A GLIMPSE INTO CLASSROOM

INTERACTION

MASTER DISSERTATION
UAB TED MASTERS DEGREE 2009-2010

Author: Liz Raga Preston

Tutor: Mercè Bernaus Queralt
June, 2010
 Dedicated to the memory of Carlos Raga

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My thanks and appreciation to my tutor, Mercè Bernaus, who has given me an

extremely positive support and guidance right from the first moment we met.

I am grateful to my mentor, Montse Abella, for making me feel like a colleague and to
all the students I have met at the high school for letting me learn with them.

I am also deeply grateful to Pepi for her constant encouragement and for helping me
start this new adventure, and to my parents and my parents-in-law for their support
throughout the year.

Finally, my particular thanks to Xavier and my children Lluc and Gina for their patience,
love and for being the best bunch of supporters I could dream of.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 2

1. CONTEXT.................................................................................................................................. 3

2. GLOBAL OBJECTIVE OF THE PAPER................................................................................ 4

3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 5

4. SMALL SCALE EMPIRICAL STUDY: INTERACTION AS A DRIVING FORCE IN

LEARNING ................................................................................................................................ 6
INTRODUCTION ……..…………………………………………………………………………….... 6
BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE TOPIC ……………………………………………. 6
ANALYSIS OF TRANSCRIPT …………………………………………………………………... 10
CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………………………………………..…. 15

5. OVERALL REFLECTION ON THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONALIZATION

UNDERGONE THROUGHOUT THE COURSE ............................................................. 18
BUILDING A POSITIVE RAPPORT WITH STUDENTS ………………………………..18
ENGAGING STUDENTS EARLY IN THE MORNING ………………………………….19
TANDEM TEACHING, ICTs AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ……..………19
DESIGN OF A TEACHING UNIT ………………………………………………………………21
CLIL …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….22
GROUPWORK AND SEATING ARRANGEMENT ……………………………………...23
MOTIVATION …………………………………………………………………………………………24
WORKING WITH PROJECTS AND ENGAGING ALL STUDENTS ……………….24
CONCLUSIONS ON THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONALIZATION ……..……..26

6. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................... 27

7. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 28

8. ANNEXES................................................................................................................................ 29

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ABSTRACT
How does classroom interaction contribute to language learning? This study aims at
identifying and interpreting some patterns of teacher-student interaction within an EFL
classroom. Different interactional patterns and strategies are examined through the
self-observation of the teacher‟s own performance as a student-teacher during her
practicum period in a secondary school.

KEY WORDS: classroom interaction, interactional strategies, effective teaching and

learning, motivation, positive rapport.

RESUM
En quina mesura la interacció a l‟aula fomenta l‟aprenentatge de les llengües? Aquest
treball de recerca té com a objectiu identificar i interpretar algunes de les pautes
d‟interacció professor/alumne dins d‟una classe d‟anglès. S‟examinen diferents pautes i
estratègies d‟interacció mitjançant l‟autoobservació de la professora en pràctiques
durant la seva estada de pràctiques a un institut.

PARAULES CLAU: interacció a l‟aula, estratègies d‟interacció, ensenyament i

aprenentatge eficaç, motivació, relació positiva.

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INTRODUCTION

This paper is a small scale research into the teaching and learning of EFL focused on
classroom interaction and its crucial role in second language acquisition. Effective
teaching and learning involves a great amount of factors, but learning occurs to a great
extent through the interaction that takes place between all the participants. Classroom
interaction encompasses many elements: input (from the teacher or from other
learners), turn-allocation or turn-taking behaviours, students‟ production, feedback, etc.
Therefore, trying to understand how interaction contributes to language learning is
essential.

This paper has been organized into six main parts: context, global objective of the
paper, methodology, small scale empirical study, overall reflection on the process of
professionalization undergone throughout the course and conclusions. The context is,
first of all, the school context where the teacher did her practicum. Following this, there
is a more detailed explanation of the context of the class taken as a sample to develop
this paper and where the video used for the analysis was recorded. After this, the global
objectives of this paper are stated, including the broader objectives and the more
specific focus of the paper. In the next section, there is an explanation of the
methodological approach used to carry out this paper, and more specifically the
different methods used for the empirical study and for the reflection on the process of
professionalization undergone. The fourth section is the empirical study, derived from
the self-observation paper written by the student-teacher. This study aims at identifying
and interpreting some patterns of teacher-student interaction within an EFL classroom.
Different interactional patterns and strategies are examined through the self-
observation of the teacher‟s own performance as a student-teacher during her first
practicum period in a secondary school. Following this, is the overall reflection on the
process of professionalization undergone throughout the course. This section includes
the most valuable experiences of the student-teacher as a teacher in a secondary
school, her greatest challenges and some of the activities performed which enable the
author to reflect upon different aspects of teaching and learning. The conclusions are in
the final section, where the major findings derived from the previous sections are put
together. This part also incorporates areas for future in-depth study and for future
professional improvement as a teacher. Finally, the annexes include different materials
such as the video recording used for the analysis, the transcript of this vignette,
pictures, the student-teacher‟s mentor and pupils‟ feedback and some of the students‟
productions.

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1. CONTEXT

L‟Ebre secondary school1 is located in Rubí, a working-class town in the metropolitan

area of Barcelona. It is a state school with about 550 students and 56 teachers. The
school used to be in the town centre, but five years ago it was moved to a new building
in a pleasant residential neighbourhood, next to the Ca n‟Oriol park and quite near the
town centre.

Immigrants in this school account for a 55% of students (taking into account
compulsory, post-compulsory education and occupational training), but the percentage
is much higher in ESO (compulsory secondary education). Immigrants are mainly Latin
Americans and Moroccans, but there are students from eastern European countries,
China, central Africa, etc. Apart from this, a significant percentage of students in the
school have special needs arising from unfavourable socio-economic circumstances
and the majority of families have low educational attainment levels. Due to this
situation, the school makes a great effort to cater for diversity and to ensure the
integration of all its members.

The video vignette analysed for the empirical study was recorded in an English
language lesson with a 4th ESO group of 25 students (15-16 years old). Although these
students are in the last year of compulsory secondary schooling, their English is very
limited (corresponding to an A1 elementary level). This is the first time the student-
teacher teaches in this group.

The activity carried out is a “clue” dictation. It‟s a teacher-fronted activity in which the
student-teacher says a clue and students have to write the word it refers to (i.e. the day
after Friday: Saturday; the language spoken in France: French, etc.). Students have to
listen, understand what the teacher says, and write the word in their notebooks. The
student-teacher had planned to dictate fifteen items, but after the first few items, she
realized that the pace of the activity was too slow and she decided to cut it down to ten
items.

The video recording corresponds to the end of the activity. The student-teacher has
already dictated the clues and students take turns to go to the board to write the
answers. Despite the background noise and some disruptive behaviour, students are
involved and participate in the activity. The teacher uses English throughout the
exchange, and students communicate combining English and Spanish (the L1 of the
majority of students). Apart from using the L1 and L2 in the classroom, students also
take non verbal turns to communicate. The duration of the excerpt is of 3‟25” which
have been fully transcribed.

In the overall reflection section, the majority of experiences refer to 3rd ESO groups (14-
15 year old students), where the student-teacher‟s Teaching Unit was implemented.

In both cases, many circumstances have to be taken into account and considered:
mixed abilities, motivation, special educational needs, newly arrived students from

1
The name of this school has been changed throughout the paper in order to preserve its identity.

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other countries and cultures, etc. Kyriacou (1997, p.56) suggests that one of the key
factors in effective teaching is taking into account pupil differences. This enables the
teacher to be more sensitive to the educational experience context to be established in
order to facilitate learning by all the different groups of pupils.

Grouping in this high school is heterogeneous, which means that students are not
streamed according to their levels and capacities. Obviously, having mixed abilities,
newly arrived students from other countries, special educational needs, etc. in the same
group and with no extra help in the classroom is a great challenge for the teachers in
this school, and it was certainly an added challenge to the new experience of the
student-teacher as a secondary school teacher.

2. GLOBAL OBJECTIVE OF THE PAPER

This paper has a twofold objective. In the first place, it is a professional development
tool to become better at teaching and at reflecting on teaching, by understanding the
theory of language teaching and learning.

But more specifically, this study aims at identifying some patterns of teacher-student
interaction. Classroom interaction encompasses the communication exchanges
between the teacher and the students (and among students themselves) together with
all the strategies used by the teacher to:

 facilitate comprehension
 gather and maintain students‟ attention and involvement in the activities
 encourage and ensure the participation of all students
 provide feedback
 deal with disruptive behaviour
 etc.

Many authors refer to the relevance of classroom interaction. Allwright (2000) points
out that success or failure in classroom language learning typically has something, if
not absolutely everything, to do with the nature of the interaction that takes place
during lessons.

Therefore, if interaction has such a significant effect on learning, the empirical study of
this paper will seek to shed some light on the following question:

Are the pedagogical strategies used by the teacher adequate to foster an effective
interaction with students?

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3. METHODOLOGY

In order to conduct this classroom-based study, a qualitative-ethnographic approach

has been applied. The researcher carried out a first-hand observation of one of the
sessions with a group of 4th ESO students (15-16 years old) during her first Practicum
period in January 2010, which was recorded and transcribed (vignette, transcription and
activity in annexes 1, 2 and 3). The main focus of the study is to analyse classroom
interaction and, more specifically, to see the pedagogical strategies used by the teacher
to foster effective interaction with pupils and, consequently, effective teaching and
learning. Therefore, both the teacher and the students are observed for this research.
The video was recorded on January 15th 2010 at 11.30 am and, as mentioned in the
previous section, this class was made up of twenty-five 15-16 year old students. The
vignette shows the end of the activity, in which students write their answers and the
teacher and the whole class give their feedback.
To process the data used for this small scale research, the researcher used Windows
Live Movie Maker to select and cut the 3‟25” vignette from a 27‟ video recording. After
selecting the excerpt, she used Express Scribe transcription software to transcribe the
oral exchange (using the basic transcription symbols). The transcription includes the
English and Catalan or Spanish spoken throughout the exchange, but it also includes
relevant gestures and non verbal answers (such as written answers on the blackboard).
The researcher analyzed the number of teacher‟s utterances and the number of words
in each utterance, which have been represented in a graph.
Cristina Escobar has supervised this part of the research and has provided extremely
useful directions, hints and readings in order to structure and guide the focus of
observation of this research.
The activities analyzed in section 5 have been appraised based on self-observation,
video recordings, the student-teacher mentor‟s comments and comments made by her
students. Students‟ productions have also been used as a means to assess effective
teaching and learning. Please find some of these comments and productions attached
herewith.
As the researcher and the teacher observed in this paper, I refer to myself as the
student-teacher or the teacher in the third person. However, I switch to the first person
in section five in order to convey in a more personal way my reflections and appraisal
of my process of professionalization.

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4. SMALL SCALE EMPIRICAL STUDY: INTERACTION AS A
DRIVING FORCE IN LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

This study aims at identifying and interpreting some patterns of teacher-student

interaction within an EFL classroom. Different interactional patterns and strategies are
examined through the self-observation of the teacher‟s own performance as a student-
teacher during her first practicum period in a secondary school.

Several authors have studied how teachers and students interact and the ways in which
classroom interaction affects and is relevant to language learning. Their views help to
gain insight into the teaching-learning process and to reflect upon the student-
teacher‟s own teaching.

In order to look into the interactional patterns and the strategies implemented by the
student-teacher, this paper includes the analysis of a video recording and transcript of
one of the classroom activities performed during her first practicum period. This
excerpt helps to interpret and reflect upon the different communication events and
interactions generated in the classroom.

One of the main aims of this paper is, therefore, to help build an understanding of how
classroom interaction contributes to language learning.

BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE TOPIC

A number of researchers have focused their attention on classroom interaction and

how it affects the teaching-learning process. As mentioned in the previous point,
according to Allwright (2000), classroom interaction supports or hinders the outcome
of language learning.

Allwright‟s views on interaction have developed over time, from regarding interaction
as offering language practice in the target language, to regarding interaction as
constituting the language development process itself.

In line with Allwright‟s first view, Gass et al. (1998) suggest that interaction can only set
the scene for potential learning. She claims that interaction should not be seen as a
cause of acquisition, although it may provide a structure that allows input to become
salient and noticed.

Be it a facilitator or the language learning process itself, both views seem to grant
interaction an essential role in second language acquisition.

Interaction in a classroom does not only involve the teacher, it involves all participants.
According to Tsui (1995, p.6) classroom interaction is a co-operative effort among
participants in which each participant contributes in determining the direction and
outcome of the interaction. Allwright and Bailey (1991: 18-19 as quoted by Tsui, 1995,

6
p.7) further point out, „interaction, in class or anywhere, has to be managed, as it goes
along, no matter how much has gone into it beforehand... it has to be managed by
everyone taking part, not just by the teacher, because interaction is obviously not
something you just do to people, but something people do together, collectively.‟

Although interaction is a co-operative effort of all participants in a classroom, there are

some aspects controlled or managed by the teacher and one of these aspects is the
input provided. Tsui (1995, p.7) suggests that the language used by the teacher affects
the language produced by the learners, the interaction generated and hence the kind
of learning that takes place. This author remarks that the kind of input and interaction
that is made available in a classroom is particularly important in situations where the
target language is seldom used outside the classroom and the students‟ only exposure
to the TL is in the classroom. In these situations, classroom interaction becomes even
more important since the target language is at once the subject of learning and the
medium of communication and learning. (Tsui, 1995, p.12)

This leads to the concept of comprehensible input established by Krashen. One very
important factor in the effectiveness of teacher talk is whether it is comprehensible to
the students. According to Krashen (1977, 1982, 1985 as quoted by Tsui, 1995, p.55),
input that is totally incomprehensible to learners is not likely to cause learning to take
place.

Krashen‟s theory implies that language acquisition occurs when comprehension of real
messages occurs. Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. It does not occur overnight,
however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge
significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. The best
methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety
situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do
not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when
they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative
and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production. (Krashen,
1981, p.6-7)

In SLA, input and interaction are strongly interrelated, but according to Ellis (1999,
p.245) „input‟ is the provision of data for language learning, which does not involve
learners in active participation in the sense of having to produce the L2 themselves,
while interaction supplies the learners with data to which they have actively contributed
through their own participation. He doubts whether learners can successfully acquire a
language only from the input that is afforded them and he further affirms that for
acquisition to take place, active participation is desirable and even necessary.

As mentioned earlier, interaction is a two-way process which requires the active

participation of all the people involved. How much of the input is comprehensible
depends not only on how much the NS or teacher modifies the input and the
interactional structure in order to provide comprehensible input, but more importantly
on how much the NNS or student is involved in trying to obtain comprehensible input.
(Tsui, 1995, p.69)

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Tsui (1995, p.55) remarks that teachers help students to obtain comprehensible input
by modifying their speech. Some of the modification devices used by teachers in order
to make their speech comprehensible to learners are speaking more slowly, using
exaggerated intonation, giving prominence to key words, using simpler syntax and a
more basic set of vocabulary.

With regard to the use of the target language in the classroom, Nussbaum (2006,
p.156) remarks that it is important for students to be exposed to the language as much
as possible. This implies the teacher using the TL, with the necessary modification
devices to facilitate comprehension, in explanations to the whole class and in
exchanges with individual students. As for the use of the TL by students, she suggests
that cal tenir present que l‟ús de formes lingüístiques no estàndards forma part dels
processos d‟aprenentatge de llengües i sempre és millor admetre formes híbrides que
no pas que un alumne no vulgui parlar per por de l‟error.

One of the strategies learners resort to in SLA, is code-switching. According to

Nussbaum (2001, p.143) one of the forms of interaction in a second language
classroom can be bilingual-exolingual: este tipo remite a las interacciones semejantes a
la anterior, pero en las que se recurre a dos lenguas para facilitar la comunicación,
como ocurre en clase de lengua extranjera cuando se utiliza la lengua meta y también
las lenguas del entorno conocidas por los alumnos.

Nevertheless, as Nussbaum claims, this mechanism might lead to only using the TL for
classroom activities and not for classroom management. Consequently, students‟
exposure to the TL will be reduced and they will be deprived from using the TL in a
variety of communication contexts: Claro está que, muchas veces, el recurso a otras
lenguas es una solución de comodidad y de abandono de las finalidades de enseñanza-
aprendizaje de la lengua meta. Así, por ejemplo, el docente que reclama el uso de la
lengua extranjera para ejercicios formales y, en cambio, usa la Ll para otras actividades
propias del aula (disciplina, organización de la tarea, explicaciones sobre la lengua,
evaluaciones, etc.) está obstaculizando el aprendizaje en dos sentidos: en primer lugar,
porque merma el tiempo de exposición a la lengua meta y, en segundo lugar, porque
priva a los alumnos de usar la lengua en contextos de comunicación variados.
Nussbaum, L. (2001, p.144)

Another important factor in classroom interaction is turn-allocation and turn-taking

behaviours. Turn allocation is one of the management devices teachers use to get all
students involved and to ensure the participation of all students. While it is impossible
to allocate turns evenly in every single lesson, an uneven allocation of turns for a long
period of time will make the weak and shy students feel neglected. The more they feel
neglected, the more reluctant they will be to participate. (Tsui, 1995, p.76)

As for the turn-taking behaviour of students, Tsui points out that they either take turns
that are solicited by the teacher or initiate turns by asking questions, making requests
or volunteering answers. When analysing the turn-taking behaviour of students it is
also important to consider cultural factors. In other words, when looking at students‟
turn-taking behaviour in the classroom, it is important for teachers to take into
consideration the cultural backgrounds of the students, when they are interacting with
the teacher and when they are interacting with each other. (Tsui, 1995, p.79)

8
Several authors support that interaction is a determiner of effective teaching. Kyriacou
(1997, p.12) refers to the following characteristics of effective teaching:

 Clarity of the teacher‟s explanations and directions

 Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate
 Making use of a variety of learning activities
 Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson
 Encouraging pupil participation and getting all pupils involved
 Monitoring pupils‟ progress and attending quickly to pupils‟ needs
 Delivering a well-structured and well-organised lesson
 Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback
 Ensuring coverage of the learning objectives
 Making good use of questioning techniques

Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate also involves managing pupil movement

and noise. According to Kyriacou (1998, p.59) two of the most important aspects of
effective management skills are maintaining adequate control over the movement of
pupils around the classroom and keeping the degree of noise generated at an
appropriate level. In both cases, part of the difficulty lies in there being no fixed
acceptable standard; what may be acceptable to one teacher in one context may not be
regarded as acceptable to another teacher in another context. Furthermore, problems
over movement and noise can arise simply as a result of pupils being actively engaged
in the tasks t hand and not because of any deliberate attempt by pupils to be
troublesome.

Interaction in the classroom also affects behaviour. Kyriacou (1997, p.103) remarks that
effective teachers are adept at pre-empting misbehaviour so that it does not have to be
„dealt with‟. But behaviour problems do occur in a classroom and they are brought
about by failure (Harmer, 2007, p.154). In this respect, Harmer suggests that teachers
should prioritise success:

Success is a powerful agent for the sustaining of a student‟s motivation. If they achieve
identifiable goals, our students are likely to remain engaged with what is going on. Part
of a teacher‟s job is to make sure that students recognise their achievements, however
small those achievements actually are.

One of our most important tasks is to try to make our students successful. This does
not mean making things easy all the time since that can provoke boredom or, at the
very least, disengagement. But at the other end of the spectrum, if things are too
difficult, students become demoralised. What we will try to aim for, instead, are tasks,
activities and goals which challenge individual students but for which they can have a
better-than-average chance of success. Getting the level of challenge right is a major
factor in effective classrooms. (Harmer, 2007, p.157)

In the following section, an excerpt of classroom interaction has been analyzed in order
to observe if the general interactional patterns and the interactional strategies used by
the teacher foster effective teaching and learning.

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ANALYSIS OF TRANSCRIPT

The excerpt analyzed illustrates a teacher fronted activity following, in a way, a typical
classroom IRF pattern (full transcript in Annex 2). The difference in this case is that in
the majority of cases, the response the teacher gets from students is a written response
on the blackboard.

Turn Speaker Utterances Relevant gestures

1 T Now ·· who wants ·· to write [T pointing at board]

number two here?

(...)

6 T OK, Mike‟s going to write it, but ·· [T including the whole group
you help as well. with gestures]

7 Mike [Mike writes on the board]

The structure of the whole exchange is very similar. The teacher asks for someone to
write the answer on the board, she repeats the statement (from the dictation) and after
the student writes the answer on the board, she reads the answer and she involves the
group by asking if it is right. Finally she gives her feedback.

The first turn of this excerpt is taken by the teacher with a general solicit open to the
class. In this turn, the teacher slows down the speed of her speech and she uses
gestures to ensure comprehension. Turn 2 is a self-selected turn by a student offering
to write the answer on the board. Mike speaks in Spanish, but the teacher
acknowledges him and he comes to the board.

1 T Now ·· who wants ·· to write [T pointing at board]

number two here?

2 Mike Yo!

3 T Mike

Turns 3 and 4 show a minor misbehaviour problem with this student which the teacher
decides to ignore.

In turn 6, the teacher slows down the speed and pauses to emphasize her gestures. In
this turn, she is involving the whole group in the task by telling all students that they
should help (using very simple wording).

6 T OK, Mike‟s going to write it, but ·· [T including the whole group

10
 you help as well. with gestures]

Turn 7 is Mike‟s written response. Once the student has written the response, the
teacher repeats the question and the answer slowly and in turn 9 the teacher asks for
the rest of the class to confirm if it is correct. After some students say it is correct, the
teacher confirms that it is. In turn 12 the teacher gives her feedback confirming it is
correct.

7 Mike [Mike writes on the board]

8 T The language · spoken in France is

·· French. Good.

9 T Is this correct?

10 FS Yes

11 MS Yes

12 T Right

Turn 13 is another general solicit open to the class. Some students offer to come to the
board (using Spanish) and the teacher selects a Moroccan girl (Irma) sitting at end of
the classroom. The teacher chooses her first because there are fewer girls in this class
and she wants to make sure that they also get a chance to participate. The teacher asks
the whole class if it is correct, and then Irma says she‟s not sure of the answer. She says
it in Spanish and the teacher replies slowly in English (with a smile) to make sure the
student understands that her answer is correct.

When the teacher initiates the next turn, Mike (the first student participating in the
activity) offers to come to the board again. The teacher organizes the turns by telling
him to wait a minute and she tells the two other students who raise their hands to
come to the board: “you, you come now, and then you”. Again, the syntax, vocabulary
and speed are modified to ensure comprehension. This utterance is also accompanied
by gestures.

28 T You · you come now ·· and then [Teacher pointing at different

you students]

In this case, the use of the imperative form helps convey the message in a simple, direct
and explicit way. The pauses also ensure that utterances are shorter and, therefore,
easier to follow by learners.

In turn 30, Will comes to the board and in the next turn Mike takes his place. Ws Will
returns to his place, Mike says in Spanish that he can‟t see from his place (turn 35 and
37).

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35 Mike Un momento, que no veo

36 T Mike

37 Mike No veo

The student-teacher asks Mike to move back to his own seat. She still speaks in English
and she uses the same tone of voice she has been using throughout the class. Mike
goes back to his place and insults Will (turn 39), but the teacher doesn‟t realize and
continues with the feedback. Speaking in a softer voice, the teacher tells Mike the
correct answer (in case he really had not been able to see the answer).

38 T Leave him, it‟s his place, you sit [Mike stands up and goes back
there. I‟m sure you can see from to his place]
there.
oo
39 Mike Gilipollasoo [Mike whispers an insult to
Will]

40 T No, can‟t you see from there? [Speaking to Mike]

o
41 T It‟s booko [Speaking to Mike]

In turn 42 the teacher starts another IRF sequence. She repeats the original statement
(in turn 44) and the student writes the answer on the board. The answer is incorrect (he
writes “jacket” and it should have been “hat”) and the teacher implicitly indicates the
presence of an error by saying: “wait a minute, wait a minute”. The teacher does not
want to say “No, it is not correct” because she wants the students to come to the
conclusion themselves. In turn 47 she asks students if it is correct. Some students
answer “yes”, “sí”, “no” and another student says “no vemos”.

44 T I wear one · on my head · when it‟s

very cold

45 Albert [Albert writes „jacket‟ on the

board]

46 T Wait a minute · wait a minute · [T gestures for student to stay]

47 T Is this correct?

Instead of giving the answer, the teacher explains what a jacket is by gesturing and
using a very simple wording (there is no need for an elaborate explanation which would
lead to confusion). The teacher simplifies the explanation with very short sentences
using the verb „to be‟ while gesturing at the same time.

12
54 T Jacket is here · this is like a jacket · [Teacher gesturing and
jacket · or this is a jacket pointing at jackets]

In turn 55 the teacher involves the whole class into trying to give the right answer: “OK,
any other ideas please? Can you help?” Students say: “jap” or “hap”. After watching the
video and analyzing the transcription, it appears that students might have been
combining the words “hat” and “cap”, but the teacher does not realize at the time. In
any case, students keep giving their ideas.

55 T OK · any other ideas please? · Can

you help?

56 MS Jap

In turns 57, 59 and 62, the teacher encourages students to offer more ideas: “sorry?
Nearly… It‟s not hap, similar, more ideas...” She does not provide the answer, because
she is convinced that the students know the word she is looking for, so this part of the
exchange lasts for 15”, from turn 55 when the teacher asks all the students to help until
the students give the right answer in turn 64.

57 T Sorry?

58 FS Hap

59 T Nearly

60 MS Jumper

61 FS Hap?

62 T It‟s not hap · similar · more ideas ·

63 MS Hap

64 MS Hat

65 T OK, good. [Albert corrects it on the board]

Once students have answered correctly, the teacher repeats the answer for everyone to
hear (turn 66). After this, the teacher starts the last IRF sequence in the excerpt with
another general solicit for students to volunteer to come to the board: initiation in turn
67, response in turn 70 and feedback in 71.

67 T Number six · who wants to write [Mike raises his hand again but
number six? T points at another student]

68 Mike Es el Ray

69 Mike Va Ray

13
70 Ray [Ray writes on the board]

71 T Thank you

During the whole exchange, the teacher simplifies her speech by using different
strategies which have already been mentioned. One of these strategies involves
shortening utterances either by producing short sentences or by pausing, and
therefore, „chunking‟ utterances. Following is the word count of the teacher‟s utterances
in the exchange analyzed (note that, in this case, utterances have been taken as units of
speech between pauses):

No. of
utterances
TEACHER'S UTTERANCES
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 word 2 words 3 words 4 words 5 words 6 words 7 words 8 words

Figure 1: number of words in the teacher‟s utterances

As seen in the above graph, the vast majority of the teacher‟s utterances are either one,
two or three word utterances, and the longest utterance between pauses is eight words
long (and there is only one of these). This word count suggests that the teacher clearly
adapts the length of her speech in order to help in learners‟ comprehension by
shortening utterances.

Going back to the list of ten characteristics of effective teaching identified by Kyriacou
(1997, p.12), the following may be observed in the classroom exchange analyzed (which
is 3‟25” long):

 Clarity of the teacher‟s explanations and directions  in the video, the student-
teacher adapts the speed of speech, she pauses to shorten utterances, she uses
gestures, simple wording, repeats structures, etc. Students‟ response (as seen in the
video) shows that they are following explanations and directions.

 Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate  the video shows how students are
on task and their willingness to participate (many of them raise their hands to
participate).

14
 Making use of a variety of learning activities  this cannot be seen in this short
vignette, although it might be added that the student-teacher had been implementing
a variety of activities during the session.

 Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson  the video
reveals that the pace seems to be adequate for the students and the activity: the IRF
sequences follow each other, and the only change in pace occurs between turns 57 and
64 (15”) when the teacher tries to elicit the right answer from students.

 Encouraging pupil participation and getting all pupils involved  in the video, the
teacher combines nomination and open solicits in order to get as many pupils as
possible to participate.

 Monitoring pupils‟ progress and attending quickly to pupils‟ needs  in the video,
the teacher provides feedback, but there is not enough evidence to say that student‟s
progress and needs are attended to.

 Delivering a well-structured and well-organised lesson  the part of the activity

shown in the video follows a well-organized IRF structure.

 Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback  the video shows that the
teacher provides positive feedback to students after their participation.

 Ensuring coverage of the learning objectives  the part of the lesson presented in
the recording represents the whole-class feedback after the activity. In the video, the
students are not seen to be learning, but in order to provide these answers, they had
previously been listening and writing.

 Making good use of questioning techniques  the video only shows the teacher
asking for volunteers to come to the blackboard to write the answers and asking the
whole class whether the answers are correct (which the teacher does in order to involve
the class in the feedback).

An issue to consider and which has not been transcribed is the general noise and side
conversations occurring during the whole exchange. For this paper, the main
conversation with relevance in the classroom interaction has been transcribed, leaving
out other side conversations which are not relevant in the general classroom interaction
analyzed.

CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this self-observation paper was to try to answer the following question: Are
the strategies used by the teacher adequate to foster an effective interaction with
students?

The analysis of the video and the transcript suggests that the student-teacher
implements several pedagogical strategies to promote and organize interaction. The
strategies implemented are:

15
 To favour comprehension:
- Adapting the speed of her speech (always in the target language)
- Pausing to shorten the utterances (the longest utterance between pauses is eight
words long)
- Gesturing
- Using simple syntax and wording
- Following the same structure throughout the activity

 To ensure involvement and participation:

- Allowing the use of L1, but continuing the conversation in the target language.
- Opening spaces so that all students can take their turns and participate in the
conversation
- Taking into account cultural factors (making sure the Moroccan girl gets a chance
to participate when she solicits a turn)
- Getting all students to help when a student does not know the answer
- Asking students to give their feedback
- Alternating nomination and open solicits

 To establish an orderly and positive learning environment:

- Letting students have plenty of time to think
- Implicitly indicating an error by asking students if they agree or not with the
answers
- Ignoring minor disruptions
- Using a gentle, yet firm, tone of voice to control misbehaviour

As for effective teaching, we have seen in the analysis that the teacher provides clear
explanations and directions, she establishes a task-oriented climate, she establishes and
maintains the pace of the lesson, she encourages pupil participation and gets all pupils
involved, she delivers a well-structured lesson and she provides positive feedback.

Part of the success of the lesson lies in the fact that the level of the task is adequate for
the level of these students, so they feel confident to participate in the class (adequacy,
in this case, measured by students‟ performance). This fact also ensures students‟
engagement, and once students become participants in a constructive conversation,
disruptive behaviour tends to vanish. As for disruptive behaviour, deliberately ignoring
minor disruptions may also be an effective strategy.

Another aspect worth highlighting is the use of the target language. By modifying her
speech and accepting the use of L1 by students, the teacher manages to hold the
whole exchange in the target language, thus providing students with further exposure
to the language even if they are only using minimal parts of the target language.

The interaction generated in the classroom involves some form of communication

(even if it is in L1 or non verbal communication) which, in turn, has an effect on
students‟ learning or is part of the learning itself. In this case, although students are not
learning a great amount of English, they are learning to become part of an English-
speaking community of practice. According to Wenger (2006), Communities of Practice
are formed by people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared

16
domain. Members of a Community of Practice interact and learn together, as these
pupils are learning to do.

Consequently, the evidence provided by the video recording and the transcription
seems to prove that the teacher implements some strategies which are adequate to
foster an effective interaction with students.

Nevertheless, there are several issues which should be improved. In the first place, the
teacher uses a few strategies to establish an orderly and positive environment but they
do not seem to be enough to eliminate the constant background noise and the side
conversations. She shows tolerance towards the noise because students seem to be
involved and they are participating, but would interaction and the subsequent learning
improve in a more relaxed atmosphere? If so, how can this relaxed atmosphere be
established while promoting interaction at the same time?

This is also related to the appropriateness of the learning activities. Having said before
that part of the success of the lesson lies in the fact that the level of the task is
adequate for these students, it still might not be challenging enough for all the
students. So a topic for further study could be: how to get the level of challenge right
in order to improve the effectiveness of learning?

17
5. OVERALL REFLECTION ON THE PROCESS OF
PROFESSIONALIZATION UNDERGONE THROUGHOUT THE
COURSE
As set out in the previous section, it is widely accepted that the interaction generated in
the classroom involves some form of communication which, in turn, has an effect on
students‟ learning or is part of the learning itself. This small scale empirical study only
analyzes a short video vignette to determine whether the pedagogical strategies used
are adequate to foster an effective interaction with students. However, during my eight
week practice placement in l‟Ebre Secondary School, in Rubí (Barcelona), I have had
many opportunities to interact with students and reflect upon some of the teaching
approaches and strategies used to develop my teaching skills and upon student
participation and learning.

In this section I document my development throughout the course with a collection of

experiences and some of my own reflections written during these days, together with
observations and comments made by my mentor and students as a way to assess and
reflect on my progress as a teacher.

My teacher practice periods have also helped me build an understanding of several

issues such as multiculturalism, mixed abilities, inclusion, etc. Apart from this, during my
classes I have been able to reflect on several issues which also involve interaction and
have an effect on teaching and learning: building a positive rapport with students,
engaging students, tandem teaching, ICTs, classroom management, CLIL, groupwork,
seating arrangements, motivation, working with projects and engaging all students.

Prior to my practice periods, my expectations for the practicum and the theoretical
course were: to learn from observing my mentor and colleagues, actually teach in a
classroom full of teenagers, learn about how a high school works and see if this is what
I would like to do as my future career. As for the theoretical course I wanted to learn to
be a good teacher: ways to get my future students to learn and use English, about CLIL,
about ICTs, how to solve classroom problems and conflicts, how to evaluate, how to
design a good lesson plan, etc. These expectations have been met, as evidenced in this
paper.

The following is a selection of activities carried out during my practice periods which
have been a challenge or a success, but in any case, which allow me to reflect upon
teaching and learning.

BUILDING A POSITIVE RAPPORT WITH STUDENTS: “Something you like with the
first letter of your name”
On the third day of the Practicum, I started teaching in 3rd ESO. I had to call the register
and I decided to do an ice-breaking activity to help me learn students‟ names. I told
students that they would help me remember their names by telling me their name and
something they liked beginning with the first letter of their name. It was a very simple
activity but it worked well as an ice-breaker and it was a good way to help me learn and
remember students‟ names.

18
To help explain the activity, I started by giving students a real example with my own
preferences and I also modelled it with one of my fellow student-teachers. Then, I told
students that they should all help their colleagues if they could not think of a word, and
students participated and helped each other.

My mentor mentioned that she liked the activity and that she would definitely use it in
her own lessons. The following day, in the corridor, some students still reminded me
what they had said and I remembered their names: “Teacher, remember I like kissing!”
“Yes, and your name is Keila!!”

I have chosen to explain this activity because it was simple and successful at the same
time. It is also related to the importance of building a positive rapport with students in
order to develop a good learning environment in the classroom. Harmer (2007, p.114)
states that students want their teachers to know their names, and they also appreciate
it when teachers have some understanding of their characters. In such a short period of
time I could not attempt to know my students properly, but one way of showing my
respect to them was trying to learn their names as soon as possible.

ENGAGING STUDENTS EARLY IN THE MORNING: “The Jim Twins”

I implemented this jigsaw reading activity with a 4th ESO group on January 20th at 8 a.m.
I had learnt about jigsaw reading in one of our TEFL lessons at university, and I wanted
to try it out. I did a lead-in to make sure students knew what twins were, and then I told
them they were going to read a true story about some twins. Students had to read one
part of the story of “The Jim Twins” and then they had to share it with their partners
who had read the other part. Students asked questions and seemed to be interested in
the story particularly when they realized it was a real story (see activity in Annex 4).

Students asked me some questions in English, which was a really positive surprise. But I
believe they were so quiet and relaxed as my mentor points out (see comments in
Annex 4) due the fact that it was 8 a.m. This is something I observed in several 8 a.m.
lessons throughout both Practicum periods. Students seemed to be half asleep and
rather apathetic and it was difficult to get them actively involved in the lesson. Some
students got really engaged when they understood this amazing story, but I must
admit that some other students remained quite passive throughout the lesson.

TANDEM TEACHING, ICTs AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: “Dvolver

Moviemaker”
On the last day of this first Practicum period, my colleagues and I decided to try a
tandem teaching activity in the computer lab. Up until now, we had been observing our
mentor or teaching individually, but we had never tried teaching together. One of our
university teachers, Oriol Pallarès, had mentioned that tandem teaching provides a
privileged learning environment for students, in the sense that students can get greater
attention and teachers can focus on small groups, cooperate and improve their
teaching together.
We had the 3rd ESO B group at 10 a.m. and we went to the computer lab. We divided
the group into three groups of about seven students and each of the three student-
teachers were in charge of a group. Our mentor wrote down about the grouping and
organization of the activity: “Hard to organize. Takes time to organize”, which was true.
We gave the instructions to the whole group and then we split them in three to start

19
the film, but it was certainly a bit chaotic at first and perhaps our instructions had not
been adequate or clear enough.

Students had to create a story using the “Dvolver” online film making tool (see Annex
5). I asked my group to write a short script before typing it on the computer, based on
the four possible scenes the movie maker provides: rendez-vous, pick-up, chase or
soliloquy. My group wasn‟t very strong and, therefore, they needed quite a lot of ideas
and help to get going, but they finally managed to produce a nice little story with very
simple sentences.

Being three teachers in a classroom is not a real situation, but in this case we took
advantage of it and I think it worked quite well. Another strong point about the activity
is the fact that all students could produce something attractive: stronger groups
produced more elaborate films, and weaker groups produced simpler films, but they all
created something in English. Using this ICT tool clearly increased students‟
engagement and motivation in the writing activity, and producing a film and seeing it
projected on the big screen was exciting for all (see students‟ feedback in Annex 5).

All the aspects to improve are related to classroom management. Kyriacou (1998, p. 57)
states that lesson-management skills are essential if the learning activities you set up
are to take place with sufficient order for learning to occur. Almost any task or activity
can lead to chaos unless you give some thought to the organisation of how and when
pupils are to do what is required of them. Organised control over the logistics of
classroom life, whether it be how pupils answer questions, collect equipment from
cupboards, or form themselves into small groups, requires explicit direction from you,
at least until the procedures you expect are followed as a matter of routine.

In this case, the lesson would have been smoother if clearer instructions had been
given before starting the activity, if groups had been formed before going to the
computers and if groups had been smaller (two or three students per group). With
reference to this last point, each student-teacher could have been in charge of two or
three small groups and, what is more important, all students would have had the
chance to participate more actively. In this case, after deciding the story all together,
some students took turns to write it on the computer, which meant that the rest took a
more passive role.

Figure 2: Teacher helping and eliciting ideas from a Figure 3: Students watching, while only one student uses
group of students the computer

20
DESIGN OF THE TEACHING UNIT

During the last few days of the practice period, apart from teaching and observing, we
started thinking about the teaching unit to be designed for the second Practicum. Both
our mentor and our university tutor, Mercè Bernaus, helped and guided us throughout
this process.

One of the requirements from university was that we should be implementing CLIL
(Content and Language Integrated Learning), that is, using English as a vehicle to teach
a certain subject. We could not do real CLIL, because we would be implementing the
unit in the English language class, but we could design a content based pseudo-CLIL
unit.

Another requirement was that the unit should be based on the communicative
approach and it should be task-based, that is making the performance of meaningful
tasks or projects central to the learning process.

We thought that we should make the most of the cultural diversity in the school. This
diversity could be really enriching and a powerful motivational agent if we could tap
into students‟ experiences and prior knowledge. We soon started to have a general
idea of the subject: geography and multiculturalism. But more specifically, reflecting on
differences related to diversity and multiculturalism based on geography, social science,
music and cooking.

Our mentor said it would be nice to use a Disney song called “It‟s a small world, after
all” and this led us to calling the unit “It‟s a small world” as a metaphor of the
similarities between people despite the distance, races, cultures, etc.

The designing process began after the first practicum, and it lasted about six weeks.
During this period of time, my colleague and I designed the activities taking into
account that the unit was to be implemented in 3rd ESO (14-15 year old students) and
many other aspects, such as: level, timing, grouping, adequacy, use of ICTs, skills
addressed, communication, content, assessment, competences, scaffolding, mixed
abilities, innovation, purpose, etc. etc. etc.

One of the greatest challenges when designing the unit was attempting to define the
right level of challenge in order to ensure that learning was effective and motivating. As
Ellis (1999, p.20) explains when referring to Vigotsky‟s Zone of Proximal Development
that the ZPD constitutes an area of potential development, lying between the learner‟s
actual development, and an area of non-development. Mediation, in the form of social
interaction, enables learners to transform skills that lie in the ZPD. Superficially, the
notion of the ZPD and Krashen‟s notion of „i+1‟, on which the IH draws, resemble each
other.

If learning actually occurs when interacting in the ZPD, our unit had to be slightly above
students‟ level, but not too far so as to make it incomprehensible (similar to Krashen‟s
input+1 concept). This is extremely difficult to attain, but, after seeing students‟
productions and the results obtained after implementing the unit, I may conclude that
the level of the teaching unit was adequate.

21
It was a really stressful and complicated process, but I have thoroughly enjoyed
creating a unit from scratch. I believe it has been one of the most interesting and useful
assignments we have had to produce during this masters degree.

CLIL: “Geography: the urban environment”

A few days before the practicum, the headmistress of the school, Rosa Puig, contacted
me and colleague to talk about CLIL in her geography classes. It was the first time they
were doing CLIL in the school and she suggested collaborating with her to implement a
geography teaching unit in English in her 3rd ESO classes. We obviously agreed because
this was our chance to experience with CLIL (as explained in the following section).

The idea behind CLIL is to provide a real communication setting where the target
language can be used as a vehicle to learn content, and this is what we attempted in
the geography sessions. As Dalton-Puffer (2007, p.3) states, the hub of the pro-CLIL
argument is that the curricula of the so-called content subjects (e.g. geography, history,
business studies, etc.) constitute a reservoir of concepts, topics and meanings which
can become the object of „real communication‟ where natural use of the target
language is possible.

On the very first day of Practicum II at 8 a.m. we started our CLIL Geography experience
with 3rd ESO A students. Rosa had planned to do six sessions, but in the end and due to
different problems and events, we did four sessions. Rosa led the classes, but she
wanted my colleague and me to support her with the English, rephrasing her
explanations, providing scaffolding, explaining vocabulary, etc.

The material used for these sessions had been taken from an English Geography
textbook, which meant that a large amount of scaffolding was required in order for
students to be able to cope with the activities. Although students were familiar with
some of the concepts (such as developed or developing countries), different strategies
had to be implemented in order to explain some other concepts such as: urban sprawl,
urbanization/urban growth, urban-rural fringe, suburbs, Megacity, safe water, health
care, rates, etc. We used explanations, rephrasing, gestures, drawings on the
blackboard, pictures, examples, videos, etc. These terms were introduced in the context
of a meaningful subject matter and students had to use them straightaway in order to
understand and perform the tasks required for these Geography sessions.

In the first session, the key concepts of the unit were introduced and explained.
Students read the texts and placed the world‟s megacities on the map. In the second
session students had to find information in order to answer some questions related to
urban growth in different continents. In the third session students worked in groups
with different Wordle word clouds, to describe three cities (Nairobi, Curitiba and
Mumbai) representing different growth models: diffuse and compact cities. The final
session was devoted to group presentations about the three cities which exemplify
sustainable or unsustainable urban models.

Although in the end I had the feeling that some students had not followed the sessions,
the majority had followed the sessions to some extent, and some had been fully

22
successful in understanding and performing the tasks required. CLIL was a new
experience for the students, Rosa and us, and I think it was a very satisfactory
experience.

GROUPWORK AND SEATING ARRANGEMENT: “Guess the country”

This is a group activity, the aim of which is for students to write a simple text about a
country using the words given in a word cloud. After writing the texts, each group has
to produce a final/improved version with new information from the Internet, and finally
read their text for the whole group to guess their country. I implemented this activity
on April 12th with my 3rd ESO C group in the computer lab. The activity worked more or
less as planned and all students managed to write and read their final texts to the rest
of the class. According to Harmer (2007, p.329), writing in groups, whether as part of a
long process or as part of a short game-like communicative activity, can be greatly
motivating for students, including as it does, not only writing, but research, discussion,
peer evaluation and group pride in a group accomplishment.

Students seemed to be motivated, not only because this type of activity was new and
different for them, but also because they enjoyed working in groups (which they hardly
do in English lessons). I have included some of the photographs, texts and comments
made by students regarding groupwork in Annex 6.

Having said this, there are definitely aspects I must work on in order to improve my
teaching and, again, these aspects involve classroom management. Throughout the
session I kept asking for silence, attention, etc. and once the class was over, I felt that it
had been a noisy and rather chaotic lesson (please refer to my mentor‟s comments in
Annex 6).

This was the second time a session in the computer lab had proved to be difficult to
manage. I mentioned the situation to Lourdes, another teacher in the high school, and
she said: “don‟t worry, it‟s happened to me, it‟s a hostile layout”. Thinking about it, she
was right. This classroom is arranged with all the desks and chairs facing the walls, and
students sit with their backs to the teacher and each other. There is no eye contact with
the teacher or the rest of students, which makes interaction difficult. I am not saying
this explains everything, but I do not think it favours teaching and learning.

Figure 4: “Hostile” classroom layout

23
MOTIVATION: “The cooking quiz”
During the second Practicum we implemented “The cooking quiz” three times: first with
a group of 1st Batxillerat (16-17 year old students), then with 3rd ESO B and finally with
3rd ESO C.

The cooking quiz was one of the most successful activities of the teaching unit. It
motivated and really engaged students because it was different, new, it was fun, it
involved using ICTs, it was a “competition”, etc. All these ingredients contributed to a
really successful session.

Many people think that motivating is something that inheres to the individual, rather
than something that teachers can influence. Teachers should know that students are
likely to be motivated to learn when they have interesting tasks, expectations that they
can be successful, and appropriate support for learning, and they should know how to
construct these conditions. Research demonstrates that children are motivated to learn
when they have confidence in their abilities, and when they have a good relationship
with the teacher. (Darling-Hammond, L. 2005, p.333)

“The cooking quiz” activity consists of two main parts. In the first place, students watch
a video explaining a recipe to cook spaghetti Bolognese. Then, students play the
cooking quiz game created with the Game Show Presenter, an online tool to design
quizzes. In this case, the cooking quiz was made up of ten questions about the
spaghetti Bolognese video.

The first and second time we implemented the activity we thought students required a
large amount of scaffolding in order to succeed with the activity. Therefore, we played
the video twice, and then we gave each group a printed version of the questionnaire
before playing the quiz, so they could answer the questions without the pressure of
having to answer the questions within a certain time limit.

The third time we performed this activity, I wanted to do other activities and we were
short of time. So I decided to play the video only once and students used the
questionnaire while we played the cooking quiz show. This third time, the flow and
pace of the activity improved tremendously (particularly not watching the video twice)
and students managed perfectly well. I felt extremely satisfied with the whole session.

Annex 7 includes some photographs taken during the activity and my mentor‟s
comments.

WORKING WITH PROJECTS AND ENGAGING ALL STUDENTS (MIXED ABILITIES):

“A special dish for a special celebration”
When we designed the Teaching Unit, we decided that students should give an oral
presentation on their final project. In a unit based on multiculturalism, and with
students from different countries around the world, we thought that the best idea
would be for students to share information about their country and their different
experiences with the rest of the class.

According to Harmer (2007, p.176), by far the most useful resources in the classroom
are the students themselves. Through their thoughts and experiences they bring the
outside world into the room, and this is a powerful resource for us to draw on.

24
This is how we thought about “A special dish for a special celebration”. Students had to
create a PowerPoint presentation explaining a special dish they like having for a special
celebration. During the previous sessions we had been preparing for this presentation
with different activities aimed at providing vocabulary and ideas for the project. We
also presented some PowerPoint slides as examples of what students could do for their
presentations.

Another reason for this presentation is that task-based learning makes the performance
of meaningful tasks central to the learning process. If students are focused on the
completion of a task, they are just as likely to learn language as they are if they are
focusing on language forms. (Harmer J. 2007, p.71).

What surprised me from the first day of the presentations was the students‟ positive
reaction. They did great presentations and students were able to answer questions
made by the teachers or their colleagues. These students are not used to presenting
orally in front of the class, and some were extremely shy, but they finally did their
presentations. Even some students who had never produced anything in the English
classes and pupils from the newcomers programme presented their special dish. I think
they did it because it was meaningful for them, and the task could be adapted to any
level.

I really believe that this task had somehow motivated them. It had somehow triggered
their intrinsic motivation, which is what we must look for. (Kyriacou C. 1997, p. 26.)

Jones (1990, p. 165) suggests that teachers who respond effectively to students‟
personal and academic needs will find that even though not all students will become
college-bound scholars, a wide range of low-achieving and at-risk students can
become actively, positively, and productively involved in learning within regular
classroom settings.

When I assessed the presentations, I took into account several aspects: preparedness,
use of complete sentences, attractiveness of the presentation, volume, interaction,
listening to other presentations. But one thing I hadn‟t taken into account and I
decided on the spot to include, was the effort. I believe that some students had put a
lot of effort into their presentations, and I had to value this effort.

This was certainly one of the most successful activities in the teaching unit, as can be
seen from some of the presentations (in Annex 8) and some of the students‟ feedback
included in Annex 9. It was also a lovely and very positive way to finish my Practicum
period in L‟Ebre.

25
CONCLUSIONS ON THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONALIZATION

My expectations have been accomplished far more than expected. From the practicum,
I wanted to learn from observing my mentor and colleagues, I wanted to teach
teenagers and I wanted to learn and see how a high school works. Right from the
beginning my mentor treated me like a colleague, rather than a student-teacher, and I
think that this made me grow into the teaching role right from the word go. I have had
the chance to see what a real school is like: students with mixed abilities, students with
special needs, students newly arrived from many different countries, students with
learning difficulties, students who misbehave, but also students with a heart of gold
who really appreciate the work carried out by teachers who care.

My expectations for the theoretical course have broadly been met. I wanted to know
how to get my future students to learn and use English, about CLIL, ICTs, to design a
good lesson plan, how to cope with classroom management problems, how to assess,
etc. I‟ve received the general lines on these topics, but obviously this is only the
beginning. From now on I must learn on my own, through my own experience and my
own mistakes.

I know that one of the areas I must work on is my classroom management skills. I do
not mean that I want silent and passive groups, on the contrary. I like groups with
active participation and interaction, but I also feel that a good and positive learning
environment requires following certain rules which I have not always managed to
implement.

Another area I must improve on is assessment. Even if we have had general ideas about
assessment, I don‟t feel confident about it at all. There are many challenges involved in
assessment: deciding what to test, having clear assessment criteria, balancing the
different types of tasks to be evaluated, being fair, taking individual differences into
consideration, etc.

I have learnt many other things with the theoretical course, and I was surprised to find
myself enjoying ICTs. At the beginning of the Masters Degree I was terrified about ICTs,
and terrified about being the only one out of this ICT world. I‟ve realised that they are
extremely useful tools which motivate students, and this is an essential condition in
learning. So I must be open to changes, I must have an open mentality towards
innovation, students interests, students needs, etc.

Motivation has been one of the key concepts throughout this period. I have realized
that students learn if they see the point of what they are doing and if they enjoy doing
it. I am not referring to games and computers, I am referring to the sense of
achievement, a good teacher-student rapport, the right choice of activities with the
appropriate level of challenge, etc.

During the practicum period I have also learnt that working with tasks and projects is
far more motivating, engaging and rewarding than other methods. Experts agree on
this, and I can actually say that students who had never produced anything, presented
their projects because they had found them motivating. It is worth thinking about it.

26
6. CONCLUSIONS
This paper was aimed at describing the teachers‟ progress throughout the practice
periods and to perform a small scale empirical study derived from her self-observation.
The aim of the empirical study was to try to answer the following question: Are the
strategies used by the teacher adequate to foster an effective interaction with students?

Many authors refer to the relevance of classroom interaction because the interaction
generated in the classroom involves some form of communication which, in turn, has
an effect on students‟ learning or is part of the learning itself. For this reason, trying to
understand how interaction contributes to learning, and particularly to language
learning, is essential.

The notion of classroom interaction embraces many concepts: teacher-student and

student-student interaction, interactional strategies, verbal interaction, input, turn-
allocation and turn-taking behaviours, students‟ production, feedback, etc. But
interaction, and more specifically affective interaction, implies other notions such as
motivation, encouragement, self-esteem, care and respect.

The analysis of the video and the transcript suggests that the student-teacher
implements several pedagogical strategies to promote interaction: favouring
comprehension, ensuring the involvement and participation of all students or
establishing an orderly and positive learning environment. The teacher provides clear
explanations and directions, she establishes a task-oriented climate, she establishes and
maintains the pace of the lesson, she encourages pupil participation and gets all pupils
involved, she delivers a well-structured lesson and she provides positive feedback.

Over her practice period, the teacher has also had a number of valuable experiences
which have allowed her to reflect on several issues concerning interaction: building a
positive rapport with students, engaging students, tandem teaching, ICTs, classroom
management, CLIL, groupwork, seating arrangements, motivation, working with
projects and involving all students.

Some of these issues are related to affective interaction: learning names is a way to
build a positive rapport and it helps to establish a good learning environment in the
classroom, it is also a way of showing respect to students; triggering students‟ intrinsic
motivation with tasks and projects which are meaningful to them moves students into
wanting to participate and learn; providing interesting activities is a way to engage
students; groupwork also promotes involvement and a positive classroom climate, etc.

Finally, it might be suggested that although classroom interaction is not the only factor
in SLA, it definitely has a crucial role and it can be concluded that interaction is a
driving force in learning.

Nevertheless, classroom interaction is a vast issue and this research project has only
attempted to provide an overview on the subject. There are many other areas for future
study related to interaction, but some particularly interesting questions for future in-
depth study are: would interaction and the subsequent learning improve in a more
relaxed atmosphere? And, how to get the level of challenge right in order to improve
the effectiveness of learning?

27
7. REFERENCES
Allwright, R.L. (2000) Interaction and Negotiation in the Language Classroom: Their Role
in Learner Development

Dalton-Puffer, C. (2007). Discourse in Content and Language Integrated Learning.

Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Darling-Hammond, Linda and Bransford, John (eds.) (2005). Preparing teachers for a
changing world. USA: Jossey-Bass.

Ellis, R. (1999). Learning a second language through interaction. Studies in bilingualism.

Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Co.

Escobar, C. (ed.) (2006) Algunes formes d'intervenció en la formació plurilingüe. In

Nussbaum, L & Unamuno, V. (eds.) Usos i competències multilingües d'escolars
d'origen immigrant. Bellaterra: Servei de Publicacions de la UAB.

Gass, S.M., MacKey A. and Pica T. (1998) “The Role of Input and Interaction in Second
Language Acquisition: Introduction to the Special Issue”. In: The Modern Language
Journal, Vol. 82, No. 3.

Harmer, J. (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching. UK: Pearson Education
Limited.

Krashen, S.D. (1981). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. English
Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd.

Kyriacou, C. (1997) Effective Teaching in Schools. Theory and Practice. Nelson Thornes,
Ltd.

Kyriacou, C. (1998) Essential Teaching Skills. Nelson Thornes, Ltd.

Nussbaum L. (2001) “El Discurso en el Aula de Lenguas Extranjeras”. Nussbaum, L. and

Bernaus, M (eds.), Didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras en Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria.

Tsui, A.B.M.(1995) Introducing Classroom Interaction. London: Penguin.

Wenger, E. (2006). What are communities of practice? Available at:

http://www.ewenger.com/theory/ Last accessed 4 June 2010.

28
8. ANNEXES

ANNEX 1: VIDEO RECORDING............................................. IN SEPARATE CD

ANNEX 2: TRANSCRIPT..................................................................................34

ANNEX 3: “Clue Dictation” Activity..............................................................37

ANNEX 4: “The Jim Twins”............................................................................38

ANNEX 5: “Dvolver Moviemaker”................................................................39

ANNEX 6: “Guess the country”.....................................................................40

ANNEX 7: “The Cooking Quiz”......................................................................43

ANNEX 8: “A special dish for a special celebration”...................................44

ANNEX 9: Students’ feedback.......................................................................47

29
ANNEX 2: TRANSCRIPT

CLASS: English class 4 ESO (aged 15-16)

EVENT: Class work. Teacher-fronted activity. The student-teacher has already dictated some
“clues” and students go to the board to write the answers (Vignette D).
DATE: 15/01/10
LENGTH: 3’ 25”
PARTICIPANTS: Teacher, Mike, Will, Irma, Albert, Ray and the whole group.
SCHOOL: IES l’Ebre

Turn Speaker Utterances Relevant gestures

1 T Now ·· who wants ·· to write number [T pointing at board]
two here?
2 Mike Yo!
3 T Mike
4 Mike [Mike stands up and slaps his
colleague]
5 MS Que no me des!
6 T OK, Mike’s going to write it, but ·· you [T including the whole group with
help as well. gestures]
7 Mike [Mike writes on the board]
8 T The language · spoken in France is ··
French. Good.
9 T Is this correct?
10 FS Yes
11 MS Yes
12 T Right
13 T Who wants to write number three?

14 MS =Yo=
15 Irma =Yo=
16 T Irma
17 T So · a game with eleven players and a
ball.
18 Irma [Student writes on the board]
19 T Is it correct?
20 MS Yes
21 Irma Oh, no sé si...
22 T Yes ·· good · very good
23 T Number four
24 Mike Yo
25 T Wait a minute
26 MS =Yo=
27 MS =Yo=

30
28 T You · you come now ·· and then you [Teacher pointing at different
students]
29 Mike Sal Will
30 Mike Es el Will
31 Mike Will deja un momento [Mike sits in Will’s place]
32 Will [Will writes on the board]
33 T Very good · is it correct?
34 MS No
35 Mike Un momento, que no veo
36 T Mike
37 Mike No veo
38 T Leave him, it’s his place, you sit there. [Mike stands up and goes back to
I’m sure you can see from there. his place]
oo
39 Mike Gilipollasoo [Mike whispers an insult to Will]
40 T No, can’t you see from there? [Speaking to Mike]
o
41 T It’s booko [Speaking to Mike]
42 T Mmmm ·· number five · who wants [Teacher points at a student
to help with number five volunteering to come to the
board]
43 MS Entonces la cuatro está bien?
44 T I wear one · on my head · when it’s
very cold
45 Albert [Albert writes ‘jacket’ on the
board]
46 T Wait a minute · wait a minute · [T gestures for student to stay]
47 T Is this correct?
48 MS =Yes=
49 MS =Yes=
50 MS No vemos
51 MS Si
52 MS No
53 FS No
54 T Jacket is here · this is like a jacket · [Teacher gesturing and pointing at
jacket · or this is a jacket jackets]
55 T OK · any other ideas please? · Can you
help?
56 MS Jap
57 T Sorry?
58 FS Hap
59 T Nearly
60 MS Jumper
61 FS Hap?
62 T It’s not hap · similar · more ideas ·

31
63 MS Hap
64 MS Hat
65 T OK, good. [Albert corrects it on the board]
66 T OK. It’s for my head, hat · Good thank
you
67 T Number six · who wants to write [Mike raises his hand again but T
number six? points at another student]
68 Mike Es el Ray
69 Mike Va Ray
70 Ray [Ray writes on the board]
71 T Thank you

T: Teacher
MS: Male Student
FS: Female Student

Note: Names of students have been changed.

MS and FS are used for unidentified students.

Symbols:

· ·· Short pause / long pause

=text1= Overlapping utterances
=text2=
Italics Utterance in Spanish
o
texto Utterance noticeably quieter than surrounding talk
oo
textoo Utterance considerably quieter than surrounding talk
[text] Relevant gestures

32
 ANNEX 3: “Clue Dictation”

CLUE DICTATION

1. The day after Friday 1. Saturday

2. The language spoken in France 2. French
3. A game with eleven players and a ball 3. Football
4. An object with lots of pages we use to read novels or stories 4. Book
5. I wear one on my head when it‟s very cold 5. Hat
6. The colour of strawberries and Ferrari cars 6. Red
7. Michael Jackson was a…. 7. Singer
8. I do it when I am hungry 8. Eat
9. An activity people do in a disco 9. Dance
10. The country with more inhabitants in the world 10. China
11. You can watch them in cinemas 11. Films
12. The number of legs of a horse 12. Four
13. We all have two: one at the end of each arm 13. Hands
14. The opposite of cold 14. Hot
15. Ten plus three is… 15. Thirteen

The teacher dictates the clues.

Students write the answers.

Check them  Students come to the board to write the answers.

Feedback: who‟s got more than 5 correct answers? More than 10? Etc….

33
ANNEX 4:

“The Jim Twins”

Students in pairs explaining their part of the jigsaw reading

Text A: The Jim twins

American identical twins Jim Lewis and Jim Springer were born in 1940. When they
were four weeks old they were adopted by different families and they never knew of
each other’s existence until they were 39 years old. Both adoptive parents named
them Jim. When they met, they both weighed 82 kilos and they were 1m 83cm tall.

Text B: The Jim twins

Their similarities were incredible:
 When they were young they both had dogs named “Toy”.
 They married twice: the first wife was called Linda and the second wife was
called Betty.
 One Jim named his son James Allen. The other Jim named his son James
Alan.
 They smoked the same cigarettes.
 They drank the same beer.

Comments written by the student-teacher‟s mentor on “The Jim twins” activity

(comments written in green are aspects she highlighted as being positive):

- A students tell the story to B students

- When they finish they can turn papers up and read the other’s part
- Start thinking about something good and something bad about
twins
- Sts ask Liz in English!
- Sts keep quiet all the time. They seem relaxed and comfortable
- It is a real story
- Liz makes them read aloud
- Then makes them think about something positive or negative about
having a twin

34
ANNEX 5: “Dvolver movie maker”

 Some of the scenes created by 3rd ESO students:

 Link to one of the films created by 3rd ESO B students:

www.dvolver.com/live/movies-356243

 Feedback from students (although the feedback session was at the end of
the Teaching Unit, these comments refer to the first practicum period):

35
ANNEX 6: “Guess the country”

Students working in a group “Hostile” seating arrangement

 Examples of students written productions:

36
37
 These are some notes taken by my mentor during the “Guess the country”
session of April 12th (there is no colour coding in these notes):

- Excuse me! Silence!

- Difficult to control the class.
- Not all students listen.
- A bit chaos. She should be more strict.
- Finally, they’re sitting in groups.
- She helps groups individually but not all the groups work.
- Groups read aloud their country. Others have to guess.
- Groups do OK but behaviour is not perfect.

 Some feedback from students regarding groupwork:

38
ANNEX 7: “The Cooking Quiz”

 These photographs illustrate the engagement and motivation of students playing

the Cooking Quiz:

 Comments written by my mentor during the Cooking Quiz session performed on

April 21st (there is no colour coding in these notes):

- We’ll watch a video cooking recipe. Spaghetti Bolognese.

- We’ll see it once. Pay attention to the steps and the vocabulary.
- After watching the video, Liz organizes them in groups of 4 (she
could have given instructions before forming the groups).
- She gives them the paper “Cooking quiz” as a basis, also the letters A,
B, C, D for the answer.
- The game works fantastically.
- Liz says what is important is to watch a video in real English and
understand.

39
ANNEX 7: “A special dish for a special celebration”

Name of the dish: Sancocho

The "sancocho" is one of the most important dishes in the cuisine of the Dominican
Republic.Generally prepared on special occasions and in abundance to share with
family or friends.Its preparation takes much longer than other dishes.

Often leads goat meat, sausage, pork, beef bones, chicken, pork ribs, green peppers,
cassava, celery, potatoes, green bananas and corn.

You can accompany with rice.

NEW YEAR: PAISA TRAY

This dish is to serve cololombiano beans and meat with rice powder, pork,
sausage, fried ripe plantains, fried egg, avocado and arepa, which is an
appetite that is eaten with many things as can be seen in photo.Is a dish
best served much in the persons of Colombia, for example Caldas, Antioquia
and northern Cauca Valley
40
41
42
ANNEX 8: Feedback from Students

43
44
45