Loads For Use in The Design of Ships and Offshore Structures

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Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures
Article in Ocean Engineering · March 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.09.012.
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Daniele Dessi Ahmet Ergin

Italian National Research Council Istanbul Technical University
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Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
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Ocean Engineering
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Review
Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures

S.E. Hirdaris a,n, W. Bai b, D. Dessi c, A. Ergin d, X. Gu e, O.A. Hermundstad f, R. Huijsmans g,
K. Iijima h, U.D. Nielsen i, J. Parunov j, N. Fonseca k, A. Papanikolaou l, K. Argyriadis m,
A. Incecik n
a
Lloyd's Register Group Ltd., Republic of Korea
b
National University of Singapore, Singapore
c
INSEAN/CNR Maritime Research Centre, Italy
d
Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey
e
China Ship Scientific Research Centre, PR China
f
MARINTEK, SINTEF, Norway
g
Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
h
Osaka University, Japan
i
Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
j
University of Zagreb, Croatia
k
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
l
National Technical University of Athens, Greece
m
Germanischer Lloyd SE
n
University of Strathclyde, UK
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The evaluation of structural responses is key element in the design of ships and offshore structures.
Received 20 February 2013 Fundamental to this is the determination of the design loads to support the Rule requirements and for
Accepted 21 September 2013 application in direct calculations. To date, the current design philosophy for the prediction of motions
Available online 14 November 2013
and wave-induced loads has been driven by empirical or first-principles calculation procedures based on
Keywords: well-proven applications such as ship motion prediction programs. In recent years, the software,
Ships and offshore structures engineering and computer technology available to predict the design loads imposed on ships and
Loads offshore structures has improved dramatically. Notwithstanding, with the stepwise increase in the size
Fluid flexible structure interactions and structural complexity of ships and floating offshore installations and the advances in the framework
Ice loads of Rules and Standards it has become necessary to utilise the latest technologies to assess the design
Fatigue loads
loads on new designs. Along the lines of the recommendations from the International Ship and Offshore
Model tests
Structures Committee (ISSC) I.2 on Loads this paper reviews some of the recent advances in the
Full scale measurements
Uncertainties
assessment of loads for ships and offshore structures with the aim to draw the overall technological
landscape available for further understanding, validation and implementation by the academic and
industrial communities. Particular emphasis is attributed on methodologies applicable for the prediction
of environmental and operational loads from waves, wind, current, ice, slamming, sloshing and
Abbreviations: ACV, air cushion vehicles; ALE, Arbitrary Lagrangean–Eulerian Method; BBC, body boundary condition; BEM, Boundary Element Method; CCGS, Canadian
Coast Guard Ship; CeSOS, Norwegian Centre for Ships and Offshore Structures; CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics; CIP, Constraint Interpolation Profile method; DB method,
Double Body method; DP, dynamic positioning; DSS, decision support systems; DWM, Dynamic Wake Meandering model; FAC, foil assisted craft; FANS, Finite Analytic
Navier–Stokes method; FCP, fatigue crack propagation; FEM, Finite Element Method; FLNG, floating liquid natural gas vessel; FOI, Floating Offshore Installations; FORM, First
Order Reliability Method; FPSO, Floating Production Storage and Offloading; FSBC, Free Surface Boundary Condition; FSRU, Floating Storage and Regasification Unit; GBS,
gravity based structures; GDI, Grounding Damage Index; GSS, gravity support structures; HBM, Horizontal Bending Moment; HOBEM, Higher Order Boundary Element
Method; HSC, High Speed Craft; IACS, International Association of Classification Societies; IEA, International Energy Agency; IMO, International Maritime Organisation; ISO,
International Standardisation Organisation; ISSC, International Ship Structures Congress; ITTC, International Towing Tank Conference; KORDI, Korean Ocean Research and
Development Institute; LES, Large Eddy Simulation; LNGC, liquid natural gas carrier; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; MEL, Mixed Eulerian–Langragean method; MPS, moving
particle semi-implicit method; MT, motor tanker; NEM, Natural Element Method; NK, Neumann–Kelvin method; PS, Pulsating source; QTF, quadratic transfer function;
RANS, Reynolds average Navier–Stokes; RAO, Response Amplitude Operators; RF, Retardation Functions; SGS, dynamic Sub Grid Scale method; SORM, Second Order
Reliability Method; SPH, smoothed particle hydrodynamics; SST, Shear Stress Transport turbulence model; SWATH, Single Water Plane Area Twin Hull; TEU, Twenty Foot
Equivalent Unit; TIRF, Triangular Impulse Response Function; TLP, Tension Leg Platform; TM, Torsion Moment; TPS, Translating Pulsating Source; UFLP, Unified Fatigue Life
Prediction method; VBM, Vertical Bending Moment; VIV, Vortex Induced Vibrations; VLCC, Very Large Crude Carrier; VOF, Volume of Fluid; VSF, vertical shear force; WOI,
wake induced oscillations
n
Corresponding author at: 11th Floor, CJ Korea Express Bldg., 119, Daegyo-ro, Jung-gu (2,6-ga, Jungang-dong), Busan 600-700, Republic of Korea. Tel.: +82516405063.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.E. Hirdaris).
0029-8018/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.09.012
132 S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174
operational factors. Consideration is also given to deterministic and statistical load predictions based on
model experiments, full-scale measurements and theoretical methods.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2. Load computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1. Zero speed case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1.1. Body wave interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.1.2. Effects of varying bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.1.3. Multi-body interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.2. Forward speed case – overview of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.2.1. Level 1: Linear methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.2.2. Level 2: Froude–Krylov Nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.2.3. Level 3: Body-nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.4. Level 4: Body-exact Methods (Weak Scattered Methods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.5. Level 5: Fully nonlinear Methods (smooth waves). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.2.6. Level 6: Fully nonlinear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.3. Offshore wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.4. Loads from abnormal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.5. Hydroelasticity methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.5.1. Slamming loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.5.2. Experimental hydroelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.5.3. Full scale measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.5.4. Specialist structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3. Ship structures – specialist topics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1. Loads versus operational guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2. Ice loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.3. Loads on damaged ship structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.3.1. Still water loads of damaged ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.2. Structural integrity and stability of ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.4. Green water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.5. Sloshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.5.1. Model experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.5.2. Hull flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.3. Advanced numerical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.4. Coupling sloshing with motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.5.5. Design assessment procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4. Offshore structures – specialist topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.1. Offshore lifting and installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.2. Cables, risers and moored structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.3. Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIVs)and Wake Induced Oscillations (WIOs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.4. Spars and TLPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.5. Semi-submersibles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5. Uncertainties in wave load predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6. Fatigue loads for ships and offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.1. Fatigue analysis of ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2. Fatigue analysis of offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.1. Loads on offshore structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.2. Loads on ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.3. Specialist topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1. Introduction cases where the Rules are not deemed sufficient direct analysis
design assessment procedures are referenced in the Classification
The structural strength of ships and offshore structures can standards. For example, procedures and updated empirical Rules,
only be realistically determined if it is assessed with sound have been implemented in the unified Common Structural Rules
knowledge of the loads that it is likely to withstand. To reflect for the Tanker and Bulk Carrier fleet introduced since 2007 by the
this need over the last 250 years, Classification Societies have been major Classification Societies (IACS Ltd. 2010a, 2010b). The move
developing Rules for Ships and Floating Offshore Installations that from empirical and deterministic to performance based Rules the
have been backed up by in-service experience and account for continuous technology advances, the expanding offshore market
wave effects. Modern engineering practise implies that in those economics and the opening of new routes for shipping operations
S.E. Hirdaris et al. / Ocean Engineering 78 (2014) 131–174 133
(e.g. Arctic route), have raised significantly the demands for the where structural integrity evaluations require the combination
development of high quality future services in both marine and of knowledge from ship operations, stability, marine structures
energy sectors. and hydrodynamics within the context of risk assessment.
With the changing landscape for collaborative innovation Interestingly enough the number of publications for green
between industries and sectors it would be perhaps fare to water on deck problems, ice loads and Decision support
consider that technology understanding and implementation has Systems (DSS) (e.g. operational guidance systems) is almost
become centric enabler in facilitating upcoming assurance solu- equally spread. However, the high quality and expanding
tions in the area of ship and offshore structures loads and number of publications on DSS demonstrates a paradigm shift
responses. The later is backed up by the vague boundaries of the industry's behaviour with regards on safety (see Fig. 2b).
between design solutions, assurance compliance and engineering Publications on fatigue loads on ships and specialist offshore
consultancy implying that understanding the limitations of tech- structures although specialist account for 7% and 10% respec-
nologies and their applicability may become important, especially tively (Fig. 1). The later perhaps is a clear reflection of the
in those cases where theoretical or computational models promise recent expansion of the high value assets operated by the
to solve complex engineering problems. offshore sector (see Fig. 3a).
It is not within the purpose of this paper to suggest an overall Publications on wave loads uncertainty modelling and valida-
strategic roadmap for research, technology development and tion are, generally, limited (only 4% of the overall trend – see
future implementation in the area of ship and offshore structures Fig. 1). However, a large amount of those relates with fatigue
load assessment. However, the authors driven by recent discus- load calculations (about 45% – see Fig. 3b).
sions driven by the ISSC Report of the Technical Committee 1.2 on
Loads (2012) outline major trends and advances for the reporting In reflecting the above trends wave-induced loads on ships,
period from 2009 to 2012. Fig. 1 demonstrates the overall focusing on two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) methods, are
approximate knowledge profile of different areas of research and dealt within two different sections of this paper (see Sections
development within this reporting period. The papers reviewed 2 and 3). Those reference linear and nonlinear methods including
spread from the end of 2008 to the first quarter of 2012 and have Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) applications. Section 3
been published in International peer reviewed Journals and Con- reviews specialist topics such as slamming and green water loads
ferences. Figs. 2 and 3 look into the specific trends identified under as well as loading on damaged ships. Wave-induced loads on
each research area. Whereas it would be difficult to conclude on offshore structures are reviewed in Sections 2 and 4, the former
overspecialised trends it is useful to note that from the sample of dealing with single and multi-body interactions, including a note
publications reviewed: on the effects of current and bathymetry. Section 4 focuses on
specialist topics, such as cables and risers, vortex-induced vibra-
Most research efforts (approx. 47%) are dedicated on research tions (VIV), offshore lifting and installation and submersibles.
and development activities related with the computation of Finally, the current state of progress in short- and long-term
wave induced loads (see Fig. 1). Whereas research on hydro- predictions and fatigue loads is examined and uncertainties in
elasticity methods and their validation clearly dominates this experimental and full-scale measurements and computational
area of work there is fare interest on the development of methods are discussed.
hydrodynamic solutions for zero and foreword speed marine
structures. Research on wave loads from abnormal waves gains
momentum but still has a long way to go (see Fig. 2a).
Research on specialist ship structure topics (e.g. sloshing, 2. Load computations
slamming, green water on decks etc.) comes second within
the overall trend as it accounts for approx. 32% of the publica- 2.1. Zero speed case
tions presented (see Fig. 1). In this area sloshing is clearly an
important research topic driven by the industrial requirements 2.1.1. Body wave interactions
to improve current designs. There is renewed interest in the Traditionally the prediction of wave loading of zero speed body
research area of damaged ship structures; an area of work wave interactions has been based on potential flow solutions.
Consideration of viscous effects has been commonly restricted to
specific problems such as, the calculation of slow drift motion of
offshore structures, the evaluation of rolling response close to the
Fatigue Loads for
Ships & Offshore Uncertainty roll resonance of ships or barges or the evaluation of the resonant
Structures, 7% modelling, 4% motions of the confined fluid between side-by-side arrangements
Offshore Structures of floating bodies.
Specialist topics, Recently, Pessoa et al. (2011) presented an experimental
10%
investigation of the first and second order wave exciting forces
Computation of acting on a body of simple geometry subjected to long crested
Wave induced
irregular waves. The body is symmetric about the vertical axis, like
Loads, 47%
a vertical cylinder with a rounded bottom, and it is restrained from
Ship Structures
Specialist topics, moving. Second order spectral analysis was applied to obtain the
32% linear spectra, coherence spectra and cross bi-spectra of both the
incident wave elevation and of the horizontal and vertical wave
exciting forces. The linear and quadratic transfer functions (QTF) of
the exciting forces were obtained from the analysis of irregular
wave measurements. The results have been compared against
experiments in bi-chromatic waves and with numerical predic-
Fig. 1. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications)
of research development activities on wave loads for ships and offshore structures
tions from a second order potential flow code. Whereas the
from 2009 to 2012. Percentages include publications in International Conferences agreement of the experimental and numerical results was shown
and peer reviewed Journals. to be satisfactory for the linear forces, it was concluded that the
measured wave exciting forces include a significant nonlinear with experiments. Bredmose and Jacobsen (2010) reported
contribution for the low frequency range. investigations on a typical bottom-mounted offshore wind
Research results that have been presented in the area of turbine foundation, also using the OpenFOAM suite. In this
bottom founded structures (e.g. single or multi-array cylinders, study special emphasis was attributed to the wave generation
wind turbine foundations, gravity support structures (GBS) etc.) process. The fluid loading obtained from the CFD calculations
show a trend toward the use of CFD simulations and approx- was compared to results given by a combination of the ‘Wheeler
imate nonlinear diffraction models. For example, Morgan and stretching technique’ for the incident wave kinematics, and
Zang (2010) investigated the use of the open source CFD soft- ‘Morison equation’ for the fluid loading. Comparisons between
ware suite OpenFOAM for the simulation of focused wave empirical and computational results were shown to be satisfac-
packets interacting with a vertical bottom mounted cylinder. tory. Roos and Haver (2010) and Roos et al. (2009) reported on
Wave elevation in the vicinity of the cylinder was compared to the experimental study of wave impacts on elements of a
experimental data. In a parent paper, Zang et al. (2010) inves- Gravity Based Structure (GBS) composed of submerged storage
tigated the higher-order diffraction effects on the loading and caissons combined with four surface piercing vertical cylinders,
demonstrated that the method leads to reasonable agreement in relatively shallow water. The authors indicate that larger
VIVs, WIOs, 24% Semi-

submersibles,
34%
Cables, Risers and

Moored
Structures, 12%
Spars and TLPs,

24%
Offshore Lifting
and Installation,
6%
Fatigue Analysis
of Ships, 35%
Uncertainties in
Wave Load
Predictions, 45%
Fatigue analysis of
Offshore
Structures, 20%
Fig. 2. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications) of research development activities on (a) the computation of wave loads and (b) ship
structures specialist topics from 2009 to 2012. Percentages represent sub-categorisation of the main overall trends presented under Fig. 1.
Zero Speed Case,

20%
Hydroelasticity
Methods, 43%
Forward Speed
Case, 20%
Loads from
Offshore wind Abnormal Waves,
Loads, 12% 5%
Loads from
Damaged Ship
Structures, 21%
Sloshing, 42%
Ice Loads, 15%
Loads versus
Operational
Guidance, 12% Green Water, 10%
Fig. 3. Approximate knowledge profile (in the form of percentage of publications) of research development activities on: (a) offshore structures specialist topics and
(b) fatigues analysis and uncertainties from 2009 to 2012. Percentages represent sub-categorisation of the main overall trends presented under Fig. 1.
impact loads to those measured on the underside of the deck (e. of stationary large offshore structures. Yan and Liu (2010) con-
g. wave in deck impact loads, loads on vertical columns etc.) ducted fully nonlinear analysis of a moored FPSO vessel in shallow
may be recorded successfully. water waves using the Lagrangian–Eulerian finite element
The recent expansion in the market of Floating Offshore method. Investigations were also carried out on the effects of
Installations (FOIs) has introduced the need to direct research water depth on forces and wave run-up. The numerical results
towards understanding the effects of varying water depths and suggest that the induced forces decrease. However, the nonlinear
associated high frequency responses of such structures in waves components may be more significant as the water depth
using advanced methods. For example, Johannessen (2011) revis- decreases. Lee and Kim (2010) calculated motions of two floating
ited the problem of the high frequency resonant response of bodies (FSRU and LNGC) in shallow water. The authors concluded
offshore structures in irregular waves, using approximate non- that whereas the horizontal surge motion is significantly affected
linear diffraction models. The author concluded that provided the by the wave deformation, the surge motion is considerably
incident wave spectral properties are carefully represented, such amplified in low frequency waves by nonlinear wave–wave inte-
models allow for a good representation of the resonant response ractions.
Park et al. (2010) studied the motions and loads of a LNG-FPSO parallel body are generally speaking small. Hence, reasonable
considering the effects of sloshing. The methodology is based on a estimates of the heave and pitch motions are obtained using the
coupled model of sloshing and motion in the time domain. It was average depth along the length of the ship. The authors concluded
confirmed that the sloshing impact pressure depends on the wave that differences in depth at the bow and stern do have a
period, the number of filled tanks and the tank filling level. Ryu substantial effect on the cross-coupling coefficients. Thus, the
et al. (2010) studied sloshing loads in partially filled LNG tanks for phases of the heave and pitch motions and associated loads are
an FLNG at different headings and sea states. They described the not as well approximated by computations assuming constant
effect of wave heights on the sloshing loads, especially for partial depth.
filled LNG tanks. de Hauteclocque et al. (2009) formulated a radiation–diffrac-
tion theory to calculate the wave kinematics, motions and loads of
a floating body in areas of varying bathymetry. The method
2.1.2. Effects of varying bathymetry presented could be useful in the context of LNG terminals where
When shallow water operation is considered, the influence of the depth is quite shallow and the bathymetric variations
the seabed bathymetry variation on the loads acting upon the significant. The bathymetry is modelled as a second body. A
floating body needs to be examined. de Hauteclocque et al. modified formulation of the BEM is introduced to model accu-
(2008) presented a method to eliminate the interference caused rately the opaque bathymetry. Numerical results are shown to be
by the wave reflection on the boundaries of the truncated satisfactorily compared to a 3D shallow water code based on
bathymetry using the classical diffraction theory. Their method Green–Naghdi theory. The differences with the constant depth
applies semitransparent panels to the region of the bathymetry calculations are shown to be significant, due to the modified
boundaries. The radiation coefficients obtained were compared incident wave field, modified added mass and radiation damping
with those obtained when only an opaque bathymetry is terms. More recently, Pinkster (2011) also addressed the same
considered. The wave kinematics obtained by the diffraction problem by introducing a modified diffraction method based on a
code were compared to those obtained by a shallow water code multi-domain approach capable of handling different water
based on Green–Naghdi theory. The study concluded on good depths in each domain. It this work it is shown that the multi-
comparisons against semi-analytical solutions (e.g. GNWave) of domain approach can also be used for subdividing large domains.
wave kinematics along a slopped seabed. Further numerical The work by Sutulo et al. (2010) is a good example where
studies for the case of a barge floating over a horizontal inertial and damping characteristics have been computed for ship
bathymetry and for a LNG over a slopped seabed demonstrated sections in way of multi-stepped and inclined bottoms using the
that the interference effect of variable bottom on the wave loads boundary integral equation approach. This work has also some
is important. practical significance as the continuous growth of the average size
Molin et al. (2009) addressed the problem of determining and speed of vessels recently resulted in repeated problems
apriori whether the shoaling of the accompanying long wave to related to insufficient water clearances affecting the navigation
an irregular wave system may lead to significant corrections with safety and increasing the operation costs. Often these problems
regards to the flat bottom model. This study assumes that the are related to the squat sometimes resulting in undesirable
bathymetry is constrained in way of a constant depth zone that is contacts with the ground which requires reduction of the ship's
followed up by a rectilinear ramp. The authors compared their speed deteriorating the waterway's capacity. The numerical inves-
results with those of a flat bottom. It was concluded that low- tigation carried out by the authors for 3 characteristic ship
frequency second-order loads are strongly reduced as compared to sections show that depending on the section's shape, oscilla-
their flat bottom reference values. tion frequency and mode, the influence of the local bottom
Athanassoulis and Belibassakis (2009) studied the problem of configuration can vary from negligible to very significant.
transformation of the spectrum of an incident wave system over a In general, near mid-ship sections with flat bottom are more
region of strongly varying bottom topography within the context sensitive to the seabed configuration's details than typical bow
of linearity. This work focused on cases where the typical wave- and stern sections. The influence of the number of approximating
length and the characteristic length of the bottom profile varia- steps is sometimes rather systematic but sometimes of a quite
tions are comparable and the waves propagate in intermediate-to- unexpected character. Numerical results presented in this article
shallow water depth. It was concluded that the approach permits can be used for qualitative estimation of possible errors caused by
the consistent transformation of the full incident wave spectrum a too approximate bathymetry and the main practical recommen-
over variable bathymetry regions and the calculation of the spatial dation is that the seabed surface should be approximated as
evolution of point spectra of all interesting wave quantities at accurately as possible.
every point in the domain. Belibassakis (2010) presented a non- On the other hand, the work by Griffiths and Porter (2012)
linear hybrid domain decomposition method with application to addresses important aspects on computational modelling of scat-
the problem of roll response of ship-hull sections of general shape tering for a monochromatic train of surface gravity waves that may
floating in general bathymetry regions. The idealisation is based be incident on a finite region of arbitrary three-dimensional
on a BEM for the representation of the nonlinear potential wave smoothly varying bathymetry. In this work the full three-
motion around the floating body and a vortex particle method for dimensional linear water wave theory is approximated by the
the generation of vorticity in way of the boundary layer. Results of depth-averaged modified mild-slope equations and a Greens
reasonable accuracy are presented and it is concluded that in those function approach is used to derive an integral equation for the
cases where the viscous effects associated with boundary layer function relating to the unknown surface over the varying bed.
separation may be significant, mixing of boundary integral and The method is applied to bathymetries which exhibit focusing in
particle methods may be useful in the evaluation of ship-hull the high-frequency Ray theory limit and used to illustrate that
characteristics in rolling motion. focusing occurs at finite wavelengths where both refractive and
Ferreira and Newman (2009) discuss the importance of model- diffractive effects are included. The method of scattering of surface
ling the effects of significant variation in bottom depth along the waves by an finite domain of arbitrary slowly varying bathymetry
length of large LNG carriers. In this work, comparisons between has been applied to focusing, but can be extended in a number of
simplified and advanced numerical models idealising in detail the directions, such as interactions between multiple finite domains of
bathymetry changes due to a sloping bottom in way of the ships’ varying bathymetry, near trapping by long finite ridges and edge
wave excitation along semi-infinite ridges. Other extensions may effects have a small effect on the resonant free surface elevation
include shoaling domains on sloping beds, as considered by using prediction, the damping effect from the flow separation is large
Green's function. Perhaps, it would be useful to follow on further and in fact the predictions of the complete nonlinear model are
developments related with this work over the forthcoming ISSC quite good.
reporting period. A 2D viscous flow numerical method has been applied by Lu
and Cheng et al. (2010a, 2010b) to calculate the wave motion in the
narrow gap between rectangular cross sections, restrained from
2.1.3. Multi-body interactions moving when subject to harmonic waves. The Navier–Stokes
Multi-body hydrodynamics became a relevant topic of research equations are solved with a finite element method, while the free
over the last years as the offshore activities grow and diversify. surface is captured with a VOF method. The viscous flow results are
Many of the developments have been motivated by the operation compared against experimental data for the wave elevation in the
of side-by-side, or tandem, offloading of LNG from the floating gap showing good agreement. It is concluded that a 2D linear
production unit to a shuttle tanker. Other examples of multi-body potential flow method is able to predict correctly the resonant
systems include the classical problem of multiple surface piercing frequencies but overestimates the free surface elevation amplitudes.
vertical cylinders, very large floating structures and wave energy Hansen and Carstensen et al. (2009) present an analysis of the
converters. The calculation of the hydrodynamic interactions is motions, mooring lines and fender forces on two LNG carriers
important in order to assess the operability of the coupled moored side-by-side in irregular seas and shallow water. The
systems, estimate the loads on the structure and on the mooring motions are calculated in the time domain accounting for the
lines (e.g. lines connecting the bodies and on the articulations). nonlinear mooring effects, while the multi-body hydrodynamic
The current practice is to use frequency domain potential flow problem is solved with WAMIT. The Boussinesq wave model is
linear BEM to calculate the wave–body interactions. For computa- applied to simulate the irregular sea states in shallow water. The
tional economy the Higher Order Boundary Element Method comparisons with experimental data show good agreement for the
(HOBEM) is preferred for multiple bodies. If nonlinear mechanical first order motions and reasonable agreement for the forces on the
interactions need to be included, frequency domain results are mooring lines and fender connecting the ships. de Wilde et al.
used to calculate hydrodynamic linear impulse response functions. (2010) presented an experimental investigation with scaled mod-
The equations of motions and loads are consequently solved in the els of the LNG stern-to-bow offloading with a shuttle tanker
time domain by combining linear and nonlinear forces. There are behind a weather vaning platform in irregular waves, wind and
specific problems which require nonlinear hydrodynamic methods currents. Different options are assessed, namely passive tandem
(e.g. resonant free surface motions in a narrow gap between two mooring, taut hawser and full dynamic positioning (DP). The DP
fixed or floating structures). shuttle tanker option significantly reduces the relative motions
Lewandowski (2008) presented a systematic investigation of between the vessels.
the hydrodynamic coefficients, free surface elevation and motions The operability of the LNG offloading with tandem configura-
of two side-by-side rectangular barges. The author confirms that tion can be assessed with the support of commercial computer
standing waves between the hulls occur at critical frequencies and codes. For example, Wang and Sun et al. (2010) used the software
they may have a significant effect on the hydrodynamic forces and ARIANE 7.0 to carry out a systematic investigation of the time
loads. Different methods to reduce the standing wave elevations domain responses of a floating production platform and a tanker
have been proposed as reported in the proceedings of the 14th and in tandem configuration. Clauss (2009) presents an LNG transfer
17th International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress by ISSC system based on new flexible cryogenic pipes where the shuttle
Report of the Technical Committee 1.2 on Loads (2000, 2009). tanker is towed between the mooring wings of a turret moored
However some energy dissipation in the form of a damping term, platform. The system is analysed with WAMIT and related impulse
must be assigned by the analyst. Since the loading calculations of response functions and with AQWA in the time domain, to
moored floating structures often need to be carried out in the time calculate the relative motions and mooring forces. Excellent
domain, the author discusses the effects of the critical frequencies operability in the North Sea environment is reported. Brake et al.
on the floater motions by memory functions. Such functions (2009) propose to separate the floating LNG production platform
become inherently lightly damped, which leads to truncation in two vessels, the first for the production, process and storage
errors in the evaluation of the convolution integrals. Bunnik and of crude oil and the second for the storage of LNG and LPG.
Huijsmans (2009) proposed a variation of the damping lid method The vessels are moored with spread lines and connected with a
introduced by Chen (2005) to reduce the unrealistically high yoke system in a tandem configuration. The relative motions and
resonant wave elevations between two floating structures posi- forces on the mooring lines are calculated with WAMIT for the
tioned side-by-side. The damping lid method was chosen as it multi-body hydrodynamics and OrcaFlex for the nonlinear coupled
adds some damping to the free surface between the vessels. The mooring analysis.
results from the new method were compared with experimental Within the reporting period new linear and nonlinear methods
data for two similar LNG ships in head regular waves. It was have been proposed to calculate the hydrodynamic interactions
concluded that the new approach compares well with available between vertical cylinders. Siddom and Taylor (2008) present an
experimental data for the in-gap wave motion and the wave exact algebraic method to solve the diffraction and radiation of
induced drift forces. linear waves by arrays of independently moving truncated cylin-
Kristiansen and Faltinsen (2009) applied 2D linear and non- ders. The method is an alternative to BEM and since it does not
linear BEM to investigate the pumping mode induced by incoming require discretisation of the boundaries, the solution is fast. The
waves on an LNG carrier berthed near a gravity based structure in boundary condition on the surface of the cylinders is satisfied by
shallow waters. The results were compared with experimental the sum of Fourier–Bessel series. Mavrakos and Chatjigeorgiou
data to conclude that both the linear and nonlinear predictions (2009) solved the second order diffraction problem of two con-
overestimate the resonant free surface elevation, although non- centric surface piercing cylinders subjected to harmonic waves
linear results are closer to the experiments. In a more recent with a semi-analytical formulation. Wang and Wu (2010) applied a
publication from Kristiansen and Faltinsen (2010) the flow separa- finite element method to calculate the potential flow fully non-
tion of bilge keels was modelled by an inviscid vortex tracking linear interactions between incident waves and arrays of fixed
method. It was concluded that while the nonlinear free surface cylinders in a numerical tank. At each time step the FEM is used to
determine the velocity potential and then a difference method is source (TPS) is presented by Chapchap et al. (2011a). The authors
used to calculate the velocity of the free surface and track its studied the heave and pitch motions of the S175 containership at
movement. A structured mesh is used near the wave maker which Froude number 0.2–0.275 in head regular waves. The PS method
is combined with an unstructured mesh around the cylinders. produced better results than the TPS for this case; a trend that has
also been observed for other hull forms at relatively high Froude
2.2. Forward speed case – overview of methods numbers discussed by Bailey et al. (1999). The forward speed
Green's function is significantly easier to evaluate in the time
A large variety of different nonlinear methods for the forward domain than in the frequency domain, and many linear 3D
speed problem have been presented in the past three decades. One methods utilise this fact. For example, Datta et al. (2011) have
may distinguish between methods based on potential theory and increased the robustness and the overall efficiency of the method
those solving the Reynolds-Averaged-Navier–Stokes (RANS) equa- of Datta and Sen (2007) to enable calculation of motions of fishing
tions. The majority of methods for ships at forward speed still vessels. The simulations are compared with results from the 3D
belong to the first group. Within this group there is a large variety WAMIT code introduced by Korsmeyer et al. (1988) and a strip
of methods ranging from linear theories to fully nonlinear meth- theory code for the zero-speed and forward-speed cases, respec-
ods. Between these two extremes there are many partially non- tively. The method compares generally well with WAMIT for zero
linear, or blended, methods, in which one aims at including the speed for 3 fishing vessels, while the agreement with strip theory
most important nonlinear effects. As techniques become more varies depending on the Froude number (in the range 0–0.42) and
sophisticated assumptions become more complex. Equally com- the hull form.
putational time and complexity may be an issue when we try to A systematic study of the influence of various degrees of
understand, simplify or validate the modelling assumptions. In the refinement in the modelling of the forward speed-effects has been
subsequent discussion these methods are classified using 6 differ- presented by Zhang et al. (2010). They compare hydrodynamic
ent levels namely: coefficients, excitation forces and heave and pitch motions calcu-
lated by three interaction scenarios between:
Level 1(linear)
Level 2 (Froude–Krylov nonlinear) uniform flow in BBC and FSBC (Neumann–Kelvin method)
Level 3 (Body nonlinear) double body (DB) flow in BBC and uniform flow in FSBC and
Level 4 (Body exact – weak scatterer) DB flow in BBC and in FSBC (Double-body method)
Level 5 (Fully nonlinear – Smooth waves) and
Level 6 (Fully nonlinear).
The authors studied the Wigley I hull of Journee (1992) at
Froude number 0.3 and a Series 60 hull at Froude number 0.2,
introduced by Gerritsma et al. (1974), and comparisons were made
2.2.1. Level 1: Linear methods with experimental data. It was concluded that for the hydrody-
In linear methods, the wetted body surface is defined by the namic coefficients, A35, A53, A55 and B55, including the DB-flow
mean position of the hull under the corresponding position of the in the BBC gave the most significant improvement. For B35,
free surface where the free surface boundary conditions are including DB-flow in the FSBC was the most important, while for
applied. The hydrodynamic problem is solved in the frequency B53, including DB-flow in BBC and in FSBC were of almost equal
domain by either 2D, 2.5D or 3D idealisations. One may distin- importance. For the excitation forces, the effect of including the
guish between three levels of refinement in representing the DB-flow was small. For heave and pitch motions the double-body
steady flow field when the equation system for the unsteady flow method produced significantly better results than the Neumann–
is established. Those are: Kelvin method.
In order to accurately compute the m-terms, involving interac-
The Neumann–Kelvin (NK) method where the base flow is tions between the base flow and unsteady flow fields in the BBC,
approximated by a uniform flow with velocity equal to the ship Qui and Peng (2007) introduced a panel-free method for fre-
speed (U). quency domain forward speed problems. More recently, Peng and
The Double-body (DB) method where the base flow is approxi- Qui (2009) have applied their method to the Wigley III monohull
mated by the flow obtained when a mirror condition is of Journee (1992) at Froude numbers 0.2–0.4 in head seas.
imposed on the plane defined by the mean free surface. The calculated heave and pitch motions generally compare well
The Complete method where the complete steady flow, includ- with the experimental results; except for pitch at the highest
ing the steady wave elevation, is used. Froude number. The heave resonance peak of the Wigley III at
Froude number 0.3 was well predicted by the Neumann–Kelvin
In problems with low speed and relatively high frequencies, the method of Peng and Qui (2009), while Zhang et al. (2010)
interaction with the steady flow in the Free-Surface Boundary demonstrated that the Neumann–Kelvin method gave a relatively
Condition (FSBC) can be neglected and the only interaction large overestimation of the heave resonance peak of the Wigley I
appears as a U-term in the Body Boundary Condition (BBC). The at the same speed. This indicates that it is still difficult to draw
solution of the boundary value problem can then be divided into: firm conclusions regarding the required refinement level when
including forward speed effects in the boundary value problem.
a zero-speed solution and Shao and Faltinsen (2011) presented a time domain HOBEM,
correction due to the forward speed. Such a speed correction which is based on cubic shape functions, to study the linear
approach is used in the classical strip theory by Salvesen et al. seakeeping problem. Their validation results include the ampli-
(1970) and it is also quite common in 3D methods. One tudes and phase angles of a Wigley hull subject to heave and pitch
example is the so-called pulsating-source (PS) Green's function motions in head seas, and the corresponding added resistance.
methods. Finally, they studied the second order wave diffraction problem of
the Wigley hull and showed that the second order velocity
A recent comparison of frequency-domain 3D Green's function potential is dominating over the quadratic terms in the wave
methods based on pulsating source (PS) and translating-pulsating induced excitation of nonlinear ship springing.
Du et al. (2011) discuss the problem of irregular frequencies in domain using the time-domain (transient) Green's function, which
forward speed seakeeping analyses with singularity distribution also involves convolution integrals (e.g. Lin et al., 2007; Weems
methods. For the majority of ship-like structures these irregular et al., 2007). In the next step, various nonlinear modification forces
frequencies lie outside the range of practical interest for rigid body can be included in the time domain equations of motion in addition
motions but they may create difficulties for the analysis of flexible to nonlinear Froude–Krylov and restoring forces in order to account
bodies, multi-hulled vessels and when using frequency-domain for slamming and green water.
data to create impulse-response functions for subsequent simula- The Level 2 time domain 3D formulation LAMP-2 has been
tion of vessel responses in the time-domain as demonstrated by applied to a semi-displacement mono-hull by Ibrahim et al.
Bailey et al. (2001). A rectangular box and a Series 60 hull form are (2009). They incorporate lift and damping effects from the hull
analysed at zero and non-zero forward speed. It is concluded that by adopting a formula from Thwaites (1960). Lift and drag forces
more practical numerical approaches are required to overcome the due to trim tabs are also included. It is demonstrated that these
problem of irregular frequencies. lift-effects are small for Froude numbers below 0.3. At higher
Wu et al. (2010) applied the VERES/WINSIR strip theory based Froude numbers the effects of including these additional forces
hybrid hydroelastic method of Wu and Moan (2005) to study become noticeable, but when comparing with experiments it is
heave/pitch motions and vertical bending moments for an ultra not yet clear that they give more accurate results.
large containership progressing at the Froude number 0.22 in head Bandyk and Beck (2009) present a Level 2 body exact strip
seas. Comparisons were made with results from model tests and theory method used to solve the unified seakeeping and man-
with the 3D WASIM code. For RAOs of heave, pitch and vertical oeuvreing problem in the time domain using direct pressure
bending moments (VBM), both computer codes agreed quite well integration to compute forces. A frame following the instanta-
with the experimental data. However, it could not be concluded neous position of the ship by translating and rotating in the
that one code is superior to the other. horizontal plane is used to solve the later. This has the advantage
Some linear seakeeping methods have recently been modified that the speed or heading need not be predetermined. A nonlinear
to enable analysis of special vessels, such as HSC, multi-hulls, ACV, 6 degree of freedom Euler equation of motion solver is used to find
foil-assisted craft and SWATH-like vehicles. de Jong and Walree the new body position and velocities. The use of the time
(2009) extended the work of Lin and Yue (1990) and van Walree dependent body wetted surface to integrate the forces and the
(2002) to present a linearised time-domain Green's function use of second order terms in the Bernoulli equation make sure that
method for analysis of HSC. Predicted heave, pitch and vertical vital nonlinearities are captured. Thus, both the high frequency
accelerations are compared with experimental data for two high seakeeping and low frequency manoeuvreing is captured without
speed monohulls in head irregular waves. Results in terms of resorting to two separate time scales. However, the accuracy of the
standard deviations compare well, but the numerical method manoeuvreing results needs to be verified. In addition the
tends to underpredict the extreme vertical accelerations. assumption of of linear manoeuvreing forces may be erroneous
Milewski et al. (2009) present a practical simulation model for since nonlinear coefficients could play a vital role during tight
seakeeping analysis of air-cushion vehicles. Saito et al. (2009) turns.
applied a frequency domain Rankine panel method to calculate the Bruzzone et al. (2009) applied a Level 2 method to a hard-chine
motions, pressures, vertical shear forces (VSF) and VBM for a and a round-bilge catamaran, running at Froude numbers 0.5 and
slender high speed vessel with aft outriggers in head seas. Froude 0.3, respectively. A 3D Rankine panel method was used to calculate
numbers 0.31, 0.5 and 0.69 were studied. Good agreement with the steady flow and linear radiation and diffraction forces in the
experiments is reported, but a strip theory method is shown to frequency domain. Interaction with the steady flow was included
give almost as good results for the heave and pitch motions. in the FSBC. Relatively good agreement with experiments was
For VSF and VBM at the two higher speeds, the 3D method obtained for the vertical motions. Liu and Papanikolaou (2010)
provided better agreement against experiments. Experimental presented a hybrid, time-domain domain potential theory method
results for a trimaran, a monohull and two SWATH types at Froude and applied it to a variety of seakeeping problems. The validation
numbers 0.43–0.50 are given by Kihara et al. (2009). Comparisons included steady flow, wave resistance calculations and studies of
are made with strip theory calculations for the monohull and the nonlinear motions and loads in waves. Their results agree well
SWATHs. Additional damping due to lift and drag are accounted with experimental data for the wave making resistance of a
for in a quasi-steady manner according to Lee and Curphey (1977). Wigley hull, heave and pitch motions of S175 ship in head sea
Hydrodynamic interactions between hulls are neglected in the
calculations. The strip theory calculations generally agree well
with the experiments for hydrodynamic coefficients, excitation
forces and heave/pitch motions.
2.2.2. Level 2: Froude–Krylov Nonlinear Methods

In the Level 2 methods, the disturbance potential is calculated as
in the linear case. The incident wave forces are evaluated by
integrating the incident wave pressure and the hydrostatic pressure
over the wetted hull surface defined by the instantaneous position
of the hull under the incident wave surface. Level 2 methods are
very popular, since they capture many important nonlinear effects
with only a fraction of the computer time required for the Level
3 methods. It is common to use linear analysis to calculate the
frequency response or Retardation Functions (RF). The linear
frequency response functions are transformed to time domain,
yielding the RFs. The time domain response will contain a convolu-
tion integral with the RF to account for the memory effects. Another Fig. 4. Segmented scale model of a 13,000TEU containership during towing tests
common starting point is to solve the problem directly in the time (Wu et al., 2010).
Fig. 5. Measured and simulated Probablility-of-Exceedance (POE) plots for hogging and sagging VBM at forward (Cut 1), midship (Cut 2) and aft (Cut 3) for the 13000 TEU
containership advancing at 10 knots in head irregular waves of HS ¼ 11.5 m and Tp ¼13.3 s. Results denoted LF þHS are obtained from analysis of the complete time signal,
while results denoted LF are obtained from analysis of a low-pass filtered signal, where the high-frequency vibrations are removed (Wu et al., 2010).
under different wave conditions and the added resistance of Another nonlinear hydroelastic analysis of a large containership
various ship hulls. In a more recent publication the efficiency of (336 m) is reported by Lee et al. (2011a, 2011b). Calculated vertical
calculations was enhanced by use of a Chimera-type, overlapping bending moments are compared with results from model tests with
grid schemes on the free surface (Liu and Papanikolaou, 2011). a flexible model in head seas. The time-domain analysis uses linear
The hybrid hydroelastic nonlinear strip theory of Wu and hydrodynamic coefficients obtained with a 3D panel method.
Moan (2005) was applied for the case of a 294 m long container- Momentum-based slamming forces are included in addition to
ship by Drummen et al. (2009). Numerical results were compared the nonlinear Froude–Krylov and hydrostatic forces. The theoretical
against experimental results derived from a flexible model in head method captures the springing and whipping vibrations reasonably
seas. The nonlinear strip theory agrees quite well with the well, but it is shown that there are some regular wave periods for
experimental results. It was demonstrated that sagging and hog- which the vibration magnitude is not correctly predicted.
ging moments in head seas increase and become more nonlinear
when the high-frequency vibrations due to hull flexibility are
2.2.3. Level 3: Body-nonlinear Methods
accounted for. Springing is often excited by nonlinear wave loads
In Level 3 methods, the disturbance potential is calculated for the
that oscillate at a frequency that is an integer multiple of the wave
wetted hull surface defined by the instantaneous position of the hull
encounter frequency. The same theory was applied to an even
under the mean position of the free surface. This requires re-gridding
larger containership (366 m) by Wu et al. (2010) and compared
and recalculation of the disturbance potential for every time step.
with experimental results from a flexible model in head seas. The
The computational costs will therefore increase dramatically as
calculated hogging moments generally agree quite well with
compared to Level 2 methods. No publications regarding the Level
experiments. The total sagging moments also agree reasonable
3 methods appeared during the reporting period.
well, but it is found that the wave-frequency sagging moments are
over predicted, while the whipping sagging moments are under
predicted. It is concluded that the 2D momentum slamming model 2.2.4. Level 4: Body-exact Methods (Weak Scattered Methods)
should be replaced by a more refined model in order to predict the These methods are similar to Level 3, but the wetted hull
whipping moments more accurately (see Figs. 4 and 5). surface is defined by the instantaneous position of the hull under
the incident wave surface. For Green's function methods, this Yan and Liu (2010) present a fully nonlinear 3D method.
increases the complexity, since the commonly used time domain An efficient MEL-based time-domain computational method is
Green's function satisfies the free surface condition on the mean developed using the pre-corrected Fast Fourier Transform algo-
free surface and not on the incident wave surface. The later can be rithm based on a quadratic BEM. The method is used to study
circumvented by mapping the geometry into a computational wave radiation of a heaving sphere, wave diffraction of a fixed
domain where the incident wave surface becomes a flat plane vertical cylinder, and wave generation of a forward moving ship
(e.g. Lin and Meinhold et al., 1994). Level 4 methods are sometimes hull. Calculated results generally compare well with available
referred to as “weak scatter methods”, since the disturbed, or experimental data, although discrepancies still remain in the
scattered waves, caused by the ship are disregarded when the predictions of the wave elevation near the bow of the ship hull.
hydrodynamic boundary value problem is set up. It is assumed More recently, in order to overcome some of the problems
that the scattered waves are small compared to the incident waves associated with the MEL description of the fluid flow and enhance
and the steady waves. its applicability, Chapchap et al. (2011b) describe the geometric
Mortola et al. (2011a, 2011b) present a time-domain method domain by means of signed distance functions, which considerably
where the restoring, Froude–Krylov and diffraction forces are simplify the mesh generation procedure.
calculated at each time-step for the exact position of the hull
under the incident wave surface. The diffraction forces are calcu-
lated with the strip theory approach (Salvesen et al., 1970). 2.2.6. Level 6: Fully nonlinear Methods
Hydrodynamic coefficients for the correct instantaneous draft for The boundary integral methods used in potential theory cannot
each section are applied during the simulation. These coefficients handle breaking waves, spray and water flowing onto and off the
are calculated beforehand by strip theory for relevant combina- ship's deck. Moreover, viscous forces are not part of the solution
tions of section immersions and heel angles. This approach implies and must be obtained by other methods. With the increasing
that forward speed effects are accounted for only in a simple power of modern computers, methods solving the RANS equations
manner. It is shown that the method predicts RAO-values of heave, are becoming increasingly popular. In these methods, the water/air
pitch and midship VBM for the S175 in head regular waves that, volume is normally discretised, and a finite difference, finite
for the zero speed case, compare quite well with predictions from volume or a finite element technique is used to establish the
linear 2D and 3D frequency-domain codes. equation system. Particle methods, where no grid is used, have
Lately, Sclavounos (2012) presented a new formulation of the also been applied to solve the Navier–Stokes equations. Examples
nonlinear loads exerted on floating bodies by steep irregular are the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), the Moving
surface waves. The forces and moments are expressed in terms Particle Semi-implicit (MPS) and the Constrained Interpolation
of the time derivative of the fluid impulse which circumvents the Profile (CIP) methods, with the latter believed to be more suitable
time-consuming computation of the temporal and spatial deriva- for violent flows.
tives in Bernoulli's equation. The nonlinear hydrostatic force on a The unsteady RANS code CFD Ship-Iowa V.4 has been applied
floating body is shown to point vertically upwards and the to a catamaran advancing in head regular waves by Castiglione
nonlinear Froude–Krylov force and moment are derived as the et al. (2009). In this code the free surface is captured using a single
time derivative of an impulse that involves the time derivative phase level set method and turbulence is modelled by a blended
of a simple integral of the ambient velocity potential over the k–ε/k–ω model. The equations are discretised using a finite
time-dependent body wetted surface. The nonlinear radiation and difference approach. Calculated amplitudes and phases of heave
diffraction forces and moments are expressed as time derivatives and pitch motions agree well with experimental results at Froude
of two impulses, a body impulse and a free surface impulse that numbers 0.45, 0.6 and 0.75. A modal hydroelastic analysis, using
represents higher-order wave loads acting along the body water- CFDShip-Iowa V.4 for the fluid calculations and the commercial
line. Numerical results are presented illustrating the accuracy of FEM code ABAQUS for calculation of mode shapes, was presented
the new force expressions. Applications discussed include the by Paik et al. (2009). The containership S175 at Froude number
nonlinear seakeeping of ships and offshore platforms and the 0.2 in head regular waves was studied. Different ways of fluid–
extreme wave loads and responses of offshore wind turbines. structure coupling were investigated. Heave, pitch and VBM
compared quite well with experimental data obtained with a
flexible segmented model presented by Ramos et al. (2000).
2.2.5. Level 5: Fully nonlinear Methods (smooth waves) Lin et al. (2009) used the Finite-Analytic-Navier–Stokes (FANS)
In these fully nonlinear methods, the scattered waves are no code developed by Chen and Yu (2006) together with the Froude–
longer assumed to be small, and they are included when the Krylov nonlinear 3D potential theory code LAMP-2 to calculate
boundary value problem is set up. In the MEL method, the Eulerian motions and wet deck slamming loads on a high-speed catamaran.
solution of a linear boundary value problem and the Lagrangian In this work LAMP is used for the flow solution in the outer region
time integration of the nonlinear free surface boundary condition and FANS is used in a local flow region immediately around the
is required at each time step. These methods assume that the ship for nonlinear free surface and 3-D impact effects. FANS use a
waves are “smooth”, i.e. there is no wave breaking or fragmenta- level-set method for interface capturing. The paper presents some
tion of the fluid domain. Computations are typically forced to stop computational results obtained with this new hybrid method but
based on a wave breaking criterion. The stability of the free surface no comparison is made with experimental data.
time-stepping can also be a problem (e.g. Bandyk and Beck, 2008). Hu et al. (2010) applied the CIP-based code RIAM-CMEN to a
Lin and Kuang (2009) applied the 3D fully nonlinear method post-Panamax containership at Froude number 0.179 in head and
presented in their previous work (see Lin and Kuang, 2006) to a bow regular waves. RIAM-CMEN uses a Cartesian grid covering the
fast vessel. Heave and pitch motions seem to agree well with whole computation domain, the CIP combined and unified proce-
experimental results in head irregular waves, but only short time- dure as the flow solver, a VOF-like Tangent of Hyperbola interface
series for two different speeds are presented. Sun and Faltinsen capturing technique and a Lagrangian method for solid body
(2009, 2010) extended their fully nonlinear 2.5D theory (see Sun motion, in which the fluid–structure interaction is treated by an
and Faltinsen, 2007) to account for non-prismatic hull forms. Only immersed boundary method. Calculated heave, pitch, pressures,
calm water results are presented, but the theory is also applicable VBM, horizontal bending moments (HBM) and torsional moments
to the problem of forced heave and pitch motions. (TM) were compared with experimental results for a segmented
itself. Accordingly, the wind, wave and current combined motion

analysis effects are analysed by numerical models and validated by
model tests. The approach used in model tests may be either used
to generate wind directly by fans or to simulate wind loads using a
dynamic winch. Wind load time series are then derived based on
wind tunnel tests as reported by Liapis et al. (2010) for the
Perdido spar.
With the advancement of computers complex computational
methods (e.g. CFD) are used as a cost-effective alternative to wind-
tunnel tests. For example, Wang et al. (2010) performed a wind
load analysis for a semi-submersible platform using CFD analysis
and compared the results with wind tunnel experiments. The
model used was a semi-submersible drilling unit with a length of
114 m and a main deck height of about 38 m. The analysis was
performed for a 1:192 size model. The platform was modelled by
using the FLUENT commercial CFD algorithm and standard turbu-
lence models were investigated by Large Eddy Simulation (LES).
It was concluded that the dynamic sub grid-scale (SGS) model
provides best results regarding pressure coefficients, drag and lift
forces as compared to model tests. The k–ε model results showed
acceptable force prediction but could not predict exactly the
effects of turbulence. Wnęk and Guedes Soares (2011, 2012) and
Wnęk and Guedes Soares () presented an analysis of the aero-
dynamic forces acting on a floating LNG platform and an LNG
carrier. The investigation focused on the approach manoeuvre of
the ship to the platform, which is the effect of platform shadow on
the vessel during operation under wind conditions. Results have
Fig. 6. RAO comparison of CFD method (CIP) against experimental measurements
for a Container ship advancing at 24.5 knots in head waves: (a) vertical bending been obtained using the commercial CFD ANSYS CFX code and
moment and (b) vertical shear force (Huijsmans et al., 2010). were compared with experimental measurements performed in a
wind tunnel. Numerical and experimental results, presented in a
form of coefficients of the drag, lift components and yaw moment,
model presented by Miyake et al. (2004) and with results from a reached approximate agreement. The biggest discrepancy occurred
linear Rankine panel method and linear strip theory. The results for lateral forces, where CFD under predicts by about 50% the
show that results from RIAM-CMEN generally compare better with experimental results.
experiments than do the potential theory codes. This is particu- Within the reporting period special interest was shown to
larly the case for hydrodynamic pressures on the hull and for loads during extreme events (e.g. cyclonic tropical storms, hurri-
heave and pitch motions. For HBM strip theory results compared canes etc.). For example, Jang and Chien (2009) identified the
equally well with the experiments, and for VBM amidships strip effects of damages on wind turbines due to tropical storms and
theory seemed to compare slightly better than RIAM-CMEN. None analysed these effects on a wind turbine tower. Yang et al. (2009)
of the methods could predict the torsional moment RAO in bow analysed the loads on drilling rig tie down systems during
waves with good accuracy. hurricane conditions. The authors attributed special effort in
The same CIP method as above was applied to a 270 m analysing the dynamics of the structures. The wind force time
containership at Froude number 0.24 in head regular waves by series were calculated in a classic manner and applied as collinear
Huijsmans et al. (2010). Calculated heave, pitch, VSF and VBM were to the wave and current actions. In a similar type of work Mücke
compared with results obtained with a segmented model. The CIP- et al. (2009, 2010) have analysed high frequency wind speed time
method predicts pitch motions with quite good accuracy, while series measured at the GROWIAN site at the German North Sea
heave motions are underestimated. For VBM and VSF the discre- coast. In comparison with the standard models used for load
pancies between computed and experimental RAO's appear to be analysis of structures and wind turbines their models show a
relatively large, although for the peak RAO-values of the VBM higher probability of extremes. The analysis of probability density
amidships and the VSF at the fore quarter length the agreement functions of wind speed amplitudes showed a non-Gaussian
was fairly good (see Fig. 6). distribution with flatter tails. Adjusted wind turbulence models
as the one proposed by Kleinhans (2008) were used to numerically
2.3. Offshore wind loads analyse loads on wind turbines resulting in significantly higher
load fluctuations.
Wind loads are often considered as secondary with regards to In those cases where the wake behind a simple object may be
the overall loading of marine structures. This may be considered roughly estimated using wind coefficients coming from experi-
acceptable as long as the magnitude of the mean wind forces and ments or empirical formulas, CFD simulations can be valuable to
moments are only a fraction of the total loading. For situations simulate the wake field astern complex ship structures.
such as cyclonic storms (e.g. hurricane Katrina), for offshore For example, Koop et al. (2010) investigated the applicability and
offloading and operations or helicopter landing the magnitude of accuracy of CFD analysis to derive wind loads for an FPSO tandem
wind loading is considered critical and should be accounted for in offloading configuration. This work was performed within the OO1
the design. Joint Industry Project and analysed the wind load on a fully-loaded
Wind coefficients used in offshore structures load analysis are barge-shaped FPSO with 5 square blocks on the deck and a ballast
often taken from literature or from wind tunnel measurements. loaded shuttle tanker at a distance of 450 m. For the tandem
Engineering studies are usually focused on the prediction of the configuration the FPSO was modelled with a 301 misalignment to
global motion analysis and not in the definition of the wind load the mean wind direction while the shuttle tanker was fully aligned
to the wind direction. The analysis was performed using the shown by Frandsen (2007). Madsen et al. (2010) proposed the use
MARIN in-house CFD code ReFRESCO and the CFX commercial of a dynamic wake meandering (DWM) model. Accordingly, by
software on block structured and unstructured computational using CFD computations simplified engineering equations were
grids. Steady state forces on the structures were derived. Compu- derived considering basic physical mechanisms in the wake i.e.,
tational results were compared against wind tunnel measure- the velocity deficit, the meandering of the deficit, and the added
ments using segmented models. For FPSO or shuttle tanker turbulence. The model has been validated by Hansen (2009) and
standard configurations different numerical analysis codes pro- implemented in the HAWC2 and the Bladed codes by Schmidt
vided force coefficients within a bandwidth of the order of 15–30% et al. (2011).
of the measurements. However, in the tandem configuration In the field of floating offshore wind turbines the coupling of
numerical analysis showed large differences compared to wind the rigid body motion (due to wave forces) and the elastic
tunnel measurements. Trends in forces and moments were oppo- behaviour of structure/blade with the aerodynamic loading may
site from measurements, a fact that led to an unexpected increase be significant. Jonkman (2009) described the dynamics of offshore
in the drag force of the shuttle tanker. It was concluded that model wind turbines for load analysis. Cordle (2010) and Matha et al.
scale effects may influence the wake behaviour and grid adjust- (2011) provided a complete overview of the state of the art and
ments. CFD models therefore should capture more accurately the existing codes as well as the requirements for floating offshore
vortices generated by the FPSO boxes. wind turbine load analysis. Regarding aerodynamic loading one
A similar type of analysis was performed by Tannuri et al. interesting finding is that the large low frequency platform
(2010) on a typical shuttle tanker when offloading an FPSO motions experienced by floating wind turbines may result in
moored in a spread mooring system. In that work shielding effects complex flow conditions in those cases where the rotor is traver-
when the shuttle is shifted to a tandem position, aligned to the sing back over its own wake.
FPSO, were analysed. Two identical FPSO and shuttle tanker
structures (length 300 m) were tested for wind directions of 151 2.4. Loads from abnormal waves
and 301. The steady state condition was analysed using the
commercial CFX algorithm and the model was calibrated using In the field of abnormal or freak (or rogue) waves some
wind tunnel measurements. The results showed accuracy of the investigations deal with the nature, as well as physical and
order of 10–40% depending on the load components and condi- numerical generation of these waves, whilst others with the
tions. For yaw moments large discrepancies were observed for effects of waves on floating structures.
those cases where the absolute value of the moment is very small. The concept of rogue waves and their effect on ships and
de Carvalho (2010) simulated the flow over a helideck in way of offshore structures was first brought to prominence by Draper
the complex topsides geometry of an FPSO. The numerical inves- (1964, 1971) through observations of the addition of many wave
tigation was performed using CFX for a typical Brasilian FPSO of components to form a larger wave during a world voyage. In more
about 340 m length. During the preliminary tests comparative recent decades the phenomenon has grown in consequence in the
simulations were carried out using the k–ε and Shear Stress marine industry as a result of high-profile encounters recorded by
Transport (SST) turbulence models. SST results were in line with vessels. For example, Haver (2000) reported on the effects of a
the wind tunnel experiments performed for a 1:200 scale model. 30 m high rogue wave that broke over the superstructure of the
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and hot wire measure- Queen Elizabeth 2 during gale conditions in 1995. Stansberg
ments compared well against the flow field numerical analysis (2000) discussed the case of the FPSO Schiehallion that suffered
measurements. Comparisons against modelling guidelines resulted plate deformation of the order of 15–20 m above the mean
in the conclusion that new turbulence criteria may have to be waterline, due to severe bow slamming experienced as the result
developed in the future. of an impact from a 20 m high wave crest. Haver and Andersen
A special topic in wind load analysis is the loading of offshore (2000) reported on the event that occurred at the Draupner oil
wind turbines. Currently, numerical schemes accounting for the platform on 1 January 1995 when a 26 m high rogue wave
coupled dynamics of the wind inflow, aerodynamics, elasticity, occurred in a 12 m sea state, causing damage to the accommoda-
and controls of the turbine, along with the incident waves, sea tion deck on the platform. More recently, Berlotti and Cavaleri
current, hydrodynamics, and foundation dynamics of the support (2008) discussed the incident where the passenger ship Voyager
structure are being developed. Jonkman et al. (2010) and Vorpahl encountered a rogue wave in 2005. This event caused severe roll
et al. (2011) reported some of the results of a benchmark study motion, control room flooding and a loss of electrical systems.
carried under the International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Task 23 From these known encounters information about rogue waves is
on aero-servo-hydro-elastic codes. In this work complex load available in the form of crew observations and, in the case of the
cases were defined and run to trace back differences against Draupner platform, a wave record from a downward facing laser.
simulation results. Different phases analysing the response a Unexplained ship losses have also been attributed to rogue wave
5 MW turbine on (a) a mono-pile with fixed foundation, (b) a encounters. For example, Kjeldsen (2000) reported on the cases of
mono-pile with flexible foundation, (c) a tripod and (d) a floating M/S Anita and M/S Norse Variant. Kharif and Pelinovsky (2003)
spar buoy were studied and an adaptation of the codes to those discuss the effects of rogue waves in relation to the loss of MV
developments was enabled. The comparisons, in general, agreed Derbyshire.
quite well. All codes used blade element theory to account for The effect of freak waves on marine structures, in general, has
rotor aerodynamics and the Morison equation to consider the also been focused on the effect on stationary offshore fixed
wave actions. The structural dynamics were modelled by FEM structures. For example, Guedes Soares et al. (2008) present an
methods or multi-body formulations that are acknowledged to approach to determine the global load effects induced on ship
have influence on higher order eigen-frequencies. Some differ- structures by abnormal, freak, or episodic waves. The authors refer
ences in the results obtained from different structural or hydro- to a procedure that can be used for the determination of extreme
structural models were identified. values of wave-induced responses, including the recent advances
The influence of wakes within a wind farm may significantly of adopting time series of wave elevation as reference design
influence wind turbine loading. The standard approach is to conditions to calculate the wave-induced structural loads on ships
artificially increase wind turbulence intensity to account for added in heavy weather. The publication discusses how this procedure
vorticity and wind speed decay due to upwind wind turbines as can be extended to account for abnormal or episodic waves. It is
this work Fig. 7 demonstrates probability distributions of the

x 106 Experimental VBM at 1/2Lpp
9 vertical bending moment amidships for an FPSO platform and
Hs = 14.6m, Tp = 15.4s 5 design storms. The design storms are selected from the 100 years
Hs = 12 m, Tp = 12.8s return period contour of the North Sea scatter diagram. The
8 Hs = 13.3m, Tp = 17.6s
distributions correspond to time series obtained from nonlinear
Hs = 12.1m, Tp = 18.7s
Hs = 8.55m, Tp = 10 s time domain simulations and from model tests. The horizontal
7
lines correspond to rule minimum requirements according to the
IACS common structural rules for ships operating without restric-
6
Rules sagging minimum value tions in the North Atlantic for a period of 25 years. Although the
design of a FPSO platform does not necessarily follow the same
VBM [kNm]
5 Rules hogging minimum value procedures as ships do, in this case the geometry of the vessel is
similar to a tanker therefore the rule values are appropriate for
4 comparative purposes. The authors concluded that the discrepan-
cies were related to the nonlinear effects on the incident waves,
resulting in larger crests than troughs, and the run-up of the wave
3
as it encounters the hull. The maximum bending moments
obtained experimentally in the design storms were compared
2
with the Rule reference values and they were found to surpass
the later by around 30%.
1 Following the work of Clauss and Hennig (2004) on the
assessment of rolling and capsising of ships in large waves, more
0 recent investigations focused on understanding the behaviour of
10-3 10-2 10-1 100
moving vessels in severe random seas. For example, Drummen
Exceedance Probability et al. (2009) and Clauss (2009) addressed an experimental and
numerical studies for a Container Ship, a bulk carrier and a Ro-Ro
x 10
6 Numerical VBM at 1/2Lpp ship responses in severe seas. In these works it is recognised that
9 having chosen a rogue wave type, known repeatable rogue waves
Hs = 14.6m, Tp = 15.4s
Hs = 12 m, Tp = 12.8s
need to be produced in an experimental towing tank. It is also
8 Hs = 13.3m, Tp = 17.6s addressed that nonlinear fluid–structure interaction techniques
Hs = 12.1m, Tp = 18.7s including the physics of wave formation and the wave kinematics
Hs = 8.55m, Tp = 10 s should be developed and validated. The later may include the
7
nonlinear Schrodinger equation introduced by Onorato et al.
6 (2005) and the numerical wave tank approach suggested by
Rules sagging minimum value
Clauss et al. (2005). Rajendran et al. (2011) present direct compar-
VBM [kNm]
5 Rules hogging minimum value isons between experimental time records and linear and nonlinear
time domain simulations for a 117 m container ship in extreme sea
4
conditions. Predefined wave traces, corresponding to the New Year
Wave and a freak wave measured at North Alwyn, were repro-
duced in the tank. It is shown that the calculated response motions
3
compare well with the experiments. However, the vertical bending
moment amidships calculated using a linear method underesti-
2
mates the sagging peak while overestimates the hogging peaks.
0
10-3 10-2 10-1 100
Exceedance Probability
Fig. 7. Comparison between empirical distributions of the vertical bending

moment at midship sagging peaks for five 3 h duration design storms against
Classification Rules minimum requirements (Fonseca et al., 2010): (a) experimental
distributions and (b) numerical distributions.
T-HB VB
suggested that at the present stage of knowledge it is possible to

determine the loads induced by abnormal waves similar to ones
that have been measured at various ocean locations and that are
thus realistic. Although this information cannot replace the wave-
induced loads calculated with the presently established proce-
dures, it can serve as guidance for the design. Fonseca et al. (2010)
investigated the vertical motions and bending moments of an
Floating Production Storage and Offloading FPSO platform in
several design storms with duration of 3 h which correspond to
the 100 years return period of the North Sea. Experimental data T-HB T-HB
were systematically compared with numerical results from a Fig. 8. NASTRAN illustration of flexible modes of the Container Ship (T¼ Torsion,
nonlinear time domain strip method and they were found to H¼ Horizontal Bending driven, VB¼ Vertical bending, bold letters denote dominant
underestimate the relative motions at the bow. Along the lines of effects) (Hirdaris and Temarel, 2009).
Recently, the work by Denchfield et al. (2009, 2010) concen- piercing elastic structures using a higher order BEM approxima-
trated on investigating the encounter between a rogue wave and tion (see Fig. 9). The effects of approximation order and boundary
Lender Class Frigate in irregular head waves, including the surface discretisation on the removal of irregular frequencies were
influence of forward speed, through a combination of experimen- investigated by applying the extended boundary integral equation
tal investigations and numerical models incorporating the effects method of Lee et al. (1996). The frequency dependent hydrody-
of hull flexibility. Predicted motions were compared with test namic coefficients were calculated for a freely floating half-
measurements from a rigid model and two options for generating submerged elastic circular cylindrical shell. It was shown that
rogue waves, namely the first order optimisation approach and the the process of removing the irregular frequency effects becomes
“New Wave” approach. Results have shown that as the significant inefficient for higher frequency values. Notwithstanding, repeating
wave height and hence the rogue wave height increases, the the analysis with a higher number of free surface elements or by
experimental wave traces exhibit greater second order character- using a higher order approximation may be useful.
istics in the vicinity of the rogue wave peak. Comparisons in terms Mikami and Kashiwagi (2008) derived a nonlinear hydroelastic
of heave and pitch motions become more severe with the strip theory capturing the geometric nonlinearities in the hydro-
introduction of a rogue wave into a seaway. The 2D linear model dynamic restoring and Froude–Krylov forces in waves. The fre-
shows good agreement at low and mid-range speeds but at high quency dependence in the radiation and diffraction forces was
speeds it shows some considerable discrepancies against experi- accounted for by using convolution integrals. The hull was
ments. It was concluded that this is likely to be due to the extreme modelled using a Timoshenko beam approach. The calculations
“tunnelling” motion seen at high speed in large seas during were performed for a 716 TEU container ship and comparisons
experiments. against model test results were shown to be satisfactory for
symmetric distortions.
2.5. Hydroelasticity methods Kim et al. (2009a, 2009b) studied the springing response of the
flexible S175 ship using a Vlasov beam finite element method for
Wu and Cui (2009) present an overview of the developments the motion of the flexible structure and a higher-order Rankine
and achievements of linear and nonlinear 3D theories of ships and panel based boundary element method to simulate the fluid
the corresponding numerical and experimental techniques. In the motion around the flexible body. The solution was sought by
proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Hydroelasticity strongly coupling these boundary integral equations and FEM
in Marine Technology Temarel and Hirdaris (2009) present a implicitly in the time domain. The structural domain was mod-
number of theoretical developments and applications of hydro- elled by beam finite elements, able to capture the coupling effect
elasticity methods on the design of ships and offshore structures. between torsion and bending as well as warping distortion.
Hirdaris and Temarel (2009) present a number of recent applica- Comparisons between symmetric wave loads derived by the
tions of 2D and 3D hydroelasticity theories for ship design along Rankine-panel based time domain approach and a Green-
with future ideas on the development and implementation of fully function based frequency domain approach appear to compare
nonlinear fluid–structure interaction models, including CFD based well as demonstrated by Kim et al. (2009c, 2009d).
methods, for the improved modelling of ship wave load predic- Hirdaris (2009), Hirdaris et al. (2009b) and Miao et al. (2012)
tions (see Fig. 8). discuss a method for the dynamic analysis of beam-like ships with
Following some initial work by Uğurlu and Guedes Soares large deck openings and associated structural discontinuities.
(2008) and Uğurlu and Ergin (2009a, 2009b) proposed a 3D The authors employed different numerical models to assess the
hydroelasticity method for studying the response of surface influence of the discontinuities and the effect of other structural
Fig. 9. First eigenmode of fluid conveying simply supported cylindrical shell for circumferential wave number, n¼ 5 and non-dimensional axial velocity, V ¼ 2.5: (a) t¼ 0; (b)
t¼ T/8; (c) t¼ T/4; (d) t¼ 3T/8; (e) t¼ T/2 (T is period) Uğurlu and Ergin (2009b).
Fig. 10. Hydroelastic modelling of a 53,000 dwt bulk carrier in fully loaded condition: (a) fluid–structure interaction idealization; (b) 2-node vertical bending mode;
(c) 2-node horizontal bending mode; (d) 1-node torsion mode; and (e) 3-node vertical bending mode (Kaydihan et al., 2009).
parameters. They concluded that the inclusion of structural dis- generalised added mass and hydrodynamic damping, as a function
continuities may have an important influence on natural frequen- of wave frequency, and wave excited responses.
cies, mode shapes and modal internal actions. In a similar type of Tian et al. (2009) investigated the rigid body motions and
work, Senjanovic et al. (2009) investigated the hydroelastic structural responses of an 180,000 dwt large bulk carrier travelling
responses of an ultra large container ship (7800 TEU carrying in regular and irregular head waves. The numerical predictions were
capacity) by coupling a beam structural model with a 3D hydro- obtained by using the programs THAFTS and NTHAFTS that are based
dynamic model. The analysis demonstrated reasonably good on linear and nonlinear 3D hydroelasticity theories respectively.
results for symmetric wave loads. However, the structural The predicted linear hydroelastic responses are illustrated, together
responses in way of the hatch corners were underestimated. with the investigation and discussion of the forward speed effect on
Riyansyah et al. (2010) employed the Euler–Bernoulli beam the hydroelastic responses. The successive second order nonlinear
theory and boundary element method to solve the beam equation hydroelastic analysis was also performed. It is shown that the
of motion and the governing equation of fluid motion, respectively, springing behaviour is clearly exhibited by the linear and nonlinear
for the hydroelastic response behaviour of a two floating beam predictions. The influences of the forward speed effect and the
system. The authors investigated the relative beam stiffness on the nonlinear hydroelastic actions on the motions and structural loads
hydroelastic response behaviour. They observed that an increase in of this large bulk carrier were quantitatively discussed.
the flexural rigidity may change the characteristics of the floating Itamura et al. (2009) studied the hydroelastic vibrations includ-
beam system. It may also change the pressure distribution along ing springing and whipping of an ore bulk carrier, and their
the floating beam system. influences on fatigue damage. A fully 3D time-domain method
Along the lines of steady state hydroelastic modelling princi- was employed to analyse the hydroelastic response. That is, shell
ples developed by Hirdaris and Temarel (2009), Kaydihan et al. finite elements were employed to account for the complex
(2009) presented a hydroelasticity study investigating the model- deformation behaviour of the ship to predict global and local
ling principles and response of six bulk carriers with different load stress distributions while linear and nonlinear forces were con-
carrying capacities (see Fig. 10). The ships selected for this sidered with an extension of 3D potential flow theory. Springing
investigation were two Handysize, one Panamax and two Capesize responses in regular and short-term irregular waves were dis-
bulk carriers. The authors calculated dry and wet natural frequen- cussed by different ship speeds and wave heights.
cies and associated modes as a function of the non-dimensional Taghipour et al. (2009) presented an alternative method for
parameters. They also presented hydrodynamic modes, such as hydroelastic analysis of marine structures by using state-space
Fig. 11. Slamming test in regular waves: (a) segmented-hull model during water-exit and (b) comparison between experimental and theoretical estimations of the slamming
force on the second segment (from the bow) (Dessi and Mariani, 2008).
models. The method was applied to a very flexible barge, and the angles. It was shown that without using the Eulerian approach or
dynamic response of the barge due to regular waves as well as its the grid system, the convection terms and time derivatives in the
transient response after release from an initial displacement was Navier–Stokes equations can be calculated more directly with-
simulated. It was concluded that state-space models may replace out any numerical diffusion, instabilities or topological failure.
the convolution integrals. The method also allows for the derivation of numerical results that
are in good agreement with available experimental data.
Greco et al. (2010a, 2010b) analysed the problem of bottom
2.5.1. Slamming loads slamming for very large floating structures using 2D potential flow
The hydrodynamic loads imposed upon the water entry of theory without and with coupling between the global behaviour of
a flat plate were investigated by Iafrati and Korobkin (2008). the platform and local actions. Whereas a linear solver was
The authors developed a 2D potential flow theory accounting for adopted to investigate the global behaviour, a nonlinear approach
variable entry velocity. A theoretical estimate of the loads during the was implemented to predict locally the slamming forces. For large
early stage of the water impact by the method of matched asympto- platform motions an iterative time-decomposition strategy was
tic expansions compared well against numerical predictions. developed to examine the resulting coupling. The effect of air
Dessi and Mariani (2008) implemented the Von-Karman theory entrapment was taken into account along with a detailed descrip-
with a BEM correction of the water up-rise to calculate the sectional tion of pressure and stresses on the platform bottom using beam
loads acting on the V-shaped bow of a fast-ferry. The authors theory to model the equivalent floating structure. Korobkin (2011)
considered the effects of variable water-entry speed, the presence discussed a refinement of the well-known generalised Wagner
of knuckles and the contribution of 3D terms given by the variation model to improve the hydrodynamic forces measured on 2D
of ship sections. The theoretical load prediction used seakeeping impacting bodies. Wagner models provide higher accuracy with
experimental data (see Fig. 11) as input for the calculation in order to respect to other semi-analytical methods (e.g. modified Logvino-
avoid errors on the relative body motion derived from the theoretical vich Model) as they are able to predict better the pressures on the
analysis. The sectional loads were spatially integrated along the ship body contour. However, they fail to integrate correctly the pressure
length and compared with the vertical force measured on the distribution due to lack of adequate numerical treatment. To avoid
physical model segments (see Fig. 10b). this drawback, Korobkin (2011) employed rigorous analytical
Tveitnes et al. (2008) investigated the constant speed water- calculations by separating the singular components of both the
entry of wedges at different dead rise angles. The authors flow velocity and the pressure. By reducing the original problem to
measured both loads and wetted length uprise during impact. two nonlinear integral equations, where one of them serves to
They concluded that careful investigation of results in way of evaluate the conformal mapping and the second one to compute
water entry and exit conditions may be useful for the refinement the position of the contact point improved prediction of the
of 2D slamming load theories. In a subsequent publication, Sun pressure and hydrodynamic forces was achieved.
and Faltinsen (2009) dealt with the 2D water entry of a bow-flare Another interesting application of Wagner's water impact
ship section with constant heel angle by means of a BEM. Non- theory was provided by Qin and Batra (2009). They investigated
viscous flow separation from the knuckles of the section or from the local slamming problem of a deformable sandwich wedge by
the curved bottom was taken into account. The numerical calcula- taking into account hydroelasticity effects. The novelty of their
tions were compared with drop tests available in literature. It was work resides upon the use of a sandwich panel theory, that
shown that as long as the heel angle is increased, high localised incorporates the transverse deformations of the core, with the
pressures arise on the impacting flare area. Thus, the flow separa- Kirchhoff plate theory for modelling of the face sheets. A numer-
tion for large heel angles may significantly affect the pressure ical procedure to solve the nonlinear system of governing equa-
along the impacting bottom and its relevance seems much more tions, from which both the fluid load and the structure
related to non-viscous than to viscous effects. deformations can be simultaneously computed, has been devel-
Lee et al. (2010a) exploited the moving particle semi-implicit oped and verified. The hydroelastic effect on the hull deformations
method to study the effects of an incompressible violent flow over appears to be noticeable and the core shows to absorb a consider-
structures. The method exploits a more efficient algorithm and is able part of the strain energy due to transverse shear deformation
used for solving various highly nonlinear free-surface problems, to implying that the core can be effectively used for slamming impact
evaluate the slamming loads on rigid plates with various incident alleviation.
Maki et al. (2011) highlighted the need to develop a practical tool one Classification Societies, CeSOS and MARINTEK carried out
for the computation of slamming loads. Taking advantage of the model tests with the ultimate aim to investigate how the wave
method developed by Paik et al. (2009) they recommend one-way induced vibration affects the fatigue and extreme loading at
coupling of the fluid and structure models. The open source CFD solver different cross sections (see Storhaug et al., 2010a, 2010b).
Open FOAM and the dynamic finite element method were employed The second international project namely WILS currently enters
and the exchange of numerical data was facilitated by a grid matching its third phase (see Fig. 12); it is led by the Korean industry (KORDI
algorithm. The fluid-dynamic simulation was carried out on a rigid and Korean Shipyards) and is supported by all major Classification
body in the time domain and the modal equations of motion were Societies (for example, see Kim et al., 2009d, 2010; Lee et al,
numerically integrated to yield the structural response in time. 2011a). To date the main conclusions of both JIPs can be sum-
Acoustic elements were used to account for the added mass due to marised as follows:
flexible modes. The procedure allowed solving the impact of a rigid
and an elastic wedge. Hanbing Luo et al. (2011a, 2011b) studied the With regards to the impact of the wave-induced vibrations on
hydroelastic responses of a complex stiffened panels. A steel wedge structural design, the tank test results seem consistent with
with complex stiffened panels was designed with a dead rise angle of each other to the point that the fatigue damage is increased
221 and a series free-drop model tests were carried out. due to the wave-induced vibration when the fatigue damage is
The explicit FEA commercial algorithm LS-DYNA was used to simulate estimated by using the Rainflow counting method and the
this coupled hydroelastic impact problem. Comparisons of the numer- Palmgren–Miner's rule. However, the validity of the fatigue
ical and the experimental results have shown generally good agree- damage estimation method for the combined load is yet to be
ment on the acceleration and stress responses. However, more confirmed against fatigue tests under combined high-
research is required to understand the influence of high frequency frequency and low-frequency loads that may be used to clarify
oscillations on the measured accelerations and the local hydroelastic the effects of wave-induced vibrations on fatigue damage;
effects. Tuitman (2010) and Tuitman and Malenica (2009) presented a The scaled model techniques for the wave-induced vibrations
methodology to solve the seakeeping, slamming, and whipping of hull girder in torsional mode have been developing and
problems coupled within a single calculation. The coupled problem there is still space for improvement. Scaled models need to
is solved within a partly nonlinear time domain seakeeping pro- have similarities in modal shapes as well as the natural
gramme. The elastic modes used in this hydroelastic problem can be frequencies. The consideration of the position of the shear
calculated using a beam model or full 3D finite element model of the centre, which is normally located lower than the keel, and
ship structure. The slamming loading is calculated by a 2D method. measurement methods of the torsional moments seem to be
The main focus of this paper is the creation of an accurate and some of the directions where fundamental understanding
consistent coupling between the 3D seakeeping programme and the needs to improve;
2D slamming calculation. Differences in timescale and integration Numerical simulation methods need to be validated in further
methods make this coupling complex. A large container ship is used to against tank tests and full scale measurements until they
illustrate the application of the presented methodology. The contribu- become an established tool for predicting the wave-induced
tion of the nonlinearities and the whipping response to the expected vibrations of a ship's hull girder;
maximum bending moment and fatigue damage of this ship for a full- Slamming impacts seem to be a source of large uncertainty.
wave scatter diagram is calculated. The results show that the
slamming-induced whipping response has a significant contribution
to both the ultimate bending moment and the fatigue loading of Drummen et al. (2009) presented an experimental and numer-
the ship. ical study of the responses of a container ship in severe head seas.
In this work it was demonstrated that hull flexibility could
increase the vertical bending moment by up to 35%. Comparisons
2.5.2. Experimental hydroelasticity of experimental bending moments against nonlinear hydroelastic
Over the last three years two major international Joint Industry strip theories provided reasonably good agreement. Kim et al.
Projects (JIPs) concentrated on the validation of the effects of (2009c) investigated the responses of a floating and flexible barge.
springing and whipping on Container Ship Structures. In the first The experimental measurements were carried out in different
Fig. 12. (a) Four segmented 6250 TEU container ship model used for WILS I model tests. (b) Vertical bending moments (VBM) comparisons between measurements and
predictions of the WILS Container Ship; Vs ¼ 5 knots, χ ¼ 1201 (Exp ¼experimental and A, B, C etc.¼ predictions) (Lee et al., 2011a).
wave heading angles, from head waves to beam waves with angle response. This method is based on the construction of a correlation
increments of 30˚. Different irregular waves were generated based matrix among the measured degrees of freedom with acceler-
on the JONSWAP spectrum with different significant wave heights ometers or strain-gages. It allows for deciding how many wet
and wave periods. RAOs were obtained by processing the irregular modes may be required to perform simulations in certain condi-
motion time history using Fourier analysis. tions (e.g. forward speed and sea-state).
Coppotelli et al. (2008) determined the operational vibration Iijima et al. (2009) developed a scaled model design technique
modes of an elastically scaled ship using the frequency domain to tune the natural frequencies in torsional mode as well as
decomposition method. By exploiting the ambient mode excita- vertical and horizontal bending modes (see Fig. 13). A backbone
tion in head waves they have determined the mode shapes as well beam approach with several cut-outs was shown to be effective in
as the associated frequencies and damping. In furthering this giving an appropriate torsional stiffness as well as vertical and
work, Dessi et al. (2009) presented the preliminary results relative horizontal bending stiffness by selecting the configuration of the
to the correlation of model scale and full scale tests, for determin- cut-outs. The natural frequency was measured in wet conditions.
ing the bending response of a naval vessel in waves. The tests were Vertical and horizontal bending and torsion moments were also
carried out at the INSEAN towing tank with a segmented hull measured by using longitudinal and shear strains calibrated prior
elastic model scaling the mass, sectional moment of inertia and to the tank tests. By using this scaled model, the hydroelastic
shear area. The vertical bending moments measured on board the vibrations in torsion as well as vertical bending in head/oblique
ship during the full scale trials were compared with those seas were measured. Springing response to linear/nonlinear loads
determined with the segmented-hull tests and with the simula- and whipping response to slamming impacts in both vertical
tions using 2D and 3D FEA models of the ship structure. bending and torsion were reported. As it is shown in Fig. 14 for
Dessi and Ciappi (2010) explored the bow and stern slamming an encounter period of 0.5 s the third harmonics can be clearly
events experienced by a cruise ship comprising of five-segments. It observed and the period of high frequency clearly coincides with
was shown that slamming intensity occurring at the ship stern in the natural frequency in torsional mode.
following wave conditions was potentially larger than the one Oka et al. (2009) carried out a series of tank tests in regular and
relative to the bow in head waves. The response level was irregular waves using a segmented model for a large container
evaluated as the time average of the envelope of the high-pass ship, with backbone. It was verified that estimated torsional
filtered bending moment, obtained experimentally from the moment by means of FEA was strongly consistent with measured
strain-gages for different sea states, wave directions and forward torsional moments. Ship motions, accelerations, wave-induced
speeds. The mean bending moment was then related to the bending moments and torsional moments were measured in
number of impacts per minute and to the impact severity. Some various seakeeping conditions. The relation of wave loads of a
global trends between the observed variables were identified and large container ship with respect to waves and ship speed was
were found to be similar to those determined for other ship types. examined. Derbanne et al. (2010) reported on the springing
More recently, the underlying requirement of broad-band excita- measurements of a flexible large container ship. The model was
tion has been clarified by Mariani and Dessi (2012). He applied the made of 12 segments attached to a squared section steel rod with
proper orthogonal decomposition under the same hypothesis to total length of 4.42 m. The steel rod was located just under the
determine not only the modal shapes of the same physical model baseline of the ship in order to have the centre of torsion as low as
but also the energy associated to each identified mode in the possible. The tests were run without forward speed, in regular
head and oblique conditions. Linear springing response in tor-
sional mode and coupled resonance of the horizontal bending
were found to be strongly coupled.
Stenius et al. (2011) considered the hydroelastic interaction
involved in panel-water impacts for a high speed craft. Hydro-
elastic panel-water impacts were simulated by using the FEM code
LS DYNA and a simplified in-house developed method. It was
shown that hydroelastic effects can both increase and reduce the
panel responses depending on the impact envelope considered.
Thomas et al. (2011) studied the slam events experienced by high-
speed catamarans with a segmented model capable to measure
the whipping induced load responses in way of the centre bow.
Wet-deck slamming events were identified by analysing the load
time-history provided by strain-gages and their intensity was
related to the relative vertical motion (immersion and velocity)
at the same section. As expected, the slam intensity showed a
Fig. 13. Backbone model with cut-outs carefully selected to scale down the natural
tendency to increase as long as the deck impact velocity became
frequency in antisymmetric (torsional and horizontal bending) modes of vibration higher. The experiments also highlighted an evident dependency
(Iijima et al., 2009). of the slam location on the forward speed.
15
exp
10
Torsion (Nm)
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
115 115.5 116 116.5 117 117.5 118 118.5 119 119.5 120
time (s)
Fig. 14. Torsional moment measured on the backbone model for encounter period 0.50 s (Iijima et al., 2009).
Fig. 15. Typical instrumentation for long strain gauges on an Ultra Large Container Ship (Hirdaris et al., 2010).
40 Heading = 30deg
% enhancement of Significant WVBM 0.5Lpp
35
Heading = 60deg
Heading = 90deg
30
Heading = 120deg
25
Heading = 150deg
20
Heading = 180deg
15
10
Heading = 180deg
5 Heading = 150deg
Heading = 120deg
0 Heading = 90deg
7 Heading = 60deg
8
9 Heading = 30deg
10
11
T1 12
13
Fig. 16. Precentage (%) enhancement of significant values of amidships Wave Vertical Bending Moment of a GLBC due to springing (1801 denotes head sea, U ¼ 6 knots,
H1/3 ¼7.1 m); (H1/3 significant wave height and T1 characteristic wave period) (Hirdaris et al., 2009a).
2.5.3. Full scale measurements equivalent service factor for a single passage of a Great Lakes Bulk
Within the reporting period the work published on full-scale Carrier from the Canadian Great Lakes to China. It was shown that
measurements of ocean going ships has clearly shown that wave the long term wave induced bending moment predicted using
induced stress components may vary in way of the two node hull traditional 3D rigid body hydrodynamic methods is augmented
girder frequency (e.g. Okada et al., 2006; Miyahara et al., 2006; due to the effects of springing and whipping by including
Heggelund et al., 2010; Ito et al., 2010; Hirdaris et al., 2009a, allowances based on two-dimensional hydroelasticity predictions
2009b, 2010) (see Fig. 15). These stress components show both across a range of headings and sea states (see Fig. 16). The analysis
transient (whipping) and more continuous (springing) variations. results were correlated with full scale measurements that are
For example, Hirdaris et al. (2009a) presented a summary of an available for this ship. The combined effects of springing and
investigation into the effects of hull flexibility when deriving an whipping responses on the wave-induced VBM results were
predicted to enhance the design VBM and the service factors by up using 3D potential flow analysis in a variety of seakeeping
to 37.7%. This prediction, although conservative, was considered conditions. The work demonstrated the inherent limitations of
necessary to ensure a suitable design margin for the possible sea the applicability of beam idealisations to vessels with a small
states that might be expected. Comparisons against full-scale length/beam ratio using either the Prohl–Myklestad methodology
measurement data also showed that achieving good agreement or an FEA model. It is concluded that structural discontinuities (e.g.
between predictions and measurements, both for ship-wave deck openings) and the long superstructure that is not aligned
matching and springing, depend on the parameters of the wave with the ship's sides are additional factors affecting the applic-
spectra as well as the estimation of structural damping for the ability of 2D hydroelastic models.
latter and any uncertainties involved in measuring such data. Ikoma et al. (2009) and van Kessel and Huijsmans (2009)
Miyake et al. (2010) presented the whipping measurement studied the hydroelastic response behaviour of aircushion sup-
results of an ultra large container ship (12,000TEU) both in regular ported structures in waves (Fig. 17). In the former study, the
and irregular seas. The authors reported on the relationship motion reduction effect of aircushion was confirmed from theore-
between the maximum vertical bending moment amidships and tical calculations with zero draft assumption. In the latter one, a
the wave amplitude for various combinations of wave/ship length new method that takes into account the fluid–air–structure inter-
ratio in regular head seas. The non-dimensionalised hogging action of aircushion supported structures in waves was derived.
moments were almost constant and equivalent to the first har- Damaren (2010) examined the hydroelastic properties of the
monics of the hogging moments in small wave amplitude. How- vibration modes of a thin plate floating on the surface of an
ever, the non-dimensionalised sagging moments increased with incompressible, inviscid, irrotational ocean of infinite extent.
the increase of the wave amplitude. Discrepancies in sagging and The results demonstrated that the modes of the plate of optimised
hogging moments were also observed in irregular seas with shape exhibit large damping coefficients. van Kessel (2010) pre-
differences more prominent for the values whose exceedance sented the results for validation of a new hydroelastic code for
probability is lower. flexible floating structures moored in waves. Numerical results
Drummen et al. (2009) demonstrated that hull flexibility can were validated by model experiments of a flexible barge in waves
increase the vertical bending moment by up to 35% in sea states from different headings. In addition, the obtained results were
relevant for design. They also compared measurements and compared with results from other existing hydroelastic programs.
calculations of high frequency induced stress components and In general it is shown that numerical results show good agreement
have shown that their developed hydroelastic model slightly with experimental values. Milgram (2007) addressed the impor-
over-predicts the increase of the bending moments due to hull tance of evaluating the unsteady forces and moments on an
flexibility. underwater vehicle in finite-depth water, at small enough sub-
Jensen et al. (2009) and Pedersen and Jensen (2009) have mergences for it to be influenced by sea waves. This study has
described a simplified calculation procedure for the probability employed strip theory, including the effects of finite depth and lift
distribution of the combined wave and whipping induced stresses. forces on fins to predict the unsteady seakeeping forces on
Reasonable agreements with full-scale measurements were found
provided the pertinent parameters related to the estimation of the
impulse slamming load are chosen with care. More detailed
procedures based on the solution of nonlinear hydrodynamic strip
theory formulations coupled with a Timoshenko beam model of the
hull girder have been presented in e.g. Iijima et al (2008), Drummen
et al. (2009), Wang et al. (2011) and Vidic-Perunovic (2010).
2.5.4. Specialist structures

Santos et al. (2009a, 2009b) studied the symmetric response of
a fast patrol boat using unified hydroelasticity analysis. 2D and 3D
idealisations were adopted to predict the structural response
behaviour. The fluid–structure interaction effects were calculated Fig. 18. Cylindrical shell conveying flowing fluid (Uğurlu and Ergin, 2008).
Absolute Displacements [m] Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054 0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
Absolute Displacements [m] Absolute Displacements [m]
0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054 0.015 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.054
Fig. 17. Hydroelastic response of barge like structures barge at the time step when the vertical shear forces are maximum in regular head waves (a),(b) air cushion supported
concept ((a) wave frequency¼ 5.1 rad/s and (b) wave frequency ¼6.0 rad/s) and (c),(d) conventional barge ((c) wave frequency ¼ 5.1 rad/s and (d) wave frequency ¼6.0 rad/s)
(van Kessel and Huijsmans, 2009).
streamlined underwater vehicles close to the surface. Comparisons point out a relevant sensitivity on the parameters, especially for
with experiments have shown errors within the range of applica- axial and normal force coefficients. As in a previous paper by Sulin
tion of strip theory to ships. Following the work of Uğurlu and et al. (2009) the authors used CFD tools (ANSYS-Fluent) to
Ergin (2008) and Can and Ergin (2010) presented experimental estimate the hydrodynamic coefficients of AUVs. However, the
data and theoretical calculations on the dynamic response beha- complex shape of the body under investigation provided a more
viour of a flexible submarine pressure hull model vibrating in air challenging case. Because of the block-like structure of this under-
and water (see Figs. 18 and 19). Different representative to water vehicle, the relationships between the hydrodynamic loads
submarine hull aspect ratios were selected. and the translational and rotational velocity of the vehicle are
Jagadeesh et al. (2011) presented a towing tank-based experi- nonlinear. Though comparison against experiments appeared
mental study on forces and moments on Autonomous Underwater encouraging, the simplifying assumptions employed to carry out
Vehicle (AUV) hull forms in the vertical plane. A five component the simulation and the successive interpretation of the results,
force balance was used to measure the variation of axial, normal, were not as straightforward as in the case of streamlined bodies.
drag, lift and pitching moment coefficients. The obtained results Saout and Ananthakrishnan (2011) proposed a theoretical meth-
odology to determine the open-loop directional stability of a near-
surface AUV. They used an approach similar to that carried out for
surface ships that is based on solving the coupled sway and yaw
0.6
equations of motion. The stability derivatives were obtained
0.4 numerically through simulation of motions corresponding to
planar motion mechanism model tests. For the numerical simula-
0.2 tion, a boundary-integral method based on the mixed Lagrangian–
V Eulerian formulation was developed. The presence of the free
Re(Ω)
D R F D
0.0
surface, through radiation damping, was found to suppress
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-0.2 unsteady oscillations and thereby to enhance the directional
stability of the vehicle. The shape optimisation of an AUV required
-0.4 to operate at snorkelling condition close to the free surface, where
torpedo-like shapes present some drawbacks, was studied by
-0.6
Alvarez et al. (2009). They dealt with this problem using a first-
order Rankine panel method to compute the wave resistance on
different axial-symmetric bodies moving close to the free surface,
6.0
constrained to have the same overall volume. The optimised shape
5.0 exhibited experimentally a smaller resistance than the reference one.
4.0
Im(Ω)
3.0
3. Ship structures – specialist topics
2.0
1.0 3.1. Loads versus operational guidance
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 D 4.0 R 5.0 D Many new-build ships have extensive data collection systems
V D R (see Fig. 20) that are used for continuous monitoring of engine and
hull performance, for voyage performance and evaluation, etc.
Fig. 19. Non-dimensional eigenvalues of fluid conveying simply supported cylind-
rical shell with rigid extensions, for circumferential wave number, n¼ 5: (a) real
Often, such systems are, or could be, expanded to include also
parts; (b) imaginary parts. Key: , first axial mode; , second axial procedures for stress monitoring and for operational guidance,
mode; , third axial mode (Uğurlu and Ergin, 2008). where statistics of the most critical wave-induced ship extreme
Fig. 20. Illustrative example of a data collection system (Nielsen et al., 2011).
a perfect solution has not been found yet. For this reason, concepts
of a novel procedure for operational guidance have been proposed
by Nielsen and Stredulinksy (2010) and Nielsen and Jensen (2011)
(see Fig. 21). The purpose of the procedure presented is to increase
the reliability of the given guidance. Thus, predictions of future
response levels are based on an integrated model using a math-
ematical model that has as input the estimated sea state para-
meters, and using also past measurements of the considered
response(s). Both works include an analysis of full-scale motion
measurements, and the approach shows promising results.
3.2. Ice loads
Environmental changes, harsher winters in the area of Baltic

Fig. 21. Conceptually, the reliability of decision support systems can be increased Sea and climate changes in other Arctic and Sub-arctic zones
by considering also past measurements as discussed in Nielsen and Stredulinksy create new challenges for further exploration of Northern Regions
(2010) and Nielsen and Jensen (2011).
including demands for more and environmentally safer ice-
strengthened vessels. The following discussion reviews some key
responses and fatigue damage accumulation can be estimated for publications in the area of ice loading on ships and offshore
hypothetical changes in ship course and speed. The focus on goal- structures that have been presented over the reporting period.
based standards (see Papanikolaou, 2009; Papanikolaou et al., Bekker et al. (2009) describe some of the characteristics of the
2010; Skjong and Guedes Soares, 2008) implies that future devel- drifting of ice cover and the associated scenarios of ice loads. Their
opments of operator guidance systems should be based on study looks into the mathematical simulation of the physical
numerical models that introduce probabilistic and risk-based process of interaction between the ice cover and the offshore
approaches. Further remarks and discussions about risk-based engineering objects at Sakhalin offshore zone in terms of simula-
methods for operational guidance have also been outlined by tion and statistical methods. By taking into account the dynamics
Shigunov et al. (2010), Bitner-Gregersen and Skjong (2009) and of an ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk, the authors simulate various
Nielsen et al. (2009). design cases of combined effects on marine structures from
The current state of the art in operational guidance typically drifting ice features and ice fields. The authors made a compara-
relies upon mathematical models in which the on-site wave tive analysis of ice loads on various types of gravity-based concrete
environment is automatically estimated. Ongoing developments structures according to the standards, procedures and guidelines
in EU FP7 WATERBORNE project Handling Waves (2011) are driven imposed by different design codes. Comparative analysis of ice
by the development of systems that could be used for monitoring loads from level ice fields and from ridges show a wide range of
in real time the actual ship responses and associated structural load prediction variations. It is suggested that this scatter is caused by
loads due to weather changes and to possible changes in course or the various approaches and models for load estimation. Comparisons
speed. The research programme supports the notion that the of the existing codes demonstrated that it is necessary to carry out
calibration of load predictions and the development of simplified long-term experimental and theoretical investigations including full-
numerical models that are accurate and fast is necessary in order scale measurements on existing offshore structures.
to ensure that information and guidance are given with sufficient Bjerkås et al. (2009) present a case study employing direct
time to the ship's master. This is, for example, is further investi- simulation and empirical methods on the lighthouse Norströms-
gated and demonstrated in the work by Nielsen et al. (2009) and grund in the Gulf of Bothnia. In the former study design ice loads
Nielsen (2010). In these investigations the horizontal acceleration have been compared to existing code recommendations. It was
and the racking failure mode of containers stowed on ships in concluded that the lighthouse was designed for a load level of
heavy weather are studied. A procedure which can be used to 110% higher than what is proposed by the recently issued ISO
obtain up-crossing rates for an inherent nonlinear ship response, 19906 (2011) design code. Hence, it was suggested that separate
such as the racking force in containers, is derived. It is also shown dynamic analyses should be performed instead of simply adding
that first and second order reliability based formulations (FORM/ amplification factors which is common practice in the prediction
SORM) and associated procedures may be significantly faster than of static loads. On the other hand, Gürtner et al. (2009) simulated
more crude simulations (e.g. Monte Carlo). The motion simula- ice actions by means of a finite element model. In their approach
tion of container stacks on deck is considered also by Wolf and fracture of the ice sheet is accounted for by the cohesive elements
Rathje (2009). The authors deal with a (refined) numerical model placed at internal FEA mesh boundaries in order to track traction
from which knowledge about the dynamic forces acting on container versus separation forces. The simulation results indicate that the
stacks can be attained. The numerical findings and results of this work proposed numerical method derives comparable global ice loads
could be useful for establishing decision support criteria with respect to the lighthouse to those of the selected ice event.
to container and lashing loads. Considerations of computational Comparisons against the ISO 19906 (2011) standard for offshore
efficiency in relation to calculation of fatigue damage rates in the ship installations are also provided by Masterson and Tibbo (2011).
hull girder and operator guidance have been presented by Ito et al. Their work looks into the determination of ice loads due to
(2010) and Nielsen et al. (2011). crushing on vertical structures and for bending loads on sloping
Typically, the underlying approach for operational guidance structures. It is concluded that load calculations based on large
builds on a pure mathematical model only, where seakeeping scale measurements are preferable and more reliable than those
characteristics of the ship, often given in terms of response made using small scale data which are then factored for full scale
amplitude operators (RAOs), are combined with information about applications. It is also recommended that ISO 19906 could be the
the on-site sea state using linear spectral analysis to make preferred guideline for determining loads on offshore structures
statistical predictions of future responses to be expected. However, placed in ice covered waters. Jordaan et al. (2010, 2011) present a
the on-site estimation of sea state parameters at the location of an probabilistic load prediction model of the ice environment in the
advancing ship forms a crucial and fundamental problem to which northeast Caspian Sea. Once again the methodology is consistent
Fig. 22. Typical hull measurement system (Lloyd's Register, 2012).
with approaches outlined in ISO 19906. The analysis software were compared to full scale data and to results from an analytical
includes modules for season length, ice thickness and movement ridge load model for cones.
events, as well as ice crushing strength for vertical structures and Wang et al. (2011) describe the development of a procedure for
models for flexural failure including rubble formation on sloping determining design ice loads on Arctic offshore structures using
structures. A Monte Carlo approach has been used to simulate ice– FORM incorporating the uncertainties in the underlying ice floe and
structure interaction events on an annual basis. The result is a environmental parameters. Level ice and ice ridges are considered
distribution of annual maximum forces from which n-year design as major load sources interacting with the offshore structure in the
loads can be extracted. ice regime. Ice loads on offshore structures mainly result from the
Murray et al. (2009) report the results from 1:30 and 1:50 first-year ridges interacting with the structure. The geometric
model scale ice tests for the prediction of loads of an ice resistant parameters of ice floes are assumed as random variables in the
spar design. They compare mooring and ice loads measured in probabilistic approach. Specific site data are then used to demon-
fixed and compliant conditions. A limited number of tests were strate the results which are comparable to Monte Carlo simulations.
carried out at the two model scales in the same ice conditions to It is concluded that the FORM approach is computationally eco-
investigate scaling effects. The study indicated that the model nomic and becomes increasingly accurate for rarer events.
scale testing methodologies employed, assuming the structure is Määttänen et al. (2011) report on near full-scale ice crushing
fixed, provide good estimates. tests that were conducted in Aker Arctic test basin. A 1:3 scale
Frederking (2010) describes field data from operations of the ratio test rig was designed to allow ice to be crushed in controlled
CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent during a period of icebreaking escort conditions against a stiffened plate presenting a typical full size
operations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in March 1985. The bow of ship or offshore structure plating. It is shown that contrary to
the ship was strain gauged to measure ice impact loads. Forces, expectations the plate compliance played no role in crushing
operational conditions (ship speed and power), and ice conditions pressure distribution. This differs from what is assumed in some
(ice concentration, ice thickness and floe size) were recorded. ice rules, e.g. the highest pressure at the location of stiffeners.
From these data, time series of measured loads were used to A new finding was that the target plate stiffness distribution
obtain the maximum force of each measured impact, as well as the played no role in crushing. The results indicated that the ice
impulse associated with it. crushing pressure in the design of plating thickness should be
Su et al. (2010, 2011b) introduced a numerical method to constant regardless of stiffeners.
simulate ship manoeuvres and associated loads in level ice. Classification Societies over the last few years have been working
The coupling between continuous ice forces and ship motions is on extensive research and development programs attempting to
considered and the three degree-of-freedom rigid body equations standardise the assessment of ice loads for ships and offshore
of surge, sway and yaw are solved by numerical integration. structures. For example, Lloyd's Register (2010),1 as part of their
The numerical analysis is well validated by comparison with the work on ShipRight design and construction procedures have devel-
ship performance data from the ice trails of icebreaker AHTS/IB Tor oped a Fatigue Design Assessment procedure (ShipRight FDA ICE) to
Viking II. More recently, Su et al. (2011a) derived an ice loading assess fatigue damage of ship structures induced by ice loads for
prediction process that has a clear stochastic nature due to the ships navigating in ice covered regions. This work considers trading
variations in the ice conditions and in the ice breaking processes of routes in ice regions, ice loads and impact frequencies, structural
ships. The statistical characteristics of local ice loads are studied by stresses, fatigue performance at low temperatures, fatigue damage
field measurements. A numerical method is applied to simulate a and acceptance criteria (see Zhang et al., 2011). In addition, Lloyd's
ship moving forward in either uniform or randomly varying ice Register (2012) and Bridges et al. (2012) are currently developing
conditions where the thickness and strength properties of the ice ShipRight SEA(ICE) requirements for icebreakers. This work pro-
encountered by the ship were assumed to be constant or randomly gramme attempts to validate current Classification requirements for
generated using the Monte Carlo method. To validate the numer-
ical results, an icebreaking tanker, MT Uikku, is modelled and the
ice loading process is stochastically reproduced. The calculated 1
Lloyd's Register, its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers,
amplitude values of the ice-induced frame loads are compared employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as
against the field measurements. the “Lloyd's Register Group Ltd.”. The Lloyd's Register Group Ltd. assumes no
Haase et al. (2010) report on the interaction between a conical responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense
structure and unconsolidated ice rubble that was simulated by a caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or how so ever
provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd's
3D discrete element simulation method. The failure process of the Register Group entity for the provision of this information or advice and that in
simulated ridge keels was studied by observing the rubble this case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set
displacement during the simulation run. The simulation results out in that contract.
Fig. 23. Strain gauge locations and arrangements for transverse frame (Lloyd's Register, 2012).
2
1
8 9 11
17 3 4
15 16
5 6
7
9 10 11 12 13
8 31
14 15 16 17
18 19
20
21 22 23 26
24 25
27 28
30 29
Fig. 24. Global Wave Statistics ocean areas (Teixeira and Guedes Soares, 2010).
Fig. 25. Global wave statistics coastal areas of Europe (Teixeira and Guedes Soares,
2010).
ice going ships and provide comparisons against operational guide-
lines and full scale measurements. Research includes understanding conditions and exposure times after damage. While for intact
of ice dynamics, ice interaction scenarios and the role of hull ships the North Atlantic wave environment is usually adopted,
condition monitoring instrumentation for such cases (see Fig. 22). local scatter diagrams are proposed, as applicable, for the relia-
Strain gauge measurement systems may be applied on icebreaking bility assessment of damaged ships as suggested by Luis et al.
ships, where aggressive ice navigation is required, such as ramming (2009). Reduced exposure time to environmental conditions after
ice ridges, with the intention to monitor the vessel hull girder damage should also be considered before salvage to a safe location.
stresses and motions as much as practicable to the position For example, Teixeira and Guedes Soares (2010) proposed a time
(s) where it is expected to be most significant. If such stress cannot period of one week as the voyage duration of a damaged ship to
be measured at the appropriate location then they may be adjusted the dry-dock. They concluded that the mean extreme VBM of a
by a method to represent the stresses in that location (see Fig. 23). It Suezmax tanker is about 15% lower when the exposure time is
is expected that as the roles and functions of icebreakers change and reduced from one year in the North Atlantic (Fig. 24) to one week
technological innovations are incorporated, Classification rules will in European coastal areas (Fig. 25).
need to adapt to further define the ice performance envelope under a The magnitude of the loads on damaged ships is also subject to
range of ice interaction scenarios. This will provide greater clarity of the extend and overall location of the damage. For example, Folso
the ice conditions and operations the icebreaker is designed to and et al. (2008) and Rizzuto et al. (2010) have performed seakeeping
that can be used by Captains and operators to reduce the risk of computations on a damaged ship by the 3D linear hydrodynamic
operating in ice. code PRECAL. For the case of the flooded ballast tank amidships,
they obtained RAOs of the VBM worse than those evaluated in
3.3. Loads on damaged ship structures intact conditions. The correlation between sea states and occur-
rence of the accident is partly addressed in accordance to the IACS
The principal difference between wave load effects employed North Atlantic scatter diagram (HS Z7.5 m). The authors concluded
for intact and damaged ships is driven by environmental that the VBM of the damaged ship reduces by 19% of its mean
Bending Moment, BE=180o, Grounded Ship (Fixed Heave, Free Pitch)

120000
Bending Moment /Wave Amp. [tm/m]

TB 1
100000
TB 2
TB 3
80000
TB 4
TB 5
60000
TB 6
TB 7
40000
TB 8
TB 9
20000
TB 10
TB 11
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Wave Length [m]
Fig. 26. Wave bending moments on stranded capsize bulk carrier acting at transverse bulkheads vs. wavelength, head waves (Zaraphonitis and Samuelides, 2009).
extreme value when the vessel is exposed for one day in a 0

truncated North Atlantic wave environment. -1000000
Hearn et al. (2008) also presented a study on the hydrodynamic
-2000000
and dynamic motion analysis of a damaged ship. In this work SWBM (kNm)
damaged ship statistics were used to provide the likely damage -3000000
scenarios and particular emphasis was attributed on modelling the -4000000
effects of water ingress when hydrodynamic and hydrostatic
-5000000
influences of the internal free surfaces as well as the aerostatic dam1
influences of the air contained within the damaged hold are -6000000 Intact
accounted for. The change of the mean position of the internal -7000000 dam3
surface as a consequence of the relative phasing of the motions of dam34
-8000000
the ship and the internal free surfaces was also modelled.
dam234
Zaraphonitis and Samuelides (2009) addressed the loading induced -9000000
on grounded hulls of bulk carriers. The determination of the loading 0 100 200 300
included the influence of dynamic effects and the interaction of the Longitudinal position (m)
hull with the sea bed in the grounding area (see Fig. 26). Fig. 27. Still water bending moment (SWBM) for intact and various damaged
An experiment on forced oscillation of a damaged ship section conditions (negative values are sagging) (Teixeira and Guedes Soares, 2010).
is presented by Drake et al. (2009). The authors simulated a
damage of the keel by a longitudinal orifice. Various widths of
orifice were investigated, with the damaged hull form in two Soares (2010). The simplest way to take into account consequences
configurations, open and airtight (to investigate the effect of of the damage is to modify the still water load combination
trapped air stiffness). The hull was forced to oscillate for a range coefficient. Luis et al. (2009) proposed values of 1.1 and 1.5 to
of amplitudes and frequencies and measurements of hydrody- analyse the impact of the increased still water loads on the
namic force and internal free surface elevation are discussed. reliability of a grounded oil tanker. In most cases, flooding of
Recently, Lee et al. (2012) developed a computational tool for ballast compartments in midship area is critical for double hull
the prediction of hydrodynamic loads of damaged ships. The tankers, as this causes increase of sagging moments. Examples of
results of the theoretical method and experimental tests were this effect for VLCC are presented in Fig. 27. Hussein and Guedes
compared over a variety of design conditions. Whereas for the Soares (2009) have calculated the effect of the flooding of ballast
loads in intact condition, the prediction with a duration of 20 years compartments of a double hull tanker and found increases of 30%
at sea state 5 was used, for loads in damaged conditions, the and 46% for one side and both side damages respectively. Rizzuto
prediction with 96 h of exposure time at sea state 3 was employed. et al. (2010) calculated asymmetrical flooding of the midship
It was concluded that the maximum values of the most probable ballast tank on one side only of the Suezmax tanker. The still
extreme amplitudes of dynamic wave-induced loads in damaged water bending moment corresponds to 152% of the intact value for
conditions are much less than those in intact condition because of the same loading condition. They proposed to use coefficient of
the reduced time. An opening could change the distribution of not variation in reliability assessment of damaged ship slightly higher
only still-water bending moment but also wave-induced bending than for the intact ship. This is explained by additional effect in
moment. It is also observed that although some cross-sections are damaged conditions seen in water inflow and outflow through the
not structurally damaged, the total loads acting on these cross- damaged hull that is not accounted either in static or wave load
sections after damage may be dramatically increased compared analysis.
with the original design load in the intact condition. Santos and Guedes Soares (2008a, 2008b, 2009) presented a
time-domain theoretical model capable of predicting the beha-
viour of a damaged ship subject to progressive flooding in still
3.3.1. Still water loads of damaged ships water conditions. Their approach provides information in each
Review of stochastic models of still water bending moments stage of flooding, concerning the ship motions, the amount of
applicable for damaged ships is presented by Teixeira and Guedes water in each flooded compartment and shear forces and bending
moments acting along the ship's length. Applications on a pas- discharge coefficients, the depth to main deck, the double-hull in
senger Ro–Ro ship and a tanker led to the conclusions on the time the main deck and the initial heel angle.
required to reach the most critical conditions and the increase in A Holistic Assessment of Ship Survivability and Risk after
global loads in damage condition. They also demonstrated that Damage was studied in the project EU project HASARD –
during the intermediate stages of flooding, floodwater distribu- SURSHIP (2011). A comprehensive calculation procedure useful
tions can be generated. Those may cause significantly higher shear for quantitative assessment of damaged ships survivability (incor-
forces or bending moments than the ones present in the final porating structural collision resistance, structural stability and
equilibrium damage condition. collapse, time simulation of ship flooding and stability in waves)
was developed. Results from systematic simulations through this
calculation procedure (risk assessment/FSA) could be used in
3.3.2. Structural integrity and stability of ships recommendations for future IMO rule making. Results of this
Whereas computational methodologies and regulatory devel- project were published by Schreuder et al. (2012), following an
opments provide improved means for the assessment of the interdisciplinary calculation procedure encapsulating the chain of
damage stability of ships in waves, there is still a long way to go events of ship collision, flooding, and loss of stability within given
before a variety of open issues, including combined loading and time. The presented method concerns the interaction between
dynamic response matters, are fully satisfactorily addressed. structural and damage stability computations and has been used
Papanikolaou (2007) reviewed the recent scientific and regu- to study the influence of various parameters such as the significant
latory developments on the damage stability of ships and identi- wave height and size of damage opening on a RoPax-ferry
fied trends on the way ahead. Developments of numerical damaged in a collision with a ship of similar size.
simulation methods for the prediction of damaged ship motions The time dependent survivability of Ro-Pax vessels was also
and associated loads in waves were discussed on the basis of investigated by Spanos and Papanikolaou (2010) by use of numer-
related ITTC benchmark studies and the most significant open ical simulations of ship motion and of flooding in waves. The study
issues for further research were briefly addressed. In more recent reconfirmed that a Ro-Pax ship may capsize fast when sustaining
papers Papanikolaou et al. (2010, 2011) discussed the new prob- damages. The time dependent survivability may be estimated by
abilistic damaged stability regulations for dry cargo and passenger applying a Monte Carlo probability simulation but may be limited
ships, which entered into force on January 1, 2009. Whereas these within short times after the damage event.
regulations represent a major step forward in achieving an Simonsen et al. (2009) presented the analyses and results of a
improved safety standard through the rationalisation and harmo- study aiming at developing damage stability requirements which
nisation of damaged stability requirements there are serious take into account the structural vulnerability to grounding
concerns regarding the adopted formulation for the calculation damage, i.e. the kinetic energy available to generate damage and
of the survival probability of passenger ships, particularly for the structural resistance. The paper presents the analysis of new
ROPAX and large cruise vessels. In Papanikolaou et al. (2011), the damage statistics in order to determine impact scenarios, in
most recent progress of the work under the EU FP7 project Goal particular in terms of impact speed, impact location, and width
Based Damaged Stability (GOALDS, 2009–2012) is outlined. and height of damage. A new empirical damage prediction formula
A thorough analysis and review of collected data of most recent was developed based on a combination of full-scale testing and
grounding statistics of damages resulted to (a) important new extensive nonlinear finite element analyses. This deterministic
knowledge regarding the location and extent of grounding prediction method was validated against grounding experiments
damages, both for passenger and cargo ships. A review of updated and then used in a probabilistic (Monte Carlo) simulation frame-
data of collisions damages, in which most recent ship damages work. It was concluded that the grounding damage statistics for all
were included, led to a confirmation of the validity of the currently ships can be characterised by a single parameter namely the
used probabilistic modelling of collision damages for passenger Grounding Damage Index (GDI) which includes the ship kinetic
ships, as considered in SOLAS 2009 (2009). A benchmark study on energy and its structural resistance to grounding damage. Simple,
the performance of computer codes for the assessment of the closed-form expressions were developed for the GDI and it was
stability of the damaged ships in waves was presented by shown how the probability of exceeding a box-shaped damage is a
Papanikolaou (2009) under the work of the EU funded project simple function of the GDI and the size of the box. The paper
SAFEDOR. Comparison of benchmark codes led to the conclusion therefore gives the background and the results for a new genera-
that whereas the performance of standard computer codes tion of damage stability rules where the structural crashworthi-
remains unchanged the divergence of the numerical predictions ness is taken into account and where the passive safety level is
for the damaged survivability of ships in waves is notable. explicitly expressed. It furthermore gives simplified prediction
Santos and Guedes Soares (2008a, 2008b) presented an appli- tools and data for actual ships, i.e. a toolbox that is readily
cation of shallow water theory to describe the motion of flood- available for risk analysis regarding grounding damage.
water inside a damaged rolling ship in waves. A time domain Kvon et al. (2010) addressed the coupled problem of loss of
hydrodynamic approach was applied to study the behaviour of a stability and structural integrity due to progressive flooding and
passenger Ro-Ro ship in regular beam seas and the characteristics structural failure by linear elastic fracture mechanics and the ‘Paris
of the floodwater motion were studied for a number of different Law’ crack propagation assessment methods. The authors consid-
wave frequencies. The dynamic floodwater roll moment was also ered the impact of wave induced loads on the deterioration of
compared against the static roll moment. The effects of parametric damaged ship strength. They applied adopted methods to the
variations of different factors in the ship's survivability were analysis of a sample ship mid-ship section sustaining collision or
addressed in a consecutive publication by Santos and Guedes grounding damages and found both methods promising for con-
Soares (2008b). In this work numerical results are presented for a cluding on the deterioration and the ultimate ship's strength after
passenger Ro-Ro ship under a damage condition involving the damage.
main engine room. The permeability of this compartment is taken
into consideration by modelling the engines as intact blocks. The 3.4. Green water
ship's survivability in irregular waves is then calculated for with
respect to: the vertical location of the centre of gravity, the Shipping of green water occurs when the deck of the ship or a
spectral description of the seaway, the roll damping factor and floating structure is immersed in the water. The green water
Fig. 28. Seakeeping problem for a Patrol ship without forward speed: (a) picture of tests in the towing-tank and (b) domain decomposition results in terms of ship motion
and water evolution (incident wavelength λ ¼1.25L, steepness kA¼ 0.22) (Colicchio et al., 2010).
constitutes in a certain sense a counterpart of the slamming programmes is presented in which the motions of an FPSO were
problem provided that the water column impinges the structure calculated by potential theory and CFD tools were used to
from above. However, since the green water problem shares with investigate the details of green water impacts. A technique of
sloshing similar flow features the computational approaches are in dynamic mesh was introduced in a numerical wave tank to
closer relationship with those applied to sloshing than to slam- simulate the green water occurrence on the oscillating vessels
ming phenomena. Within the reporting period research efforts in waves.
concentrated on defining new methods that combine the straight- Lu et al. (2010c) developed a numerical time domain simulation
forward calculation of pressure and loads of the techniques based model to study green water phenomena and the impact loading on
on mesh definition (like FEM or BEM) with the interesting structures. A Volume of Fluid (VOF) technique was used to capture
property of mesh-less methods, like SPH, that do not suffer large the violent free surface motion. The incompressible Euler–Navier–
domain deformations or fragmentation. Stokes equations, written in an Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian
Le Touzé et al. (2010) applied the SPH method to predict the (ALE) frame, were solved using projection schemes and a finite
fluid behaviour for two different dynamic flooding scenarios. element method on unstructured grids. Lee et al. (2011c) analysed
The first is the interaction between a vessel and travelling waves. and compared experimental results of green water on the deck of
The second is the transient flooding behaviour that occurs during three different FPSO bow shapes in regular head waves. They
and immediately after a side collision between two vessels. Water established a database for CFD code validation and proposed some
heights are measured close to the point of impact within the design considerations as well. The so called marker density
vessel. Shibata et al. (2009) have proposed an incompressible method has been applied to capture the extremely complicated
variant of the SPH method known as moving particle semi-implicit free-surface, including breaking, associated with the differentiated
method (MPS). In this paper, they compared the estimated nonlinear governing equations.
pressure with the experiments of Tanizawa et al. where the ship Kendon et al. (2010) considered results from a 2D model test
is towed in head waves. The investigation has shown that there is setup and compared the measured vertical loading on the deck
still some lack of agreement in terms of both pressure and forces against two simple potential theory based methods and against
acting on the deck due to relevant oscillations in time. results from a commercial CFD code. The results demonstrated
Chen and Kai (2009) developed a level set numerical method that a second impact event closely following a first impact event
for the simulation of violent flows. In their approach Navier– can have a much flatter free-surface profile (and stronger water
Stokes equations were coupled with an interface preserving entry force) as a result of its interaction with deck diffracted
technique for the simulation of green water effects. Accordingly, waves. They concluded that for isolated impact events the simple
the free surface flows were modelled as two phase (air/water) potential flow based models, which do not consider the influence
flows and represented by the zero level set function. Large eddy of one impact event on another, are adequate to predict vertical
simulation (LES) and Smagorinsky models were employed to loading. Extending the same strategy Colicchio et al. (2010)
account for the effects of turbulence introduced by the violent worked on the modelling of green water loads within seakeeping
free surface motions. The technique was employed for the simula- codes (see Fig. 28). They used a domain decomposition method
tion of slamming on a hemisphere and wet deck slamming of an and a potential flow analysis solver so as to determine the Navier–
X-Craft. Numerical results indicated that such an approach is able Stoke inflow conditions. A similar problem was considered by Hu
to deal with violent flows involving breaking waves, water and Kashiwagi (2009) who studied the 2D water on deck problem
droplets, trapped air bubbles and wave current interactions. with a constrained interpolation profile (CIP) based method. For
Zhu et al. (2009) developed a numerical programme to model the validation of the simulation, a new experiment involving a
green water occurrence on floating structures based on a com- floating body of rectangular section in a wavy channel was
mercial CFD code. In their work a combination of numerical designed. Reasonably good agreement was obtained with regards
Wave height = 5m Wave height = 6m
Wave height = 7m Wave height = 8m
Fig. 29. CFD simulation illustrating the effect of increasing sea state on the liquid motion. Maximum predicted sloshing load occurs at 6 m and then gradually reduces
for increasing wave heights (Hirdaris et al., 2010).
to body motions and the amount of water shipping, whereas still features into GTT's methodology for sloshing assessment. In an
minor indications were given about local loads acting on the deck accompanying paper Pillon et al. (2009) presented how GTT
or the superstructure. The Natural Element Method (NEM) devel- developed and validated its numerical models to obtain a proper
oped by Afansiev et al. (2011) employs both these features to solve representation of the complex and nonlinear motions of the
the dam-break problem promising to be a valid alternative to containment system. The authors explain that for the validation
other approaches for green water simulation. of numerical models tests on specific subsystems are performed in
order to analyse the behaviour of critical response components
under different conditions related with the tank statics, dynamics
3.5. Sloshing
or ambient and cryogenic temperatures. Gervaise et al. (2009)
described recent GTT state of the art knowledge and developments
Sloshing is a phenomenon of fluid movement in a partially
on hardware improvements, assumptions for sea-keeping calcula-
filled containment system that may be subject to nonlinear and
tions, loads and strength evaluations.
possibly extreme external excitation. Over the course of the
Hirdaris et al. (2010) discussed some of the recent advances in
reporting period numerical solutions and model tests have been
model test tank investigations and reviewed the relevance of
developed extensively with the aim to reliably capture aspects of
allowing unrestricted fill levels in LNG membrane tank ships
sloshing behaviour on modern LNG vessels. In this particular case,
(see Fig. 29). The assessment presented in this work allowed for
due to the motion of the ship in waves, the LNG sloshes around the
a reduction in the barred fill range from 80% to 70% of the internal
tank generating very high impact pressures on the containment
height of the tank. Model tests reviewing the loads on pump
system and the supporting hull structure. Recent advances con-
towers revealed that there are several issues related to the
centrate on aspects of hull flexibility, model scale validation, use of
application of loads derived from model tests, namely (a) scaling
advanced fluid dynamic methods for sloshing modelling or cou-
issues due to the use of water and air (or some other ullage gas);
pling with overall hull girder loads.
and (b) suitable representation of the near boiling LNG liquid and
vapour in the ullage space.
3.5.1. Model experiments Brosset et al. (2009) provided an overview of the SLOSHEL Joint
Kuo et al. (2009) reviewed the relevant Exxon Mobil's sloshing Industry Project along with information on experimental set ups,
assessment methods. In this work it is also highlighted that among the parameters tested and numerical approaches employed.
the most significant developments is the introduction of a prob- In furthering this work Bogaert et al. (2010a) and Zheng et al.
abilistic based framework that facilitates modelling of the high (2010) highlighted aspects on scaling issues and summarised the
variability of sloshing impact pressures due to sloshing physics key findings from model and full scale tests. Bogaert et al. (2010b)
and insulation materials. Marès (2009) described the main utilised a database of large scale impact tests and discussed in
Fig. 30. LNG containment system rig modelling and dynamics: (a) rig under construction in the model workshop, (b) images from high-speed camera for a regular test at
95% filling rate showing large bubble clouds and (c) images from high-speed camera for a regular test at 25% filling rate (Bunnik and Huijsmans, 2009).
detail the behaviour of Mark III corrugated primary membrane the tank. The experiments were carried out without and with
systems under breaking wave impacts. Tabri et al. (2009) baffles.
employed the numerical models developed by Godderidge et al.
(2009) to study the sloshing induced liquid oscillation initiated by
ship collision. Data about the dependence of accelerations, strain 3.5.2. Hull flexibility
energy and tank water elevation on mass ratios and collision Lee et al. (2010d) investigated the coupling effect between a
velocity were collected. Though only linear sloshing is modelled flexible ship and sloshing in beam regular waves by evaluating the
comparisons between experimental trends and simulation ana- added mass contributions due to liquid motions in partially filled
lyses were reasonable. tanks. Recently, Malenica et al. (2011) developed a modal (hydro-
Bunnik and Huijsmans (2009) described a study of model test elastic) method for assessing the influence of the dynamic motion
experiments on a large scale 2D section (scale 1:10) of an LNG of the liquid cargo in containment systems. Maguire et al. (2009)
carrier in various loading conditions without depressurisation. and Hirdaris et al. (2010) considered numerical simulations of fluid
Using high speed video observations the wave front formed by loading by CFD and structural response by FEA. The simulations
the bore of the LNG in resonance was related to measured impacts described demonstrate that two different philosophies, namely
on the tank hull. The loading on a hydroelastic hull panel with the decoupled (or one way coupled) and coupled (or two way
correctly scaled structural properties was also examined and the coupled) approaches are achievable. Accordingly, the effects of the
influence of the stiffness on the pressure pulse was found to be transfer of pressures from the fluid code to dynamic FEA and the
significant (see Fig. 30). resulting instantaneous deformation response of the containment
Lugni et al. (2010) focused on the air cavity evolution during a system boundary being transferred back to the CFD solver have
depressurised wave impact, an event likely to occur not only in been investigated. The later, although it may be computationally
partially filled tanks but also in other violent flow phenomena like expensive, it allows for the use of the instantaneous deformed
green water. Their underlying idea was to represent experimen- tank shape to evaluate the pressure at the each time step.
tally a repeatable impact event so as to distinguish its different However, it is computationally expensive.
stages and the main physical variables. It was concluded that air Lee et al. (2010a, 2010b) investigated the influence of hull
cavities may lead to the formation of highly localised pressures. flexibility on the hydrodynamic forces and moments associated
Panigrahy et al. (2009) developed a liquid sloshing experimental with liquid sloshing and vice versa, as well as the dynamic
setup to estimate the pressure developed on the tank walls and characteristics (e.g. resonance frequencies) of the whole system.
the free surface displacement of water from the mean static level. The method was validated by comparing hydrodynamic forces
The pressure and displacements were measured on the basis of from sloshing obtained using rigid and flexible body approaches.
changing excitation frequency of the shaking table and fill level in The coupling effect between flexible ship and sloshing in partially
Fig. 31. Roll motions of LNG carrier with and without tank effects (Hirdaris et al., 2010)
filled tanks was investigated for an idealised LNG Carrier in beam The study employed the k–ε turbulence model to capture the
regular waves, considering different partial filling scenarios. features of the flow and a volume-of-fluid (VOF) model to track the
sloshing free surface.
3.5.3. Advanced numerical methods

Gavory and de Seze (2009) reviewed the current status of the 3.5.4. Coupling sloshing with motions
numerical methodologies used for sloshing assessment. Their Faltinsen and Timokha (2009a, 2009b, 2011) presented an
work concluded that inviscid methods are still broadly used as overview of sloshing in the tanks of ships with swash bulkheads.
an intermediate benchmark of validity against other available The authors highlight that whereas nonlinearities are important
nonlinear computations. Cao et al. (2010) presented the range of for the assessment of sloshing excitations, ship hydrodynamics
validity of potential flow models by comparing the predictions may be handled well by linear theory except for the motions and
with those by other CFD simulations and experiment measure- loads associated with viscous roll damping.
ments of the liquid motion in an oscillating tank. The use of simplified modelling of sloshing is also perceived as
Peric et al. (2009) demonstrated the application of a procedure a mandatory approach when the interaction between global ship
to predict internal sloshing loads on partially filled tank walls of motion and partially filled tanks are investigated. This guideline
LNG ships subject to realistic wave excitations. A moving grid was followed for instance by Lin et al. (2011) and Hirdaris et al.
approach was employed and a finite volume solution method was (2010) using a potential model for global ship motion coupled with
designed to allow for arbitrary ship motions. An interface captur- a sloshing model for the prediction of LNG tank loads, the last one
ing scheme that accounts for overturning and breaking waves was based on a RANS code with VOF surface tracking that exploits the
used to compute the motion of liquid inside the tanks. Liu and Lin open source CFD code OpenFOAM libraries (see Fig. 31).
(2009) developed a Navier–Stokes numerical model to study the Hashimoto et al. (2010) reported on the use of nonlinear
3D liquid sloshing in a tank with a baffle. The numerical results potential theory and particle based hydrodynamics for the coupled
were validated against available analytical solutions and experi- formulation of the sloshing/seakeeping problem. Bunnik and
mental data. Another experimental study was performed by Wu Veldman (2010) compared the results on RAOs of roll motions
and Chen (2009) who developed a 3D time independent finite obtained linear and particle based hydrodynamics approaches
difference method to study the sloshing waves and resonant against the experimental results reported by Molin et al. (2008).
modes of a fluid in a 3D tank. In this work, five distinct types of They concluded that whereas linear potential theory shows a
sloshing waves were observed and they were closely related to the reasonable agreement there is a slight difference with the experi-
excitation frequency. ments near the sloshing peak frequency in terms of the spread of
Delorme et al. (2009) investigated experimentally the 2D the peak as well as the shift of the peak frequency. The use of
shallow water sloshing phenomenon under forced rolling motion nonlinear potential flow hydrodynamics may allow for good
conditions by the SPH method. The numerical model depicted agreement in all frequency ranges for both low and high sea states.
reasonably well the free surface shape obtained from tests and Huang et al. (2009) discussed the global force acting on the
assisted in reproducing the pressure trends during a water impact, tank under coupled internal liquid and LNG carrier sway motions
though overestimating the maxima. Lee et al. (2010c) described an based on numerical and experimental results. They showed that
efficient and robust moving particle semi-implicit method to the coupling between the tank sloshing and ship motions can be
predict violent free surface and floating-body motions as well as predicted by a linear potential theory as the global forces induced
impact pressures. The floating-body-motions and the impact by the liquid sloshing are relatively periodic and deterministic
pressures induced by violent liquid sloshing motions were verified whereas the local sloshing pressures are highly nonlinear and do
by comparing numerical results against conventional methods. It not affect the ship motions.
was concluded that the roll amplitudes could be significantly Lee and Kim (2010) investigated the coupling and interactions
reduced for excitation frequencies away from the lowest sloshing between ship motions and inner-tank sloshing by a potential–
natural frequencies. viscous hybrid method in the time domain. For the time domain
Thiagarajan et al. (2011) applied a CFD method accounting for simulation of vessel motions, the hydrodynamic coefficients and
air/water interaction to the problem of sloshing in a rectangular wave forces were obtained by a potential theory based 3D
tank. The fill levels varied from 10% to 95% of tank height, diffraction/radiation panel programme in the frequency domain.
corresponding to a 1:30 scaled model of a prototype tank. The corresponding simulations of motions in the time domain
were carried out using the convolution integral method. The liquid material properties for plywood and acoustic medium for LNG
sloshing in a tank was simulated in the time domain by a Navier– were considered. Statistical analysis results of peak stress values in
Stokes solver. A finite difference method with SURF scheme each component of the containment system were used as the basis
assuming the single-valued free-surface profile was applied for for determining design sloshing loads or strength assessment of
the direct simulation of liquid sloshing. The computed sloshing the no. 96 containment system.
forces and moments were applied as external excitations to the
ship motion.
Nam et al. (2009) considered the motion responses of floating 4. Offshore structures – specialist topics
bodies in waves coupled with sloshing-induced internal forces and
their effects on sloshing-induced impact loads. The linear ship 4.1. Offshore lifting and installation
motion was solved by using an impulse-response-function
method. The nonlinear sloshing flow was simulated using a finite Understanding of the loads imposed upon operating offshore
difference method. Two models were considered namely (a) a floating cranes has been of interest for many years (e.g. Schellin
liquid natural gas floating production, storage, and off-loading unit et al., 1989). The analysis of offshore crane vessels can be largely
with two partially filled tanks and (b) a modified S175 hull with an divided in two main categories namely structural analysis and
anti-rolling tank. hydrodynamic analysis.
Tabri et al. (2009) studied the sloshing interaction in ship In recent publications, Al-Sweiti and Soffker (2007) and Cha
collisions both experimentally and numerically. Sloshing affects et al. (2010) reviewed the literature and reported on the effects of
the collision dynamics and reduces the amount of energy available undesired crane load motions. The common approach applied
for structural deformations. An understanding of the interaction assumes that the excitation is simply a prescribed motion of the
phenomenon was obtained by a series of model-scale experi- pivot point of a hoisting rope. This assumption leads to a
ments, in which a striking ship, with two partially filled tanks, dynamical model with parametric excitation and the motion of
collided with an initially motionless struck ship without any liquid the vessel is neglected. Although such an approach may be
on board. The simulation model was validated with experimental justified for vessels in sheltered basins and if the load to vessel
results and good agreement was achieved in the case of medium ratio is very small, it is certainly not appropriate for large moored
filling levels in the tanks. On the other hand, Tan et al. (2010) floating cranes operating offshore. The dynamics of such vessels is
investigated the influence of hull flexibility on the hydrodynamic affected by strong coupling between vessel and load motions and
forces and moments associated with liquid sloshing and the effects depend on the characteristics of the mooring system. Along these
of sloshing on wave induced responses. It was observed that the lines, Al-Sweiti and Soffker (2007) have developed mathematical
liquid sloshing has an influence on the response of distortional as tools for modelling and control of elastic ship cranes which have
well as rigid modes, i.e. wave-induced motions and loads. the Maryland Rigging system. Cha et al. (2010) have analysed the
Bunnik and Veldman (2010) employed the following two problems from a different point of view and have performed a
different models to take into account the effect of sloshing on more rigorous numerical analysis to find nonlinear static and
ship motions: (i) a linear diffraction method in which both the dynamic response of a floating crane and a heavy block that are
liquid motions in the containment system and the liquid motions connected using elastic booms and wire ropes. In their work two
outside the vessel are described by linear potential flow in the mathematical models of different levels of complexity are used to
frequency domain; (ii) a time-domain coupling method in which systematically determine the responses of the vessel payload
the sloshing liquid in the containment system is computed by VOF systems to periodic forcing of waves. One technique is the multiple
and the ship hydrodynamics by means of linear diffraction theory. scales method which allows for the investigation of the nonlinear
Both methods were applied to model tests described by Molin dynamical system in frequency domain and results in an analytical
[215], in which he measured the motion response of a barge with a solution. The other technique applies numerical path following
partially filled water container on deck. methods to trace bifurcations (parameter values for which a
qualitative change in the dynamics can be observed) of periodic
solutions.
3.5.5. Design assessment procedures
Over the reporting period, procedures to predict sloshing loads 4.2. Cables, risers and moored structures
and evaluate structural strength have been introduced by most
Classification Societies. For example, Lloyd's Register (2009) devel- The publications concerning cables risers and mooring systems
oped a comprehensive sloshing assessment guidance document during the reporting period deal primarily with the coupled floater
with recommendations on the procedures that can be applied for mooring global response. It is also evident that there is still a great
the assessment of sloshing loads on LNG tanks. The procedure deal of interest for issues that influence the nonlinear dynamic
comprises of three parts namely (a) ship motions analysis and behaviour of mooring lines and the slow drift motion of the
determination of the design sloshing loads, (b) structural analysis moored floaters. Recent developments on the later were high-
and (c) assessment criteria. lighted in Section 2.1.3 on multi-body interactions (for example
Wang et al. (2009) and Wang and Arai (2010) conducted a see, Hansen et al., 2009; Clauss et al., 2009; Brake et al., 2009; Liu
dynamic structural analysis, considering fluid–structure interac- et al. 2011).
tion, to determine the design strength capacity for the no. 96 The purpose of coupled analysis is to accurately predict the
containment system using sloshing model tests in terms of loads on mooring lines and risers at extreme design conditions.
selected environmental conditions, vessel configurations and Chan and Ha (2008) used a fast domain coupled analysis along
loading conditions. In these studies spatial, temporal and statis- with a frequency domain mooring analysis to predict the first
tical characteristics of the measured sloshing loads were investi- order slowly varying drift motions of an FPSO in design conditions.
gated. Linear transient FEA of the no. 96 containment system The line tensions predicted in the time domain were compared
including both the structure and the LNG was performed to obtain with the frequency domain solutions. Chen et al. (2008) used the
structural responses at predefined critical locations under short coupled analysis to assess the effect of two different top tensioned
duration triangular pulse which is referred to as Triangular riser configurations, one with buoyancy cans and one with
Impulse Response Function (TIRF). In the FEA model orthotropic tensioners on the motion responses of a truss spar in ultra
deepwater. Nonlinear spring properties of tensioners and hydro- Kallinderis (1998) and Papaioannou et al. (2008) and reported on
dynamic loadings on the risers and the mooring lines were the shielding effect of upstream cylinders in laminar flow induced
calculated. conditions.
The coupled analysis requires extensive computational efforts. In contrast to VIV problems understanding of the downstream
Hence there is a need for the development of more simplified effects in WIO is relatively lagging behind. This is probably because
methods for use in practical design applications. Within the of the technical difficulties to approximate the large amplitude
reporting period efforts concentrated on developing a highly motions that mooring and riser cylinder like structures suffer
efficient frequency domain approach in which the drag forces from. Recent studies mainly focus on model measurements. For
are linearised. For example Low and Grime (2011) have shown that example, Okajima et al. (2007) studied the stream-wise oscillation
the geometric nonlinearity of the mooring lines/risers may be of two tandem circular cylinders in different arrangements. On the
insignificant. This was demonstrated by applying statistical tech- computational developments front Meneghini et al. (2001), Jester
niques in conjunction with frequency domain analysis to predict and Kallinderis (2003) reported on 2D laminar flow interactions
the extreme responses of the coupled system. The crossing rates between two fixed circular cylinders. Carmo and Meneghini
for surge, sway and yaw obtained were found to agree well with (2006), Deng et al. (2006), Kitagawa and Ohta (2008), Palau-
those extracted from the time domain simulation, whereas the Salvador et al. (2008) performed 3D numerical simulations at
result for yaw is less favourable. different Reynolds numbers using approximation models (e.g. LES
methods) that are able to simulate turbulence effects.
4.3. Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIVs)and Wake Induced Oscillations
(WIOs) 4.4. Spars and TLPs
VIVs are highly nonlinear motions induced by flow periodical The successful design and operation of floating production
irregularities. Over the last few decades, significant progress has units requires appropriate evaluation of the environmental loads
been made in understanding the VIVs of long circular cylinders by that prevail during transportation installation and operation. To
means of numerical simulations and physical experiments. this end recent research also concentrated on spars and Tension
The following discussion highlights some recent operational con- Leg Platforms (TLPs).
siderations as well as theoretical developments in the area of VIVs A numerical prediction of the spar motions in waves, wind and
and Wake Induced Oscillations (WIO). current was carried out by Liapis et al. (2010). The predictions
From an operators’ perspective it is today far more desirable to were based on the COSMO/WAMIT commercial software and were
eliminate or reduce VIVs than it is to amplify their effects. For well compared with model test results. Special line members were
example, Tognarelli et al. (2008) reported on the hydrodynamic included to take the viscous loads and damping into account. Koo
performance of various offshore units and production platforms. et al. (2010) studied the motions and loads for the float-over
The measured data presented in this work shed some light on the installation of spar topsides. The numerical analysis involved
physical details of full scale riser response omitted from predictive multi-body hydrodynamic interaction, simulation of impact forces
riser design tools. They were also used to establish performance and validation studies. In the transportation analysis it was found
indicators for some VIV suppression devices that are currently that the predicted catamaran barge global motion statistics were
in use. slightly conservative in comparison with those of the model tests.
A comprehensive review of VIV prediction methods was pre- In the past 3 years research on TLPs concentrated on experi-
sented by Williamson and Govardhan (2008). The authors sum- mental and numerical studies presented by Heidari et al. (2008),
marised fundamental research results presented over the last two Bian et al. (2010), Jayalekshmi et al. (2010) and Taflanidis et al.
decades. Many of those are related with the push to understand (2008). The aim has been to improve their design by damper
and, as applicable, implement very low mass and damping mechanisms that may reduce the loads on the tendons. For
mechanisms in existing and forthcoming experimental and com- example, Heidari et al. (2008) presented a study on the design of
putational techniques. The authors focused on vortex induced a dry-tree FourStar TLP operating in a 4300 ft water depth. Bian
dynamics and energy transfer phenomena that may give rise to et al. (2010) presented the design of an integrated ultra-deepwater
dynamic loads. More recently, Kevlahan (2011) employed potential TLP with an air spring type vibration absorber to suppress the
flow and 2D Navier–Stokes calculations to investigate the role of vertical resonance motions. Jayalekshmi et al. (2010) investigated
vortex shedding in the non-resonant flow induced vibration the effect of tether-riser dynamics on the response characteristics
of periodic tube arrays. This dual approach untangles the effects of deepwater TLPs in water depths of 900 m and 1800 m and in
of potential and vertical flow. The negative damping theory is random waves. The nonlinear dynamic analysis of deep water TLPs
shown to be inconsistent with the Navier–Stokes simulations was carried out by using FEA and results were reported in the form
allowing only a single degree of freedom in tube motion. Whereas of statistical responses. These values increase with water depth
the later is thought to significantly overestimate the simulation of and a significant increase was observed when risers were included
critical velocities, the results presented assist to untangle the role in the analysis. Taflanidis et al. (2008) also explored the idea of
of vortex shedding and potential flow in way of the non-resonant using mass dampers for the reduction of dynamic loadings and
fluid elastic instability of tube arrays. hence the protection of offshore platforms. To achieve greater
Investigations on flow interaction with moving circular cylin- vibration suppression appropriate tuning of the parameters of the
ders have always been carried out in 2D because of the unafford- dampers was necessary. The later was achieved by a stochastic
able computational effort that 3D simulations may demand. There design approach.
are a number of publications in this topic. For example, Prasanth Srinivasan (2010) addressed the use of TLP in ultra deepwater
et al. (2006) studied the laminar flow induced vibration of a to support dry-tree in oil and gas production. To reduce the effects
circular cylinder at low Reynolds numbers. On the other hand of the wave loading, truss-pontoons were used. A technically
Wanderley et al. (2008), and Al Jamal and Dalton (2004) adopted feasible and cost-effective artificial sea-bed was used to ease the
RANS and LES turbulence models to simulate the VIV response at tendon design in deepwater and harsh environment. As a result a
moderate Reynolds numbers. Such studies have also been simple and slim hull, which is easy to design, fabricate, transport
extended to cases of two circular cylinders. For example, and install, was obtained. Lee and Lim (2008) studied the fatigue
Prasanth and Mittal (2009) built upon the work of Schulz and induced loads on a TLP by using a frequency domain analysis
coupling the effects of first order wave, mean drift and linearised 5. Uncertainties in wave load predictions
viscous forces. Survivability analysis was then carried out in the
time domain where the second order wave and nonlinear viscous Specification and quantification of uncertainties related to
forces were considered. The optimisation process led to a hull environmental models, load predictions and response calculations
form with improved dynamic performance and minimised top is important part of the risk-based assessment, design and opera-
tension of the tendon. tion of marine structures. To date, load uncertainties have been
specified by reliability based code formats (e.g. Vanem and
Gregersen, 2012; Bitner Gregersen and Skjong, 2009) and for
development of decision support systems that may be useful for
4.5. Semi-submersibles navigation guidance (e.g. Spanos et al., 2008).
Bitner-Gregersen and Skjong (2009) suggested to divide uncer-
The study on loads of submerged bodies has received consider- tainties into two groups namely (a) aleatory (natural and physical)
able attraction for many years. The interaction between gravity and (b) epistemic (knowledge based). According to the authors the
monochromatic waves and a fixed submerged horizontal circular information about uncertainties should be introduced in the
cylinder with its axis parallel to the crests of the incident wave reliability analyses in the form of random variables. Aleatory
was first studied by Dean (1948) who used a linearised potential uncertainties represent a natural randomness of a quantity, also
theory and a conformal mapping technique. The first experimental known as intrinsic or inherent uncertainty, e.g. the variability in
study related to this phenomenon was undertaken by Chaplin wave intensity over time and cannot be reduced or eliminated.
(1984) who calculated the nonlinear forces of the reflected and Epistemic uncertainties represent errors which can be reduced by
transmitted waves originated by a fixed submerged horizontal collecting more information about a considered quantity and by
cylinder. His study revealed the nonlinear components of these improving the methods of measuring it. These uncertainties may
forces with frequencies up to 3 times the fundamental wave be classified into: (a) data related, (b) statistics related and
frequency. (c) model related. Data uncertainties appear due to the imperfec-
Over the last few years the analysis of hydrodynamic perfor- tion of an instrument used to measure a quantity, and/or a model
mances of submerged bodies has become increasingly important generating data. If a considered quantity is not obtained directly
with the growing interest in offshore activities related with the from the measurements, but some estimation process is inter-
generation of ocean wave energy via wave induced motion of posed (e.g. the significant wave height), then the measurement of
oscillating submerged bodies. For example, numerical and experi- uncertainty must be combined with the estimation of model
mental studies by Kent and Choi (2008) suggested a solution for uncertainty by appropriate means. Statistical uncertainty, often
the velocity potential imposed upon submerged bodies by a multi- also referred to as estimation uncertainty, is due to limited
pole expansion. More recently, Conde et al. (2009) studied the full information such as a limited number of observations of a quantity
behaviour of a 2D horizontal cylinder by a nonlinear diffraction and also due to an estimation technique applied for the evaluation
analysis theory. Guerber et al. (2010) extended a 2D fully nonlinear of the distribution parameters. Model uncertainty is due to
potential flow numerical wave model to include a submerged imperfections, simplifications and idealisations made in physical
horizontal cylinder of arbitrary cross-section. The interaction model formulations for an event as well as in choices of prob-
between the free-surface flow and the surface tension for a ability distribution types used in the representation of uncertain-
circular horizontal cylinder has been investigated by Moreira and ties. The accuracy of a quantity characterises the extent to which a
Peregrine (2010). Yan and Au (2010) has investigated the fully measured quantity agrees with the true value. To characterise the
nonlinear interaction between freak waves and 2D submerged later it is necessary to indicate a systematic error (also known as
cylinders and Bai et al. (2010) has studied the 2D submerged dikes bias) and a precision (or random) error. The systematic error, or
interaction with viscous free surface waves using the Cartesian cut bias, of an estimator for a quantity considered refers to a
cell approach. systematic deviation from the true value of the quantity. The
Current loads on stationary submerged vessels have been precision of the quantity considered refers to random variations,
investigated by Vaz et al. (2009). Model-tests, semi-empirical and is usually summarised by the standard deviation. A normal
models and CFD methods were used to predict these loads. Two distribution is commonly adopted to describe the precision.
key issues affecting the modelling accuracy, the location of the Studies by the 13th and 14th ships and offshore Structures
transition to turbulent flow and the control of the numerical errors Congress presented in reports of the ISSC Technical Committee on
were identified and discussed. Their field measurements indicated Loads (ISS Report of the Technical Committee I.2 on Loads, 1997,
that the design guidance derived from model tests, as presented 2000, 2009) explain uncertainty in predicted extreme hydrody-
by Rijken and Leverette (2009), result in very conservative esti- namic actions. Roughly, uncertainty in wave loads may be divided
mates motions. It was also observed that the flow field around the into uncertainty of wave loads calculated under linear assump-
columns may cause oscillations along one of the vessel's main tions and uncertainty of nonlinear effects. Uncertainties of linear
diagonals under particular conditions. wave load predictions refer to the shape of wave spectra, the
Simos et al. (2009) showed that semi-submersible hulls may be choice of wave scatter diagram, transfer functions, methods for
subjected to second order slow motions in heave, pitch and roll. prediction of long-term extreme values and human actions.
These resonant motions are directly related to the large dimen- Uncertainty of nonlinear effects in wave loads may comprise
sions and relatively low natural frequencies of the floating sys- different sagging and hogging bending moments mainly due to
tems. Their paper discusses the evaluation of the second order non-vertical ship sides and influence of slamming and whipping
wave induced motions of a large-volume semi-submersible plat- on extreme vertical bending moments.
form using the WAMIT second order module. It is shown that the The traditional approach for assessing the wave induced loads
hydrodynamic forces induced by the second order potential affects in intact ships structures assumes that the sea states are domi-
significantly the resonant response. Matos et al. (2010) studied the nated by wave systems generated by local winds. However, in
scale effect of the slow drift motions in vertical plane of a large many situations marine structures are subjected to the combina-
volume semi-submersible platform. The importance of consider- tion of more than one wave system and in this case the frequency
ing the resonant roll and pitch motions in the seakeeping analysis spectrum exhibits two peaks. Double-peaked wave spectra can be
of large-volume semi-submersible platforms was demonstrated. observed when a swell system combines with wind-generated
waves. For example, Teixeira and Guedes Soares (2009) have were applied and compared with respect to the extreme response
demonstrated that, for a trading ship of non-restricted operation, estimate. Parunov et al. (2011) investigated long-term distribution
the long-term distributions of the wave induced vertical bending of slamming loads of containerships accounting for different types
moment for combined sea states do not change significantly when of environmental and operational uncertainties. In this work the
compared with the ones obtained from sea states of a simple uncertainties studied were (a) the choice of the wave scatter
component. In their work it is recognised that double peaked wave diagram, (b) the effect of the avoidance of heavy weather, (c) the
spectra can have a significant impact on the design and operability effect of the manoeuvring in heavy weather and (d) the method
of fixed and offshore platforms. They suggest that it would be for predicting the long-term extreme slamming pressures.
important to assess damaged ships since collisions and groundings
may occur in sea areas with swell dominated sea states and the
manoeuvrability may be affected as a consequence of the accident. 6. Fatigue loads for ships and offshore structures
Ivanov (2009) proposed a method for calculating the hull girder
bending stresses following the procedure in the class rules but in 6.1. Fatigue analysis of ships
probabilistic terms. In this work the still water and wave-induced
hull girder hogging and sagging loads are presented in probabil- In recent publications the contribution of high frequency
istic format as one phenomenon, i.e. using bi-modal probability whipping and springing vibrations to the fatigue damage in the
density functions. The probabilistic distribution of the total hull hull girder is extensively studied by Storhaug and Moan (2007). It
girder load is calculated using the rules of the composition of the was concluded that the high frequency components could be as
distribution laws of the constituent variables. Parunov and Corak important as the contributions from the wave frequency range.
(2010), Parunov et al. (2010, 2011) investigated the influence of Similar observations have been found from full scale measure-
environmental and operational uncertainties on the long term ments in container ships and LNG vessels (e.g. Heggelund et al.,
extreme vertical wave bending moment of a containership assum- 2010; Nielsen et al., 2011).
ing rigid hull. As the long term distributions of vertical wave It is difficult to distinguish between springing and whipping
bending moments are highly dependent on the assumed environ- vibration components in full-scale measurements and their indi-
mental and operational parameters, their different combinations vidual contribution to the fatigue damage cannot be assessed
are considered. Results are compared among themselves as well as easily from such measurements. In total they might, however,
with the IACS rule vertical wave bending moments. Statistical typically increase the expected fatigue damage by 20–50%
parameters which may be useful for reliability-based design depending on the sea state, loading condition, speed and heading.
of containerships are quantified. Shu and Moan (2011) studied Based on both full scale measurements and model tests, the
the effect of the heavy weather avoidance on the long-term following general conclusions can be made with respect to fatigue
wave-induced pressure along the midship transverse section of a damage accumulation in the hull girder of ships:
VLCC and a bulk carrier. They proposed a practical model to
consider the effect of heavy weather avoidance on the wave The correlation between significant wave height and fatigue
pressure along a mid-ship transverse section. Mohammed et al. rate is strong, and most fatigue damage is accumulated in head
(2009, 2012) discussed the basis of a cross-spectral formulation or following sea (see Heggelund et al., 2010);
that could be used to assess the combined effects of wave loads on It is necessary to further study the effect of safety margin
hull girder strength. The methodology accounts for long term between hull girder capacity and loading by a more refined
probability distributions and considers phase relationships approach (see Storhaug et al., 2010a, 2010b);
between narrow banded load processes. Whipping and springing-induced fatigue accumulation is a
Jensen (2009) provided a discussion of useful stochastic pro- complex phenomenon, which is not properly included in
cedures for wave load problems covering the range from slightly design rules yet (see Boutillier et al, 2010; Storhaug et al.,
linear to strongly nonlinear (bifurcation) problems. The methods 2010a, 2010b);
employed are (a) Hermite transformation, (b) Critical wave epi- The only way to progress in the understanding of fatigue
sodes and (c) FORM. The procedures are illustrated by results for phenomena is to combine all the available tools including
the extreme vertical wave bending moment in ships. Another model tests, full-scale measurements and numerical models/
simplified procedure for determining the long term distribution of simulations (Hirdaris et al., 2010).
wave hull girder loads acting on containerships including transient
loads such as slamming and green water effects is presented by In a slightly different line of work, Garbatov et al. (2010)
Jensen et al. (2009). The authors combined high frequency studied the combined effects of vibration and wave induced loads
transient loads with lower frequency wave induced loads and on fatigue. Their analysis considered local and global loads due to
the entire simplified solution is presented in closed-form solution. wave actions and cargo effects by means of the hot spot fatigue
For nonlinear processes a good estimate for the mean out-crossing analysis approach. Detailed FEA was used to determine the critical
rate can be found using FORM. An interesting – but not general – hotspots and the stress distributions on the hull structural joints.
property with the FORM analysis for the specific problem of the As a result of the performed analysis the stress concentration
extreme bending moment is that the associated reliability index is factors have been defined and used for fatigue damage calculation
inversely proportional to the significant wave height for fixed by taking into account the combination of low frequency wave
values of other operational parameters. As pointed out by Jensen induced loads and transient loads. It was concluded that the
(2010) this means that the computational efficiency of Monte calculated local stresses around the structural singularities
Carlo simulations for the specific problem can be increased depends on the structural idealisation, the element types used
drastically by introducing a scaling of the significant wave height; and the mesh subdivision. In a subsequent publication Garbatov
a phenomenon previously investigated by Söding (2009). Gaidai and Guedes Soares (2010) reported on the importance of assessing
et al. (2010) described a method for the prediction of extreme fatigue life prediction related uncertainties by discrete, closed
whipping stresses measured in deck amidships a container vessel form and spectral approaches. This work analysed the influence
during operation in harsh weather. Whipping response time series of various factors (e.g. ship main characteristics, operational
were analysed for two different voyages of the same ship, similar profile, wave climatic data, heading distributions) and considered
route and similar season month. Two different statistical methods the random origin of structure born deviations (e.g. mean stress
effect, imperfection, weld shape improvement, hot spot calcula- made as a number of case studies of theoretical multimodal
tion and resulting notch stress concentration factor) to the fatigue processes (with no particular attention to where the process
life of a butt welded ship structural component. It has been may derive from). The approach by Jia (2011) looks at the
observed that there is significant difference between the mean calculation of wind induced fatigue of tubular structures by taking
fatigue damage pairs of the heading direction and distribution. into account the effects of the wind direction, across wind and
Also, different fatigue damage calculation approaches may intro- wind grid size. It is argued that calculation procedure has the
duce different level of uncertainties resulting in different means merit of reducing uncertainties without degrading a required
and standard deviations of fatigue damage. safety level, which may lead to a positive economic impact with
A number of studies have recently been dedicated particularly regard to construction and maintenance costs.
towards onboard monitoring of fatigue damage rates. Models and
procedures have been developed to evaluate fatigue damage
accumulation in the hull girder both for short-term (30 min to 7. Conclusions
3 h) decision support, (e.g. Nielsen et al., 2011) and for long-term
voyage planning (e.g. Mao et al., 2010). These studies present 7.1. Loads on offshore structures
comparisons between measurements and predictions of fatigue
damage rates and promising results are obtained. As uncertainties Traditionally, the prediction of wave loading of zero speed body
related to fatigue damage analysis can be profound independently wave interactions has been based on potential flow solutions for
of the prediction period, it should be considered to use risk-based the prediction of global loads imposed upon FOIs. Research results
approaches for the evaluation of fatigue damage rates. This has not have also been presented in the area of bottom founded structures.
been attempted until now, but ideas may be gained also from the There is clearly a trend towards the use of CFD based methods and
work by Choung et al. (2010). nonlinear hydrodynamic diffraction approaches. However, these
models require further experimental verification.
6.2. Fatigue analysis of offshore structures When shallow water operation is considered, the influence of
the seabed bathymetry variation on the loads needs to be
Fatigue is one of the most significant failure modes for offshore examined. Current research is directed towards understanding
platforms which are mostly made of metals. Metal fatigue has the effects of varying water depths and associated high frequency
been studied for more than 170 years. However, the fact that responses of FOIs in waves by using nonlinear diffraction models,
fatigue life prediction methods are not based on Fatigue Crack Langragean–Eulerian methods and hybrid methods for the assess-
Propagation (FCP) theories remains a concern. Cui et al. (2011) ment of sloshing motions in the time domain. Once more these
outline their idea to develop a Unified Fatigue Life Prediction approaches require further experimental verification.
(UFLP) method for marine structures. The key issue for this Side by side configurations that are used in offloading opera-
development is to establish a correct crack growth rate relation. tions drive developments in the area of multi-body interactions.
Hence, a new crack growth rate model based on the concept of Within the reporting period the calculation of loads is performed
partial crack closure is presented. It is concluded that their mostly by linear and partly nonlinear boundary element methods
improved model shows strong capability in simulating the crack with the aim to assess operability of the coupled systems and
growth curves under different load ratio of various metal materi- assess the loads on the structure, the mooring lines as well as lines
als. Moreover, the model has been successfully applied for simu- connecting the bodies and articulations. Accordingly, the publica-
lating some special fatigue phenomena such as compressive to tions concerning cables, risers and mooring systems deal primarily
compressive loading effect and overload retardation effect. with the so called coupled floater mooring global response. Time
The importance of uncertainty in fatigue life prediction of and frequency domain mooring methods are employed to predict
marine structures subjected to Gaussian loads has been discussed the first order responses in extreme weather conditions. Consider-
by Bengtsson and Rychlik (2009). In particular, they discuss how ing that coupled analysis requires extensive computational efforts
general types of environmental loads (that often vary with time) more efficient computation schemes are needed for use in prac-
can be included in a stochastic model. Bengtsson and Rychlik tical design.
(2009) derive a model which has the goal to compute a measure of In this area of work there is a clearly a need to address in
risk for the fatigue of a structural components during a specific further practical problems related with the undesired effects of
time period. In the model, the combination of different types of water clearances on navigational safety and derive advanced
uncertainties is facilitated by use of a calculated safety index. Some numerical schemes able to derive the effects of bathymetry on
results are presented for processes characterised by standard wave surface waves. Whereas significant progress has been achieved in
spectra. Another study which deals with uncertainty related to the the area of VIVs investigations of wave induced oscillations on
analysis of fatigue data is presented by Guida and Penta (2010) downstream circular cylinders are relatively lagging behind prob-
who introduced the concept of Bayesian inference. In their study a ably due to the technical difficulties to approximate large ampli-
Bayesian analysis of SN fatigue data is outlined for estimating tude motions. It would be useful to expand research efforts in
material properties and for establishing fatigue design curves from this area.
small size samples.
Recently, two practical approaches for fatigue life assessment 7.2. Loads on ships
have been presented by Low (2010, 2011) and Jia (2011). The
former presents an approach for calculating the fatigue damage A large variety of nonlinear methods for the forward speed
from a stochastic bimodal process, in which the High Frequency problem was reported. One may distinguish between methods based
(HF) and Low Frequency (LF) components are of narrow band on potential theory and CFD based methods. Between those extremes
Gaussian format. The novelty of this method is claimed to be its there are various methods such as partly nonlinear or blended
ability to incorporate two critical effects, which have been unrec- methods in which different modelling assumptions are used to
ognised in prior studies; the reduction of the small-cycle ampli- approach selectively nonlinear effects. Further verification of available
tudes caused by the LF process, and the offset between the HF and techniques against experimental measurements is necessary.
LF peaks. The approach is found to produce highly precise damage Understanding hydroelastic responses of ships is recognised as
estimates ( 1% error) when benchmarked against simulations an important design verification tool. Whereas linear hydroelastic
theories have reached a degree of maturity 3D nonlinear theories design and assessment are strong trends that will be impacting on
are still under development. The primary difficulty in applying future research and development. With reference to sloshing loads
CFD is related with the computational efficiency as well as the recent advances concentrate on aspects of hull flexibility, model
implementation of free surface flows particularly for large scale scale validations and implementation of advances CFD methods
free surface effects around ships. In any case the use of CFD based and tools to study the effects on the hull girder response. Perhaps,
methods (e.g. CIP or RANS) looks promising and should be amongst the most important developments is the introduction of a
investigated in further. probabilistic based framework that facilitates modelling the high
The need for quality benchmark data is as great as ever, variability of sloshing impact pressures due to sloshing physics.
particularly relating to the measurement of global loads from The issues of fatigue analysis of offshore structures are by and
model tests. Within the reporting period experiments on elasti- large similar to those for ships. Within the reporting period efforts
cally scaled models have been broadened and it would be useful to were focused on including nonlinear effects in fatigue predictions.
see this trend continued and expanded. Whereas full scale Important properties are the non-Gaussian broad band width of
measurements provide the most robust form of validation in the nonlinear response and the sequence of loads. Further inves-
terms of realism of the data collected the number of investigations tigations are necessary in order to clarify to what extent transient
is limited and worthwhile to be expanded. and hydroelastic effects need to be considered in fatigue analysis
In the future, research and development of practical appro- and structural design of ships.
aches related with the prediction of long term assessment of loads Whereas a number of models and procedures have been
is particularly valuable. A ship, during its operational lifetime, developed to evaluate fatigue damage accumulation in the hull
experiences a number of loads and the long term effects of those girder for decision support, probably the best way to proceed in
can be performed by taking into account the hull form, the mass understanding the phenomenon is to combine all available tools
distribution and the operational profile. A 2D or 3D linear hydro- including full scale measurements and numerical simulations.
dynamic analysis, although fairly straightforward, may not be very
useful for concept design, because of the lack of detailed data or
the lack of detailed engineering expertise. For a risk assessment Acknowledgements
involving thousands of different combinations of sea state and
operational parameters even linear strip theory calculations might The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the
be too time consuming for routine applications. Naturally, compu- academic and industrial establishments they represent. A pre-
tations may be even more complicated in those cases where partly liminary and less detailed version of this work has been presented
or fully nonlinear hydrodynamic or hydroelastic methods are used. at the 18th International Ships and Offshore Structures Congress
To this end, the development of rational and efficient procedures organised by the Universities of Rostock and Hamburg in Septem-
able to predict the design wave-induced motions and accelerations ber 2012 at Rostock, Germany. The authors would like therefore to
with sufficient engineering accuracy in the conceptual design thank Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Fricke (University of Hamburg,
phase and in risk assessment procedures may be useful. Germany) and Prof. Dr.-Ing Robert Bronsart (University of Rostock,
Evaluation of rogue wave induced loads continues to be dealt Germany) for granting permission to extend and publish this work
using partly nonlinear methods and comparing prediction against in this Journal. The useful discussions throughout the preparation
model tests. It will be interesting to apply fully nonlinear methods, and review of this manuscript with Prof. Carlos Guedes Soares
including CFD based methods, to this type of approach. The (Technical University of Lisbon) are highly acknowledged.
potential flow formulation of slamming problems has continued This research has been undertaken by the leading author while
to raise interest. Recent research studies focused on the evaluation working for Lloyd's Register Strategic Research Group, London, UK.
of slamming loads on symmetric and asymmetric sections using
the Wagner approach. There is some rise in the use of hybrid CFD
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Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures

Article in Ocean Engineering · March 2014

Spyros E. Hirdaris Wei Bai

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Daniele Dessi Ahmet Ergin

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Loads for use in the design of ships and offshore structures

VIVs, WIOs, 24% Semi-

Cables, Risers and

Spars and TLPs,

Zero Speed Case,

Ice Loads, 15%

2.2.2. Level 2: Froude–Krylov Nonlinear Methods

itself. Accordingly, the wind, wave and current combined motion

this work Fig. 7 demonstrates probability distributions of the

Fig. 7. Comparison between empirical distributions of the vertical bending

suggested that at the present stage of knowledge it is possible to

2.5.4. Specialist structures

Absolute Displacements [m] Absolute Displacements [m]

Absolute Displacements [m] Absolute Displacements [m]

1.0 3.1. Loads versus operational guidance

3.2. Ice loads

Environmental changes, harsher winters in the area of Baltic

Fig. 22. Typical hull measurement system (Lloyd's Register, 2012).

Bending Moment, BE=180o, Grounded Ship (Fixed Heave, Free Pitch)

Bending Moment /Wave Amp. [tm/m]

extreme value when the vessel is exposed for one day in a 0

Wave height = 5m Wave height = 6m

Wave height = 7m Wave height = 8m

3.5.3. Advanced numerical methods

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