by earthquake may cause liquefaction or excessive total and differential
settlements. Such sites should preferably be avoided while locating new
settlements or important projects. Otherwise, this aspect of the problem needs to
be investigated and appropriate methods of compaction or stabilization adopted
to achieve suitable N-values as indicated in Note 3 under Table 1. Alternatively,

27
deep pile foundation may be provided and taken to depths well into the layer
which is not likely to liquefy. Marine clays and other sensitive clays are also
known to liquefy due to collapse of soil structure and will need special treatment
according to site condition.

Design Spectrum:
For the purpose of determining seismic forces, the country is classified into four
seismic zones. The design horizontal seismic coefficient for a structure shall be
determined by the following expression:

𝑍𝐼𝑆𝑎
𝐴ℎ =
2𝑅𝑔

Provided that for any structure with T≤ 0.1 s, the value of h A will not be taken
less than Z/2 whatever be the value of where

Z = Zone factor given in Table 2, is for the Maximum Considered Earthquake

(MCE) and service life of structure in a zone. The factor 2 in the denominator of
Z is used so as to reduce the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) zone
factor to the factor for Design Basis Earthquake (DBE).

I = Importance factor, depending upon the functional use of the structures,

characterised by. hazardous consequences of its failure, post earthquake
functional needs, historical value, or economic importance.

R = Response reduction factor, depending on the perceived seismic damage

performance of the structure, characterised by ductile or brittle deformations.
However, the ratio (I/R) shall not be greater than 1.0 (Table 7). The values of R
for buildings are given in Table 7.

(𝑆𝑎 /g)= Average response acceleration coefficient

28
 Table-1
Percentage of Permissible Increase in Allowable
Bearing Pressure or Resistance of Soils

29
 Table-2
Zone factor
Seismic II III IV V
Zone
Seismic Low Moderate Severe Very
Intensity Severe
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

for rock or soil sites based on appropriate natural periods and damping of the
structure.

Where a number of modes are to be considered for dynamic analysis, the value
of Ah. For each mode shall be determined using the natural period of vibration of
that mode.

For underground structures and foundations at depths of 30 m or below, the

design horizontal acceleration spectrum value shall be taken as half the value
obtained.

For structures and foundations placed between the ground level and 30 m depth,
the design horizontal acceleration spectrum value shall be linearly interpolated
between Ah and 0.5 Ah

Where,
𝑍𝐼𝑆𝑎
𝐴ℎ =
2𝑅𝑔

The design acceleration spectrum for vertical motions, when required, may be
taken as two-thirds of the design horizontal acceleration spectrum. 5 percent
spectra for rocky and soils sites and Table 3 gives the multiplying factors for
obtaining spectral values for various other dampings.

30
 In case design spectrum is specifically prepared for a structure at a particular
project site, the same may be used for design at the discretion of the project'
authorities.

Table 3
Multiplying Factors for Obtaining Values for Other Damping

Damping 0 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30
Percent
Factors 3.20 1.40 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50

31
Design Lateral Force:
Buildings and portions thereof shall be designed and constructed, to resist the
effects of design lateral force as a minimum. The design lateral force shall first
be computed for the building as a whole. This design lateral force shall then be
distributed to the various floor levels. The overall design seismic force thus
obtained at each floor level shall then be distributed to individual lateral load
resisting elements depending on the floor diaphragm action. Another difficulty
with seismic design is that the forces produced by an earthquake are so great that
no building can economically and reasonably be designed to completely resist all
loads in a major earthquake without damage. Building codes and analytical
methods of design are, therefore, a compromise between what could resist all
earthquakes and what is reasonable. Because of this, the current approach in
designing earthquake resistant structures is that they should first of all not
collapse during major seismic activity. Additionally, the components of buildings
should not cause other damage or personal injury even though they may be
structurally damaged themselves. Finally, structures should be able to withstand
minor earthquakes without significant damage. The analyatic methods of analysis
and design of earthquake-resistant structures are complex, even with the
simplified static analysis method allowed by the Uniform Building Code (BIS).
However, a great deal of resistance is provided by the basic configuration and
structural system of a building. The design of buildings for earthquake loads
requires an early and close collaboration between the architect and engineer to
arrive at the optimum structural design while still satisfying the functional and
aesthetic needs of the client. This chapter will discuss some of the basic principles
of earthquakes and the primary design and planning guidelines with which you
should be familiar. In addition, a basic review of the static analysis method will
32
be presented along with some simplified problems to help explain the design
concepts.

Design Seismic Base Shear:

The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear (VB) along any
principal direction shall be determined by the following expression: 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑤

Where 𝐴ℎ = Design horizontal acceleration spectrum value

W = Seismic weight of the building.

Fundamental Natural Period

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (Ta), in
seconds, of a moment-resisting frame building without brick infil
panels may be estimated by the empirical expression:
𝑇𝑎 = 0.075ℎ0.75 for RC frame building

= 0.085ℎ0.75 for steel frame building

where ,

h = Height of building, in m. This excludes the basement storeys, where basement

walls are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the building
columns. But, it includes the basement storeys, when they are not so connected.

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (Ta), in seconds, of all

other buildings, including moment-resisting frame buildings with brick infil
panels, may be estimated by the empirical expression:

0.09
𝑇𝑎 =
√𝑑
h = Height of building, in m,

b = Base dimension of the building at the plinth level, in m, along the considered
direction of the lateral force.

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Distribution of Design Force
Vertical Distribution of Base Shear to Different Floor Levels:
The design base shear 𝑉𝐵 computed by formula 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑤 shall be distributed
along the height of the building as per the following expression:

Where,

𝑄𝑖 = Design lateral force at floor i,

𝑊𝑖 = Seismic weight of floor;

ℎ𝑖 = Height of floor i measured from base, and

n = Number of storeys in the building is the number of levels at which the masses
arc located.

Distribution of Horizontal Design Lateral Force to Different Lateral

Force Resisting Elements:
In case of buildings whose floors are capable of providing rigid horizontal
diaphragm action, the total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to
the various vertical elements of lateral force resisting system, assuming the floors
to be infinitely rigid in the horizontal plane.

In case of building whose floor diaphragms cannot be treated as infinitely rigid

in their own plane, the lateral shear at each floor shall be distributed to the vertical
elements resisting the lateral forces, considering the in-plane flexibility of the
diaphragms.

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Buildings with Soft Storey:
In case buildings with a flexible storey, such as the ground storey consisting of
open spaces for parking that is Stilt buildings, special arrangement needs to be
made to increase the lateral strength and stiffness of the soft/open storey.

Dynamic analysis of building is carried out including the strength and stiffness
effects of in fills and inelastic deformations in the members, particularly those in
the soft storey, and the members designed accordingly

Alternatively, the following design criteria arc lo be adopted after carrying out
the earthquake analysis, neglecting the effect of infill walls in other storeys:

a) the columns and beams of the soft storey arc to be designed for 2.5 limes
the storey shears and moments calculated under seismic loads specified in
the oilier relevant clauses:
b) besides the columns designed and detailed for the calculated storey shears
and moments. Shear walls placed symmetrically in both directions of the
building as far away from the centre of the building as feasible: lo be
designed exclusively for 1 5 times the lateral storey shear force calculated
is before.

Storey Drift Limitation:

The storey drill in any storey due to the minimum specified -design lateral force
with partial load factor of 1 0. shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey height. For
the purposes of displacement requirements only it is permissible lo use seismic
force obtained from the computed fundamental period (T) of the building without
the lower bound limit on design seismic force. There shall be no drift limit for
single storey building which has been designed to accommodate storey drift.

MAXIMUM INTERSTORY DRIFT DISTRIBUTIONS:-

Since the suggested lateral force distribution is based on inelastic response, the
structures designed by using such distribution tend to be better proportioned. In
other words, the possibility of overdesign or underdesign in certain regions is
greatly reduced. (Figure 6 ) shows that an EBF designed by using the suggested
lateral force distribution.

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Deformation Compatibility of Non-Seismic Members:
For building located in seismic Zones IV and V, it shall he ensured that the
structural components, that are not a part of the seismic force resisting system
in the direction under consideration, do not lose their vertical carrying capacity
under the induced moments resulting from storey deformations equal to R
times the storey displacements calculated. Where R is taken from the table
below.

Separation between Adjacent Units:

Two adjacent buildings, or two adjacent units of the same building with
separation joint in between shall be separated by a distance equal to the amount
R times the sum of the calculated storey displacements of each of them, to avoid
damaging contact when the two units deflect towards each other. When floor
levels of two similar adjacent units or buildings are at the same elevation levels,
factor R in this requirement may be replaced by R/2.

36
On the other hand, the suggested lateral force distribution (thus, the relative story
shear distribution) is closer to the results obtained from nonlinear dynamic
analyses. It is noted, as shown in Figure 6, that relative story shear distribution
using α= 0.5 generally represents a lower bound of the nonlinear dynamic
analysis results. This would normally lead to larger design forces at upper floors,
which may result in concentration of inelastic deformation at the lower levels.
Further analyses by Chao and Goel (2005 and 2006a) show that relative story
shear distribution using α= 0.75 represents an upper bound of the nonlinear
dynamic analysis results (Figure 6) and generally leads to more uniform
deformations of elements as well as stories over the height of the structure, which
will be discussed later.

Figure 6. Relative story shear distributions from nonlinear dynamic analyses,

code expressions, and suggested expression for nine-story moment frame
designed based on NEHRP expression.

37
 ZONE FACTORS FOR SOME IMPORTANT TOWNS
Town Zone Zone Town Zone Zone Factor,
Factor, Z Z
Agra III 0.16 Chitradurga II 0.10
Ahmedabad III 0.16 Coimbatore III 0.16
Ajmer II 0.10 Cuddalore III 0.16
Allahabad II 0.10 Cuttack III 0.16
Almora IV 0.24 Darbhanga V 0.36
Ambala IV 0.24 Darjeeling IV 0.24
Amritsar IV 0.24 Dharwad III 0.16
Asansol III 0.16 Dehra Dun IV 0.24
Aurangabad II 0.10 Dharampuri III 0.16
Bahraich IV 0.24 Delhi IV 0.24
Bangalore II 0.10 Durgapur III 0.16
Barauni IV 0.24 Gangtok IV 0.24
Bareilly III 0.16 Goa III 0.16
Bhatinda III 0.16 Gulbarga II 0.10
Bhilai II 0.10 Gaya III 0.16
Bhopal II 0.10 Gorakhpur IV 0.24
Bhubaneswar III 0.16 Hyderabad II 0.10
Bhuj V 0.36 Imphal V 0.36
Bijapur III 0.16 Jabalpur III 0.16
Bikaner III 0.16 Jaipur II 0.10
Bokaro III 0.16 Jamshedpur II 0.10
Bulandshahr IV 0.24 Jhansi II 0.10
Burdwan III 0.16 Jodhpur II 0.10
Cailcut III 0.16 Jorhat V 0.36
Chandigarh IV 0.24 Kakrapara III 0.16
Chennai III 0.16 Kalapakkam III 0.16
Kanchipuram III 0.16 Pondicherry II 0.10
Kanpur III 0.16 Pune III 0.16

38
Karwar III 0.16 Raipur II 0.10
Kohima V 0.36 Rajkot III 0.16
Kolkata III 0.16 Ranchi IV 0.24
Kota II 0.10 Roorkee IV 0.24
Kurnool II 0.10 Roukela II 0.10
Lucknow III 0.16 Sadiya V 0.36
Ludhiana IV 0.24 Salem III 0.16
Madurai II 0.10 Simla IV 0.24
Mandi V 0.36 Sironj II 0.10
Mangalore III 0.16 Solapur III 0.16
Monghyr IV 0.24 Srinagar V 0.36
Moradabad IV 0.24 Surat III 0.16
Mumbai III 0.16 Tarapur III 0.16
Mysore II 0.10 Tezpur V 0.36
Nagpur II 0.10 Tnane III 0.16
Nagarjunasagar II 0.10 Tanjavur II 0.10
Nainital IV 0.24 Thiruvananthapuram III 0.16
Nasik III 0.16 Tiruchirappali II 0.10
Nellore III 0.16 Tiruvennamalai III 0.16
Osmanabad III 0.16 Udaipur II 0.10
Panjim III 0.16 Vadodara III 0.16
Patiala III 0.16 Varanasi III 0.16
Patna IV 0.24 Vellore III 0.16
Patna IV 0.24 Vijayawada III 0.16
Pilibhit IV 0.24 Vishakhapatnam II 0.10

39
The solutions to prevent the damage are:-
1) The super structure is tied to the foundation so that the entire structure acts as
a single unit.

2) The building can be floated above its foundation which is known as base
isolation.

Resulting to which, lateral acceleration is decreased and the structure experiences

far less deformity and damage. However, the structure still can receive fixed
amount of vibrational energy during seismic loading even with base isolation
system in place. The building itself can drench this energy to some level, however
its capability to do so is proportionate with the ductile nature of the material used
during construction. Presently, materials such as combination of rubber and steel
plates are invented which are used on buildings to absorb the vibration due to the
Earthquake. These are few ways by which we could prevent some losses during
earthquakes in future. Earthquakes cannot be stopped, but we can learn more, in
aspiration of discovering new ways to protect ourselves from their dangerous
effects. Simple precautions are most effective ways to minimise Earthquake
damage.

CONCLUSION:-
The effect of earthquake on the foundation of different architectural structures are
influenced in a number of ways by the nature and the behaviour of the soils in the
affected area. In spite of modern Engineering technology, the complete structure
may collapse in an earthquake if the foundation of the structure lies on soft soil.
However the geotechnical engineers can incredibly enhance the structure how the
structure and foundation together react to the seismic waves.

40
References:-
[1] wikipedia.org

[2] Indian Standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures

Part(1) general provisions and buildings (fifth Revision)

[3] Tokimatsu, K., Suzuki, H., Sato M.," Effects of inertial and kinematic
interaction on seismic behaviour of pile with embedded foundation "
Nishikameya 1501-21, Shijimi, MIki-shi, Hyogo-ken 673-0515, Japan,
November2004.

[4] Roy, D.," Design Of Shallow And Deep Foundations For Earthquakes",
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations
for Earthquakes. IIT Gandhinagar – March, 2013

[5] Lou, M.Wang, H.Chen, X.Zhai, Y., "Structure–soil structure interaction:

Literature review", Elsevier Ltd., Amsterdam, August2011

[6] Trombetta, W.N., Mason, B., Hutchinson,C.T., Zupan,D.,Bray,D.J .,Kutter,

L.B., " Nonlinear Soil Foundation–Structure and Structure–Soil–Structure
Interaction: Engineering Demands",J. Struct. Eng., 2014.

[7] Bureau of Indian standards criteria for earthquake resistant design of structure
IS 1813:2002

[8] Rai, D. C., Goel, S. C., and Firmansjah, J., 1996. SNAP-2DX: General
Purpose Computer Pro-gram for Static and Dynamic Nonlinear Analysis of Two
Dimensional Structures, Report No. UMCEE 96-21, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Michi-gan, Ann Arbor

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