TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES

 Plasma Membrane
 Surrounding animal cells
 Where the exchange of substances inside and outside of cells takes place.
 Bilayer: hydroliphic (outside) and hydrophobic (inside)
 Carbohydrate Chains (attached to proteins) are on the hydroliphic side

 Some substances need to move from the extracellular fluid outside cells to the inside of the cell, and some
substances need to move from the inside of the cell to the extracellular fluid.
 Some of the proteins that are stuck in the plasma membrane help to form openings (channels) in the
membrane.
 Through these channels, some substances such as hormones or ions are allowed to pass through.
 They either are “recognized” by a receptor (a protein molecule) within the cell membrane, or they attach to a
carrier molecule, which is allowed through the channels.
 Plasma membrane is choosy about what substances can pass through it
 Said to be selectively permeable.

Permeability
 Describes the ease with which substances can pass through a border, such as a cell membrane.

Permeable
 Means that most substances can easily pass through the membrane.

Impermeable
 Means that substances cannot pass through the membrane.

Transporting substances across the plasma membrane can require that the cell use some of its energy.
 Active – energy is used
 Passive Transport – used if molecules can pass through the plasma membrane without using energy

Active Transport
 To move substances against a concentration or electrochemical gradient, a cell must use energy.
 Sometimes, the molecules are just too big to easily flow across the plasma membranes or dissolve in the water
so that they can be filtered through the membrane.
 In these cases, the cells must put out a little energy to help get molecules in or out of the cell.
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
 One of the most important pumps in animal cells
 Moves Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript out of cells, and K^++start superscript, plus, end
superscript into them
 Because the transport process uses ATP as an energy source, it is considered an example of primary
active transport.

Passive Transport
 Substances are allowed to cross the cell membrane without any input of energy.
 A membrane can allow molecules to be passively transported through it in three ways

1. Diffusion
 Sometimes organisms need to move molecules from an area where they are highly concentrated to an area
where the molecules are less concentrated.
 This transport is much more easily done than moving molecules from a low concentration to a high
concentration.
 How does it work?
 Kinetic Energy
o Particles are constantly moving and bumping into each other
 Diffusion results in equilibrium
o All molecules occupy the same amount of space
 Some molecules are helped across the cell membrane by carrier proteins
2. Osmosis
 The diffusion of water across the cell membrane.
 The direction of osmosis depends on the concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell
 Hypotonic
o Concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside.
 Hypertonic
o Concentration outside is higher than inside.
 Isotonic
o Concentrations inside and out are equal
 Filtration
 Movement of solute molecules and water across a membrane by normal cardiovascular pressure.
 The size of the membrane pores dictate the molecules that may pass.

3. Bulk or Vesicular Transport

 Macromolecules, like proteins and other large particles, cannot enter and exit the cell through carrier proteins.
 They enter the cell in a different process that also requires energy.
 Endocytosis
o It is the process by which materials move into the cell.
o Has 2 types:
 Phagocytosis
 Process wherein a cell binds to the item it wants to engulf on the cell surface
and draws the item inward while engulfing around it.
 Often happens when the cell is trying to destroy something, like a virus or an
infected cell, and is often used by immune system cells.
 Pinocytosis
 Cellular process by which fluids and nutrients are ingested by cells
 Also called cell drinking
 Type of endocytosis that involves the inward folding of the cell membrane
(plasma membrane) and the formation of membrane-bound, fluid-filled vesicles.
o Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
 An endocytic mechanism in which specific molecules are ingested into the cell.
 Very well studied example involves the metabolism of cholesterol.
 Metabolites, hormones, and other proteins enter through this process.
 Exocytosis
o Materials are exported out of the cell via secretory vesicles.
o In this process, the Golgi complex packages macromolecules into transport vesicles that travel to
and fuse with the plasma membrane.
o Important in expulsion of waste materials out of the cell and in the secretion of cellular products
such as digestive enzymes or hormones.
BIOMOLECULES
 Also called biochemicals
 Organic compounds made by living things
 Some are very large; there are thousands of different biomolecules
 Separated into 4 categories
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids

1) CARBOHYDRATES
 The simplest biomolecules
 Contains 3 Elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 The word carbohydrate comes from the fact that these compounds have many carbon atoms bonded to
hydroxide (OH) groups.
 2 Main Purposes:
 Source of chemical energy for cells in many living things.
 Part of the structural material of plants
 Come in all sizes; from small rings to long chains.
 2 Types of Carbohydrates
 Complex Carbohydrates
o Starch
o Cellulose
 Simple Carbohydrates
o Sugar
 As the athletes consume massive amounts of starch and pasta, the energy begins to store up in their body,
saving itself for use during the event.
 Marathon runners, tri-athletes, cyclists like Lance Armstrong, and other endurance runners eat
carbohydrates for weeks leading up to a big event – “Carbo-loading”
 Even high school athletes occasionally have “Pasta Feeds” the night before a big game.

Starch
 Long chains of simpler sugars joined together
 These big molecules are called macromolecules
 Also called polysaccharides or polymers
 Slower to break down in the body & provide energy for a longer period of time than regular sugars.
 Examples: Wheat, potatoes, corn

Cellulose
 Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose.
 The cell wall is a large part of vegetables such as lettuce & celery. It also is what gives stems & wood strength.
 Made from chains of thousands of glucose molecules, but the difference is in how they’re linked.
 Because of this small difference, your body cannot digest cellulose the same way it can starches & sugars.
Sugar
 Break down quickly in the body
 Provide a quick burst of energy or a “sugar rush”
 Glucose is the most important & simplest sugar on Earth.
 Used in cells & created by photosynthesis
 It comes in many forms
 Examples of Simple Sugars

2) LIPIDS
 Lipids include:
 Fats
 Oils
 Most lipids are made of just carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Fats are more complex & take much longer to break down.
 Fats are high-energy molecules that plants and animals use to store energy in reserves for longer periods.
 Plants store energy in oils, like olive oil, corn oil, or peanut oil.
 An oil is a fat that is liquid at room temperature.

Lipids Structure
 Fats & oils store energy super-efficiently
 1 gram of fat contains about twice the energy as 1 gram of carbohydrate
 A fat molecule has a 2-part structure.
 The first part is called glycerol.
 Attached to the glycerol are 3 long chains called fatty acids.

Saturated Fats
 Only single bonds in the carbon chain
 Most animal fats
 “Bad Fats”
 Diets high in saturated fat are linked to heart disease

Unsaturated Fats
 One or more double bonds in the carbon chain
 Most oils from plants
 “Good Fats”

Cholesterol
 Cholesterol is another lipid in cell membranes
 It is also needed to make hormones like adrenaline
 Your body makes the cholesterol that it needs, but it is also found in many foods that come from animals, like
meat and eggs.
 Although you need cholesterol, eating too much of it can block arteries and lead to heart disease.
3) PROTEINS
 Proteins are big molecules called macromolecules
 Made of smaller molecules called amino acids
 Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, & some other elements
 There are at least 100,000 proteins in your body
 Each has a different structure that gives it a specific job.
 There are 4 types of structure, including coils & curls.

Amino Acids
 Think of proteins as being like a word. Amino acids are the letters in that word. Rearranging the letters makes
words with different meanings.
 There are 20 amino acids required for human life to exist.
o 12 amino acids are made in our bodies;
o But the other 8 must be obtained by eating foods that contain them.

Enzymes
 Some proteins curl up into a shape like a ball of enzymes.
 An enzyme is a special protein & a catalyst for a chemical reaction in living things.
 Catalysts speed up the rate of a reaction.
 Enzymes are needed for many chemical reactions in your body.
 Without them, these reactions would occur too slowly to keep you alive.

Proteins in the Diet

 It’s important to have lots of protein in your diet!
 Proteins in foods such as meats, soybeans, & nuts are broken down into amino acids.
 Without protein, your body can’t function perfectly.
 This is why it’s important for vegetarians to find protein from non-animal sources.

Vitamins
 Most of the chemicals needed for life can be made by your own body, like proteins.
 However, there are certain chemicals that your body does not automatically make.
 We call these vitamins & minerals.
 Important daily vitamins & minerals include
 Calcium, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, and a whole bunch of B vitamins.
 The only place to get these: food
Vitamin C
 Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is needed for several important processes in your brain & nervous system.
 Scurvy results from a lack of vitamin C in your diet.
 Causes spotting on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding membranes, and can eventually lead to death.
 The British Royal Navy were among the first to discover this vitamin deficiency, when they noticed their sailors
would get sick without fresh fruits & vegetables.
 James Lind –conducted clinical tests that proved that citrus fruits and their juices would cure/prevent scurvy
4) NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Largest & most complex biomolecule
 Includes:
 DNA
 RNA
 Contain information that cells use to make proteins
 Made of:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
Protein Synthesis
 Every cell in your body has a complete set of nucleic acids.
 The process of making proteins from amino acids is called protein synthesis.
 How does protein synthesis work? DNA.
DNA
 Deoxyribonucleic acid
 One of the largest molecules
 A single DNA molecule has more than 1 million atoms.
 Structure:
 Twisted ladder or double helix
 The sides of the ladder are made of:
o Sugar molecules called deoxyribose
o Phosphate group
 The “rungs” of the ladder are made of:
o Nitrogen bases
4 Nitrogen Bases
 Occur in matched sets:
 Adenine (A) to Cytosine (C)
 Thymine (T) to Guanine (G)
 The order of the bases in DNA is the way in which DNA stores instructions for making proteins.
 Each of the 20 amino acids is represented by a series of 3 DNA bases.
 For example, the sequence T-A-C is the code for the amino acid tyrosine.
No. Nature Amino acids
Glycine (Gly), Alanine (Ala), Valine (Val), Leucine
1. NEUTRAL : Amino acids with 1 amino and 1 carboxyl group
(Leu), Isoleucine (Ile)
Aspartic acid (Asp), Asparagine (Asn), Glutamic
2. ACIDIC : 1 extra carboxyl group
acid (Glu), Glutamine (Gln)
3. BASIC : 1 extra amino group Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys)
4. S – CONTAINING : Amino acids have sulphur Cysteine (Cys), Methionine (Met)
5. ALCOHOLIC : Amino acids having –OH group Serine (Ser), Threonine (Thr), Tyrosine (Tyr)
6. AROMATIC : Amino acids having cyclic structure Phenylalanine (Phe), Tryptophan (try)
7. HETEROCYCLIC : amino acids having N in ring structure Histidine (His), Proline (Pro)