THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS

Being Also a New Key to the Interpretation of

Many Vedic Texts and Legends

By

Lokamanya Bâl Gangâdhar Tilak

The proprietor of the Kesari and the Mahratta newspapers,

The author of the Orion or Researches into the Antiquity of the Vedas,
The Gita Rahasya (a Book on Hindu Philosophy) etc., etc.

Publishers
Messrs. TILAK BROS
Gaikwar Wada
Poona City

1903
 CONTENTS

Chapter Page

Preface...................................................... i-ix

I Prehistoric Times ............................................... 1

II The Glacial Period ............................................. 19

III The Arctic Regions ............................................ 37

IV The Night of the Gods ....................................... 57

V The Vedic Dawns .............................................. 74

VI Long Day and Long Night .................................. 113

VII Months and Seasons ......................................... 136

VIII The Cows’ Walk ................................................ 173

IX Vedic Myths — The Captive Waters ................. 216

X Vedic Myths — The Matutinal Deities ............... 276

XI The Avestic Evidence ........................................ 328

XII Comparative Mythology ..................................... 364

XIII The Bearing of Our Results on the History of 385

Primitive Aryan Culture and Religion ................

Index ......................................................... 433

 i

PREFACE

The present volume is a sequel to my Orion or Researches into

the Antiquity of the Vedas, published in 1893. The estimate of Vedic
antiquity then generally current amongst Vedic scholars was based
on the assignment of arbitrary period of time to the different strata
into which the Vedic literature is divided; and it was believed that the
oldest of these strata could not, at the best, be older than 2400 B.C.
In my Orion, however, I tried to show that all such estimates, besides
being too modest, were vague and uncertain, and that the
astronomical statements found in the Vedic literature supplied us with
far more reliable data for correctly ascertaining the ages of the
different periods of Vedic literature. These astronomical statements, it
was further shown, unmistakably pointed out that the Vernal equinox
was in the constellation of Mṛiga or Orion (about 4500 B.C.) during
the period of the Vedic hymns, and that it had receded to the
constellation of the Kṛittikâs, or the Pleiades (about 2500 B.C.) in the
days of the Brâhmanas. Naturally enough these results were, at first,
received by scholars in a skeptical spirit. But my position was
strengthened when it was found that Dr. Jacobi, of Bonn, had
independently arrived at the same conclusion, and, soon after,
scholars like Prof. Bloomfield, M. Barth, the late Dr. Bulher and
others, more or less freely, acknowledged the force of my arguments.
Dr. Thibaut, the late Dr. Whitney and a few others were, however, of
opinion that the evidence adduced by me was not conclusive. But the
subsequent discovery, by my friend the late Mr. S. B. Dixit, of a
passage in the Shatapatha Brâhmana, plainly stating that the Kṛittikâs
never swerved, in those days, from the due east i.e., the Vernal
equinox, has served to dispel all lingering doubts regarding the age of
the Brâhmanas; while another Indian astronomer, Mr. V. B. Ketkar, in
a recent number of the Journal
 ii

of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, has

mathematically worked out the statement in the Taittirîya Brâhmana
(III, 1, 1, 5), that Bṛihaspati, or the planet Jupiter, was first discovered
when confronting or nearly occulting the star Tishya, and shown that
the observation was possible only at about 4650 B.C., thereby
remarkably confirming my estimate of the oldest period of Vedic
literature. After this, the high antiquity of the oldest Vedic period may,
I think, be now taken as fairly established.
But if the age of the oldest Vedic period was thus carried back
to 4500 B.C., one was still tempted to ask whether we had, in that
limit, reached the Ultima Thule of the Aryan antiquity. For, as stated
by Prof. Bloomfield, while noticing my Orion in his address on the
occasion of the eighteenth anniversary of John Hopkin’s University,
“the language and literature of the Vedas is, by no means, so
primitive as to place with it the real beginnings of Aryan life.” “These
in all probability and in all due moderation,” he rightly observed,
“reach back several thousands of years more,” and it was, he said,
therefore “needless to point out that this curtain, which seems to shut
off our vision at 4500 B.C., may prove in the end a veil of thin gauze.”
I myself held the same view, and much of my spare time during the
last ten years has been devoted to the search of evidence which
would lift up this curtain and reveal to us the long vista of primitive
Aryan antiquity. How I first worked on the lines followed up in Orion,
how in the light of latest researches in geology and. archeology
bearing on the primitive history of man, I was gradually led to a
different line of search, and finally how the conclusion, that the
ancestors of the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis lived in an Arctic home in inter-Glacial
times, was forced on me by the slowly accumulating mass of Vedic
and Avestic evidence, is fully narrated in the book, and need not,
therefore, be repeated in this place. I desire, however, to take this
opportunity of gratefully acknowledging the generous sympathy
shown to me at a critical time by that venerable scholar Prof. F. Max
Müller, whose recent death was mourned as a personal loss
 iii

by his numerous admirers throughout India. This is not the place

where we may, with propriety, discuss the merits of the policy
adopted by the Bombay Government in 1897 Suffice it to say that in
order to put down certain public excitement, caused by its own famine
and plague policy, the Government of the day deemed it prudent to
prosecute some Vernacular papers in the province, and prominently
amongst them the Kesari, edited by me, for writings which were held
to be seditious, and I was awarded eighteen months’ rigorous
imprisonment. But political offenders in India are not treated better
than ordinary convicts, and had it not been for the sympathy and
interest taken by Prof. Max Müller, who knew me only as the author
of Orion, and other friends, I should have been deprived of the
pleasure, — then the only pleasure, — of following up my studies in
these days. Prof. Max Müller was kind enough to send me a copy of
his second edition of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and the Government was pleased
to allow me the use of these and other books, and also of light to read
for a few hours at night. Some of the passages from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
quoted in support, of the Arctic theory in the following pages, were
collected during such leisure as I could get in these times. It was
mainly through the efforts of Prof. Max Müller, backed by the whole.
Indian press, that I was released after twelve months; and in the very
first letter I wrote to Prof. Max Müller after my release, I thanked him
sincerely for his disinterested kindness, and also gave him a brief
summary of my new theory regarding the primitive Aryan home as
disclosed by Vedic evidence. It was, of course, not to be expected
that a scholar, who had worked all his life on a different line, would
accept the new view at once, and that too on reading a bare outline
off the evidence in its support. Still it was encouraging to hear from
him that though the interpretations of Vedic passages proposed by
me were probable, yet my theory appeared to be in conflict with the
established geological facts. I wrote in reply that I had already
examined the question from that stand-point, and expected soon to
place before him the whole evidence in support of my view. But,
unfortunately
 iv

I have been deprived of this pleasure by his deeply mourned death

which occurred soon after.
The first manuscript of the book was written at the end of 1898,
and since then I have had the advantage of discussing the question
with many scholars in Madras, Calcutta, Lahore, Benares and other
places during my travels in the different parts of India. But I hesitated
to publish the book for a long time, — a part of the delay is due to
other causes, — because the lines of investigation had ramified into
many allied sciences such as geology, archeology, comparative
mythology and so on; and, as I was a mere layman in these, I felt
some diffidence as to whether I had correctly grasped the bearing of
the latest researches in these sciences. The difficulty is well
described by Prof. Max Müller in his review of the Prehistoric
Antiquities of Indo-Europeans, published in the volume of his Last
Essays. “The ever-increasing division and sub-division,” observes the
learned Professor, “of almost every branch of human knowledge into
more special branches of study make the specialist, whether he likes
it or not, more and more dependent on the judgment and the help of
his fellow-workers. A geologist in our day has often to deal with
questions that concern the mineralogist, the chemist, the
archeologist, the philologist, nay, the astronomer, rather than the
geologist pur et simple, and, as life is too short for all this, nothing is
left to him but to appeal to his colleagues for counsel and help. It is
one of the great advantages of University life that any one, who is in
trouble about some question outside his own domain, can at once get
the very best information from his colleagues, and many of the
happiest views and brightest solutions of complicated problems are
due, as is well-known, to this free intercourse, this scientific give and
take in our academic centers.” And again, “Unless a student can
appeal for help to recognized authorities on all these subjects, he is
apt to make brilliant discoveries, which explode at the slightest touch
of the specialist, and, on the other hand, to pass by facts which have
only to be pointed out in order to disclose their significance and far-
reaching importance.
 v

People are hardly aware of the benefit which every branch of science
derives from the free and generous exchange of ideas, particularly in
our Universities, where every body may avail himself of the advise
and help of his colleagues, whether they warn him against yet
impossible theories, or call his attention to a book or an article, where
the very point, that interests him, has been fully worked out and
settled once for all.” But alas! It is not given to us to move in an
atmosphere like this, and small wonder if Indian students are not
found to go beyond the stage of passing the examinations. There is
not a single institution in India, nor, despite the University
Commission, can we hope to have any before long, where one can
get all up-to-date information on any desired subject, so easily
obtainable at a seat of learning in the West; and in its absence the
only course open to a person, investigating a particular subject, is, in
the words of the same learned scholar, “to step boldly out of his own
domain, and take an independent survey of the preserves of his
neighbors, even at the risk of being called “an interloper, an
ignoramus, a mere dilettante,” for, “whatever accidents he may meet
with himself, the subject itself is sure to be benefited.” Working under
such disadvantages, I was, therefore, glad, when, on turning the
pages of the first volume of the tenth edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica, recently received, I found that Prof. Geikie, in his article on
geology, took the same view of Dr. Croll’s calculations, as
summarized at the end of the second chapter of this book. After
stating that Croll’s doctrine did not make way amongst physicists and
astronomers, the eminent geologist says that more recently (1895) it
has been critically examined by Mr. E. P. Culverwell, who regards it
as “a vague speculation, clothed indeed with delusive semblance of
severe numerical accuracy, but having no foundation in physical fact,
and built up of parts which do not dovetail one into the other.” If Dr.
Croll’s calculations are disposed of in this way, there remains nothing
to prevent us from accepting the view of the American geologists that
the commencement of the post-Glacial period cannot be placed at a
date earlier than 8000 B.C.
 vi

It has been already stated that the beginnings of Aryan

civilization must be supposed to date back several thousand years
before the oldest Vedic period; and when the commencement of the
post-Glacial epoch is brought down to 8000 B.C., it is not at all
surprising if the date of primitive Aryan life is found to go back to it
from 4500 B.C., the age of the oldest Vedic period. In fact, it is the
main point sought to be established in the present volume. There are
many passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, which, though hitherto looked upon
as obscure and unintelligible, do, when interpreted in the light of
recent scientific researches, plainly disclose the Polar attributes of the
Vedic deities, or the traces of an ancient Arctic calendar; while the
Avesta expressly tells us that the happy land of Airyana Vaêjo, or the
Aryan Paradise, was located in a region where the sun shone but
once a year, and that it was destroyed by the invasion of snow and
ice, which rendered its climate inclement and necessitated a
migration southward. These are plain and simple statements, and
when we put them side by side with what we know of the Glacial and
the post-Glacial epoch from the latest geological researches, we
cannot avoid the conclusion that the primitive Aryan home was both
Arctic and inter-Glacial. I have often asked myself, why the real
bearing of these plain and simple statements should have so long
remained undiscovered; and let me assure the reader that it was not
until I was convinced that the discovery was due solely to the recent
progress in our knowledge regarding the primitive history of the
human race and the planet it inhabits that I ventured to publish the
present volume. Some Zend scholars have narrowly missed the truth,
simply because 40 or 50 years ago they were unable to understand
how a happy home could be located in the ice-bound regions near
the North Pole. The progress of geological science in the latter half of
the last century has, however, now solved the difficulty by proving
that the climate at the Pole during the inter-Glacial times was mild,
and consequently not unsuited for human habitation. There is,
therefore, nothing extraordinary, if it be left to us to find out the real
import of these
 vii

passages in the Veda and Avesta. It is true that if the theory of an

Arctic and inter-Glacial primitive Aryan home is proved, many a
chapter in Vedic exegetics, comparative mythology, or primitive Aryan
history, will have to be revised or rewritten, and in the last chapter of
this book I have myself discussed a few important points which will be
affected by the new theory. But as remarked by me at the end of the
book, considerations like these, howsoever useful they may be in
inducing caution in our investigations, ought not to deter us from
accepting the results of an inquiry conducted on strictly scientific
lines. It is very hard, I know, to give up theories upon which one has
worked all his life. But, as Mr. Andrew Lang has put it, it should
always be borne in mind that “Our little systems have their day, or
their hour: as knowledge advances they pass into the history of the
efforts of pioneers.” Nor is the theory of the Arctic home so new and
startling as it appears to be at the first sight. Several scientific men
have already declared their belief that the original home of man must
be sought for in the Arctic regions; and Dr. Warren, the President of
the Boston University, has apticipated me, to a certain extent, in his
learned and suggestive work, the Paradise Found or the Cradle of the
Human Race at the North Pole, the tenth edition of which was
published in America in 1893. Even on strict philological grounds the
theory of a primitive Aryan home in Central Asia has been now
almost abandoned in favor of North Germany or Scandinavia; while
Prof. Rhys, in his Hibbert Lectures on Celtic Heathendom, is led to
suggest “some spot within the Arctic circle” on purely mythological
considerations. I go only a step further, and show that the theory, so
far as the primitive Aryan home is concerned, is fully borne out by
Vedic and Avestic traditions, and, what is still more important, the
latest geological researches not only corroborate the Avestic
description of the destruction of the Aryan Paradise, but enable us to
place its existence in times before the last Glacial epoch. The
evidence on which I rely is fully set forth in the following pages; and,
though the question is thus brought for the
 viii

first time within the arena of Vedic and Avestic scholarship,. I trust
that my critics will not prejudge me in any way, but give their
judgment, not on a passage here or an argument there, — for, taken
singly, it may not sometimes be found to be conclusive, — but on the
whole mass of evidence collected in the book, irrespective of how far-
reaching the ultimate effects of such a theory may be.
In conclusion, I desire to express my obligations to my friend
and old teacher Prof. S. G. Jinsivâle, M.A., who carefully went
through the whole manuscript, except the last chapter which was
subsequently written, verified all references, pointed out a few
inaccuracies, and made some valuable suggestions. I have also to
acknowledge with thanks the ready assistance rendered to me by Dr.
Râmkṛishna Gopal Bhândârkar, C.I.E., and Khân Bahâdur Dr. Dastur
Hoshang Jamâspji the High Priest of the Parsis in the Deccan,
whenever I had an occasion to consult them. Indeed, it would have
been impossible to criticize the Avestic passage so fully without the
willing co-operation of the learned High Priest and his obliging Deputy
Dastur Kaikobâd. I am also indebted to Prof. M. Rangâchârya M.A.,
of Madras, with whom I had an opportunity of discussing the subject,
for some critical suggestions, to Mr. Shrinivâs Iyengar, B.A., B.L., of
the Madras High Court Bar, for a translation of Lignana’s Essay, to
Mr. G. R. Gogte, B.A., L.L.B., for preparing the manuscript for the
press, and to my friend Mr. K. G. Oka, who helped me in reading the
proof-sheets, and but for whose care many errors would have
escaped my attention. My thanks are similarly due to the Managers of
the Ânandâsharma and the Fergusson College for free access to
their libraries and to the Manager of the Ârya-Bhûshana Press for the
care bestowed on the printing of this volume. It is needless to add
that I am alone responsible for the views embodied in the book.
When I published my Orion I little thought that I could bring to this
stage my investigation into the antiquity of the Vedas; but it has
pleased Providence to grant me strength amidst troubles and
difficulties to do the work, and, with
 ix

humble remembrance of the same, I conclude in the words of the

well-known consecratory formula, —

POONA: March, 1903 B. G. TILAK

————— ™ —————

Publishers’ Note

On the occasion of the birth centenary of Lok. B. G. TILAK, we

have the proud privilege to offer to the discriminating readers this 2nd
reprint of his famous work “The Arctic Home In The Vedas,”
published by the Author in 1903 and reprinted in 1925.

J. S. TILAK
Poona, March 1956
 1

THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS

———— ™ ————

CHAPTER I

PREHISTORIC TIMES

The Historic Period — Preceded by myths and traditions — The Science of

Mythology — Fresh impulse given to it by Comparative Philology — Unity
of Aryan races and languages — The system of interpreting myths, and the
theory of Asiatic Home — Recent discoveries in Geology and Archaeology
— Requiring revision of old theories — The Vedas still partially
unintelligible — New key to their interpretation supplied by recent
discoveries — The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone — Represent different
stages of civilization in Prehistoric times — The Ages not necessarily
synchronous in different countries — Distinction between Neolithic and
Paleolithic or new and old Stone Age — The Geological eras and periods —
Their correlation with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone —
Paleolithic Age probably inter-glacial — Man in Quaternary and Tertiary
eras — Date of the Neolithic Age — 5000 B.C. from lake dwellings — Peat-
mosses of Denmark — Ages of Beech, Oak and Fir — Date of the
Paleolithic or the commencement of the Post-Glacial period — Different
estimates of European and American geologists — Freshness of fossil
deposits in Siberia — Favors American estimate of 8000 years — Neolithic
races — Dolicho-cephalic and Brachy-cephalic — Modern European races
descended from them — Controversy as to which of these represent the
Primitive Aryans in Europe — Different views of German and French writers
— Social condition of the Neolithic races and the primitive Aryans — Dr.
Schrader’s view — Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as
autochthonous — Nor descended from the Paleolithic man — The question
of the original Aryan home still unsettled.

If we trace the history of any nation backwards into the past, we

come at last to a period of myths and traditions which eventually fade
away into impenetrable darkness. In some cases, as in that of
Greece, the historic period goes back to 1000 B.C., while in the case
of Egypt the contemporaneous records, recently unearthed from
ancient tombs and monuments,
 2

carry back its history up to about 5000 B.C. But in either case the
historic period, the oldest limit of which may be taken to be 5000 or
6000 B.C., is preceded by a period of myths and traditions; and as
these were the only materials available for the study of prehistoric
man up to the middle of the nineteenth century, various attempts
were made to systematize these myths, to explain them rationally and
see if they shed any light on the early history of man. But as observed
by Prof. Max Müller, “it was felt by all unprejudiced scholars that none
of these systems of interpretation was in the least satisfactory.” “The
first impulse to a new consideration of the mythological problem”
observes the same learned author “came from the study of
comparative philology.” Through the discovery of the ancient
language and sacred books of India — a discovery, which the
Professor compares with the discovery of the new world, and through
the discovery of the intimate relationship between Sanskrit and Zend
on the one hand and the, languages of the principal races of Europe
on the other, a complete revolution took place in the views commonly
entertained of the ancient history of the world.* It was perceived that
the languages of the principal European nations — ancient and
modern — bore a close resemblance to the languages spoken by the
Brahmans of India and the followers of Zoroaster; and from this
affinity of the Indo-Germanic languages it followed inevitably that all
these languages must be the off-shoots or dialects of a single
primitive tongue, and the assumption of such a primitive language
further implied the existence of a primitive Aryan people. The study of
Vedic literature and classical Sanskrit by Western scholars thus
gradually effected a revolution in their ideas regarding the history and
culture of man in ancient times. Dr. Schrader in his work on the
Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples gives an exhaustive
summary of the conclusions arrived at by the methods of comparative
philology regarding the primitive culture of the

* See Lectures on the Science of Language, Vol. II, pp. 445-6.

 3

Aryan people, and those that desire to have further information on the
subject must refer to that interesting book. For our present purpose it
is sufficient to state that comparative mythologists and philologists
were in the sole possession of this field, until the researches of the
latter half of the nineteenth century placed within our reach new
materials for study of man not only in prehistoric times but in such
remote ages that compared with them the prehistoric period
appeared to be quite recent.
The mythologists carried on their researches at a time when
man was believed to be post-glacial and when the physical and
geographical surroundings of the ancient man were assumed not to
have been materially different from those of the present day. All
ancient myths were, therefore, interpreted on the assumption that
they were formed and developed in countries, the climatic or other
conditions of which varied very little, if at all from those by which we
are now surrounded. Thus every Vedic myth or legend was explained
either on the Storm or the Dawn theory, though in some cases it was
felt that the explanation was not at all satisfactory. India was only a
Storm-God and Vṛitra the demon of drought or darkness brought on
by the daily setting of the sun. This system of interpretation was first
put forward by the Indian Etymologists and though it has been
improved upon by Western Vedic scholars, yet up to now it has
remained practically unchanged in character. It was again believed
that we must look for the original home of the Aryan race somewhere
in Central Asia and that the Vedic hymns, which were supposed to be
composed after the separation of the Indian Aryans from the common
stock, contained the ideas only of that branch of the Aryan race which
lived in the Temperate zone. The scientific researches of the latter
half of the nineteenth century have, however, given a rude shock to
these theories. From hundreds of stone and bronze implements
found buried in the various places in Europe the archaeologists have
now established the chronological sequence of the Iron, the Bronze
and the Stone
 4

age in times preceding the historic period. But the most important
event of the latter half of the last century, so far as it concerns our
subject, was the discovery of the evidence proving the existence of
the Glacial period at the close of Quaternary era and the high
antiquity of man, who was shown to have lived not only throughout
the Quaternary but also in the Tertiary era, when the climatic
conditions of the globe were quite different from those in the present
or the Post-Glacial period. The remains of animals and men found in
the Neolithic or Paleolithic strata also threw new light on the ancient
races inhabiting the countries where these remains were found; and it
soon became evident that the time-telescope set up by the
mythologists must be adjusted to a wider range and the results
previously arrived at by the study of myths and legends must be
checked in the light of the facts disclosed by these scientific
discoveries. The philologists had now to be more cautious in
formulating their views and some of them soon realized the force of
the arguments advanced on the strength of these scientific
discoveries. The works of German scholars, like Posche and Penka,
freely challenged the Asiatic theory regarding the original home of the
Aryan race and it is now generally recognized that we must give up
that theory and seek for the original home of the Aryans somewhere
else in the further north. Canon Taylor in his Origin of the Aryans has
summed up the work done during the last few years in this direction.
“It was” he says, “mainly a destructive work,” and concludes his book
with the observation that “the whilom tyranny of the Sanskritists is
happily overpast, and it is seen that hasty philological deductions
require to be systematically checked by the conclusions of prehistoric
archeology, crania logy, anthropology, geology and common sense.”
Had the remark not been used as a peroration at the end of the book,
it would certainly be open to the objection that it unnecessarily
deprecates the labors of the comparative mythologists and
philologists. In every department of human knowledge old
conclusions have always to be revised in the light of new
 5

discoveries, but for that reason it would never be just to find fault with
those whose lot it was to work earlier in the same field with scanty
and insufficient materials.
But whilst the conclusions of the philologists and mythologists
are thus being revised in the light of new scientific discoveries, an
equally important work yet remains to be done. It has been stated
above that the discovery of the Vedic literature imparted a fresh
impulse to the study of myths and legends. But the Vedas
themselves, which admittedly form the oldest records of the Aryan
race, are as yet imperfectly understood. They had already grown
unintelligible to a certain extent even in the days of the Brâhmanas
several centuries before Christ, and had it not been for the labors of
Indian Etymologists and Grammarians, they would have remained a
sealed book up to the present time. The Western Scholars have
indeed developed, to a certain extent, these Native methods of
interpretation with the aid of facts brought to light by comparative
philology and mythology. But no etymological or philological analysis
can help us in thoroughly understanding a passage which contains
ideas and sentiments foreign or unfamiliar to us. This is one of the
principal difficulties of Vedic interpretation. The Storm or the Dawn
theory may help us in understanding some of the legends in this
ancient book. But there axe passages, which, in spite of their simple
diction, are quite unintelligible on any of these theories, and in such
cases Native scholars, like Sâyana, are either content with simply
paraphrasing the words, or have recourse to distortion of words and
phrases in order to make the passages yield a sense intelligible to
them; while some of the Western scholars are apt to regard such
texts as corrupt or imperfect. In either case, however, it is an
undoubted fact that some Vedic texts are yet unintelligible, and,
therefore, untranslatable. Prof. Max Müller was fully alive to these
difficulties. “A translation of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,” he observes in his
introduction to the translation of the Vedic hymns in the Sacred Books
of the East series,
 6

“is a task for the next century,”* and the only duty of the present
scholars is to” reduce the untranslatable portion to a narrower and
narrower limit,” as has been done by Yâska and other Native
scholars. But if the scientific discoveries of the last century have
thrown a new light on the history and culture of man in primitive
times, we may as well expect to find in them a new key to the
interpretation of the Vedic myths and passages, which admittedly
preserve for us the oldest belief of the Aryan race. If man existed
before the last Glacial period and witnessed the gigantic changes
which brought on the Ice Age, it is not unnatural to expect that a
reference, howsoever concealed and distant, to these events would
be found in the oldest traditionary beliefs and memories of mankind;
Dr. Warren in his interesting and highly suggestive work the Paradise
Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole has
attempted to interpret ancient myths and legends in the light of
modern scientific discoveries, and has come to the conclusion that
the original home of the whole human race must be sought for in
regions near the North Pole. My object is not so comprehensive. I
intend to confine myself only to the Vedic literature and show that if
we read some of the passages in the Vedas, which have hitherto
been considered incomprehensible, in the light of the new scientific
discoveries we are forced to the conclusion that the home of the
ancestors of the Vedic people was somewhere near the North Pole
before the last Glacial epoch. The task is not an easy one,
considering the fact that the Vedic passages, on which I rely, had to
be and have been, hitherto either ignored or explained away
somehow, or misinterpreted one way or another by Native and
European scholars alike. But I hope to show that these
interpretations, though they have been provisionally accepted, are not
satisfactory and that new discoveries in archaeology, and geology
provide us with a better key for the interpretation of these passages.
Thus if some of the conclusions of the mythologist and the philologist
are overthrown by

* See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. xi.

 7

these discoveries, they have rendered a still greater service by

furnishing us with a better key for the interpretation of the most
ancient Aryan legends and the results obtained by using the new key
cannot, in their turn, fail to throw further light on the primitive history
of the Aryan race and thus supplement, or modify the conclusion now
arrived at by the archaeologist and the geologist.
But before proceeding to discuss the Vedic texts which point
out to a Polar home, it is necessary to briefly state the results of
recent discoveries in archaeology, geology and paleontology. My
summary must necessarily be very short, for I propose to note down
only such facts as will establish the probability of my theory from the
geological and paleontological point of view and for this purpose I
have freely drawn upon the works of such well-known writers as Lyell,
Geikie, Evans, Lubbock, Croll, Taylor and others. I have also utilized
the excellent popular summary of the latest results of these
researches in Samuel Laing’s Human Origins and other works. The
belief, that man is post-glacial and that the Polar regions were never
suited for human habitation, still lingers in some quarters and to those
who still hold this view any theory regarding the Polar home of the
Aryan race may naturally seem to be a priori impossible. It is better,
therefore, to begin with a short statement of the latest scientific
conclusions on these points.
Human races of earlier times have left ample evidence of their
existence on the surface of this globe; but like the records of the
historic period this evidence does not consist of stately tombs and
pyramids, or inscriptions and documents. It is of a humbler kind and
consists of hundreds and thousands of rude or polished instruments
of stone and metal recently dug out from old camps, fortifications,
burial grounds (tumuli), temples, lake-dwellings &c. of early times
spread over the whole of Europe; and in the hands of the
archaeologist these have been found to give the same results as the
hieroglyphics in the hands of the Egyptologist. These early
implements of stone and metals were not previously unknown,
 8

but they had not attracted the notice of scientific experts till recently
and the peasants in Asia and Europe, when they found them in their
fields, could hardly make any better use of them than that of
worshipping the implements so found as thunderbolts or fairy arrows
shot down from the sky. But now after a careful study of these
remains, archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these
implements, whose human origin is now undoubtedly established can
be classified into those of Stone (including horn, wood or bone),
those of Bronze and those of Iron, representing three different stages
of civilization in the progress of man in prehistoric times. Thus the
implements of stone, wood or bone, such as chisels, scrapers, arrow-
heads, hatches, daggers, etc. were used when the use of metal was
yet unknown and they were gradually supplanted first by the
implements of bronze and then of iron, when the ancient man
discovered the use of these metals. It is not to be supposed,
however, that these three different periods of early human civilization
were divided by any hard and fast line of division. They represent
only a tough classification, the passage from one period into another
being slow and gradual. Thus the implements of stone must have
continued to be used for a long time after the use of bronze became
known to the ancient man, and the same thing must have occurred as
he passed from the Bronze to the Iron age. The age of bronze, which
is a compound of copper and tin in a definite proportion, requires an
antecedent age of copper; but sufficient evidence is not yet found to
prove the separate existence of copper and tin ages, and hence it is
considered probable that the art of making bronze was not invented
in Europe, but was introduced there from other countries either by
commerce or by the Indo-European race going there from outside.*
Another fact which requires to be noted in connection with these ages
is that the Stone or the Bronze age in one country was not
necessarily synchronous with the same age in another country. Thus
we find a high state of civilization

* Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times, 1890 Ed., pp. 4 and 64.

 9

in Egypt at about 6000 B.C., when the inhabitants of Europe were in

the early stages of the Stone age. Similarly Greece had advanced to
the Iron age, while Italy was still in the Bronze period and the West of
Europe in the age of Stone. This shows that the progress of
civilization was slow in some and rapid in other places, the rate of
progress varying according to the local circumstances of each place.
Broadly speaking, however, the three periods of Stone, Bronze and
Iron may be taken to represent the three stages of civilization anterior
to the historic period.
Of these three different ages the oldest or the Stone age is
further divided into the Paleolithic and the Neolithic period, or the old
and the new Stone age. The distinction is based upon the fact that
the stone implements of the Paleolithic age are found to be very
rudely fashioned, being merely chipped into shape and never ground
or polished as is the case with the implements of the new Stone age.
Another characteristic of the Paleolithic period is that the implements
of the period are found in places which plainly show a much greater
antiquity than can be assigned to the remains of the Neolithic age,
the relics of the two ages being hardly, if ever, found together. The
third distinction between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic age is that
the remains of the Paleolithic man are found associated with those of
many great mammals, such as the cave bear, the mammoth and
wooly-haired rhinoceros that became either locally or wholly extinct
before the appearance of the Neolithic man on the stage. In short,
there is a kind of hiatus or break between the Paleolithic and Neolithic
man requiring a separate classification and treatment for each. It may
also be noted that the climatic conditions and the distribution of land
and water in the Paleolithic period were different from those in the
Neolithic period; while from beginning of the Neolithic period the
modern conditions, both geographical and climatic, have prevailed
almost unaltered up to the present time.
To understand the relation of these three ages within the
geological periods into which the history of the earth is divided
 10

we must briefly consider the geological classification. The geologist

takes up the history of the earth at the point where the archaeologist
leaves it, and carries it further back into remote antiquity. His
classification is based upon an examination of the whole system of
stratified rocks and not on mere relics found in the surface strata.
These stratified rocks have been divided into five principal classes
according to the character of the fossils found in them, and they
represent five different periods in the history of our planet. These
geological eras like the three ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron, cannot
be separated very sharply from each other. But taken as a whole we
can clearly distinguish one era from another by its characteristic fossil
remains. Each of these geological ages or eras is again subdivided
into a number of different periods. The order of these Eras and
Periods, beginning with the newest, is as follows:

Eras Periods

Post-Tertiary or Quaternary Recent (Post-Glacial)

Pleistocene (Glacial)
Pliocene
Tertiary or Cainozoic Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Cretaceon
Secondary or Mesozoic Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous.
Devonian, and Old
Primary or Paleozoic Red Sandstone
Silurian
Cambrian
Archæan or Eozoic Fundamental Gneiss

Thus the oldest of the stratified rocks at present known is the

Archæan or Eozoic. Next in chronological order come the Primary or
the Paleozoic, the Secondary or the Mesozoic the Tertiary or
Cainozoic, and last the Quaternary.
 11

The Quaternary era, with which alone we are here concerned, is sub-
divided into the Pleistocene or the Glacial, and the Recent or the
Post-Glacial period, the close of the first and the beginning of the
second being marked by the last Glacial epoch, or the Ice Age, during
which the greater portion of northern Europe and America was
covered with an ice-cap several thousand feet in thickness. The Iron
age, the Bronze age, and the Neolithic age come under the Recent or
the Post-Glacial period, while the Paleolithic age is supposed to fall in
the Pleistocene period, though some of the Paleolithic remains are
post-glacial, showing that the Paleolithic man must have survived the
Ice Age for some time. Latest discoveries and researches enable us
to carry the antiquity of man still further by establishing the fact that
men existed even in the Tertiary era. But apart from it, there is, now,
at any rate, overwhelming evidence to conclusively prove the wide-
spread existence of man throughout the Quaternary era, even before
the last Glacial period.
Various estimates have been made regarding the time of the
commencement of the Neolithic age, but the oldest date assigned
does not exceed 3000 B.C., a time when flourishing empires existed
in Egypt and Chaldea. These estimates are based on the amount of
silt which has been found accumulated in some of the smaller lakes
in Switzerland since the lake-dwellers of the Neolithic period built
their piled villages therein. The peat-mosses of Den mark afford
means for another estimate of the early Neolithic period in that
country. These mosses are formed in the hollows of the glacial drift
into which trees have fallen, and become gradually converted into
peat in course of time. There are three successive periods of
vegetation in these peat beds, the upper one of beach, the middle
one of oak and the lowest of all, one of fir. These changes in the
vegetation are attributed to slow changes in the climate and it is
ascertained, from implements and remains found in these beds, that
the Stone age corresponds mainly with that of Fir and partly with that
of Oak, while the Bronze ague agrees mainly with the
 12

period of Oak and the Iron with that of Beech. It has been calculated
that about 16,000 years will be required for the formation of these
peat-mosses and according to this estimate we shall have to place
the commencement of the Neolithic age in Denmark, at the lowest,
not later than 10,000 years ago. But these estimates are not better
than mere approximations, and generally speaking we may take the
Neolithic age in Europe as commencing not later than 5000 B.C.
But when we pass from the Neolithic too the Paleolithic period
the difficulty of ascertaining the commencement of the latter becomes
still greater. In fact we have here to ascertain the time when the Post-
Glacial period commenced. The Paleolithic man must have occupied
parts of Western Europe shortly after the disappearance of the Ice
age and Prof. Geikie considers that there are reasons for supposing
that he was inter-glacial. The Glacial period was characterized by
geographical and climatic changes on an extensive scale. These
changes and the theories regarding the cause or the causes of the
Ice Age will be briefly stated in the next chapter. We are here
concerned with the date of the commencement of the Post-Glacial
period, and there are two different views entertained by geologists on
the subject. European geologists think that as the beginning of the
Post-Glacial period was marked with great movements of elevation
and depression of land, and as these movements take place very
slowly, the commencement of the Post-Glacial period cannot be
placed later than 50 or 60 thousand years ago. Many American
geologists, on the other hand, are of opinion that the close of the last
Glacial period must have taken place at a much more recent date.
They draw this inference from the various estimates of time required
for the erosion of valleys and accumulation of alluvial deposits since
the last Glacial period. Thus according to Gilbert, the post-glacial
gore of Niagara at the present rate of erosion must have been
excavated within 7000 years.* Other

* See Geikie’s Fragments of Earth Lore, p. 296; also Dr. Bonney’s Story of
our Planet, p. 560.
 13

American geologists from similar observations at various other places

have arrived at the conclusion that not more than about 8000 years
have elapsed since the close of the Glacial period. This estimate
agrees very well with the approximate date of the Neolithic period
ascertained from the amount of silt in some of the lakes in
Switzerland. But it differs materially from the estimate of the
European geologists. It is difficult to decide, in the present state of our
knowledge, which of these estimates is correct. Probably the Glacial
and the Post-Glacial period may not, owing to local causes have
commenced or ended at one and the same time in different places,
just as the ages of Stone and Bronze were not synchronous in
different countries. Prof. Geikie does not accept the American
estimate on the ground that it is inconsistent with the high antiquity of
the Egyptian civilization, as ascertained by recent researches. But if
no traces of glaciation are yet found in Africa this objection loses its
force, while the arguments by which the American view is supported
remain uncontradicted.
There are other reasons which go to support the same view. All
the evidence regarding the existence of the Glacial period comes
from the North of Europe and America; but no traces of glaciation
have been yet discovered in the Northern Asia or North Alaska. It is
not to be supposed, however, that the northern part of Asia did not
enjoy a genial climate in. early time. As observed by Prof. Geikie
“everywhere throughout this vast region alluvial deposits are found
packed up with the remains of mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, bison,
and horse;” and “the fossils are usually so well preserved that on one
occasion the actual carcass of a mammoth was exposed in so fresh a
state that dogs ate the flesh thereof.”* These and other equally
indisputable facts clearly indicate the existence in Siberia of a mild
and genial climate at a time, which, from the freshness of the fossil
remains, cannot be

* See Geikie’s Great Ice Age, 1st Ed., p. 495; Dr. Croll’s Climate and
Cosmology, p. 179.
 14

supposed to be removed from the present by several thousands of

years. Again in North Africa and Syria we find in dry regions wide-
spread fluviatile accumulations which are believed to be indications of
rainy seasons, contemporaneous with the Glacial period of Europe.*
If this contemporaneity can be established, the high estimate of time
for the commencement of the Post-Glacial period in Europe will have
to be given up, or at any rate much curtailed.
As regards the races which inhabited Europe in these early
ages, the evidence furnished by human remains or skulls shows that
they were the direct ancestors of the races now living in the different
parts of Europe. The current classification of the human races into
Aryan, Semitic, Mongolian, &c. is based upon the linguistic principle;
but it is evident that in dealing with ancient races the archaeologist
and the geologist cannot adopt this principle of division, inasmuch as
their evidence consists of relics from which no inference can be
drawn as to the language used by the ancient man. The shape and
the size of the skull have, therefore, been taken as the chief
distinguishing marks to classify the different races of prehistoric
times. Thus if the extreme breadth of a skull is three-fourths, or 75
per cent, of its length or lower, it is classed as long-headed; or
dolicho-cephalic, while if the breadth is higher than 83 per cent of the
length the skull is said to be brachy-cephalic or broad-headed; the
intermediate class being styled ortho-cephalic, or sub-dolicho-
cephalic, or sub-brachy-cephalic according as it approaches one or
the other of these types. Now from the examination of the different
skulls found in the Neolithic beds it has been ascertained that Europe
i n those early days was inhabited by four different races, and that the
existing European types are directly descended from them. Of these
four races two were dolicho-cephalic, one tall and one short; and two
brachy-cephalic similarly divided. But the Aryan languages are, at
present, spoken in Europe by

* See Geikie’s Fragments of Earth Lore, p. 252.

 15

races exhibiting the characteristics of all these types. It is, however,

evident that one alone of these four ancient races can be the real
representative of the Aryan race, though there is a strong difference
of opinion as to which of them represented the primitive Aryans.
German writers, like Posche and Penka, claim that the tall dolicho-
cephalic race, the ancestors of the present Germans, were the true
representative Aryans; while French writers, like Chavee and M. de
Mortillet, maintain that the primitive Aryans were brachy-cephalic and
the true Aryan type is represented by the Gauls. Canon Taylor in his
Origin of the Aryans sums up the controversy by observing that when
two races come in contact, the probability is that the speech of the
most cultured will prevail, and therefore “it is” he says “an easier
hypothesis to suppose that the dolicho-cephalic savages of the Baltic
coast acquired Aryan speech from their brachy-cephalic neighbors,
the Lithuanians, than to suppose, with Penka, that they succeeded in
some remote age in Aryanising the Hindus, the Romans and the
Greeks.”*
Another method of determining which of these four races
represented the primitive Aryans in Europe is to compare the grades
of civilization attained by the undivided Aryans, as ascertained from
linguistic paleontology, with those attained by the Neolithic races as
disclosed by the remains found in their dwellings. As for the
Paleolithic man his social condition appears to have been far below
that of the undivided Aryans; and Dr. Schrader considers it as
indubitably either non-Indo-European or pre-Indo-European in
character. The Paleolithic man used stone hatchets and bone
needles, and had attained some proficiency in the art of sculpture and
drawing, as exhibited by outlines of various animals carved bones
&c.; but he was clearly unacquainted with the potter’s art and the use
of metals. It is only in the Neolithic period that we meet with pottery in
the piled villages of lake-dwellers in Switzerland. But even the oldest

* See Taylor’s Origin of the Aryans, p. 243.

 16

lake-dwellers seem to have been unacquainted with the use of metals

and wagons, both of which were familiar to the undivided Aryans. No
trace of woolen cloth is again found in these lake-dwellings, even
when sheep had become numerous in the Bronze age. But with these
exceptions the culture of the Swiss lake-dwellings is considered by
Dr. Schrader to be practically of the same character as the culture
common to the European members of the Indo-Germanic family, and
he, therefore, ventures to suggest, though cautiously, that “from the
point of view there is nothing to prevent our assuming that the most
ancient inhabitants of Switzerland were a branch of the European
division” of the Aryan race.*
But though recent discoveries have brought to light these facts
about the human races inhabiting Europe in pre-historic times, and
though we may, in accordance with them, assume that one of the four
early Neolithic races represented the primitive Aryans in Europe, the
question whether the latter were autochthonous, or went there from
some other place and then succeeded in Aryanising the European
races by their superior culture and civilization, cannot be regarded as
settled by these discoveries. The date assigned to the Neolithic
period as represented by Swiss lake-dwellers is not later than 5000
B.C., a time when Asiatic Aryans were probably settled on the
Jaxartes, and it is admitted that the primitive Aryans in Europe could
not have been the descendants of the Paleolithic man. It follows,
therefore, that if we discover them in Europe in the early Neolithic
times they must have gone there from some other part of the globe.
The only other alternative is to assume that one of the four Neolithic
races in Europe developed a civilization quite independently of their
neighbors, an assumption, which is improbable on its face. Although,
therefore, we may, in the light of recent scientific discoveries, give up
the theory of successive migrations into Europe from a common
home of the Aryan race in

* Dr. Schrader’s Pre-historic Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples translated by

Jevons, Part IV, Ch. xi, p. 368.
 17

Central Asia in early times, yet the question of the primeval home of
the Aryan race, a question with which we are mainly concerned in this
book, still remains unsolved. When and where the primitive Aryan
tongue was developed is again another difficult question which is not
satisfactorily answered. Canon Taylor, after comparing the Aryan and
Ural-Altaic languages, hazards a conjecture that at the close of the
reindeer, or the last period of the Paleolithic age, a Finnic people
appeared in Western Europe, whose speech remaining stationary is
represented by the agglutinative Basque, and that much later, at the
beginning of the pastoral age, when the ox had been tamed, a taller
and more powerful Finno-Ugric people developed in Central Europe
the inflexive Aryan speech.* But this is merely a conjecture, and it
does not answer the question how the Indo-Iranians with their
civilization are found settled in Asia at a time when Europe was in the
Neolithic age. The Finnic language again discloses a number of
culture words borrowed from the Aryans, and it is unlikely that the
language of the latter could have got its inflection from the Finnic
language. A mere similarity of inflectional structure is no evidence
whatsoever for deciding who borrowed from whom, and it is
surprising that the above suggestion should come from scholars, who
have assailed the theory of successive Aryan migrations from a
common Asiatic home, a theory which, amongst others, was based
on linguistic grounds. Why did the Finns twice migrate from their
home is also left unexplained. For reasons like these it seems to me
more probable that the Finns might have borrowed the culture words
from the Aryans when they came in contact with them, and that the
Aryans were autochthonous neither in Europe nor in Central Asia, but
had their original home somewhere near the North Pole in the
Paleolithic times, and that, they migrated from this place southwards
in Asia and Europe, not by any “irresistible impulse,” but by
unwelcome changes in the climatic conditions of their original

* The Origin of the Aryans, p. 296.

 18

home. The Avesta preserves traditions which fully support this view.
But these have been treated as valueless by scholars, who worked
up their theories at a time when man was regarded as post-glacial,
and the Avestic traditions were, it was believed, not supported by any
Vedic authority. But with the time-telescope of a wider range supplied
to us by recent scientific discoveries it has become possible to
demonstrate that the Avestic traditions represent a real historical fact
and that they are fully supported by the testimony of the Vedas. The
North Pole is already considered by several eminent scientific men as
the most likely place where plant and animal life first originated; and I
believe it can be satisfactorily shown that there is enough positive
evidence in the most ancient books of the Aryan race, the Vedas and
the Avesta, to prove that the oldest home of the Aryan people was
somewhere in regions round about the North Pole. I shall take up this
evidence after examining the climatic conditions of the Pleistocene or
the Glacial period and the astronomical characteristics of the Arctic
region in the next two chapters.

————— ™ —————
 19

CHAPTER II

THE GLACIAL PERIOD

Geological climate — Uniform and gentle in early ages — Due to different
distribution of land and water — Climatic changes in the Quaternary era —
The Glacial epoch — Its existence undoubtedly proved — Extent of
glaciation — At least two Glacial periods — Accompanied by the elevation
and depression of land — Mild and genial Interglacial climate even in the
Arctic regions — Various theories regarding the cause of the Ice Age stated
— Lyell’s theory of geographical changes — Showing long duration of the
Glacial period — Croll’s theory — Effect of the procession of the equinoxes
on the duration and intensity of seasons — The cycle of 21,000 years —
The effect enhanced by the eccentricity of earth’s orbit — Maximum
difference of 33 days between the duration of summer and winter — Sir
Robert Ball’s calculations regarding the average heat received by each
hemisphere in summer and winter — Short and warm summers and long
and cold winters, giving rise to a Glacial epoch — Dr. Croll’s extraordinary
estimate regarding the duration of the Glacial epoch — Based on the
maximum value of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit — Questioned by
astronomers and geologists — Sir Robert Ball’s and Newcomb’s view —
Croll’s estimates inconsistent with geological evidence — Opinions of Prof.
Geikie and Mr. Hudleston — Long duration of the Glacial period —
Summary of results.

The climate of our globe at the present day is characterized by

a succession of seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter,
caused by the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of the
ecliptic. When the North Pole of the earth is turned away from the sun
in its annual course round that luminary, we have winter in the
northern and summer in the southern hemisphere, and vice versa
when the North Pole is turned towards the sun. The cause of the
rotation of seasons in the different hemispheres is thus very simple,
and from the permanence of this cause one-may be led to think that
in the distant geological ages the climate of our planet must have
been characterized by similar rotations of hot and cold seasons. But
such a supposition is directly contradicted by geological evidence.
The inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of ecliptic, or what is
technically called the obliquity of
 20

the ecliptic, is not the sole cause of climatic variations on the surface
of the globe. High altitude and the existence of oceanic and aerial
currents, carrying and diffusing the heat of the equatorial region to the
other parts of the globe, have been found to produce different
climates in countries having the same latitude. The Gulf Stream is a
notable instance of such oceanic currents and had it not been for this
stream the climate in the North-West of Europe would have been
quite different from what it is at present. Again if the masses of land
and water be differently distributed from what they are at present,
there is every reason to suppose that different climatic conditions will
prevail on the surface of the globe from those which we now
experience, as such a distribution would materially alter the course of
oceanic and aerial currents going from the equator to the Poles.
Therefore, in the early geological ages, when the Alps were low and
the Himalayas not yet upheaved and when Asia and Africa were
represented only by a group of islands we need not be surprised if,
from geological evidence of fossil fauna and flora, we find that an
equable and uniform climate prevailed over the whole surface of the
globe as the result of these geographical conditions. In Mesozoic and
Cainozoic times this state of things appears to have gradually
changed. But though the climate in the Secondary and the Tertiary
era was not probably as remarkably uniform as in the Primary, yet
there is clear geological evidence to show that until the close of the
Pliocene period in the Tertiary era the climate was not yet
differentiated into zones and there were then no hot and cold
extremes as at present. The close of the Pliocene and the whole of
the Pleistocene period was marked by violent changes of climate
bringing on what is called the Glacial and Inter-Glacial epochs. But it
is now conclusively established that before the advent of this period a
luxuriant forest vegetation, which can only grow and exist at present
in the tropical or temperate climate, flourished in the high latitude of
Spitzbergen, where the sun goes below the horizon from November
till March, thus showing that a warm climate prevailed in the Arctic
regions in those days.
 21

It was in the Quaternary or the Pleistocene period that the mild

climate of these regions underwent sudden alterations producing
what is called the Glacial period. The limits of this Glacial period may
not so exactly coincide with those of the Pleistocene as to enable us
to say that they were mathematically co-extensive, but, still, in a
rough sense we may take these two periods as coinciding with each
other. It is impossible within the limits of a short chapter to give even
a summary of the evidence proving the existence of one or more
Glacial epochs in the Pleistocene period. We may, however, briefly
indicate its nature and see what the geologists and the physicists
have to say as regards the causes that brought about such extensive
changes of climate in the Quaternary era. The existence of the
Glacial period is no longer a matter of doubt though scientific men are
not agreed as to the causes which produced it. Ice-sheets have not
totally disappeared from the surface of the earth and we can still
watch the action of ice as glaciers in the valleys of the Alps or in the
lands near the Pole, like Greenland which is still covered with a sheet
of ice so thick as to make it unfit for the growth of plants or the
habitation of animals. Studying the effects of glacial action in these
places geologists have discovered abundant traces of similar action
of ice in former times over the whole of Northern Europe and
America. Rounded and scratched stones, till or boulder-clay, and the
rounded appearance of rocks and mountains clearly point out that at
one period in the history of our globe northern parts of Europe and
America must have been covered for a long time with a sheet of ice
several hundreds of feet in thickness. The ice which thus invaded the
northern portion of America and Europe did not all radiate from the
Pole. The evidence of the direction of the striae, or scratches
engraved on rocks by ice, undoubtedly proves that the ice-caps
spread out from all elevated places or mountains in different
directions. These ice-sheets of enormous thickness covered the
whole of Scandinavia, filled up the North Sea; invaded Britain down to
the Thames valley, greater portion of Germany and Russia as
 22

far south as Moscow and almost as far east as the Urals. It is

calculated that at least a million of square miles in Europe and more
in North America were covered by the debris of rocks ground down
by these glaciers and ice-caps, and it is from this debris that
geologists now infer the existence of an Ice Age in early times. The
examination of this debris shows that there are at least two series of
boulder clay indicating two periods of glaciation. The debris of the
second period has disturbed the first layer in many places, but
enough remains to show that there were two distinct beds of boulder
clay and drifts, belonging to two different periods. Prof. Geikie
mentions four such Glacial periods, with corresponding Inter-Glacial
periods, as having occurred in succession in Europe during the
Pleistocene period. But though this opinion is not accepted by other
geologists, yet the existence of two Glacial epochs, with an
intervening Inter-Glacial period, is now considered as conclusively
established.
A succession of cold and warm climates must have
characterized these Glacial and Inter-Glacial periods which were also
accompanied by extensive movements of depression and elevation of
land, the depression taking place after the land was weighed down
with the enormous mass of ice. Thus a period of glaciation was
marked by elevation, extreme cold and the invasion of the ice-caps
over regions of the present Temperate zone; while an inter-glacial
period was accompanied by depression of land and milder and
congenial climate which made even the Arctic regions habitable. The
remains of the Paleolithic man have been found often imbedded
between the two boulder-clays of two different Glacial periods, a fact
which conclusively establishes the existence of man in the Inter-
Glacial period in the Quaternary era. Prof. Geikie speaking of the
changes of climate in the Glacial and Inter-Glacial period remarks
that “during the Inter-Glacial period the climate was characterized by
clement winters and cool summers so that the tropical plants and
animals, like elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, ranged
over the whole of the Arctic region, and in spite of
 23

numerous fierce carnivora, the Paleolithic man had no unpleasant

habitation there.”* It will thus be seen that in point of climate the
Pleistocene period, or the early Quaternary era, was intermediate
between the early geological ages when uniform genial climate
prevailed over the globe, and the modern period when it is
differentiated into zones. It was, so to speak, a transitional period
marked by violent changes in the climate, that was mild and genial in
the Inter-Glacial, and severe and inclement during the Glacial period.
It was at the beginning of the Post-Glacial or the Recent period that
modern climatic conditions were established. Prof. Geikie is,
however, of opinion that even the beginning of the Post-Glacial period
was marked, at least in North-Western Europe, by two alternations of
genial and rainy-cold climate before the present climatic conditions
became established.†
But though the fact of the Ice Age and the existence of a milder
climate within the Arctic regions in the Inter-Glacial time is indubitably
proved yet scientific men have not been as yet able to trace
satisfactorily the causes of this great catastrophe. Such immense
mass of ice as covered the whole of Northern Europe and America
during this period could not, like anything else, come out of nothing.,
There must be heat enough in certain parts of the globe to create by
evaporation sufficient vapor and aerial currents are required to
transfer it to the colder regions of the globe, there to be precipitated in
the form of ice. Any theory regarding the cause of the Ice Age which
fails to take this fact into account is not only inadequate but
worthless. A succession of Glacial periods, or at any rate, the
occurrence of two Glacial periods, must again be accounted for by
the theory that may be proposed to explain these changes; and if we
test the different theories advanced in this way, many of them will be
at once found to be untenable. It was, for instance, once urged that
the Gulf Stream, which, at present, imparts warmth to the countries in
the North-West of Europe, might have been turned away from its
course in

* Fragments of Earth Lore, p. 266.

† Prehistoric Europe, p. 530.
 24

the Pleistocene period by the submergence of the Isthmus of

Panama, thus converting the countries on the North-Western coast of
Europe into lands covered by ice. There is, however, no geological
evidence to show that the Isthmus of Panama was submerged in the
Pleistocene period and we must, therefore, give up this hypothesis.
Another theory started to account for the catastrophe was that the
earth must have passed through cold and hot regions of space, thus
giving rise to Glacial and Inter-Glacial periods respectively. But this
too is unsupported by any evidence. A third suggestion advanced
was that the supply of solar heat on earth must have varied in such a
way as to give rise to warm and cold climates but this was shown to
be a mere conjecture. A change in the position of the earth’s axis
might indeed cause such sudden changes in the climate; but a
change in the axis means a change in the equator and as the earth
owing to its diurnal rotation causes the equatorial regions to bulge
out, a change in the axis would give rise to a second equatorial
protuberance, which, however, is not observable and that the theory
cannot therefore, be accepted. A gradual cooling of the earth would
make the Polar regions habitable before the other parts of the globe;
but a succession of Glacial epochs cannot be accounted for on this
theory.
Thus out of the various theories advanced to account for the
vicissitudes of climate in the Pleistocene period only two have now
remained in the field, the first that of Lyell which explains the changes
by assuming different distribution of land and water combined with
sudden elevation and submergence of large landed areas and the
second that of Croll which traces the glaciation to the precession of
the equinoxes combined with the high value of the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit. Lyell’s theory has been worked out by Wallace who
shows that such geographical changes are by themselves sufficient
to produce heat and cold required to bring on the Glacial and Inter-
Glacial periods. We have seen that in earlier geological ages a
pleasant and equable climate prevailed over the whole surface of the
globe owing mainly to different
 25

distribution of land and water and the theory advanced by Lyell to

account for the Glacial epoch is practically the same. Great elevation
and depression of extensive areas can be effected only in thousands
of years, and those who support Lyell’s theory are of opinion that the
duration of the Glacial epoch must be taken to be about 200,000
years in order to account for all the geographical and geological
changes, which according to them, were the principal causes of the
Glacial period. But there are other geologists, of the same school,
who hold that the Glacial period may not have lasted longer than
about 20 to 25 thousand years. The difference between the two
estimates is enormous; but in the present state of geological
evidence it is difficult to decide in favor of any one of these views. All
that we can safely say is that the duration of the Pleistocene period,
which included at least two Glacial and one Inter-Glacial epoch, must
have been very much longer than the period of time which has
elapsed since the commencement of the Post-Glacial period.
According to Sir Robert Ball the whole difficulty of finding out
the causes of the Glacial period vanishes when the solution of the
problem is sought for in astronomy rather than in geography.
Changes which seem to be so gigantic on the globe are, it is said, but
daily wrought by cosmical forces with which we are familiar in
astronomy, and one of the chief merits of Croll’s theory is supposed
to consist in the fact that it satisfactorily accounts for a succession of
Glacial and Inter-Glacial epochs during the Pleistocene period. Dr.
Croll in his Climate and Time and Climate and Cosmology has tried to
explain and establish his theory by elaborate calculations, showing
that the changes in the values of the variable elements in the motion
of the earth round the sun can adequately account for the climatic
changes in the Pleistocene period. We shall first briefly state Dr.
Croll’s theory and then give the opinions of experts as regards its
probability.
Let PQ'AQ represent the orbit of the earth round the sun. This
orbit is an ellipse, and the sun, instead of being in the centre C, is in
one of the focii S or s. Let the sun be at S.
 26

Then the distance of the sun from the earth when the latter is at P
would be the shortest, while, when the earth is at A it will be the
longest. These points P and A are respectively called perihelion and
aphelion. The seasons are caused, as stated above, by the axis of
the earth being inclined to the plane of its orbit. Thus when the earth
is at P and the axis turned away from the sun, it will produce winter in
the northern hemisphere; while when the earth is at A, the axis,
retaining its direction, will be now turned towards the sun, and there
will be summer in the northern hemisphere. If the axis of the earth
had no motion of its own, the seasons will always occur at the same
points in the orbit of the earth,
as, for instance, the winter in
the northern hemisphere at P
and the summer at A. But this
axis describes a small circle
round the pole of the ecliptic in
a cycle of 25,868 years, giving
rise to what is called the
precession of the equinoxes,
and consequently the indication
of the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit is not always the same at
any given point in its orbit during this period. This causes the seasons
to occur at different points in the earth’s orbit during this great cycle.
Thus if the winter in the northern hemisphere occurred when the
earth was at P at one time, some time after it will occur at and the
succeeding points in the orbit until the end of the cycle, when it will
again occur at P. The same will be the case in regard to summer at
the point A and equinoxes at Q and Q'. In the diagram the dotted line
qq' and pa represent the new positions which the line QQ' and PA will
assume if they revolve in the way stated above. It must also be noted
that though the winter in the northern hemisphere may occur when
the earth is at p instead of at P, owing to the aforesaid motion of its
axis, yet the orbit of the
 27

earth and the points of perihelion and aphelion are relatively fixed and
unchangeable. Therefore, if the winter is the northern hemisphere
occurs at p, the earth’s distance from the sun at the point will be
greater than when the earth was at P. Similarly, in the course of the
cycle above mentioned, the winter in the northern hemisphere will
once occur at A, and the distance of the earth from the sun will then
be the longest. Now there is a vast difference between a winter
occurring when the earth is at P and a winter occurring when it is at
A. In the first case, the point P being nearest to the sun, the severity
of the winter will be greatly, modified by the nearness of the sun. But
at A the sun is farthest removed from the earth, and the winter, when
the earth is at A, will be naturally very severe; and during the cycle
the winter must once occur at A. The length of the cycle is 25,868
years, and ordinarily speaking half of this period must elapse before
the occurrence of winter is transferred from the earth’s position at P
to its position at A. But it is found that the points P and A have a small
motion of their own in the direction opposite to that in which the line of
equinoxes QQ' or the winter point p moves along the orbit. The above
cycle of 25,868 years is, therefore, reduced to 20,984, or, in round
number 21,000 years. Thus if the winter in one hemisphere occurs
when the earth is at P, the point nearest to the sun in the orbit, it will
occur in the same hemisphere at A after a lapse of 10,500 years. It
may be here mentioned that in about 1250 A.D., the winter in the
northern hemisphere occurred when the earth in its orbit was at P,
and that in about 11,750 A.D. the earth will be again at A, that is, at
its longest distance from the sun at the winter time, giving rise to a
severe winter. Calculating backwards it may be seen that the last
severe winter at A must have occurred in the year 9,250 B.C.* It need
not be mentioned that the winter in one hemisphere corresponds with
the summer in the other, and that what is said about winter in the
northern.

* See Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy, Ed. 1883, Arts. 368, 369.

 28

hemisphere applies mutatis mutandis to seasonal changes in the

southern hemisphere.
There is another consideration which we must take into account
in estimating the severity of winter or the mildness of summer in any
hemisphere. If the summer be defined to be the period of time
required by the earth to travel from one equinoctial point Q' to another
equinoctial point Q, this interval cannot always be constant for we
have seen that the winter and summer points (P and A), and with
them the equinoctial points (Q and Q') are not stationary, but revolve
along the orbit once in 21,000 years. Had the orbit been a circle, the
lines qq' and pa will have always divided it in equal parts. But the
orbit being an ellipse these two sections are unequal. For instance,
suppose that the winter occurs when the earth is at P, then the
duration of the summer will be represented by Q'AQ, but when the
winter occurs at A the summer time will be represented by QPQ', a
segment of the ellipse necessarily smaller than Q'AQ. This inequality
is due to the ellipticity of the orbit, and the more elongated or elliptic
the orbit is the greater will be the difference between the durations of
summer and winter in a hemisphere. Now the ellipticity of the orbit is
measured by the difference between the mean and the greatest
distance of the earth from the sun, and is called in astronomy the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. This eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is
not a constant quantity but varies, though slowly, in course of time,
making the orbit more and more elliptical until it reaches a maximum
value, when it again begins to reduce until the original value is
reached. The duration of summer and winter in a hemisphere,
therefore, varies as the value of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit at
that time; and it has been stated above that the difference between
the duration of summer and winter also depends on the position of
the equinoctial line or of the points in the earth’s orbit at which the
winter and the summer in a hemisphere occur. As the joint result of
these two variations, the difference between the durations of
 29

summer and winter would be the longest, when the eccentricity of the
earth is at its maximum and according as the winter and summer
occur at the points of perihelion or aphelion. It has been found that
this difference is equal to 33 days at the highest, and that at the
present day it is about 7½ days. Thus if the winter in the northern
hemisphere occurs when the earth is at P in its orbit and the
eccentricity is at its maximum, the winter will be shorter by 33 days
than the summer of the time. But this position will be altered after
10,500 years when the winter, occurring at A, will, in its turn, be
longer than the corresponding summer by the same length of time,
viz. 33 days.
Now, since the earth describes equal areas in equal times in its
orbit, Herschel supposed that in spite of the difference between the
duration of summer and winter noticed above, the whole earth
received equal amount of heat while passing from one equinox to
another, the “inequality in the intensities of solar radiation in the two
intervals being precisely compensated by the opposite inequality in
the duration of the intervals themselves.” Accepting this statement Dr.
Croll understated his ease to a certain extent. But Sir Robert Ball,
formerly the Astronomer Royal of Ireland, in his recent work On the
Cause of an Ice Age has demonstrated, by mathematical calculation,
that the above supposition is erroneous, and that the total amount of
heat received from the sun by each hemisphere in summer and
winter varies as the obliquity of the earth or the inclination of its axis
to the ecliptic, but is practically independent of the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit. Taking the total sun-heat received in a year by each
hemisphere to be 365 units, or on an average one unit a day, and
taking the obliquity to be 23° 27', Sir Robert Ball has calculated that
each hemisphere would receive 229 of these heat-units during
summer and only 136 during winter, whatever the eccentricity of the
earth may be. But though these figures are not affected by the
eccentricity of the orbit, yet we have seen that the duration of the
summer or winter does vary as the eccentricity.
 30

Supposing, therefore, that we have the longest winter in the northern

hemisphere, we shall have to distribute 229 heat-units over 166 days
of a short summer, and 136 heat-units over 199 days of a long winter
of the same period. In other words, the difference between the daily
average heat in summer and winter will, in such a case, be the
greatest, producing shorter but warmer summers and longer and
colder winters, and ice and snow accumulated in the long winter will
not be melted or removed by the heat of the sun in the short summer,
giving rise, thereby, to what is known as the Glacial period in the
northern hemisphere. From what has been stated above, it may be
seen that the southern hemisphere during this period will have long
and cool summers and short and warm winters, a condition precisely
reverse to that in the northern hemisphere. In short the Glacial and
Inter-Glacial periods in the two hemispheres will alternate with each
other every 10,500 years, if the eccentricity of the earth be sufficiently
great to make a perceptibly large difference between the winters and
the summers in each hemisphere.
If Dr. Croll had gone only so far, his position would have been
unassailable, for the cause enumerated above, is sufficiently potent
to produce the climatic changes attributed to it. At any rate, if this was
not the sole cause of a succession of Glacial and Inter-Glacial
periods, their could be no doubt that it must have been an important
contributory cause in bringing about these changes. But taking the
value of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit from the tables of
Leverrier, Dr. Croll calculated that during the last three million years
there were three periods of maximum eccentricity, the first of
170,000, the second of 260,000, and the third of 160,000 years; and
that 80,000 years have elapsed since the close of the third or the last
period. According to Dr. Croll the Glacial epoch in the Pleistocene
period must, therefore, have begun 240,000 years ago, and ended,
followed by the Post-Glacial period, about 80,000 years ago. During
this long period of 160,000 years, there must have been several
 31

alternations of mild and severe climates, according as the winter in a

hemisphere occurred when the earth was at perihelion or aphelion in
its orbit, which happened every 10,500 years during the period. But
as the cold epoch can be at its maximum only during the early part of
each period, according to Dr. Croll’s theory, the last epoch of
maximum glaciation must be placed 200,000 years ago, or about
40,000 years after the commencement of the last period of maximum
eccentricity.
The reliability of these elaborate calculations has, however,
been questioned by astronomers and geologists alike. Sir Robert
Ball, who supports Croll in every other respect, has himself refrained
from making any astronomical calculations regarding the maximum
value of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, or the time when the last
Glacial epoch should have occurred, or when the next would take
place. “I cannot say,” he observes, “when the last (Glacial epoch)
took place, nor when the next may be expected. No one who is
competent to deal with mathematical formulae would venture on such
predictions in the present state of our knowledge.” Prof. Newcomb of
New York, another astronomer of repute, in his review of Dr. Croll’s
Climate and Time, has also pointed out how in the present state of
astronomical knowledge it is impossible to place any reliance on the
values of eccentricity computed for epoches, distant by millions of
years, as the value of this eccentricity depends upon elements, many
of which are uncertain, and this is especially the case when one has
to deal with long geological eras. The only reply made by Dr. Croll to
this criticism is that his figures were correctly worked up from the
values of the eccentricity according to the latest correction of Mr.
Stockwell.† This, however, is hardly a satisfactory reply, inasmuch as
Prof. Newcomb’s objection refers not to the correctness of the
mathematical work, but to

* On the Cause of an Ice Age, p. 152.

† Climate and Cosmology, p. 39.
 32

the impossibility of correctly ascertaining the very data from which the
values of the eccentricity were obtained.
It was once supposed that the duration of each of Dr. Croll’s
different periods admirably fitted in with the geological evidence, and
fully corroborated the estimates of time supposed to be required for
the extensive geographical changes which accompanied the Glacial
and Inter-Glacial periods. But geologists have now begun to take a
more sober view of this extravagant figures and calculations.
According to Croll’s calculation there were three periods of maximum
eccentricity during the last three million years, and there should,
therefore, be three periods of glaciation corresponding to these, each
including several Glacial and Inter-Glacial epochs. But there is no
geological evidence of the existence of such Glacial epochs in early
geological eras, except, perhaps, in the Permian and Carboniferous
periods of the Paleozoic or the Primary age. An attempt is made to
meet this objection by replying that though the eccentricity was
greatest at one period in the early geological eras, yet, as the
geographical distribution of land and water was then essentially
different from what it was in the Quaternary era the high value of the
eccentricity did not then produce the climatic changes it did in the
Pleistocene period. This reply practically concedes that the high
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, combined with the occurrence of
winter when the earth is at aphelion, is not by itself sufficient to bring
about a Glacial period; and it may, therefore, be well urged that a
Glacial epoch may occur even when the eccentricity is not at its
maximum. Another point in which Dr. Croll’s theory conflicts with the
geological evidence is the date of the close of the last Glacial epoch,
as ascertained, by the American geologists, from estimates based on
the erosion of valleys since the close of the last Glacial period. It is
pointed out in the last chapter that these estimates do not carry the
beginning of the Post-Glacial period much further than about 10,000
years ago at the best; while Dr. Croll’s calculation would carry it back
to 80 or 100 thousand years. This is a
 33

serious difference and even Prof. Geikie, who does not entirely
accept the American view, is obliged to admit that though Dr. Croll’s
theory is the only theory that accounts for the succession of Glacial
epochs and therefore, the only correct theory, yet the formula
employed by him to calculate the values of the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit may be incorrect and that we may thus account for the
wide discrepancy between his inference and the conclusions based
upon hard geological facts, which cannot be lightly set aside.* The
judgment recently pronounced by Mr. Hudleston is still more severe.
In his opening address, as President of the geological section of the
meeting of the British Association in 1898, he is reported to have
remarked, “There is probably nothing more extraordinary in the
history of modern investigation than the extent to which geologists of
an earlier date permitted themselves to be led away by the
fascinating theories of Croll. The astronomical explanation of the
“Will-o’-the-wisp,” the cause of the great Ice Age, is at present greatly
discredited and we begin to estimate at their true value those
elaborate calculations which were made to account for events, which,
in all probability, never occurred. Extravagance begets extravagance
and the unreasonable speculations of men like Belt and Croll have
caused some of our recent students to suffer from the nightmare.Ӡ
This criticism appears to be rather severe; fox though Dr. Croll’s
elaborate calculations may be extravagant, yet we must give him the
credit for not merely suggesting but working out, the effect of a
cosmical cause which under certain circumstances is powerful
enough to produce extensive changes in the climate of the globe.
But in spite of these remarks, it cannot be doubted that the
duration of the Glacial period, comprising at least two Glacial and one
Inter-Glacial epoch, must have been very much longer thin that of the
Post-Glacial period. For, independently

* Fragments of Earth Lore, p. 287.

† See The Nature, Sept. 15, 1898.
 34

of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, the occurrence of winter at

aphelion is by itself sure to contribute to the production of the Ice
Age, if other causes and circumstances, either those suggested by
Lyell; or others, are favorable and 21,000 years must elapse between
two successive occurrences of winter at aphelion. For two Glacial
epochs with an intervening Inter-Glacial period, we must, therefore,
allow a period longer than 21,000 years, even if the question of the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit be kept aside while, if, with Prof.
Geikie, we suppose that there were five Glacial (four in the
Pleistocene and one at the close of the Pliocene period) and four
Inter-Glacial epochs the duration must be extended to something like
80,000 years.
It is unnecessary to go further into these scientific and
geological discussions. I have already stated before that my object is
to trace from positive evidence contained in the Vedic literature the
home of the Vedic and, therefore, also of the other Aryan races, long
before they settled in Europe or on the banks of the Oxus, the
Jaxartes, or the Indus; and so far as this purpose is concerned, the
results of the latest scientific researches, discussed in this and the
previous chapter, may now be summed up as follows: —
(1) In the very beginning of the Neolithic age Europe is found to
be inhabited by races,, from whom the present races of Europe
speaking Aryan languages are descended.
(2) But though the existence of an Aryan race in Europe in early
Neolithic times is thus established, and, therefore, the theory of
migrations from an Asiatic home in Post-Glacial times is untenable, it
does not prove that the Aryan race was autochthonous in Europe,
and the question of its original home cannot, therefore, be regarded
as finally settled.
(3) There are good reasons for supposing that the metal age
was introduced into Europe by Foreign people.
(4) The different ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron were not
synchronous in different countries, and the high state of civilization in
Egypt is not, therefore, inconsistent with the Neolithic stage of
European civilization at the time.
 35

(5) According to the latest geological evidence, which cannot be

lightly set aside, the last Glacial period must have closed and the
Post-Glacial commenced at about 10,000 years ago, or 8,000 B.C. at
the best, and the freshness of the Siberian fossil-deposits favors this
view.
(6) Man is not merely Post-Glacial as he was believed to be
some years ago, and there is conclusive geological evidence to prove
his wide-spread existence in the Quaternary, if not also in Tertiary,
era.
(7) There were at least two Glacial and one Inter-Glacial period,
and the geographical distribution of land and water on the earth
during the Inter-Glacial period was quite different from what it is at
present.
(8) There were great vicissitudes of climate in the Pleistocene
period, it being cold and inclement during the Glacial, and mild and
temperate in the Inter-Glacial period, even as far as the Polar
regions.
(9) There is enough evidence to show that the Arctic regions,
both in Asia and Europe, were characterized in the Inter-Glacial
period by cool summers and warm winters — a sort of, what Herschel
calls, a perpetual spring; and that places like Spitzbergen, where the
sun goes below the horizon from November till March, were once the
seat of luxuriant vegetation, that grows, at present, only in the
temperate or the tropical climate.
(10) It was the coming on of the Glacial age that destroyed this
genial climate, and rendered the regions unsuited for the habitation of
tropical plants and animals.
(11) There are various estimates regarding the duration of the
Glacial period, but in the present state of our knowledge it is safer to
rely on geology than on astronomy in this respect, though as regards
the causes of the Ice Age the astronomical explanation appears to be
more probable.
(12) According to Prof. Geikie there is evidence to hold that
there were, in all, five Glacial and four Inter-Glacial epochs, and that
even the beginning of the Post-Glacial
 36

period was marked by two successions of cold and genial climate, at

least in the North-West of Europe.
(13) Several eminent scientific men have already advanced the
theory that the cradle of the human race must be sought for in the
Arctic regions and that the plant and animal life also originated in the
same place.
It will thus be seen that if the Vedic evidence points to an Arctic
home, where the ancestors of the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis lived in ancient times,
there is at any rate nothing in the latest scientific discoveries which
would warrant us in considering this result as a priori improbable. On
the contrary there is much in these researches that suggests such a
hypothesis, and as a matter of fact, several scientific men have now
been led to think that we must look for the cradle of the human race
in the Arctic regions.

————— ™ —————
 37

CHAPTER III

THE ARCTIC REGIONS

Existence of a Circumpolar continent in early times — Probable also in the
Inter-Glacial period — Milder climate at the time — Necessity of examining
Vedic Myths — Difference between Polar and Circumpolar characteristics
— The precession of the equinoxes used as chronometer in Vedic
chronology — Characteristics of the North Pole — The horizontal motion of
the celestial hemisphere — Spinning round of the stars without rising or
setting — The Sun rising in the South — A day and a night of six months
each — Aurora Borealis — Continuous fortnightly moonlight, and long
morning and evening twilights — Dawn lasting from 45 to 60 days — The
Polar year — The darkness of the Polar night reduced only to two, or two
and a half, months — Dr. Warren’s description of the Polar Dawn with its
revolving splendors — Characteristics of regions to the South of the North
Pole — Stars moving obliquely and a few rising and setting as in the
tropical zone — The Southernly direction of the Sun — A long day and a
long night, but of less than six months’ duration — Supplemented by the
alternations of ordinary days and nights for some time during the year —
Long dawn but of shorter duration than at the Pole — Comparison with the
features of the year in the tropics — Summary of Polar and Circumpolar
characteristics.

We have seen that in the Pleistocene period there was great

elevation and submergence of land accompanied by violent changes
in the climate, over the whole surface of the globe. Naturally enough
the severity of the Glacial period must have been very intense within
the Arctic circle, and we shall be perfectly justified in supposing that
geographical changes like the elevation and depression of land
occurred on a far more extensive scale in regions round about the
Pole than anywhere else. This leads us to infer that the distribution of
land and water about the Pole during the Inter-Glacial period must
have been different from what it is at present. Dr. Warren, in his
Paradise Found, quotes a number of authorities to show that within a
comparatively recent geological period a wide stretch of Arctic land,
of which Novaia Zemlia and Spitzbergen formed a part, had been
submerged; and one
 38

of the conclusions he draws from these authorities is that the present

islands of the Arctic Ocean, such as the two mentioned above are
simply mountain-tops still remaining above the surface of the sea
which has come in and covered up the primeval continent to which
they belonged. That an extensive circum-polar continent existed in
Miocene times seems to have been conceded by all geologists, and
though we cannot predicate its existence in its entirety during the
Pleistocene period, yet there are good reasons to hold that a different
configuration of land and water prevailed about the North Pole during
the Inter-Glacial period, and that as observed by Prof. Geikie, the
Paleolithic man, along with other Quaternary animals, freely ranged
over the whole of the Arctic regions in those times. Even now there is
a considerable tract of land to the north of the Arctic circle, in the old
world, especially in Siberia and there is evidence to show that it once
enjoyed a mild and temperate climate. The depth of the Arctic Ocean
to the north of Siberia is at present, less than a hundred fathoms, and
if great geographical changes took place in the Pleistocene period, it
is not unlikely that this tract of land, which is now submerged, may
have been once above the level of the sea. In other words there are
sufficient indications of the existence of a continent round about the
North-Pole before the last Glacial period.
As regards climate, we have seen that during the Inter-Glacial
period there were cool summers and warm winters even within the
Arctic Circle. Sir Robert Ball gives us a good idea of the genial
character of this climate by reducing to figures the distribution of heat-
units over summers and winters. A longer summer, with 229 heat-
units spread over it, and a shorter winter of 136 heat-units, would
naturally produce a climate, which according to Herschel, would be
“an approach to perpetual spring.” If the Paleolithic man, therefore,
lived in these regions during the Inter-Glacial period, he must have
found it very pleasant, in spite of the fact that the sun went below his
horizon for a number of days in a year according to the latitude of the
place. The present
 39

inclement climate of the Arctic regions dates from the Post-Glacial

period, and we must leave it out of consideration in dealing with
earlier ages.
But supposing that an Arctic continent, with an equable and
pleasant climate, existed during the Inter-Glacial period, and that the
Paleolithic man ranged freely over it, it does not follow that the
ancestors of the Aryan race lived in the Arctic regions during those
days, though it may render such a hypothesis highly probable. For
that purpose, we must either wait until the existence of the Aryan
race, within the Arctic region in Inter-Glacial times, is proved by new
archaeological discoveries, or failing them, try to examine the ancient
traditions and beliefs of the race, incorporated in such admittedly
oldest Aryan books, as the Vedas and the Avesta, and see if they
justify us in predicating the inter-glacial existence of the Aryan
people. It is admitted that many of the present explanations of these
traditions and legends are unsatisfactory, and as our knowledge of
the ancient man is increased, or becomes more definite, by new
discoveries in archaeology, geology or anthropology, these
explanations will have to be revised from time to time and any defects
in them, due to our imperfect understanding of the sentiments, the
habits and even the surroundings of the ancient man, corrected. That
human races have preserved their ancient traditions is undoubted,
though some or many of them may have become distorted in course
of time, and it is for us to see if they do or do not accord with what we
know of the ancient man from latest scientific researches. In the case
of the Vedic traditions, myths and beliefs, we have the further
advantage that they were collected thousands of years ago, and
handed down unchanged from that remote time. It is, therefore, not
unlikely that we may find traces of the primeval Polar home in these
oldest books. If the Aryan man did live within the Arctic circle in early
times, especially as a portion of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda is still admittedly
unintelligible on any of the existing methods of interpretation,
although the words and expressions are plain and simple in
 40

many places. Dr. Warren has quoted some Vedic traditions along
with those of other nations, in support of his theory that the Arctic
regions were the birth-place of the human race. But the attempt, so
far as the Vedic texts are concerned, is desultory, as it was bound to
be inasmuch as these Vedic legends and texts have, as yet, never
been examined by any Vedic scholar from the new stand point
furnished by the latest scientific researches and as Dr. Warren had to
depend entirely on the existing translations. It is proposed, therefore,
to examine the Vedas from this new point of view; but before doing so
it is necessary to ascertain such peculiar characteristics, or what in
logic are called differentiae, of the Polar or the Arctic regions, as are
not found elsewhere on the surface of the globe, so that if we meet
with them in the Vedic traditions, the Polar origin of the latter would
be indubitably established: We have seen that the inclemency of
climate which now characterizes the Polar regions, was not a feature
of the Polar climate in early times; and we must, therefore, turn to
astronomy to find out the characteristics required for our purpose.
It has been a fashion to speak of the Polar regions as
characterized by light and darkness of 6 months each, for it is well-
known that the sun shines at the North Pole continuously for 6
months, and then sinks down below the horizon, producing a night of
6 months’ duration. But a closer examination of the subject will show
that the statement is only roughly true, and requires to be modified in
several particulars before it can be accepted as scientifically
accurate. In the first place we must distinguish between the Pole and
the Polar regions. The Pole is merely a point, and all the inhabitants
of the original ancient home if there was one near the North Pole,
could not have lived precisely at this single point, The Polar or the
Arctic regions, on the other hand, mean the tracts of land included
between the North Pole and the Arctic circle. But the duration of day
and night, as well as the seasons, at different places within the Arctic
regions cannot be, and are not, the same as at the point called the
North
 41

Pole. The characteristics of the circum-polar region may indeed be

derived from the strictly Polar characteristics; but still they are so
unlike each other that it is absolutely necessary to bear this
distinction in mind in collecting evidence of a circum-polar Aryan
home in ancient times. Men living round about the Pole, or more
accurately speaking, in regions between the North Pole and the Arctic
circle when these regions were habitable were sure to know of a day
and night of 6 months, but living a little southward from the Pole their
own calendar must have been different from the strictly Polar
calendar; and it is, therefore, necessary to examine the Polar and the
circum-polar characteristics separately, in order that the distinction
may be clearly understood.
The terrestrial Poles are the termini of the axis of the earth, and
we have seen that there is no evidence to show that this axis ever
changed its position, relatively to the earth, even in the earliest
geological eras. The terrestrial poles and the circum-polar regions
were, therefore, the same in early cases as they are at present,
though the past and present climatic condition of these places may
be totally different. But the axis of the earth has a small motion round
the pole of the ecliptic, giving rise to what is known as the precession
of the equinoxes, and causing a change only in the celestial, and not
in the terrestrial, poles. Thus the polar star 7,000 years ago was
different from what it is at present but the terristrial pole has always
remained the same. This motion of the earth’s axis, producing the
precession of the equinoxes, is important from an antiquarian point of
view, inasmuch as it causes a change in the times when different
seasons of the year begin; and it was mainly by utilizing this
chronometer that I showed in my Orion or Researches in the Antiquity
of the Vedas that the vernal equinox was in Orion when some of the
Rig-Vedic traditions were formed, and that the Vedic literature
contained enough clear evidence of the successive changes of the
position of the vernal equinox up to the present time. Thus the vernal
equinox was in Kṛittikâs in the time of the Taittirîya Samhitâ and
 42

Brâhmana and the express text stating that “The Kṛittikâs never
swerve from the due east; all other Nakshatras do” (Shat. Brâ. II. 1, 2,
3), recently published by the late Mr. S. B. Dixit, serves to remove
whatever doubts there might be regarding the interpretation of other
passages.* This record of the early position of the Kṛittikâs, or the
Pleiades, is as important for the determination of the Vedic
chronology as the orientation of pyramids and temples has been
shown to be in the case of the Egyptian, by Sir Norman Lockyer in his
Dawn of Ancient Astronomy. But the chronometer, which I now mean
to employ, is a different one. The North Pole and the Arctic regions
possess certain astronomical characteristics which are peculiar to
them, and if a reference to these can be discovered in the Vedas, it
follows, in the light of modern researches, that the ancestors of the
Vedic ‫ي‬ishis must have become acquainted with these
characteristics, when they lived in those regions, which was possible
only in the inter-glacial times. We shall, therefore, now examine these
characteristics, dividing them in the two-fold way stated above.
If an observer is stationed at the North Pole, the first thing that
will strike him is the motion of the celestial sphere above his head.
Living in the temperate and tropical zones we see all heavenly
objects rise in the east and set in the west, some passing over our
head, other traveling obliquely. But to the man at the Pole, the
heavenly dome above will seem to revolve round him, from left to
right, somewhat like the motion of a hat or umbrella turned over one’s
head. The stars will not rise and set, but will move round and round,
in horizontal planes, turning like a potter’s wheel, and starting on a
second round when the first is finished, and so on, during the long
night of six months. The sun, when he is above the horizon for 6
months, would also appear to revolve in the

* See The Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXIV, (August, 1895), p. 245.

 43

same way. The centre of the celestial dome over the head of the
observer will be the celestial North Pole, and naturally enough his
north will be over-head, while the invisible regions below the horizon
would be in the south. As regards the eastern and western points of
the compass, the daily rotation of the earth round its axis will make
them revolve round the observer from right to left, thereby causing
the celestial objects in the east to daily revolve round and. round
along the horizon from left to right, and not rise in the east, pass over-
head, and set every day in the west, as with us, in the temperate or
the tropical zone. In fact, to an observer stationed at the North Pole,
the northern celestial hemisphere will alone be visible spinning round
and round over his head, and the southern half, with all the stars in it,
will always remain invisible, while the celestial equator, dividing the
two, will be his celestial horizon. To such a man the sun going into
the northern hemisphere in his annual course will appear as coming
up from the south, and he will express the idea by saying that “the
sun has risen in the south,” howsoever strange the expression may
seem to us. After the sun has risen in this way in the south, — and
the sun will rise there only once a year, — he will be constantly visible
for 6 months, during which time he will attain a height of about 23½°
above the horizon, and then begin to lower down until he drops into
the south below the horizon. It will be a long and continuous sunshine
of 6 months, but, as the celestial dome over the head of the observer
will complete one revolution in 24 hours, the sun also will make one
horizontal circuit round the observer in every 24 hours and to the
observer at the North Pole the completion of one such circuit,
whether of the sun or of the stars, will serve as a measure of ordinary
days, or periods of 24 hours, during the long sunshine or night of six
months. When about 180 such rounds, (the exact number will depend
upon the difference in the durations of summer and winter noticed in
the last chapter), are completed, the sun will again go down below
the horizon, and the stars in the northern hemisphere, which had
disappeared in
 44

his light, will become visible all at once, and not rise one after the
other as with us. The light of the sun had, so to say, eclipsed them,
though they were over the head of the observer; but as soon as this
obstruction is removed the whole northern starry hemisphere will
again appear to spin round the observer for the remaining period of
six months. The horizontal motion of the celestial hemisphere, only
one long continuous morning and evening in the year, and one day
and one night of six months each, are thus the chief special features
of the calendar at the North Pole.
We have stated that to an observer at the North Pole, there will
be a night of 6 months, and one is likely to infer therefrom that there
will be total darkness at the Pole for one half the portion of the year.
Indeed one is likely to contemplate with horror, the perils and
difficulties of a long night o. six months, during which not only the light
but the warmth of the sun has to be artificially supplied. As a matter of
fact, such a supposition is found to be erroneous. First of all, there
will be the electric discharges, known as Aurora Borealis, filling the
polar night with their charming glories, and relieving its darkness to a
great extent. Then we have the moon, which, in her monthly
revolution, will be above the polar horizon for a continuous fortnight,
displaying her changing phases, without intermission, to the polar
observer. But the chief cause, which alleviates the darkness of the
polar night, is the twilight before the rising and after the setting of the
sun. With us in the tropical or the temperate zone, this twilight,
whether of morning or evening, lasts only for an hour or two; but at
the Pole this state of things is completely altered, and the twilight of
the annual morning and evening is each visible for several days. The
exact duration of this morning or evening twilight is, however, still a
matter of uncertainty. Some authorities fix the period at 45 days,
while others make it last for full two months. In the tropical zone, we
see the first beams of the dawn, when the sun is about 16° below the
horizon. But it is said that in higher latitudes the light of the sun is
discernible when he is from 18° to 20° below the horizon.
 45

probably this latter limit may prove to be the correct one for the North
Pole, and in that case the dawn there will last continuously for two
months. Captain Pim, quoted by Dr. Warren, thus describes the Polar
year: —
“On the 16th of March the sun rises, preceded by a long dawn
of forty-seven days, namely, from the 29th January, when the first
glimmer of light appears. On the 25th of September the sun sets, and
after a twilight of forty-eight days, namely, on the 13th November,
darkness reigns supreme, so far as the sun is concerned, for
seventy-six days followed by one long period of light, the sun
remaining above the horizon one hundred and ninety-four days. The
year, therefore, is thus divided at the Pole: — 194 days sun; 76
darkness; 47 days dawn; 48 twilight.”*
But other authorities assign a longer duration to the morning
and evening twilight, and reduce the period of total darkness from 76
to 60 days, or only to two months. Which, of these calculations is
correct can be settled only by actual observation at the North Pole. It
has been ascertained that this duration depends upon the powers of
refraction and reflection of the atmosphere, and these are found to
vary according to the temperature and other circumstances of the
place. The Polar climate is at present extremely cold; but in the Inter-
glacial epoch it was different, and this, by itself, would alter the
duration of the Polar dawn in inter-glacial times. But whatever the
cause may be, so much is beyond doubt that at the Pole the twilight
of the yearly morning and evening lingers on for several days. For
even taking the lowest limit of 16°, the sun, in his course through the
ecliptic, would take more than a month to reach the horizon from this
point; and during all this time a perpetual twilight will prevail at the
Pole. Long dawn and long evening twilight are, therefore, the
principal factors in shortening the darkness of the Polar night and if
we deduct these days from the duration of the night, the period of
darkness is reduced from six to two,

* See Paradise Found, 10th Ed., p. 64.

 46

or at the most, to two-and-half-months. It is, therefore, erroneous to

suppose that the half yearly Polar night is such a continuous period of
darkness as will make the Polar regions uncomfortable. On the
contrary, it will be the peculiar privilege of the Polar man to witness
the splendid spectacle of a long continuous dawn with its charming
lights, revolving, like the stars at the place, every day in horizontal
planes, round and round him, as long as the dawn may last.
The dawn in the tropical or the temperate zone is but brief and
evanescent, and it recurs after every 24 hours. But still it has formed
the subject of poetical descriptions in different countries. If so, how
much more the spectacle of a splendid long dawn, after a darkness of
two months, would delight the heart of a Polar observer, and how he
will yearn for the first appearance of the light on the horizon, can be
better imagined than described. I quote the following description of
this long Polar dawn from Dr. Warren’s Paradise Found, and invite
special attention to it, inasmuch as it forms one of the principal
characteristics of the North Pole. Premising that the splendors of the
Polar dawn are indescribable, Dr. Warren proceeds: —
“First of all appears low in the horizon of the night-sky a
scarcely visible flush of light. At first it only makes a few stars’ light
seem a trifle fainter, but after a little it is seen to be increasing, and to
be moving laterally along the yet dark horizon. Twenty-four hours
later it has made a complete circuit around the observer, and is
causing a larger number of stars to pale. Soon the widening light
glows with the luster of ‘Orient pearl.’ Onward it moves in its stately
rounds, until the pearly whiteness burns into ruddy rose-light, fringed
with purple and gold. Day after day, as we measure days, this
splendid panorama circles on, and, according as atmospheric
conditions and, clouds present more or less favorable conditions of
reflection, kindles and fades, kindles and fades, — fades only to
kindle next time yet more brightly as the still hidden sun comes
nearer and nearer his point of emergence. At length, when for two
long months such prophetic displays have been
 47

filling the whole heavens with these increscent and revolving

splendors, the sun begins to emerge from his long retirement, and to
display himself once more to human vision. After one or two circuits,
during which his dazzling upper limb grows to a full-orbed disk, he
clears all hill-tops of the distant horizon, and for six full months circles
around and around the world’s great axis in full view, suffering no
night to fall upon his favored home-land at the Pole. Even when at
last he sinks again from view he covers his retreat with a repetition of
the deepening and fading splendors which filled his long dawning, as
if in these pulses of more and more distant light he were signaling
back to the forsaken world the promises and prophecies of an early
return.”*
A phenomenon like this cannot fail to be permanently
impressed on the memory of a Polar observer, and it will be found
later on that the oldest traditions of the Aryan race have preserved
the recollection of a period, when its ancestors witnessed such
wonderful phenomenon, — a long and continuous dawn of several
days, with its lights laterally revolving on the horizon, in their original
home.
Such are the distinguishing characteristics of the North Pole,
that is, the point where the axis of the earth terminates in the north.
But as a Polar home means practically a home in the regions round
about the North Pole, and not merely the Polar point, we must now
see what modifications are necessary to be made in the above
characteristics owing to the observer being stationed a little to the
south of the North Pole. We have seen that at the Pole the northern
hemisphere is seen spinning round the observer and all the stars
move with it in horizontal planes without rising or setting; while the
other celestial hemisphere is always invisible. But when the observer
is shifted downwards, his zenith will no longer correspond with the
Pole Star, nor his horizon with the celestial equator. For instance let
Z, in the annexed figure, be the zenith of the observer and P the

* See Paradise Found, 10th Ed., p. 69.

 48

celestial North Pole. When the observer was stationed at the

terrestrial North Pole, his zenith coincided with P, and his horizon with
the celestial equator, with the result that all the stars in the dome
Q'PQ revolved round him in horizontal planes. But when the zenith is
shifted to Z, this state of things is at once altered, as the heavens will
revolve, as before, round the
line POP', and not round the
zenith line ZOZ'. When the
observer was stationed at the
North Pole these two lines
coincided and hence the circles
of revolution described by the
stars round the celestial Pole
were also described round the
zenith-line. But when the zenith
Z is different from P, as in the
figure, the celestial horizon of
the observer will be H'H, and
the stars will now appear to
move in circles inclined to his
horizon, as shown in the figure
by the black lines AA', BR' and CC'. Some of the stars, viz., those
that are situated in the part of the celestial dome represented by
H'PB, will be visible throughout the night, as their circles of revolution
will be above the horizon B'C'D'H. But all the stars, whose Polar
distance is greater than PB or PH, will in their daily revolution, be
partly above and partly below the horizon. For instance, the stars at C
and D will describe circles, some portions of which will be below the
horizon H'H. In other words, the appearance of the visible celestial
hemisphere to a person, whose zenith is at Z, will be different from
the appearance presented by the heavens to an observer at the
North Pole. The stars will not now revolve in horizontal planes, but
obliquely. A great number of them would be circumpolar and visible
during the whole night, but the remaining will rise and set as with us
in the tropics, moving in oblique circles. When Z is very near P, only a
 49

few stars will rise and set in this way and the difference will not be a
marked one; but as Z is removed further south, the change will
become more and more apparent.
Similar modifications will be introduced in the duration of day
and night, when the observer’s position is shifted to the south of the
terrestrial North Pole. This will be clear by a reference to the figure on
the next page. Let P be the celestial North Pole and Q'Q the celestial
equator. Then since the sun moves in the ecliptic E'E, which is
inclined at an angle of about 23½° (23° 28') to the equator, the circles
T'E and E'T will correspond with the terrestrial circles of latitude
called the Tropics and the circle AC with the Arctic Circle on the
terrestrial globe. Now as the sun moves in the ecliptic E'E, in his
annual course he will always be twice over-head for an observer
stationed at a place within the terrestrial tropical zone, once in his
course from E' to E, and again in his return, from E to E'. The sun will
also appear for some time to the north of the observer’s zenith, and
for the rest of the year to the south. But as the altitude of the sun
above the equator is never greater than 23½° or EQ, an observer
whose zenith lies to the north of the circle T'E, will always see the sun
to the south of his zenith, and the zenith distance of the sun will be
greater and greater as the
observer advances towards the
North Pole. But still the sun will
be above the horizon every
day, for some hours at least, to
an observer whose zenith lies
between T'E and AC. To take a
concrete instance, let the
observer be so stationed that
his zenith will be at C, that is,
on the extreme northern
latitude of the temperate zone.
Then his celestial horizon will
extend 90° on each
 50

side, and will be represented by T'CT, and the sun moving along the
ecliptic E'E will be above his horizon, at least for some portion of day,
during the whole year. But as the observer passes into the Frigid
zone, the sun during his annual course will be altogether below the
horizon for some days, and the maximum limit is reached at the North
Pole, where the sun is below the horizon for six months. We may,
therefore, state that the duration of the night, which is six months at
the Pole is gradually diminished as we come down from the Pole,
until, in the temperate zone, the sun is above the horizon, at least, for
some time out of twenty-four hours every day. In the foregoing figure
let Z represent the zenith of an observer within the Arctic regions,
then H'H will represent his horizon, and the sun in his annual course
will, for some time, be altogether below this horizon. For instance,
suppose the sun to be at n. Then his diurnal circle of rotation will be
represented by nH, the whole of which is below the horizon H'H of the
observer whose zenith is Z. Therefore, the sun, during his annual
course along the ecliptic from E' to n, and back from n to E', will be
invisible to an observer whose zenith is Z. Corresponding to this total
disappearance of the sun for some time, the luminary will be
perpetually above the horizon for the same period during his northern
course. For instance, let the sun be at d, then his diurnal circle of
rotation, dH', will be entirely above the horizon H'H, and so it will
continue to be for all the time that the sun moves from d to E, and
back again from E to d, in his annual course. During this time the sun
will neither rise nor set, but will move, like the circumpolar stars, in
oblique circles, round and round the observer like a wheel. For all
positions between n and d, and the corresponding portion of the
ecliptic on the other side, the sun, in this diurnal course of twenty-four
hours, would be partially above and partially below the horizon,
producing ordinary days and nights, as with us, the day being longer
than the night when the sun is in the northern, and the night longer
than the day when the stun is in the southern hemisphere. Instead of
a single day and a
 51

single night of six months, the year, to a person living in the Arctic
regions, but not exactly at the North Pole, will, therefore, be divided
into three parts, one of which will be a long night, one a long day, and
one made up of a succession of days and nights, a single day and
night of which will together never exceed twenty-four hours. The long
night will always be shorter than six months and longer than 24
hours, and the same will be the case with the long day. The long
night and the long day will mark the two opposite extremities of the
year, the middle of the long day occurring when the sun is at the
summer solstice, and the middle of the long night when he is at the
winter solstice. This triple division of the year is very important for our
purpose, and I shall, therefore, illustrate it by a concrete example.
Suppose, for instance, that the observer is so far below the North
Pole that instead of a night of six months, he has a night of 2 months,
or, in other words, the sun goes below his horizon only for two
months. As the winter solstice will fall in the middle of this long
continuous night, we may say that the night will extend a month
before and a month after December 21, when the sun is at the winter
solstice. Corresponding to this long night, there will be a continuous
day of two months, a month before and a month after June 21, when
the sun is at the summer solstice. If these four months are deducted
from the year, there will remain eight months, and during all these
months there will be days and nights, as in the temperate zone, a
nycthemeron, or a day and a night together, never exceeding, as with
us, the ordinary period of twenty-four hours. This alteration of
ordinary days and nights will commence after the close of the long
night in January, and in the beginning, the night will be longer than
the day; but as the sun passes from the southern into the northern
hemisphere, the day will gain over the night, and, eventually, after
four months, terminate into a continuous day for two months. At the
close of this long day in July, the alteration of ordinary days and
nights will again commence, the day in the beginning being longer
than the night, but a nycthemeron never
 52

exceeding, as in the previous case, a period of, twenty-four hours. As

the sun passes from the northern into the southern hemisphere, the
night will begin to gain over the day, until, after four months of such
succession of ordinary, days and nights, it terminates into the
continuous night of two months mentioned above. The same
description applies, mutatis mutandis, where the long night may last
for 3, 4 or 5 months,, until we reach the Polar condition of a day and a
night of six months each, when the intermediate succession of
ordinary days and nights will vanish.*
We have seen that a long dawn of two months is a special and
important characteristic of the North Pole. As we descend southward,
the splendor and the duration of the dawn will be witnessed on a less
and less magnificent scale. But the dawn, occurring at the end of the
long night of two, three or more months, will still be unusually long,
often of several day’s duration. As stated above, at first, only a pale
flush of light will appear and it will continue visible on the horizon,
revolving round and round, if the observer is sufficiently near the
Pole, for some days, when at last the orb of the sun will emerge, and
start the alternation of day and night described above, to be
eventually terminated into a long day. The splendors of the Aurora
Borealis would also be less marked and conspicuous in the southern
latitudes than at the North Pole.
But if the characteristics of the Arctic regions are different

* Cf. Bhāskarâchārya’s Siddhânta Shiromani, Golādhyâya, Chapter vii.,

verses 6-7.
“There is a peculiarity at the place, where the latitude is greater than
66° N. Whenever the northern declination of the sun exceeds the
complement of the latitude, there will be perpetual day, for such time is that
excess continues. Similarly when the southern (declination exceeds), there
will be perpetual night. On Meru, therefore there is equal half-yearly
perpetual day and night.” Thus if the latitude of a
 53

from those of the North Pole, they are no less different from the
features of the year with which we are familiar in the temperate or the
tropical zone. With us the sun is above the horizon, at least for some
time every day, during all the twelve months of the year; but to
persons within the Arctic circle, he is below the horizon and therefore,
continuously invisible for a number of days. If this period of
continuous night be excluded from our reckoning, we might say that
within the Arctic regions the year, or the period marked by sunshine,
only lasts from six to eleven months. Again the dawn in the temperate
and the tropical zone is necessarily short-lived, for a day and a night
together do not exceed twenty-four hours and the dawn which comes
between them can last only for a few hours; but the annual dawn at
the Pole and the dawn at the end of the long night in the Arctic
regions will each be a dawn of several days’ duration. As for the
seasons, we have our winters and summers; but the winter in the
Arctic regions will be marked by the long continuous night, while the
summer will make the night longer than the day, but within the limit of
twenty four hours, until the day is developed into a long, continuous
sunshine of several days. The climate of the Polar regions is now
extremely cold and severe, but, as previously stated, different climatic
conditions prevailed in early times and we cannot, therefore, include
climate amongst the points of contrast under consideration.
It will be seen from the foregoing discussion that we have two
distinct sets of characteristics, or differentiæ; one

________________________________________________________________

place be 70°, its complement will be 90 – 70 = 20°; and as the sun’s heights
above the celestial equator (that is, his declination) is never greater than
23° 28' there will be a continuous day at the place, so long as the
declination is greater than 20° and less 23° 28', and there will be a similar
continuous night when the sun is in the Southern hemisphere. Paul Du
Chaillu mentions that at Nordkyn or North Cape (N. lat. 71° 6'50'') the
northernmost place on the continent of Europe, the long night commences
on 18th November, and ends on 24th January, lasting in all, for 67 days of
twenty-four hours each.
 54

for an observer stationed exactly at the terrestrial North Pole and the
other for an observer located in the Circum-Polar regions or tracts of
land between the North Pole and the Arctic circle. For brevity’s sake,
we shall designate these two sets of differentiæ, as Polar and
Circum-Polar and sum them up as follows: —

I. The Polar Characteristics

(1) The sun rises in the south.

(2) The stars do not rise and set; but revolve, or spin round and
round, in horizontal planes, completing one round in 24 hours. The
northern celestial hemisphere is alone overhead and visible during
the whole year and the southern or the lower celestial world is always
invisible.
(3) The year consists only of one long day and one long night of
six months each.
(4) There is only one morning and one evening, or the sun rises
and sets only once a year. But the twilight, whether of the morning or
of the evening, lasts continuously for about two months, or 60 periods
of 24 hours each. The ruddy light of the morn, or the evening twilight,
is not again confined to a particular part of the horizon (eastern or
western) as with us; but moves, like the stars at the place, round and
round along the horizon, like a potter’s wheel, completing one round
in every 24 hours. These rounds of the morning light continue to take
place, until the orb of the sun comes above the horizon; and then the
sun follows the same course for six months, that is, moves, without
setting, round and round the observer, completing one round every
24 hours.

II. Circum-Polar Characteristic

(1) The sun will always be to the south of the zenith of the
observer; but as this happens even in the case of an observer
stationed in the temperate zone, it cannot be regarded as a special
characteristic.
(2) A large number of stars are circum-polar, that, is, they are
above the horizon during the entire period of their
 55

revolution and hence always visible. The remaining stars rise and set,
as in the temperate zone, but revolve in more oblique circles.
(3) The year is made up of three parts: — (i) one long
continuous night, occurring at the time of the winter solstice, and
lasting for a period, greater than 24 hours and less than six months,
according to the latitude of the place; (ii) one long continuous day to
match, occurring at the time of the summer solstice; and (iii) a
succession of ordinary days and nights during the rest of the year, a
nycthemeron, or a day and a night together, never exceeding a
period of 24 hours. The day, after the long continuous night, is at first
shorter than the night, but, it goes on increasing until it develops into
the long continuous day. At the end of the long day, the night is, at
first, shorter than the day, but, in its turn, it begins to gain over the
day, until the commencement of the long continuous night, with which
the year ends.
(4) The dawn, at the close of the long continuous night, lasts for
several days, but its duration and magnificence is proportionally less
than at the North Pole, according to the latitude of the place. For
places, within a few degrees of the North Pole, the phenomenon of
revolving morning lights will still be observable during the greater part
of the duration of the dawn. The other dawns, viz. those between
ordinary days and nights, will, like the dawns in the temperate zone,
only last for a few hours. The sun, when he is above the horizon
during the continuous day, will be seen revolving, without setting,
round the observer, as at the Pole, but in oblique and not horizontal
circles, and during the long night he will be entirely below the horizon;
while during the rest of the year he will rise and set, remaining above
the horizon for a part of 24 hours, varying according to the position of
the sun in the ecliptic.
Here we have two distinct sets of diferentiæ, or special
characteristics, of the Polar and Circum-Polar regions, —
characteristics which are not found anywhere else on the surface of
the globe. Again as the Poles of the earth are the same
 56

today as they were millions of years ago, the above astronomical

characteristics will hold good for, all times, though the Polar climate
may have undergone violent changes in the Pleistocene period. In
short, we can take these differentiæ as our unerring guides in the
examination of the Vedic evidence bearing on the point at issue. If a
Vedic description or tradition discloses any of the characteristics
mentioned above, we may safely infer that the tradition is Polar or
Circum-Polar in origin, and the phenomenon, if not actually witnessed
by the poet, was at least known to him by tradition faithfully handed
down from generation to generation. Fortunately there are many such
passages or references in the Vedic literature, and, for convenience,
these may be divided into two parts; the first comprising those
passages which directly describe or refer to the long night, or the long
dawn; and the second consisting of myths and legends which
corroborate and indirectly support the first. The evidence in the first
part being direct, is, of course, more convincing; and we shall,
therefore, begin with it in the next chapter, reserving the
consideration of the Vedic myths and legends to the latter part of the
book.

————— ™ —————
 57

CHAPTER IV

THE NIGHT OF THE GODS

Vedic sacrifices, regulated by the luni-solar calendar — A year of six
seasons and twelve months, with an intercalary month in the Taittirîya
Samhitâ — The same in the Rig-Veda — Present results of the Vedic
mythology — All presuppose a home in the temperate or the tropical zone
— But further research still necessary — The special character of the Rig-
Veda explained — Polar tests found in the Rig-Veda — Indra supporting the
heavens with a pole, and moving them like a wheel — A day and a night of
six months, in the form of the half yearly day and night of the Gods —
Found in the Sûrya Siddhânta and older astronomical Samhitâs —
Bhâskarâchârya’s error explained — Gods’ day and night mentioned by
Manu and referred to by Yâska — The description of Meru or the North Pole
in the Mahâbhârata — In the Taittirîya Aranyaka — The passage in the
Taittirîya Brâhmana about the year long day of the Gods — Improbability of
explaining it except as founded on the observation of nature — Parallel
passage in the Vendidad — Its Polar character clearly established by the
context — The Vara of Yima in the Airyana Vaêjo — The sun rising and
setting there only once a year — The Devayâna and the Pitriyâna in the Rig-
Veda — Probably represent the oldest division of the year, like the day and
the night of the Gods — The path of Mazda in the Parsi scriptures — Death
during Pitriyâna regarded inauspicious — Bâdarâyana’s view — Probable
explanation suggested — Death during winter or Pitriyâna in the Parsi
scriptures — Probably indicates a period of total darkness — Similar Greek
traditions — Norse Twilight of the Gods — The idea of half-yearly day and
night of the Gods thus proved to be not only Indo-Iranian, but Indo-
Germanic — A sure indication of an original Polar home.

At the threshold of the Vedic literature, we meet with an

elaborately organized sacrificial system so well regulated by the luni-
solar calendar as to show that the Vedic bards had, by that time,
attained considerable proficiency in practical astronomy. There were
daily, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and yearly sacrifices,
which, as I have elsewhere shown, also served as chronometers in
those days.*

* See The Orion or the Antiquity of the Vedas, Chap. II.

 58

The Taittirîya Samhitâ and the Brâhmanas distinctly mention a lunar

month of thirty days and a year of twelve such months, to which an
intercalary month was now and then added, to make the lunar and
the solar year correspond with each other. The ecliptic, or the belt of
the zodiac, was divided into 27 of 28 divisions, called the Nakshatras,
which, were used as mile-stones to mark the annual passage of the
sun, or the monthly revolution of the moon round the earth. The two
solstitial and the two equinoctial points, as well as the passage of the
sun into the northern and the southern hemisphere, were clearly
distinguished, and the year was divided into six seasons, the festivals
in each month or the year being accurately fixed and ascertained.
The stars rising and setting with the sun were also systematically
observed and the eastern and western points of the compass
determined as accurately as the astronomical observations of the day
could permit. In my Orion or the Antiquity of the Vedas, I have shown
how the changes in the position of the equinoxes were also marked in
these days, and how they enable us to classify the periods of Vedic
antiquity. According to this classification the Taittirîya Samhitâ comes
under the Kṛittikâ period (2500 B.C.), and some may, therefore, think
that the details of the Vedic calendar given above are peculiar only to
the later Vedic literature. A cursory study of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda will,
however, show that such is not the case. A year of 360 days, with an
intercalary month occasionally added, or a year of twelve lunar
months, with twelve intercalary days inserted at the end of each year
was familiar to the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and is often mentioned in
the hymns.* The northern and the southern passage of the sun from
equinox to equinox, the Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna, together with the
yearly sattras, have also


* See Rig. I, 25, 8, — वदे मासो धतोतो े य उपजायते ॥ Also
दवादश परजावतः । वदा
ु े
ू यद अगोािते रण रभवः ससः । सऽाव
Rig. IV, 33, 7, — दवादश दयन

अनय िसनू धाित ओषधीर िनम आपः ॥ See Orion, page 1-77 ƒ. In Rig. I,
164, 11, 360 days and 360 nights of the year are expressly mentioned.
 59

been referred to in several places, clearly showing that the Rig-Vedic

calendar differed, if at all, very little from the one in use at the time of
the Taittirîya Samhitâ or the Brâhmanas. A calendar of twelve months
and six seasons is peculiar only to the temperate or the tropical zone,
and if we were to judge only from the facts stated above, it follows
that the people who used such a calendar, must have lived in places
where the sun was above the horizon during all the days of the year.
The science of Vedic mythology, so far as it is developed at present,
also supports the same view. Vṛitra is said to be a demon of drought
or darkness and several myths are explained. on the theory that they
represent a daily struggle between the powers of light and the powers
of darkness, or of eventual triumph of summer over winter, or of day
over night, or of Indra over watertight clouds. Mr. Nârâyana Aiyangâr
of Bangalore has attempted to explain some of these myths on, the
astral theory, showing that the myths point out to the position of the
vernal equinox in Orion, in the oldest period of Vedic civilization. But
all these theories or methods of interpretation assume that the Vedic
people have always been the inhabitants of the temperate or the
tropical zone, and all these myths and traditions were formed or
developed in such a home.
Such are the results of the latest researches in Vedic philology,
mythology or calendar, regarding the ancient home of the Vedic
people and the origin and the antiquity of their mythology. But to a
man who is working in the same field, the question whether we have
reached the utmost limit of our researches naturally occurs. It is a
mistake to suppose that all the traditions and myths, and even the
deities, mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda were the creation of one period.
To adopt a geological phrase, the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, or we might even say
the whole Vedic literature, is not arranged into different strata
according to their chronological order, so that we can go on from
once stratum to another and examine each separately. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda
is a book in which old things of different periods are so mixed up that
we have to work long and
 60

patiently before we are able to separate and classify its contents in

chronological order. I have stated before how owing to our imperfect
knowledge of the ancient man and his surroundings this task is
rendered difficult, or even impossible in some cases. But, as
observed by Prof. Max Müller, it is the duty of each generation of
Vedic scholars to reduce as much as possible the unintelligible
portion of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, so that with the advance of scientific
knowledge each succeeding generation may, in this matter, naturally
be in a better position than its predecessors. The Vedic calendar, so
far as we know or the Vedic mythology may not have, as yet,
disclosed any indication of an Arctic home, but underneath the
materials that have been examined, or even by their side, we may still
find facts, which, though hitherto neglected, may, in the new light of
scientific discoveries, lead to important conclusions. The mention of
the luni-solar calendar in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda ought not, therefore, to detain
us from further pursuing our investigation by examining the texts and
legends which have not yet been satisfactorily explained, and
ascertaining how far such texts and legends indicate the existence of
a Polar or Circum-Polar home in early times. The distinguishing
characteristics of these regions have been already discussed and
stated in the previous chapter, and all that we have now to do is to
apply these tests, and decide if they are satisfied or fulfilled by the
texts and legends under consideration.
The spinning round of the heavenly dome over the head is one
of the special characteristics of the North Pole, and the phenomenon
is so peculiar that one may expect to find traces of it in the early
traditions of a people, if they, or their ancestors ever lived near the
North Pole. Applying this test to the Vedic literature, we do find
passages which compare the motion of the heavens to that of wheel,
and state that the celestial vault is supported as if on an axis. Thus in
‫ي‬ig. X, 89, 4, Indra is said “to separately uphold up by his power
heaven and earth as the two wheels of a chariot are held by
 61

the axle.”* Prof. Ludwig thinks that this refers to the axis of the earth,
and the explanation is very probable. The same idea occurs in other
places, and some times the sky is described as being supported even
without a pole, testifying thereby to the great power or might of Indra
(II, 15, 2; IV, 56, 3).† In X, 80, 2, Indra is identified with Sûrya and he
is described as “turning the widest expanse like the wheels of a
chariot.”‡ The word for “expanse” is varâmsi, which Sâyana
understands to mean “lights,” or “stars.” But whichever meaning we
adopt, it is clear that the verse in question refers to the revolution of
the sky, and compares to the motion of a chariot wheel. Now the
heavens in the temperate and the tropical regions may be described
as moving like a wheel, from east to west and then back again to the
east, though the latter half of this circuit is not visible to the observer.
But we cannot certainly speak of the tropical sky as being supported
on a pole, for the simple reason that the North Pole, which must be
the point of support in, such a case, will not be sufficiently near the
zenith in the tropical or the temperate zone. If we, therefore, combine
the two statements, that the heavens are supported as on a pole and
that they move like a wheel, we may safely infer that the motion
referred to is such a motion of the celestial hemisphere as can be
witnessed only by an observer at the North Pole. In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda§ I,
24, 10 the constellation of Ursa Major (Rikshah) is described as being
placed “high” (uchhâh), and, as this can refer only to the altitude of
the constellation, it follows that it must then have been over the head
of the observer, which is possible only in the Circum-Polar regions.
Unfortunately there are few other passages in the

* Rig. X, 89, 4, — इाय िगरो अिनिशतसगा अपः पररय ु

े ं सगर बात े े चिबया
। यो अणव

शचीिभिवक तिथवीमतु दयाम ॥

ं े दयामभायद बहमा
† Rig. II, 15, 2, — अवश  पूथ
रोदसी अणदिरम । स धारयद पिथव
सोम ता मद इकार ॥
‡ Rig. X, 89, 2, — स सयः ु वराो
ू  पय ं े वाद रवचबा
े । अितमपं न सग का
ं
तमािसिा जघान ॥
े ु । अदािन वण वरतािन
ु िचद िदवयः
§ Rig. I, 24, 10, — अमी य रा िनिहतास उा नं दौे कह
े ॥ It may also be remarked, in this connection, that the passage speaks of
िवचाकशमा नमित
the appearance (not rising) of the Seven Bears at night, and their disappearance (not setting) during
the day, showing that the constellation was circum-polar at the place of the observer.
 62

‫ي‬ig-Veda which describe the motion of the celestial hemisphere or of

the stars therein, and we must, therefore, take up another
characteristic of the Polar regions, namely, “a day and a night of six
months each,” and see if the Vedic literature contains any references
to this singular feature of the Polar regions.
The idea that the day and the night of the Gods are each of six
months’ duration is so widespread in the Indian literature, that we
examine it here at some length, and, for that purpose, commence
with the Post-Vedic literature and trace it back to the most ancient
books. It is found not only in the Purânas, but also in astronomical
works, and as the latter state it in a more definite form we shall begin
with the later Siddhântas. Mount Meru is the terrestrial North Pole of
our astronomers, and the Sûrya-Siddhânta, XII, 67, says: — “At Meru
Gods behold the sun after but a single rising during the half of his
revolution beginning with Aries.” Now according to Purânas Meru is
the home or seat of all the Gods, and the statement about their half-
year-long night and day is thus easily and naturally explained; and all
astronomers and divines have accepted the accuracy of the
explanation. The day of the Gods corresponds with the passage of
the sun from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, when the sun is
visible at the North Pole, or the Meru; and the night with the Southern
passage of sun, from the autumnal back to the vernal equinox. But
Bhâskarâchârya, not properly understanding the passage which
states that the “Uttarâyana is a day of Gods,” has raised the question
how Uttarâyana, which in his day meant the passage of the sun from
the winter to the summer solstice, could be the day of the Gods
stationed at the North Pole; for an observer at the Pole can only see
the sun in his passage from the vernal to the autumnal equinox.* But,
as shown by me elsewhere, Bhâskarâchârya has

* See Orion, p. 30.

 63

here fallen into an error by attributing to the word Uttarâyana, a sense

which it did not bear in old times, or at least in the passages
embodying this tradition. The old meaning of Uttarâyana, literally, the
northern passage of the sun, was the period of time required by the
sun to travel from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, or the portion
of the ecliptic in the northern hemisphere; and if we understand the
word in this sense, the statement that the Uttarâyana is a day of the
Devas is at once plain and intelligible. Bhâskarâchârya’s reference to
oldest astronomical Samhitâs clearly shows that the tradition was
handed down from the oldest times. It is suggested that in these
passages Gods may mean the apotheosized ancestors of the human
race. But I do not think that we need any such explanation. If the
ancestors of the human race ever lived at the North Pole, so must
have their Gods; and I shall show in a subsequent chapter that the
Vedic deities are, as a matter of fact clothed with attributes, which are
distinctly Polar in origin. It makes, therefore, no difference for our
purpose, if a striking feature of the primitive home is traditionally
preserved and remembered as a characteristic of the Gods, or of the
apotheosized ancestors of the race. We are concerned with the
tradition itself, and our object is pained if its existence is clearly
established.
The next authority for the statement is Manu, I, 67. While
describing the divisions of time it says, “A year (human) is a day and
a night of the Gods; thus are the two divided, the northern passage of
the sun is the day and the southern the night.”* The day and the night
of the Gods are then taken as a unit for measuring longer periods of
time as the Kalpas and so on, and Yâska’s Nirukta, XIV, 4, probably
contains the same reference. Muir, in the first Volume of his Original
Sanskrit Texts, gives some of these passages so far as they bear on
the yuga-system found in the Purânas. But we are not concerned with
the later development of the

* Manu, I, 67.
 64

idea that the day and the night of the Gods each lasted for six
months. What is important, from our point of view, is the persistent
prevalence of this tradition in the Vedic and the Post-Vedic literature,
which can only be explained on the hypothesis that originally it must
have been the result of actual observation. We shall, therefore, next
quote the Mahâbhârata, which gives such a clear description of
Mount Meru, the lord of the mountains, as to leave no doubt its being
the North Pole, or possessing the Polar characteristics. In chapters
163 and 164 of the Vanaparvan, Arjuna’s visit to the Mount is
described in detail and we are therein told, “at Meru the sun and the
moon go round from left to right (Pradakshinam) every day and so do
all the stars.” Later on the writer informs us: — “The mountain, by its
lustre, so overcomes the darkness of night, that the night can hardly
be distinguished from the day.” A few verses further, and we find,
“The day and the night are together equal to a year to the residents of
the place.”* These quotations are quite sufficient to convince any one
that at the time when the great epic was composed Indian writers had
a tolerably accurate knowledge of the meteorological and
astronomical characteristics of the North Pole, and this knowledge
cannot be supposed to have been acquired by mere mathematical
calculations. The reference to the lustre of the mountain is specially
interesting, inasmuch as, in all probability, it is a description of the
splendors of the Aurora Borealis visible at the North Pole. So far as
the Post-Vedic literature is concerned, we have, therefore, not only
the tradition of the half-year-long

* The verses (Calcutta Ed.) are as follows: Vana-parvan, Chap. 163, vv. 37,
38. Ibid, Chap. 164, vv. 11, 13.
 65

night and day of the Gods persistently mentioned, but the Mount
Meru, or the North Pole, is, described with such accuracy as to lead.
us to believe that it is an ancient tradition, whose origin must be
traced to a time when these phenomena were daily observed by the
people; and this is confirmed, by the fact that the tradition is not
confined only to the Post-Vedic literature.
Passing on, therefore, to the Vedic literature, we find Mount
Meru described as the seat of seven Âdityas in the Taittirîya
Âranyaka I, 7, 1, while the eighth Âditya, called Kashyapa is said
never to leave the great Meru or Mahâmeru. Kashyapa is further
described as communicating light to the seven Âdityas, and himself
perpetually illumining the great mountain. It is, however, in the
Taittirîya Brâhmana (III, 9, 22, 1), that we meet with a passage which
clearly says, “That which is a year is but a single day of the Gods.”
The statement is so clear that there can be no doubt whatever about
its meaning. A year of the mortals is said to be but a day of the Gods;
but, at one time, I considered it extremely hazardous* to base any
theory even upon such a clear statement, inasmuch as it then
appeared p me to be but solitary in the Vedic literature. I could not
then find anything to match it in the Samhitâs and especially in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda and I was inclined to hold that Uttarâyana and
Dakshinâyana were, in all probability, described in this way as “day”
and “night” with a qualifying word to mark their special nature. Later
researches have however forced on me the conclusion that the
tradition, represented by this passage, indicates the existence of a
Polar home in old days, and I have set forth in the sequel the
evidence on which I have come to the above conclusion. There are
several theories on which the above statement in the Taittirîya
Brâhmana can be explained. We may regard it as the outcome of
pure imagination, or of a metaphor expressing in figurative

* Taitt. Br. III, 9, 22, 1. See Orion, p. 30 note. (Ed. 1955).

 66

language a fact quite different from the one denoted by the words
used, or it may be the result of actual observation by the writer
himself or by persons from whom he traditionally derived his
information. It may also be considered as based on astronomical
calculations made in later days, what was originally an astronomical
inference being subsequently converted into a real observed fact.
The last of these suppositions would have appeared probable, if the
tradition had been confined only to the Post-Vedic literature, or
merely to the astronomical works. But we cannot suppose that during
the times of the Brâhmanas the astronomical knowledge was so far
advanced as to make it possible to fabricate a fact by mathematical
calculation, even supposing that the Vedic poets were capable of
making such a fabrication. Even in the days of Herodotus the
statement that “there existed a people who slept for six months” was
regarded “incredible” (IV, 24); and we must, therefore, give up the
idea, that several centuries before Herodotus, a statement regarding
the day or the night of the Gods could have been fabricated in the
way stated above. But all doubts on the point are set at rest by the
occurrence of an almost identical statement in the sacred books of
the Parsis. In the Vendidad, Fargard II, para 40, (or, according to
Spiegel, para 133), we find the sentence, Tae cha ayara mainyaente
yat yare, meaning “They regard, as a day, what is a year.” This is but
a paraphrase of the statement, in the Taittirîya Brâhmana, and the
context in the Parsi scriptures removes all possible doubts regarding
the Polar character of the statement. The latter part of the second
Fargard, wherein this passage occurs, contains a discourse between
Ahura Mazda and Yima.* Ahura Mazda warns Yima, the first king of
men, of the approach of a dire winter, which is to destroy every living
creature by covering the land with a thick sheet of ice, and advises
Yima to build a Vara, or an enclosure, to preserve the seeds of every
kind of animals and plants. The meeting is said to have taken place in
the Airyana Vaêjo,

* See Sacred Books of the East Series, Vol. IV, pp. 15-31.
 67

or the paradise of the Iranians. The Vara, or the enclosure, advised

by Ahura Mazda, is accordingly prepared, and Yima asked Ahura
Mazda, “O Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! What lights
are there to give light in the Vara which Yima made?” Ahura Mazda
answered, “There are uncreated lights and created lights. There the
stars, the moon and the sun are only once (a year) seen to rise and
set, and a year seems only as a day.” I have taken Darmesteter’s
rendering but Spiegel’s is substantially the same. This passage is
important from various standpoints. First of all it tells us, that the
Airyana Vaêjo, or the original home of the Iranians, was a place
which was rendered uninhabitable by glaciation; and secondly that in
this original home the sun rose and set only once in the year, and that
the year was like a day to the inhabitants of the place. The bearing of
the passage in regard to glaciation will be discussed latter on. For the
present, it is enough to point out how completely it corroborates and
elucidates the statement in the Taittirîya Brâhmana stated and
discussed above. The yearly rising and setting of the sun is possible
only at the North Pole and the mention of this characteristic leaves no
room for doubting that the Vara and the Airyana Vaêjo were both
located in the Arctic or Circum-Polar regions, and that the passage in
the Taittirîya Brâhmana also refers to the Polar year. The fact that the
statement is found both in the Iranian and the Indian literature further
negatives the probability of its being a fabrication from mathematical
calculation. Nor can we suppose that both the branches of the Aryan
race became acquainted with this fact simply by an effort of
unassisted imagination, or that it was a mere metaphor. The only
remaining alternative is to hold, as Sir Charles Lyell* has remarked,
that the tradition was “founded on the observation of Nature.”
It is true, that the statement, or anything similar to it, is not
found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; but it will be shown later on that there are
many other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which go to

* See Elements of Geology, 11th Ed., Vol. I, p. 8.

 68

corroborate this statement in a remarkable way by referring to other

Polar characteristics. I may, however, mention here the fact that the
oldest Vedic year appears to have been divided only into two
portions, the Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna, which originally
corresponded with the Uttârayana and the Dâkshinayana, or the day
and the night of the Gods. The word Devayâna occurs several times
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda Samhitâ, and denotes “the path of the Gods.” Thus in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, I, 72, 7, Agni is said to be cognizant of the Devayâna
road, and in ‫ي‬ig. I, 183, 6, and 184, 6, the poet says, “We have, O
Ashvins! reached the end of darkness; now come to us by the
Devayâna road.” In VII, 76, 2, we again read, “The Devayâna path
has become visible to me... The banner of the Dawn has appeared in
the east.” Passages like these clearly indicate that the road of the
Devayâna commenced at the rise of the Dawn, or after the end of
darkness; and that it was the road by which Agni, Ashvins, Ushas,
Sûrya and other matutinal deities traveled during their heavenly
course. The path of the Pitṛis, or the Pitṛiyâna, is, on the other hand,
described in X, 18, 1, as the “reverse of Devayâna, or the path of
Death.” In, the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, X, 88, 15, the poet says that he has, “heard”
only of “two roads, one of the Devas and the other of the Pitṛis.” If the
Devayâna, therefore, commenced with the Dawn, we must suppose
that the Pitṛiyâna, commenced with the advent of darkness. Sâyana
is, therefore, correct in interpreting V, 77, 2, as stating that “the
evening is not for the Gods (devayâh).” Now if the Devayâna and the
Pitṛiyâna were only synonymous with ordinary ‘day and night, there
was obviously no propriety in stating that these were the only two
paths or roads known to the ancient ‫ي‬ishis, and they could not have
been described as consisting of three seasons each, beginning with
the spring,

* Rig. I, 183, 6, — अतािर तमसस पारम परित वां सतोमो अिनावधािय । एह यातं

पिथिभदवयान ैिव. .. ॥ Rig. VII, 76, 2, — पर मे पा दवयाना
े 
अौमधो
ु
वसिभिरंतासः े ु
। अभू कतषसः ु
परात 
परतीागादिध हः ॥
 69

(Shat. Brâ. II, 1, 3, 1-3).* It seems, therefore, very probable that the
Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna originally represented a two-fold division
of the year, one of continuous light and the other of continuous
darkness as at the North Pole; and that though it was not suited to
the later home of the Vedic people it was retained, because it was an
established and recognized fact in the language, like the seven suns,
or the seven horses of a single sun. The evidence in support of this
view will be stated in subsequent chapters. It is sufficient to observe
in this place, that if we interpret the twofold division of the Devayâna
and the Pitṛiyâna in this way, it fully corroborates the statement in the
Taittirîya Brâhmana that a year was but a day of the Gods. We may
also note in this connection that the expression “path of the Gods”
occurs even in the Parsi scriptures. Thus in the Farvardîn Yasht,
paras 56, 57, the Fravashis, which correspond with the Pitṛis in the
Vedic literature, are said to have shown to the sun and the moon “the
path made by Mazda, the way made by the Gods,” along which the
Fravashis themselves are described as growing. The sun and the
moon are, again, said to have “stood for a long time in the same
place, without moving forwards through the oppression of the Dævas
(Vedic Asuras, or the demons of darkness),” before the Fravashis
showed “the path of Mazda,” to these two luminaries.† This shows
that “the path of Mazda” commenced, like the Devayâna road, when
the sun was set free from the clutches of the demons of darkness. In
other words, it represented the period of the year when the sun was
above the horizon at the place where the ancestors of the Indo-
Iranian lived in ancient days. We have seen that the Devayâna, or the
path of the Gods, is the way along which Sûrya, Agni and other
matutinal deities are said to travel in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; and the Parsi
scriptures supplement this information by telling us that the sun stood
still before the Fravashis

* For a full discussion of the subject see Orion, pp. 25-31. (Ed. 1955)
† See Sacred Books of the East Series, Vol. XXIII, pp. 193-194.
 70

showed to him “the path of Mazda,” evidently meaning that the

Devayâna, or “the path of Mazda,” was the portion of the year when
the sun was above the horizon after being confined for some time by
the powers of darkness.
But the correspondence between the Indian and the Parsi
scriptures does not stop here. There is a strong prejudice, connected
with the Pitṛiyâna, found in the later Indian literature, and even this
has its parallel in the Parsi scriptures. The Hindus consider it
inauspicious for a man to die during the Pitṛiyâna, and the great
Mahâbhârata warrior, Bhishma, is said to have waited on his death-
bed until the sun passed through the winter solstice, as the
Dâkshinayana, which is synonymous with the Pitṛiyâna, was then
understood to mean the time required by the sun to travel from the
summer to the winter solstice.” A number of passages scattered over
the whole Upanishad literature support the same view, by describing
the course of the soul of a man according as he dies during the
Devayâna or the Pitṛiyâna, and exhibiting a marked preference for the
fate of the soul of a man dying during the path of the Gods, or the
Devayâna. All these passages will be found collected in
Shankarâchârya’s Bhâshya on Brahma-Sûtras, IV, 2, 18-21, wherein
Bâdarâyana,† anxious to reconcile all these passages with the
practical difficulty sure to be experienced if death during the night of
the Gods were held to be absolutely unmeritorious from a religious
point of view, has recorded his opinion that we must not interpret
these texts as predicating an uncomfortable future life for every man
dying during the Dâkshinayana or the night of the Gods. As an
alternative Bâdarâyana, therefore, adds that these passages may be
taken to refer to the Yogins who desire to attain to a particular kind of
heaven after death. Whatever we may think of this

* For the text and discussion thereon, see Orion, p. 38. (Ed. 1955)
† See also Orion, pp. 24-26. (Ed. 1955)
 71

view, we can, in this attempt of Bâdarâyana, clearly see a distinct

consciousness of the existence of a tradition, which, if it did not put
an absolute ban on death during the night of the Gods, did, at any
rate, clearly disapprove of such occurrences from a religious point of
view. If the Pitṛiyâna originally represented, as stated above, a period
of continuous darkness the tradition can be easily and rationally
explained; for as the Pitṛiyâna then meant an uninterrupted night, the
funeral ceremonies of any one dying during the period were deferred
till the break of the dawn at the end of the Pitṛiyâna, or the
commencement of the Devayâna. Even now death during night is
considered inauspicious, and the funeral generally takes place after
daybreak.
The Parsi scriptures are still more explicit. In the Vendidad,
Fargards V, 10, and VIII, 4, a question is raised how the worshipper
of Mazda should act, when a death takes place in a house when the
summer has passed and the winter has come; and Ahura Mazda
answers, “In such cases a Kata (ditch) should be made in every
house and there the lifeless body should be allowed to lie for two
nights, or for three nights, or for a month long, until the birds begin to
fly, the plants to grow, the floods to flow, and the wind to dry up the
water from off the earth.” Considering the fact that the dead body of a
worshipper of Mazda is required to be ex posed to the sun before it is
consigned to birds, the only reason for keeping the dead body in the
house for one month seems to be that it was a month of darkness.
The description of birds beginning to fly, and the floods to flow, &c.,
reminds one of the description of the dawn in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and it is
quite probable that the expressions here denote the same
phenomenon as in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, In fact they indicate a winter of total
darkness during which the corpse is directed to be kept in the house,
to be exposed to the sun on the first breaking of the dawn after the
long night.* It will, however, be more convenient to discuss these
passages, after

* See infra Chapter IX.

 72

examining the whole of the Vedic evidence in favor of the Arctic

home. I have referred to them here to show the complete
correspondence between the Hindu and the Parsi scriptures
regarding the day and the night of the Gods, and their unmistakable
Polar characteristics indicating the existence of an early home within
the Arctic circle.
The same traditions are also found in the literature of other
branches of the Aryan race, besides the Hindus and the Parsis. For
instance, Dr. Warren quotes Greek traditions similar to those we have
discussed above. Regarding the primitive revolution of the sky,
Anaximenes, we are told, likened the motions of the heaven in early
days to “the rotating of a man’s hat on his head.”* Another Greek
writer is quoted to show that “at first the Pole-star always appeared in
the zenith.” It is also stated, on the authority of Anton, Krichenbauer,
that in the Iliad and Odyssey two kinds of days are continually
referred to one of a year’s duration, especially when describing the
life and exploits of the Gods, and the other twenty-four hours. The
night of the Gods has its parallel also in the Norse mythology, which
mentions “the Twilight of the Gods,” denoting by that phrase the time
when the reign of Odin and the Æsir, or Gods, would come to an end,
not forever, but to be again revived; for we are told that “from the
dead sun springs a daughter more beautiful than her sire, and
mankind starts afresh from the life-raiser and his bride-life.Ӡ If these
traditions and statements are correct, they show that the idea of half-
yearly night and day of the Gods is not only Indo-Iranian, but Indo-
Germanic, and that it must therefore, have originated in. the original
home of the Aryans. Comparative mythology, it will be shown in a
subsequent chapter, fully supports the view of an original Arctic home
of the Aryan races, and there is nothing surprising if the

* See Paradise Found, 10th Ed., pp. 192 and 200.

† See Cox’s Mythology of the Aryan Nations, p. 41, quoting Brown’s
Religion and Mythology of the Aryans of the North of Europe, Arts, 15-1.
 73

traditions about a day and a night of six months are found not only in
the Vedic and the Iranian, but also in the Greek and the Norse
literature. It seems to have been an idea traditionally inherited by all
the branches of the Aryan race, and, as it is distinctly Polar in
character, it is alone enough to establish the existence of an Arctic
home. But fortunately for us our edifice need not be erected on this
solitary pillar, as there is, ample evidence in the Vedic literature which
supports the Arctic theory by satisfying almost all the Polar and
Circum-Polar tests laid down in the last chapter. The long revolving
dawn is another peculiar characteristic of the North Pole, and we
shall see in the next chapter that the Rig-Vedic account of the dawn
is intelligible only if we take it as referring to the Polar dawn.

————— ™ —————
 74

CHAPTER V

THE VEDIC DAWNS

Dawn-hymns the most beautiful in the Rig-Veda — The Deity fully
described, unobscured by personification — First hints about the long
duration of dawn — Recitation of a thousand verses, or even the whole Rig-
Veda, while the dawn lasts — Three or five-fold division of the dawn —
Both imply a long dawn — The same inferred from the two words Uṣhas
and Vyuṣhṭî — Three Rig-Vedic passages about long dawns, hitherto
misunderstood, discussed — Long interval of several days between the
first appearance of light and sunrise — Expressly mentioned in the Rig-
Veda, VII, 76, 3 — Sâyana’s explanation artificial and unsatisfactory —
Existence of many dawns before sunrise — Reason why dawn is addressed
in the plural in the Rig-Veda — The plural address not honorific — Nor
denotes dawns of consecutive days — Proves a team of continuous dawns
— The last view confirmed by the Taittirîya Samhitâ, IV, 3, 11 — Dawns as
30 sisters — Direct authority from the Taittirîya Brâhmana for holding that
they were continuous or unseparated — Sâyana’s explanation of 30 dawns
examined — Thirty dawns described as thirty steps of a single dawn —
Rotatory motion of the dawn, like a wheel, directly mentioned in the Rig-
Veda — Their reaching the same appointed place day by day — All indicate
a team of thirty closely-gathered dawns — Results summed up — Establish
the Polar character of the Vedic dawns — Possible variation in the duration
of the Vedic dawn — The legend of Indra shattering the Dawn’s car
explained — Direct passages showing that the dawns so described were
the events of a former age — The Vedic Dawns Polar in character.

The ‫ي‬ig-Veda, we have seen, does not contain distinct

references to a day and a night of six months’ duration though the
deficiency is more than made up by parallel passages from the
Iranian scriptures. But in the case of the dawn, the long continuous
dawn with its revolving splendors, which is the special characteristic
of the North Pole, there is fortunately no such difficulty. Ushas, or the
Goddess of Dawn, is an important and favorite Vedic deity and is
celebrated in about twenty hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and mentioned
more than three hundred times, sometimes in the singular and
sometimes in the plural. These hymns, according
 75

to Muir, are amongst the most beautiful, — if not the most beautiful,
— in the entire collection; and the deity, to which they are addressed,
is considered by Macdonell to be the most graceful creation of Vedic
poetry, there being no more charming figure in the descriptive
religious lyrics of any other literature.* In short, Ushas, or the
Goddess of Dawn, is described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda hymns with more
than usual fullness and what is still more important for our purpose is
that the physical character of the deity is not, in the least, obscured
by the description or the personification in the hymns. Here,
therefore, we have a fine opportunity of proving the validity of our
theory, by showing, if possible, that the oldest description of the dawn
is really Polar in character. A priori it does not look probable that the
Vedic poets could have gone into such raptures over the short-lived
dawn of the tropical or the temperate zone, or that so much anxiety
about the coming dawn should have been evinced, simply because
the Vedic bards had no electric light or candles to use during the
short night of less than 24 hours. But the dawn-hymns have not, as
yet, been examined from this stand-point. It seems to have been
tacitly assumed by all interpreters of the Vedas, Eastern and
Western, that the Ushas of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda can be no other than the
dawn with which we are familiar in the tropical or the temperate zone.
That Yâska and Sâyana thought so is natural enough, but even the
Western scholars have taken the same view, probably under the
influence of the theory that the plateau of Central Asia was the
original home of the Aryan race. Therefore several expressions in the
dawn-hymns, which would have otherwise suggested the inquiry
regarding the physical or the astronomical character of the Vedic
dawn, have been either ignored, or somehow explained away, by
scholars, who could certainly have thrown more light on the subject,
had they not been under the influence of the assumption mentioned
above. It is with passages like these

* See Muir’s Original Sanskrit Texts, Vol. V. p. 181; and Macdonell’s Vedic
Mythology, p. 46.
 76

that we are here chiefly concerned, and we shall presently see that if
these are interpreted in a natural way, they fully establish the Polar
nature of the Vedic dawn.
The first hint, regarding the long duration of the Vedic dawn, is
obtained from the Aitareya Brâhmana, IV, 7. Before commencing the
Gavâm-ayana sacrifice, there is a long recitation of not less than a
thousand verses, to be recited by the Hotṛi priest. This Ashvina-
shastra, as it is called, is addressed to Agni, Ushas and Ashvins,
which deities rule at the end of the night and the commencement of
the day. It is the longest recitation to be recited by the Hotṛi and the
time for reciting it is after midnight, when “the darkness of the night is
about to be relieved by the light of the dawn” (Nir. XII, I; Ashv. Shr.
Sutra, VI, 5, 8).* The same period of time is referred to also in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, VII, 67, 2 and 3. The shastra is so long, that the Hotṛi, who
has to recite it, is directed to refresh himself by drinking beforehand
melted butter after sacrificing thrice a little of it (Ait. Br. IV, 7; Ashv.
Shr. Sûtra; VI, 5, 3). “He ought to eat ghee,” observes the Aitareya
Brâhmana, “before he commences repeating. Just as in this world a
cart or a carriage goes well if smeared (with oil),† thus his repeating
proceeds well if he be smeared with ghee (by eating it).” It is evident
that if such a recitation has to be finished before the rising of the sun,
either the Hotṛi must commence his task soon after midnight when it
is dark, or the duration of the dawn must then have been sufficiently
long to enable the priest to finish the recitation in time after
commencing to recite it on the first appearance of light on the horizon
as directed. The first supposition is out of the question, as it is
expressly laid down that the shastra, is not to be recited until the
darkness of the night is relieved by light. So between the first
appearance of light and the rise of the sun, there must have been, in
those days, time enough to recite the long laudatory song of not lees
than a

* Nir. XII, 1.
† See Haug’s Translation off Ait. Br., p. 270.
 77

thousand verses. Nay, in the Taittirîya Samhitâ (II, 1, 10, 3) we are

told that sometimes the recitation of the shastra though commenced
at the proper time, ended long before sunrise, and in that case, the
Samhitâ requires that a certain animal sacrifice should be performed.
Ashvalâyana directs that in such a case the recitation should be
continued up to sunrise by reciting other hymns (Ashv. S.S. VI, 5, 8);
while Âpastamba (S.S. XIV, 1 and 2), after mentioning the sacrifice
referred to in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, adds that all the ten Mandalas of
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda may be recited, if necessary, in such a case.* It is
evident from this that the actual rising of the sun above the horizon
was a phenomenon often delayed beyond expectation, in those days
and in several places in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, (II, 1, 2, 4 )† we are
told that the Devas had to perform a prâyaschitta because the sun did
not shine as expected.
Another indication of the long duration of the dawn is furnished
by the Taittirîya Samhitâ, VIII 2. 20.‡ Seven oblations are here
mentioned, one to Ushas one to Vyushti one to Udeshyat, one to
Udyat, one to Uditâ one to Suvarga and one to Loka. Five of these
are evidently intended for the dawn in its five forms. The Taittirîya
Brâhmana (III, 8, 16, 4) explains the first two, viz., to Ushas and
Vyushti, as referring to dawn and sunrise, or rather to night and day,
for according to the Brâhmana “Ushas is night, and Vyushti is day.”§
But

* Ashv. S. S. VI, 5, 8. Âpastamba XIV, I & 2. The first of these two Sûtras is
the reproduction of T. S. II, 1, 10, 3.
† T. S. II, 1, 2, 4. Cf. also T. S. II, 1, 4, 1
‡ T. S. VII, 2, 20.
§ Tait. Br. III, 8, 16, 4.
 78

even though we may accept this as correct and we take Ushas and
Vyushti to be the representatives of night and day because the former
signalizes the end of the night and the latter the beginning of the day,
still we have to account for three oblations, viz. one to the dawn about
to rise (Udeshyat,) one to the rising dawn (Udyat), and one to the
dawn that has risen (Uditâ) the first two of which are according to the
Taittirîya Brâhmana, to be offered before the rising of the sun. Now
the dawn in the tropical zone is so short that the three-fold distinction
between the dawn that is about to rise, the dawn that is rising, and
one that has risen or that is full-blown (vi-ushti) is a distinction without
a difference. We must, therefore, hold that the dawn which admitted
such manifold division for the practical purpose of sacrifice, was a
long dawn.
The three-fold division of the dawn does not seem to be
unknown to the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. For, in VIII, 41, 3, Varuna’s
“dear ones are said to have prospered the three dawns for him,”* and
by the phrase tisrah dânuchitrâh in I, 174, 7, “three dew-lighted”
dawns appear to be referred to. There are other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda† where the dawn is asked not to delay, or tarry long, lest it
might be scorched liked a thief by the sun (V, 79, 9); and in II, 15, 6,
the steeds of the dawn are said to be (slow) (ajavasah), showing that
the people were sometimes tired to see the dawn lingering long on
the horizon. But a still more remarkable statement is found in I, 113,
13, where the poet distinctly asserts,‡ “the Goddess Ushas dawned
continually or perpetually (shasvat) in former days (purâ);” and the
adjective shashvat-tamâ (the most lasting) is applied to the

ु मायया दधे स िवं पिर दशतः

* Rig. VIII, 41, 3, — स कषपः पिर षजे नयॐो  । त
े
वनीरन ु वरतमषिॐो
ु 
अवधयभामके समे ॥
ु अपः । नते तवा सतने ं यथा िरप ं ु
† Rig. V, 79, 9, — वय उछा िहतर िदवो मा िचरं तनथा
ू अिचषा
तपाित सरो ु े असत
 सजात ू े॥
ु
‡ Rig. I, 113, 13, — शत परोषा ु
वयवास े
दथो अदे ं वयावो मघोनी । अथो
ु
वयछारानन ु दयनजराता
ू चरित सवधािभः ॥
 79

dawn in I, 118, 11. Again the very existence and use of two such
words as ushas and vi-ushti is, by itself, a proof of the long duration
of the dawn; for, if the dawn was brief, there was no practical
necessity of speaking of the full-blown state (vi+ushti) of the dawn as
has been done several times in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. The expression,
ushasah vi-ushtau, occurs very often in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and it has been
translated by the phrase, on the flashing forth of the dawn.” But no
one seems to have raised the question why two separate words, one
of which is derived from the other simply by prefixing the preposition
vi, should be used in this connection. Words are made to denote
ideas and if ushas and vi-ushti were not required to denote two
distinct phenomena, no one, especially in those early days, would
have cared to use a phrase, which, for all ordinary purposes, was
superfluously cumbrous. But these facts, howsoever suggestive, may
not be regarded as conclusive and we shall, therefore, now turn to
the more explicit passages in the hymns regarding the duration of the
Vedic dawn.
The first verse I would quote in this connection is ‫ي‬ig-Veda I,
113, 10: — *

Kiyâti â yât samayâ bhavâti

yâ vyûshuryâshcha nunam vyuchhân
Anu pûrvâh kripate vâvashâna
pradidhyânâ josham anyâbhir eti

The first quarter of the verse is rather difficult. The words are kiyâti ā
yat samayâ bhavâti, and Sâyana, whom Wilson follows, understands
samayâ to mean “near.” Prof, Max Müller translates samayâ (Gr.
Omos, Lat, Simul,) by “together,” “at once” while Roth, Grassmann
and Aufrecht take samayâ bhavâti as one expression meaning “that
which intervenes between the two.Ӡ This has given rise to three
different translations of the verse: —

ू ु  ननछान
* Rig. I, 113, 10 — िकयाा यत समया भवाित या वयषया ू ं ु । अन ु पवाः
ू  कपत े
े ॥
वावशाना परदीाना जोषमािभरित
† See Petersberg Lexicon, and Grassmann’s Worterbuch, s. v. Samayâ;
and Muir’s O. S. Texts, Vol. V, p. 189.
 80

WILSON, (following Sâyana): For how long a period is it that

the dawns have arisen? For how long a period will they rise? Still
desirous to bring us light, Ushas pursues the function of those that
have gone before and shining brightly, proceeds with the others (that
are to follow).
GRIFFITH, (following Max Müller): — How long a time and they
shall be together, — Dawns that have shone and Dawns to shine
hereafter? She yearns for former Dawns with eager longing and goes
forth gladly shining with the others.
MUIR, (following Aufrecht): — How great is the interval that lies
between the Dawns which have arisen and those which are yet to
rise? Ushas yearns longingly after the former Dawns, and gladly goes
on shining with the others (that are to come).
But in spite of those different renderings, the meaning of the
verse, so far as the question before us is concerned, can be easily
gathered. There are two sets of dawns, one of, those that have past,
and the other of those that are yet to shine. If we adopt Wilson’s and
Griffith’s translations, the meaning is that these two classes of dawns,
taken together, occupy such a long period of time as to raise the
question, — How long they will be together? In other words, the two
classes of dawns, taken together, were of such a long duration that
men began to question as to when they would terminate, or pass
away. If, on the other hand, we adopt Aufrecht’s translation, a, long
period appears to have intervened between the past and the coming
dawns; or, in other words, there was a long break or hiatus in the
regular sequence of these dawns. In the first case, the description is
only possible if we suppose that the duration of the dawns was very
long, much longer than what we see in the temperate or the tropical
zone; while in the second, a long interval between the past and the
present dawns must be taken to refer to a long pause, or night,
occurring immediately before the second set of dawns commenced
their new course, — a phenomenon which is possible only in the
Arctic regions. Thus whichever interpretation we adopt — a long
dawn, or a long night between the two sets of
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dawns, — the description is intelligible, only if we take it to refer to the

Polar conditions previously mentioned. The Vedic passages,
discussed hereafter, seem, however, to support Sâyana’s or Max
Müller’s view. A number of dawns is spoken of, some past and some
yet to come: and the two groups are said to occupy a very long
interval. That seems to be the real meaning of the verse. But without
laying much stress on any particular meaning for the present, it is
enough for our purpose to show that, even adopting Aufrecht’s
rendering, we cannot escape from the necessity of making the
description refer to the Polar conditions. The verse in question is the
tenth in the hymn, and it may be noticed that in the 13th verse of the
same hymn we are told that “in former days, perpetually ‘shashvat’
did the Goddess Ushas shine,” clearly indicating that the Dawn, in
early days, lasted for a long time.
The following verse is, however, still more explicit, and decisive
on the point. The seventh Mandala of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda contains a
number of dawn-hymns. In one of these (VII, 76), the poet, after
stating in the first two verses that the Dawns have raised their banner
on the horizon with their usual splendor, expressly tells us, (verse 3),
that a period of several days elapsed between the first appearance of
the dawn on the horizon and the actual rising of the sun that followed
it. As the verse* is very important for our purpose, I give below the
Pada text with an interlineal word for word translation: —

Tani it ahâni bahulâne âsan

Those verily days many were
Yâ prâchînam ud-itâ suryasya |
which aforetime on the uprising of the sun
Yatah pari jâre-iva â-charanti
from which after towards a lover like, moving on
Ushâh, dadrikshe na punah yatî-îva ||
O Dawn wast seen not again forsaking (woman), like

ु
* Rig. VII, 76. 3. — तानीदहािन बलाासन या पराचीनमिदता ू  । यतः पिर जार
सय
ु दे न पनयतीव
इवाचरषो ु  ॥
 82

I have followed Sâyana in splitting jâra-iva of Samhitâ text into

jâre+iva, and not jârah+iva as Shâkala has done in the Pada text; for
jâre+iva makes the simile more appropriate than if we were to
compare ushas with jârah. Literally rendered the verse, therefore,
means, “Verily, many were those days which were aforetime at the
uprising of the sun, and about which, O Dawn! thou wast seen
moving on, as towards a lover, and not like one (woman) who
forsakes.” I take pari with yatah, meaning that the dawn goes after
the days. Yatah pari, thus construed, means “after which,” or “about
which.” Sâyana takes pari with dadrikshe and Griffith renders yatah
by “since.” But these constructions do not materially alter the
meaning of the second half of the verse, though taking pari with yatah
enables us to take the second line as an adjectival clause, rendering
the meaning more plain. In IV, 52, 1, the Dawn is said to shine after
her sister (svasuh pari), and pari, with an ablative, does not
necessarily denote “from” in every case but is used in various senses,
as, for instance, in III, 5, 10, where the phrase Bhrigubhyah pari
occurs, and is rendered by Grassmann as equivalent to “for the sake
of Bhrigus,” while Sâyana paraphrases pari by paritah “round about.”
In the verse under consideration we can, therefore, take pari with
yatah and understand the expression as meaning “after, about or
around which (days).” It must also be borne in mind that there must
be an expression to correspond with jâre in the simile and this we get
only if we construe yatah pari in the way proposed above. If we now
analyze the verse it will be found to be made up of three clauses, one
principal and two adjectival. The principal statement asserts that
those days were many. The demonstrative “those” (tâni) is them
followed by two relative clauses, yâ prâchînam &c., and, yatah pari
&c. The first of these states that the days referred to in the principal
clause were those that “preceded the rising of the sun.” But if the
days preceded the rising of the sun, one might think that they were
pervaded with darkness. The poet, therefore, further
 83

adds, in the second relative clause, that though these days were
anterior to the rising of the sun, yet they were such that “the Dawn
was seen to move after or about them as after a loner, and not like a
woman who forsakes.” In short, the verse states in unmistakable
terms (1) that many days (bahulâni ahâni) passed between the
appearance of the first morning beams and sunrise, and (2) that
these days were faithfully attended by the Dawn, meaning that the
whole period was one of continuous Dawn, which never vanished
during the time. The words as they stand convey no other meaning
but this, and we have now to see how far it is intelligible to us.
To the commentators the verse is a perfect puzzle. Thus
Sâyana does not understand how the word “days” (ahâni) can be
applied to a period of time anterior to sunrise; for, says he, “The word
day (ahah) is used only to denote such a period of time as is invested
with light of the Dawn.” Then, again he is obviously at a loss to
understand how a number of days can be said to have elapsed
between the first beams of the dawn and sunrise. These were serious
difficulties for Sâyana and the only way to get over them was to force
an unnatural sense upon the words, and make them yield some
intelligible meaning. This was no difficult task for Sâyana. The word
ahâni, which means “days,” was the only stumbling block in his way,
and instead of taking it in the sense in which it is ordinarily used,
without exception, everywhere in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, he went back to its
root-meaning, and interpreted it as equivalent to “light” or “splendor.”
Ahan is derived from the root ah (or philologically dah), “to burn,” or
“shine,” and Ahanâ meaning “dawn” is derived from the same root.
Etymologically ahâni may, therefore, mean splendors; but the
question is whether it is so used anywhere, and why we should here
give up the ordinary meaning of the word. Sâyana’s answer is given
above. It is because the word “day” (ahan) can, according to him, be
applied only to a period after sunrise and before sunset. But this
reasoning is not
 84

sound, because in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda VI, 9, 1, ahah is applied to the dark

as well as to the bright period of time, for the verse says, “there is a
dark day (ahah) and a bright day (ahah).” This shows that the Vedic
poets were in the habit of using the word ahah (day) to denote a
period of time devoid of the light of the sun.* Sâyana knew this, and
in his commentary on I, 185, 4, he expressly says that the word ahah
may include night. His real difficulty was different, viz., the
impossibility of supposing that a period of several days could have
elapsed between the first appearance of light and sunrise, and this
difficulty seems to have been experienced even by Western scholars.
Thus Prof. Ludwig materially adopts Sâyana’s view and interprets the
verse to mean that the splendors of the dawn were numerous, and
that they appear either before sunrise, or, if prâchînam be differently
interpreted “in the east” at the rising of the sun. Roth and Grassman
seem to interpret prâchînam in the same way. Griffith translates ahâni
by “mornings” and prâchînam by “aforetime.” His rendering of the
verse runs thus: — “Great is, in truth, the number of the mornings,
which were aforetime at the sun’s uprising; since thou, O Dawn, hast
been beheld repairing as to thy love, as one no more to leave him.”
But Griffith does not explain what he understands by the expression,
“a number of mornings which were aforetime at the sun’s uprising.”
The case is, therefore, reduced to this. The word ahan, of which
ahâni (days) is a plural form, can be ordinarily interpreted to mean (1)
a period of time between sunrise and sunset; (2) a nycthemeron, as
when we speak of 360 days of the year; or (3) a measure of time to
mark a period of 24 hours, irrespective of the fact whether the sun is
above or below the horizon, as when we speak of the long Arctic
night

 ु ं च िव वतत
* Rig. VI, 9, 1, — अह कमहरजन  े रजसी वािभः
े । वैानरो जायमानो न
ं ॥ Also cf. T. S. III, 3, 4, 1.
राजावाितरोितषािमािस
 85

of 30 days. Are we then to abandon all these meanings, and

understand ahâni to mean “splendors” in the verse under
consideration? The only difficulty is to account for the interval of many
days between the appearance of the banner of the Dawn on the
horizon and the emergence of the sun’s orb over it; and this difficulty
vanishes if the description be taken to refer to the dawn in the Polar
or Circum-Polar regions. That is the real key to the meaning of this
and similar other passages which will be noted hereafter; and in its
absence a number of artificial devices have been made use of to
make these passages somehow intelligible to us. But now nothing of
the kind is necessary. As regards the word “days” it has been
observed that we often speak “a night of several days,” or a “night of
several months” when describing the Polar phenomena. In
expressions like these the word “day” or “month” simply denotes a
measure of time equivalent to “twenty-four hours,” or “thirty days;”
and there is nothing unusual in the exclamation of the Rig-Vedic poet
that “many were the days between the first beams of the dawn and
actual sunrise.” We have also seen that, at the Pole, it is quite
possible to mark the periods of twenty-four hours by the rotations of
the celestial sphere or the circum-polar stars, and these could be or
rather must have been termed “days” by the inhabitants of the place.
In the first chapter of the Old Testament we were told that God
created the heaven and the earth and also light “on the first day,”
while the sun was created on the fourth “to divide the day from the
night and to rule ‘the day.” Here the word “day” is used to denote a
period of time even before the sun was created; and a fortiori, there
can be no impropriety in using it to denote a period of time before
sunrise. We need not, therefore, affect a hypercritical spirit in
examining the Vedic expression in question. If Sâyana did it, it was
because he did not know as much about the Polar regions as we now
do. We have no such excuse and must, therefore, accept the
meaning which follows from the natural construction and reading of
the sentence.
 86

It is therefore clear that the verse in question (VII, 76, 3)

expressly describes a dawn continuously lasting for many days,
which is possible only in the Arctic regions. I have discussed the
passage at so much length because the history of its interpretation
clearly shows how certain passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, which are
unintelligible to us in spite of their simple diction, have been treated
by commentators, who know not what to make of them if read in a
natural way. But to proceed with the subject in hand, we have seen
that the Polar dawn could be divided into periods of 24 hours owing to
the circuits it makes round the horizon. In such a case we can very
well speak of these divisions as so many day-long dawns of 24 hours
each and state that so many of them are past and so many are yet to
come, as has been done in the verse (I, 113, 10) discussed above.
We may also say that so many day-long dawns have passed and yet
the sun has not risen, as in II, 28, 9, a verse addressed to Varuna
wherein the poet asks for the following boon from the deity: —

Para rinâ sâvîr adha mat-kritâni

mâ aham râjan anya-kritena bhojam |
Avyushtâ in nu bhûyasîr ushâsa
â no jîvân Varuna tâsu shâdhi ||

Literally translated this means “Remove far the debts (sins)

incurred by me. May I not, O King! be affected by others’ doings.
Verily, many dawns (have) not fully (vi) flashed forth. O Varuna! direct
that we may be alive during them.”* The first part of this verse
contains a prayer usually addressed to Gods, and we have nothing to
say with respect to it, so far as the subject in hand is concerned. The
only expression necessary to be discussed is bhûyasîh ushâsah
avyushtâh in third quarter of the verse. The first two words present no
difficulty. They mean “many dawns.” Now avyushta is a negative
participle from vyushta, which again is derived from ushta with vi
prefixed. I have referred to the

ु इन न ु
* Rig. II, 28, 9, — पर रणा सावीरध मतािन माहं राजतने भोजम । अा
ू षास आ नो जीवान वण तास ु शािध ॥
भयसी
 87

distinction between ushas and vyushti suggested by the threefold or

the five-fold division of the dawn. Vyushti, according to the Taittirîya
Brâhmana, means “day,” or rather “the flashing forth of the dawn into
sunrise” and the word a+vi+ushta, therefore, means “not-fully-
flashed-forth into sunrise.” But Sâyana and others do not seem to
have kept in view this distinction between the meanings of ushas and
vyushti; or if they did, they did not know or had not in their mind the
phenomenon of the long continuous dawn in the Arctic regions, a
dawn, that lasted for several day-long periods of time before the sun’s
orb appeared on the horizon. The expression, bhûyasîh ushâsah
avyushtâh, which literally means “many dawns have not dawned, or
fully flashed forth,” was therefore a riddle to these commentators.
Every dawn, they saw, was followed by sunrise; and they could not,
therefore, understand how “many dawns” could be described as “not-
fully-flashed-forth.” An explanation was thus felt to be a necessity and
this was obtained by converting, in sense, the past passive participle
avyushta into a future participle; and the expression in question was
translated as meaning, “during the dawns (or days) that have not yet
dawned “ or, in other words, “in days to come.” But the interpretation
is on the face of it strained and artificial. If future days were intended,
the idea could have been more easily and briefly expressed. The poet
is evidently speaking of things present, and, taking vi-ushta to denote
what it literally signifies, we can easily and naturally interpret the
expression to mean that though many dawns, meaning many day-
long portions of time during which the dawn lasted, have passed, yet
it is not vyushta, that is the sun’s orb has not yet emerged from below
the horizon and that Varuna should protect the worshipper under the
circumstances.
There are many other expressions in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which
further strengthen the same view. Thus corresponding to bhûyasîh in
the above passage, we have the adjective pûrvîh (many) used in IV,
19, 8 and VI, 28, 1, to denote the number of dawns, evidently
showing that numerically more
 88

than one dawn is intended. The dawns are again not un-frequently
addressed in the plural number in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and the fact is well-
known to all Vedic scholars. Thus in I, 92, which is a dawn-hymn, the
bard opens his song with the characteristically emphatic exclamation
“these (etâh) are those (tyâh) dawns (ushasah), which have made
their appearance on the horizon,” and the same expression again
occurs in VII, 78, 3. Yâska explains the plural number ushasah by
considering it to be used only honorifically (Nirukta XII, 7); while
Sâyana interprets it as referring to the number of divinities that
preside over the morn. The Western scholars have not made any
improvement on these explanations and Prof. Max Müller is simply
content with observing that the Vedic bards, when speaking of the
dawn, did sometimes use the plural just as we would use the singular
number! But a little reflection will show that neither of these
explanations is satisfactory. If the plural is honorific why is it changed
into singular only a few lines after in the same hymn? Surely the poet
does not mean to address the Dawn respectfully only at the outset
and then change his manner of address and assume a familiar tone.
This is not however, the only objection to Yâska’s explanation.
Various similes are used by the Vedic poets to describe the
appearance of the dawns on the horizon and an examination of these
similes will convince any one that the plural number, used in
reference to the Dawn, cannot be merely honorific. Thus in the
second line of I, 92, 1, the Dawns are compared to a number of
“warriors” (dhrishnavâh) and in the third verse of the same hymn they
are likened to “women (nârîh) active in their occupations.” They are
said to appear on the horizon like “waves of waters” (apâm na
urmayah) in VI, 64, 1, or like “pillars planted at a sacrifice”
(adhvareshu svaravah) in IV, 51, 2. We are again told that they work
like “men arrayed” (visho na yuktah), or advance like “troops of cattle”
(gavam na sargâh) in VII, 79, 2, and IV, 51, 8, respectively. They are
described as all “alike” (sadrishih) and are said to be of “one mind”
(sañjânante), or “acting
 89

harmoniously” IV, 51, 6, and VII, 76, 5. In the last verse the poet
again informs us that they “do not strive against each other” (mithah
na yatante), though they live jointly in the “same enclosure” (samâne
urve). Finally in X, 88, 18, the poet distinctly asks the question, “How
many fires, how many suns and how many dawns (ushâsah) are
there?” If the Dawn were addressed in plural simply out of respect for
the deity, where was the necessity of informing us that they do not
quarrel though collected in the same place? The expressions “waves
of waters,” or “men arrayed” &c., are again too definite to be
explained away as honorific. Sâyana seems to have perceived this
difficulty and has, probably for the same reason, proposed an
explanation slightly different from that of Yâska. But, unfortunately,
Sâyana’s explanation does not solve the difficulty, as the question still
remains why the deities presiding over the dawn should be more than
one in number. The only other explanation put forward, so far as I
know, is that the plural number refers to the dawns on successive
days during the year, as we perceive them in the temperate or the
tropical zone. On this theory there would be 360 dawns in a year,
each followed by the rising of the sun every day. This explanation
may appear plausible at the first sight. But on a closer examination t
will be found that the expressions used in the hymns cannot be made
to reconcile with this theory. For, if 360 dawns, all separated by
intervals of 24 hours, were intended by the plural number used in the
Vedic verses, no poet, with any propriety, would speak of them as he
does in I, 92, 1, by using the double pronoun etâh and tyâh as if he
was pointing out to a physical phenomenon before him; nor can we
understand how 360 dawns, spread over the whole year, can be
described as advancing like “men arrayed” for battle. It is again
absurd to describe the 360 dawns of the year as being collected in
the “same enclosure” and “not striving against or quarrelling with
each other.” We are thus forced to the conclusion that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
speaks of a team or a group of dawns, unbroken or uninterrupted by
sunlight, so that if we be so minded, we
 90

can regard them as constituting a single long continuous dawn. This

is in perfect accord with the statement discussed above, viz., that
many days passed between the first appearance of light on the
horizon and the uprising of the sun (VII, 76, 3). We cannot, therefore,
accept the explanation of consecutive dawns, nor that of Yâska, nor
of Sâyana regarding the use of the plural number in this case. The
fact is that the Vedic dawn represents one long physical phenomenon
which can be spoken of in plural by supposing it to be split up into
smaller day-long portions. It is thus that we find Ushas addressed
sometimes in the plural and sometimes in the singular number. There
is no other explanation on which we can account for and explain the
various descriptions of the dawn found in the different hymns.
But to clinch the matter, the Taittirîya Samhitâ, IV, 3, 11,
expressly states that the dawns are thirty sisters, or, in other words,
they are thirty in number and that they go round and round in five
groups, reaching the same appointed place and having the same
banner for all. The whole of this Anuvâka may be said to be
practically a dawn-hymn of 15 verses, which are used as Mantras for
the laying down of certain emblematical bricks called the “dawn-
bricks” on the sacrificial altar. There are sixteen such bricks to be
placed on the altar, and the Anuvâka in question gives 15 Mantras, or
verses, to be used on the occasion, the 16th being recorded
elsewhere. These 15 verses, together with their Brâhmana (T.S.V, 3,
4, 7), are so important for our purpose, that I have appended to this
chapter the original passages, with their translation, comparing the
version in the Taittirîya Samhitâ with that of the Atharva-Veda, in the
case of those verses which are found in the latter. The first verse of
the section or the Anuvâka, is used for laying down the first dawn-
brick and it speaks only of a single dawn first appearing on the
horizon. In the second verse we have, however, a couple of dawns
mentioned as “dwelling in the same abode.” A third dawn is, spoken
in the third verse, followed by the fourth and the fifth dawn. The five
dawns are then said to
 91

have five sisters each, exclusive of themselves, thus raising the total
number of dawns to thirty. These “thirty sisters” (trimhshat svasârah)
are then described as “going round” (pari yanti) in groups of six each,
keeping up to the same goal (nishkritam). Two verses later on, the
worshipper asks that he and his follower should be blessed with the
same concord as is observed amongst these dawns. We are then
told that one of these five principal dawns is the child of Rita, the
second upholds the greatness of Waters the third moves in the region
of Sûrya, the fourth in that of Fire or Gharma, and the fifth is ruled by
Savitṛi, evidently showing that the dawns are not the dawns of
consecutive days. The last verse of the Anuvâka sums up the
description by stating that the dawn, though it shines forth in various
forms, is but one in reality. Throughout the whole Anuvâka there is no
mention of the rising of the sun or the appearance of sunlight, and the
Brâhmana makes the point clear by stating, “There was a time, when
all this was neither day nor night, being in an undistinguishable state.
It was then that the Gods perceived these dawns and laid them down,
then there was light; therefore, it brightens to him and destroys his
darkness for whom these (dawn-bricks) are placed.” The object of
this passage is to explain how and why the dawn-bricks came to be
laid down with these Mantras, and it gives the ancient story of thirty
dawns being perceived by the Gods, not on consecutive days, but
during the period of time when it was neither night nor day. This,
joined with the express statement at the end of the Anuvâka that in
reality it is but one dawn, is sufficient to prove that the thirty dawns
mentioned in the Anuvâka were continuous and not consecutive. But,
if a still more explicit authority be needed it will be found in the
Taittirîya Brâhmana, II, 5, 6, 5. This is an old Mantra, and not a
portion of the explanatory Brâhmana, and is, therefore, as good an
authority as, any of the verses quoted above. It is addressed to the
dawns and means, “These very Dawns are those that first shone
forth, the Goddesses make five forms; eternal (shashvatîh), (they)
 92

are not separated (na avaprijyanti), nor do (they) terminate (na

gamanti antam).”* The “five forms” here referred to correspond with
the division of 30 dawns into 5 groups of 6 each, made in the
Taittirîya Samhitâ, after the manner of sacrificial shal-ahas, or groups
of six days; and we are expressly told that the dawns, which make
these 5 forms, are continuous, unseparated, or uninterrupted. In the
‫ي‬ig-Veda I, 152, 4, the garment of the lover of the dawns (lit. the
maidens, kanînâm jâram) is described as “inseparable” and “wide”
(an-avaprigna and vitata), and reading this in the light of the aforesaid
Mantra from the Taittirîya Brâhmana we are led to conclude that in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda itself the dawny garment of the sun, or the garment,
which the dawns, as mothers, weave for him (cf. V, 47, 6 ), is
considered as “wide” and “continuous.” Translated into common
language this means that the dawn described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda was a
long and continuous phenomenon. In the Atharva-Veda (VII, 22, 2)
the dawns are described as sachetasah and samîchîh, which means
that they are “harmonious” and “walk together” and not separately.
The first expression is found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but not the second,
though it could be easily inferred, from the fact that the dawns are
there described as “collected in the same enclosure.” Griffith renders
samîchîh by “a closely gathered band” and translates the verse thus:
— “The Bright one hath sent forth the Dawns, a closely gathered
band, immaculate, unanimous, brightly refulgent in their homes.Ӡ
Here all the adjectives of the dawns clearly indicate a group of
undivided dawns acting harmoniously; and yet strange to say Griffith,
who translates correctly misses the spirit altogether. We have thus
sufficient direct authority for holding that it is a “team,” or in Griffith’s
words, “a closely gathered band” of thirty continuous dawns that is
described in the Vedic

* Taitt. Br. II, 5, 6, 5.

† Ath. Veda, VII, 22, 2.
 93

hymns, and not the evanescent dawn of the temperate or the tropical
zone, either single or as a series of consecutive dawns.
It is interesting to examine how Sâyana explains the existence
of as many as thirty dawns, before we proceed to other authorities. In
his commentary on the Taittirîya Samhitâ IV, 3, 11, he tells us that the
first dawn spoken of in the first verse in the Anuvâka, is the dawn at
the beginning of the creation, when everything was undistinguishable
according to the Brâhmana. The second dawn in the second verse is
said to be the ordinary dawn that we see every day. So far it was all
right; but the number of dawns soon outgrew the number of the kinds
of dawn known to Sâyana. The third, fourth and fifth verses of the
Anuvâka describe three more dawns, and Sâyana was at last forced
to explain that though the dawn was one yet by its Yogic or occult
powers it assumed these various shapes! But the five dawns
multiplied into thirty sisters in the next verse, and Sâyana finally
adopted the explanation that thirty separate dawns represented the
thirty consecutive dawns of one month. But why only thirty dawns of
one month out of 360 dawns of a year should thus be selected in
these Mantras is nowhere explained. The explanations, besides
being mutually inconsistent, again conflict with the last verse in the
Anuvâka with the Brâhmana or the explanation given in the Samhitâ
itself, and with the passage from the Taittirîya Brâhmana quoted
above. But Sâyana was writing under a firm belief that the Vedic
dawn was the same as he and other Vedic scholars like Yâska
perceived it in the tropical zone; and the wonder is, not that he has
given us so many contradictory explanations, but that he has been
able to suggest so many apparently plausible explanations as the
exigencies of the different Mantras required. In the light of advancing
knowledge about the nature of the dawn at the North Pole, and the
existence of man on earth before the last Glacial epoch We should,
therefore, have no hesitation in accepting more intelligible and
rationalistic view of the different passages descriptive of the dawns in
the Vedic literature. We are
 94

sure Sâyana himself would have welcomed a theory more

comprehensive and reasonable than any advanced by him, if the
same could have been suggested to him in his own day. Jyotish or
astronomy has always been considered to be the “eye of the Veda,”*
and as with the aid of the telescope this eye now commands a wider
range than previously, it will be our own fault if we fail to utilize the
knowledge so gained to elucidate those portions of our sacred books
which are still unintelligible.
But to proceed with the subject, it may be urged that it is only
the Taittirîya Samhitâ that gives us the number of the dawns, and that
it would not be proper to mix up these statements with the statements
contained in the hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and draw a conclusion from
both taken together. The Taittirîya Samhitâ treats of sacrificial rites
and the Mantras relating to the dawn-bricks may not be regarded as
being originally connected. The fact that only some-of these are
found in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ, might lend some support to this
view. But a critical study of the Anuvâka, will remove all these doubts.
The “thirty sisters” are not mentioned one by one, leaving it to the
hearer, or the reader, to make up the total, and ascertain the final
number for himself. The sixth verse in the Anuvâka expressly
mentions “the thirty sisters” and is, by itself, sufficient to prove that in
ancient days the number of dawns was considered to be thirty. But if
an authority from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda be still needed, we have it in VI, 59, 6,
where Dawn is described as having traversed “thirty steps” (trimshat
padâni akramît).† This statement has, as yet, remained unexplained.
“A single dawn traversing thirty steps” is but a paraphrase of the
statement

* Cf. Shikshâ, 41-42.

ू 
† Rig. VI, 59, 6, — इाी अपािदयं पवागात पतीः । िही िशरो िजया वावदरत
ं
तिरशत पदा नयबमीत ॥ Rig. X, 189, 3, which speaks of thirty realms (triṁshat
dhâma), refers very probably to the same fact.
 95

that “dawns are thirty sisters, keeping to the same goal in their
circuits.” Another verse which has not yet been satisfactorily
explained is the ‫ي‬ig-Veda I, 123, 8. It says “The dawns, alike today
and alike tomorrow, dwell long in the abode of Varuna. Blameless,
they forthwith go round (pari yanti) thirty yojanas; each its destined
course (kratum).”* The first half of the verse presents no difficulty. In
the second we are told that the dawns go round thirty yojanas, each
following its own “plan,” which is the meaning of kratu, according to
the Petersberg Lexicon. But the phrase “thirty yojanas” has not been
as yet satisfactorily explained. Griffith following M. Bergaigne
understands it to mean thirty regions or spaces, indicating the whole
universe; but there is no authority for this meaning. Sâyana, whom
Wilson follows, gives an elaborate astronomical explanation. He says
that the sun’s rays precede his rising and are visible when the sun is
below the horizon by thirty yojanas, or; in other words, the dawn is in
advance of the sun by that distance. When dawns are, therefore, said
to traverse thirty yojanas, Sâyana understands by it the astronomical
phenomenon of the dawn illumining a space of thirty yojanas in
advance of the sun, and, that when the dawn, at one place, is over, it
is to be found in another place, occupying a space of thirty yojanas in
that place. The explanation is very ingenious; and Sâyana also adds
that the dawns are spoken of in the plural number in the verse under
consideration, because the dawns at different places on the surface
of the earth, brought on by the daily motion of the sun, are intended.
But unfortunately the explanation cannot stand scientific scrutiny.
Sâyana says that the sun travels 5,059 yojanas round the Meru in 24
hours; and as Meru means the earth and the circumference of the
earth is now known to be about 24,377 miles, a yojana would be
about 4.9, or in round number, about 5 miles. Thirty such yojanas will,
therefore, be 150 miles; while the first beams of

ं ं
* Rig. I, 123, 8, — सशीर सशीिर शवो दीघ सचे वणधाम । अनवािशत
योजनाकैे का करत ं ु पिरयि सः ॥
 96

the dawn greet us on the horizon when the sun is not less than 16º
below the horizon. Taking one degree equal to 60 miles, 16º would
mean 960 miles, a distance far in excess of the thirty yojanas of
Sâyana. Another objection to Sâyana’s explanation is that the Vedic
bard is evidently speaking of a phenomenon present before him, and
not mentally following the astronomical dawns at different places
produced by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis. The explanation
is again inapplicable to “thirty steps (padâni)” of the dawn expressly
mentioned in VI, 59, 6. Therefore, the only alternative left is, to take
the phrases “thirty yojanas,” “thirty sisters,” and “thirty steps” as
different versions of one and the same fact, viz., the circuits of the
dawn along the Polar horizon. The phrase “each its destined course”
also becomes intelligible in this case, for though thirty dawns
complete thirty rounds, each may well be described as following its
own definite course. The words pari yanti in the text literally apply to a
circular (pari) motion, (cf. the words pari-ukshanam, paristaranam,
&c.); and the same term is used in the Taittirîya Samhitâ with
reference to “thirty sisters.” The word yojana primarily means “a
chariot” (VIII, 72, 6) and then it came to denote “distance to be
accomplished with unharnessing the horses,” or what we, in the
vernacular, call a “tappâ.” Now this tappâ, or “the journey to be
accomplished without unharnessing the horse,” may be a day’s
journey and Prof. Max Müller has in one place interpreted the yojana
in this way.* In V, 54, 5, the Maruts are said “to have extended their
greatness as far as the sun extends his daily course,” and the word in
the original for “daily course” is yojanum. Accepting this meaning, we
can interpret the expression “the dawns forth with go round (pari
yanti) thirty yojanas” to mean that the dawns complete thirty daily
rounds as at the North Pole. That circular motion is here intended is
further evident from 111, 61, 3, which says, in distinct terms,
“Wending towards the same goal (samânam artham), O Newly-born
(Dawn)!

* See T. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, pp. 177 and 325.

 97

turn on like a wheel (ckakramiva â vavritsva).”* Although the word

navyasi (newly-born) is here in the vocative case, yet the meaning is
that the dawn, ever anew or becoming new every day, revolves like a
wheel. Now a wheel may either move in a perpendicular plane, like
the wheel of a chariot, or in a horizontal plane like the potter’s wheel.
But the first of these two motions cannot be predicated of the dawn
anywhere on the surface of the earth. The light of the morning is,
everywhere, confined to the horizon, as described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
VII, 80, 1, which speaks of the dawns as “unrolling the two rajasî,
which border on each other (samante), and revealing all things.Ӡ No
dawn, whether in the rigid, the temperate, or the tropical zone can,
therefore, be seen traveling, like the sun, from east to west, over the
head of the observer in a perpendicular plane. The only possible
wheel-like motion is, therefore, along the horizon and this can be
witnessed only in regions near the Pole. A dawn in the temperate or
the tropical zone is visible only for a short time on the eastern horizon
and is swallowed up, in the same place by the rays of the rising sun.
It is only in the Polar regions that we see the morning lights revolving
along the horizon for some day-long periods of time, and if the wheel-
like motion of the dawn, mentioned in III, 61, 3, has any meaning at
all, we must take it to refer to the revolving splendors of the dawn in
the Arctic regions previously described. The expressions “reaching
the appointed place (nish-kritam) day by day” (I, 123, 9), and
“wending ever and ever to the same goal” (111, 61, 3) are also ill-
suited to describe the dawn in latitudes below the Arctic circle, but if
we take these expressions to refer to the Polar dawn they become
not only intelligible, but peculiarly appropriate, as such a dawn in its
daily circuits must come to the point from which it started

ु
* Rig. III, 61, 3, — उषः परतीची भवनािन े ु । समानमथ
िवोा ितत कतः
चरणीयमाना चबिमव ना व ॥
े
† Rig. VII, 80, 1, — परित सतोमिभषस  
ं विसा गीिभिवूासः ु । िववतय
परथमा अबीन 
ु
रजसी समे आिवंवत भवनािन िवा ॥ See Wallis’ Cosmology of the Rig-
Veda, p. 116.
 98

every twenty-four hours. All these passages taken together,

therefore, point only to one conclusion and that is that both the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda and the Taittirîya Samhitâ describe a long and continuous dawn
divided into thirty dawn-days, or periods of twenty four hours each, a
characteristic found only in the Polar dawn.
There are a number of other passages where the dawn is
spoken of in the plural, especially in the case of matutinal deities, who
are said to follow or come after not a single dawn but dawns in the
plural (I, 6, 3; I, 180, 1; V, 76, 1; VII, 9, 1; VII, 63, 3). These passages
have been hitherto understood as describing the appearance of the
deities after the consecutive dawns of the year. But now a new light is
thrown upon them by the conclusion established above from the
examination of the different passages about the dawn in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, the Taittirîya and the Atharva Veda Samhitâ. It may, however,
be mentioned that I do not mean to say that in the whole of the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda not a single reference can be found to the dawn of the tropical
or the temperate zone. The Veda which mentions a year of 360 days
is sure to mention the evanescent dawn which accompanies these
days in regions to the south of the Arctic circle. A greater part of the
description of the dawn is again of such a character that we can apply
it either to the long Polar dawn, or to the short-lived dawn of the
tropics. Thus both may be said to awaken every living being (I, 92, 9,)
or disclose the treasures concealed by darkness (I, 123, 4). Similarly
when dawns of different days are said to depart and come, a new
sister succeeding each day to the sister previously vanished (I, 124,
9), we my either suppose that the consecutive dawns of different
days are intended, or that a number of day-long dawns, which
succeed one another after every 24 hours at the Pole, were in the
mind of the poet. These passages do not, therefore, in any way affect
the conclusion we have arrived at above by the consideration of the
special characteristics of the dawns mentioned in the hymns. What
we mean to prove is that Ushas, or the Goddess of the first
appearance of which formed the subject of so many
 99

beautiful hymns in the Vedic literature, is not the evanescent dawn of

the tropics but the long continuous and revolving dawn of the pole;
and if we have succeeded in proving this from the passages
discussed above, it matters little if a pass age or more are found
elsewhere in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, describing the ordinary tropical dawn. The
Vedic ‫ي‬ishis who sang the present hymns, must have been familiar
with the tropical dawn if they now and then added a 13th month to
secure the correspondence of the lunar and the solar year. But the
deity of the Dawn was an ancient deity, the attributes of which had
become known to the ‫ي‬ishis by orally preserved traditions, about the
primeval home; and the dawn-hymns, as we now possess them,
faithfully describe these characteristics. How these old characteristics
of the Goddess of Dawn were preserved for centuries is a question to
which I shall revert after examining the whole of the Vedic evidence
bearing on the Polar theory. For the present we may assume that
these reminiscences of the old home were preserved much in the
same way as we have preserved the hymns, accent for accent and
letter for letter, for the last three or four thousand years.
It will be seen from foregoing discussion that if the dawn-hymns
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda be read and studied in the light of modern scientific
discoveries and with the aid of passages in the Atharva Veda and the
Taittirîya Samhitâ and Brâhmana they clearly establish the following
results:
(1) The Rig-Vedic dawn was so long that several days elapsed
between the first appearance of light on the horizon and the sunrise
which followed it, (VII, 76, 3); or, as described in 11, 28, 9, many
dawns appeared one after another before they ripened into sunrise.
(2) The Dawn was addressed in the plural number not
honorifically, nor as representing the consecutive dawns of the Year,
but because it was made up of thirty parts (I; 123, 8; VI, 59, 6; T.S.,
IV, 3, 11, 6).
(3) Many dawns lived in the same place, acted harmoniously
and never quarreled with each other, IV, 51, 7-9; VII, 76, 5; A.V. VII,
22, 2).
 100

(4) The thirty parts of the dawn were continuous and

inseparable, forming “a closely gathered band,” or “a group of
dawns,” (I, 152, 4; T. Br. II, 5, 6, 5; A.V. VII, 22, 2).
(5) These thirty dawns, or thirty parts of one dawn revolved
round and round like a wheel, reaching the same goal every day,
each dawn or part following its own destined course, (I, 123, 8, 9; III,
61, 3; T.S. IV, 3, 11, 6).
These characteristics it is needless to say are possessed only
by the dawn at or near the Pole. The last or the fifth especially is to
be found only in lands very near the North Pole and not everywhere
in the Arctic regions. We may, therefore, safely conclude that the
Vedic Goddess of Dawn is Polar in origin. But it may be urged that
while the Polar-dawn lasts from 45 to 60 days, the Vedic dawn is
described only as made up of thirty day-long parts, and that the
discrepancy must be accounted for before we accept the conclusion
that the Vedic dawn is Polar in character. The discrepancy is not,
however, a serious one. We have seen that the duration of the dawn
depends upon the powers of refraction and reflection of the
atmosphere; and that these again vary according to the temperature
of the place, or other meteorological conditions. It is, therefore, not
unlikely that the duration of the dawn at the Pole, when the climate
there was mild and genial, might be somewhat shorter than what we
may expect it to be at present when the climate is severely cold. It is
more probable, however, that the dawn described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda is
not exactly such a dawn as may be seen by an observer stationed
precisely at the North Pole. As observed previously, the North Pole is
a point, and if men lived near the Pole in early days, they must have
lived somewhat to the south of this point. Within this tract it is quite
possible to have 30 day-long dawns revolving, like a wheel, after the
long Arctic night of four or five months; and, so far as astronomy is
concerned, there is, therefore, nothing improbable in the description
of the Dawn found in the Vedic literature. We must also bear in mind
that the Vedic Dawn often tarried longer on the horizon, and the
worshippers asked
 101

her not to delay lest the sun might search her like an enemy (V, 79,
9). This shows that though 30 days was the usual duration of the
Dawn it was sometimes exceeded, and people grew impatient to see
the light of the sun. It was in cases likes these, that Indra, the God
who created the dawns and was their friend, was obliged to break the
car of the dawn and bring the sun above the horizon (II, 15, 6; X, 73,
6).* There are other places in which the same legend is referred to
(IV, 30, 8), and the obscuration of the Dawn by a thunderstorm is, at
present, supposed to be the basis of this myth. But the explanation,
like others of its kind, is on the face of it unsatisfactory. That a
thunderstorm should occur just at the time of the dawn would be a
mere accident, and it is improbable that it could have been made the
basis of a legend. Again, it is not the obscuration, but the delaying of
the Dawn, or its tarrying longer on the horizon than usual, that is
referred to in the legend, and we can better account for it on the Polar
theory, because the duration of dawn, though usually of 30 days,
might have varied at different places according to latitude and climatic
conditions, and Indra’s bolt was thus needed to check these freaks of
the Dawn and make way for the rising sun. There are other legends
connected with the Dawn and the matutinal deities on which the Polar
theory throws quite a new light; but these will be taken up in the
chapter on Vedic myths, after the whole direct evidence in support of
the theory is examined.
But if the Vedic dawn is Polar in origin, the ancestors of the
Vedic bards must have witnessed it, not in. the Post-Glacial, but in
the Pre-Glacial era; and it may be finally asked why a reference to
this early age is not found in the hymns before us? Fortunately the
hymns do preserve a few indications of the time when these long
dawns appeared. Thus, in I, 113, 13, we are told that the Goddess
Dawn shone perpetually

ु
* Rig. II, 15, 6, — सोदं िसमिरणान े
मिहा वळणान उषसः सं िपपषे । अजवसो

जिवनीिभिवन सो... ॥ Rig. IV, 30, 8, — एतद घदे उत वीयम इ चकथ  पम ।
 ु ं वधीर िहतरं िदवः ॥
सिऽयं यद हणायव
 102

in former days (purâ) and here the word purâ does not mean the
foregone days of this kalpa, but rather refers to a by-gone age, or
purâ kalpa as in the passage from the Taittirîya Samhitâ (I, 5, 7, 5 ),
quoted and discussed in the next chapter. The word prathamâ, in the
Taittirîya Samhitâ, IV, 3, 11, 1 and the Taittirîya Brâhmana, II, 5, 6, 5,
does not again mean simply “first in order,” but refers to “ancient
times,” as when Indra’s “first” or “oldest” exploits are mentioned in 1,
32, 1, or when certain practices are said to be “first” or “old” in X, 90,
16. It is probable that it was this import of the word prathamâ that led
Sâyana to propose that the first dawn, mentioned in the Taittirîya
Samhitâ IV, 3, 11, represented the dawn at the beginning of the
creation. The Vedic poets could not but have been conscious that the
Mantras they used to lay down the dawn-bricks were inapplicable to
the dawn as they saw it, and the Taittirîya Samhitâ (V, 3, 4, 7), which
explains the Mantras, clearly states that this story or the description
of the dawns is a tradition of old times when the Gods perceived the
thirty dawns. It is not, therefore, correct to say that there are no
references in the Vedic hymns to the time when these long dawns
were visible. We shall revert to the point later on, when further
evidence on the subject will be noticed and discussed. The object of
the present chapter was to examine the duration of the Vedic dawn,
the Goddess of the morning, the subject of so many beautiful hymns
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and to show that the deity is invested with Polar
characteristics. The evidence in support of this view has been fully
discussed; and we shall, therefore, now take up the other Polar and
Circum-Polar tests previously mentioned, anti see whether we can
find out further evidence from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda to strengthen our
conclusions.

————— ™ —————
 103

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V

THE THIRTY DAWNS

The following are the passages from the Taittirîya Samhitâ

referred to on page 90: —

TAITTIRÎYA SAMHITÂ, KÂNDA IV, PRAPÂTHAKA 3,

ANUVÂKA, 11

VERSE 1, — This verse, with slight modifications, occurs twice in the

Atharva-Veda Samhitâ (III, 10, 4; VIII, 9, 11). It runs thus: —

VERSES 2, 3 and 4, — The Atharva-Veda reading (VIII, 9, 112-14) is

slightly different: —
 104

VERSE 8, — This verse is also found in the Atharva-Veda (III, 10 12);

but the reading of the second half is as follows: —

VERSE 11, — Compare A.V. VIII, 9, 15. For समानमू :

A. V. reads ता एकमू :। The rest is the same in both.

्
VERSE 13, — Compare A.V. III, 10, 1. For या ूथमा यौछत A.V. reads

ु
ूथमा ह यवास ु A.V. has हाम ।् Compare also Rig. IV, 57, 7,
। And for घआव
where the second line is found as in A.V.
 105

TAITTIRÎYA SAMHITÂ KÂNDA V, PRAPÂTHAKA 3,

ANUVÂKA 4, SECTION 7

TRANSLATION AND NOTES

Taitt. Samhitâ IV. 3, 11

1. This verily, is She that dawned first; (she) moves entered into
her (i.e. above the horizon). The bride, the new-come mother, is born.
The three great ones follow her.
________________________________________________________________

1. She that dawned first: evidently meaning the first of a series of

thirty dawns, mentioned in the following verses. In verse 13 we are told that
it is the dawn which commences the year. The thirty dawns are, therefore,
the dawns at the beginning of the year, and the first of them is mentioned
in the first verse. Sâyana, however, says that the dawn at the beginning of
the creation is here intended. But the explanation does not suit the context,
and Sâyana has himself given different explanations afterwards.
Entered into her: according to Sâyana asyâm (into her) means “into
the earth;” compare Rig. III, 61, 7, where the sun, the speeder of the dawns,
is said to have “entered into the mighty earth and heaven.” According to
A.V. reading the meaning, would be “entered into the other (dawns),”
showing that the first dawn is a member of a larger group.
The three great ones: Sûrya, Vâyu and Agni according to Sâyana.
The three typical deities or Devatâs mentioned by Yâska (VII, 5) are Agni,
Vâyu or Indra, and Sûrya. In Rig VII, 33, 7, the three Gharmas (fires) are said
to attend the dawn, (trayo Gharmâsa ushasam sachante); and in VII, 7, 8, 3,
the dawns are said to have created Sûrya, Yajña (Sacrifice) and Agni. Also
compare A. V. IX, 1, 8, and Bloomfield’s note thereon in S. B. E. Series, Vol.
XLII, p. 590. Though the three may be variously named, the reference is
evidently to the rise of the sun and the commencement of sacrifices or the
kindling of sacrificial fires after the first dawn (Cf. Rig. I, 113, 9).
 106

2. Possessed of song, decorating (themselves), and moving

together in a common abode, the Two Dawns, the (two wives of the
sun, unwasting, rich in seed, move about displaying their banner and
knowing well (their way).
3. The Three Maidens have come along the path of Rita; the
three fires (Gharmas) with light, have followed. One (of these
maidens) protects the progeny, one the vigor, and one the ordinance
of the pious.
4. That, which (was) the Fourth, acting as ‫ي‬ishis, the
________________________________________________________________

2. Possessed of songs: Sâyana thus interprets chchandas-vatî; but

the Pet. Lex. translates the word by “lovely.” I have followed Sâyana
because the A.V. reading chchandas-pakṣhe, “having chchandas for the
two wings,” supports Sâyana’s meaning. That the morning atmosphere
resounded with the recitation of hymns and songs may be seen, amongst
others, from Rig. III, 61, 1 and 6. The phrase madye-chchandasaḥ in verse 6
below, denotes the same idea. But the word chchandas may perhaps be
understood to mean “shine” in all these places; Cf. Rig. VIII, 7, 36, where
the phrase, chchando na sûro archiṣhâ is translated by Max Müller to mean
“like the shine by the splendor of the sun,” (See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII,
pp. 393, 399)
Decorating, moving together-in the same place, gives of the sun, un-
wasting etc.: These and others are the usual epithets of the Dawn found in
the Rig-Veda, Cf. Rig. I, 92, 4; VII, 76, 5; IV, 5, 13; I, 113, 13.
The Two Dawns: Uṣhasâ does not here mean Uṣhâsâ-naktâ or “Day
and Night,” as supposed by Mr. Griffith, but denotes two dawns as such,
the third, the fourth &c. being mentioned in the following verses. Sâyana
says that the first dawn is the dawn which appeared at the beginning of the
creation and the second the diurnal one, as we see it. But Sâyana had to
abandon this explanation later on. The couple of Dawns obviously includes
the first Dawn mentioned in the first verse, which, with its successor, now
forms a couple. Since groups of two, three, five or thirty dawns are
mentioned as moving together, they cannot be the dawns of consecutive
days, that is, separated by sunlight, as with us in the tropical or the
temperate zone.
3. The Three Maidens: the number of Dawns is now increased to
three; but Sâyana gives no explanation of the number.
4. The Fourth: Sâyana now says that the single Deity of Dawn
appears as many different dawns through yogic powers!
 107

two wings of the sacrifice, has become the four-fold Stoma (Chatu-
shtoma). Using Gâyatri, Trishtup, Jagatî, Anushtup the great song,
they brought this light.
5. The creator did it with the Five, that he created five-and-five
sisters to them (each). Their five courses (kratavah), assuming
various forms, move on in combination (prayavena)
6. The Thirty Sisters, bearing the same banner, move on to the
appointed place (nish-kritam). They, the wise, create the seasons.
Refulgent, knowing (their way), they go round (pari yanti) amidst-
songs (madhye-chchandasah).

________________________________________________________________

Acting as Ṛiṣhis ... four fold stoma: The group of four Dawns
appears to be here compared to the Chatu-ṣhṭoma or the four-fold song.
(For a description of the four-fold Stoma see Ait. Br. III, 42, Haug’s Trans. p.
237). Gâyatrî &c are the metres used. The light brought on by the Dawns is
the reward of this stoma. Sâyana interprets suvas to mean “heaven” but
compare Rig. III, 61, 4, where the adjective, svear jananâ, “creating light,” is
applied to the Dawn.
5. Did it with the Five: after the number of Dawns was increased to
five, the creation proceeded by fives; compare verse 11 below.
Their five courses: I construe tâsâm pañcha kratavaḥ prayaveṅa
yanti. Sâyana understands kratavaḥ to mean sacrificial rites performed on
the appearance of the dawn; but compare Rig. I, 123, 8 which says “The
blameless Dawns (plu.) go round thirty yojanas each her own kratu
(destined course),” (supra p. 103) kratavaḥ in the present verse must be
similarly interpreted.
In combination: We have thirty Dawns divided into five groups of six
each; compare Taitt. Br. II, 5, 6, 5 quoted above (p. 100), which says tâ
devyaḥ kurvate paṇcha rûpâ “the Goddesses (Dawns) make five forms.”
Five groups of thirty Dawns, each group having its own destined course
are here described; but as each group is made of six Dawns, the five
courses are again said to assume different forms, meaning that the
members of each group have again their own courses Within the larger
course chalked out for the groups.
6. Thirty Sisters: Sâyana in his commentary on the preceding verse
says that the thirty Dawns mentioned are the thirty dawns of a month. But
Sâyana does not explain why one month out of twelve, or only 30 out of 360
dawns should be thus selected. The explanation is again unsuited to the
context, (See supra p. 101
 108

7. Through the sky, the illumined Goddess of Night accepts the

ordinances of the sun. The cattle, of various forms, (begin to) look up
as they rise on the lap of the mother.
8. The Ekâshtakâ, glowing with holy fervor (tapas), gave birth to
a child, the great Indra. Through him the Gods

________________________________________________________________

and T.S.V. 3, 4, 7, quoted below.) The Dawns are called sisters also in the
Rig-Veda, (Cf. I, 124, 8 and 9).
Appointed place: niṣh kṛitam (Nir. XII, 7), used in reference to the
course of the Dawns also in Rig. I, 123, 9. It is appropriate only if the Dawns
returned to the same point in their daily rounds, (See supra p. 106).
Go round amidst-songs: pari yanti, “go round” is also the phrase
used in Rig. I, 123, 8 Madhye chchandasaḥ is interpreted by Sâyana to
mean “about the sun, which is always surrounded by songs.” But we need
not go so far, for Madhye chchandasaḥ may be more simply taken to mean
“amidst-songs” that are usually sung at the dawn (Rig. VII, 80, 1).
7. Through the sky: I take nabhas as an accusative of space. Sâyana
appears to take it as an adjective equivalent to nabhasthasya and
qualifying sûryasya. In either case the meaning is the same, viz. that the
night was gradually changing into day-light.
The cattle: morning rays or splendors usually spoken of as cows. In
Rig. I, 92, 12, the Dawn is described as spreading cattle (pashûn) before
her; and in I, 124, 5, we are told that she fills the lap of both parents heaven
and earth. I construe, with Sâyana, nânâ-rûpa pashavaḥ vi pashyanti,
taking vi pashyanti intransitively, and nânâ-rûpa as an adjective. The same
phrase is found used in reference to a woman’s children in the Atharva
Veda, XIV, 2, 25. For the intransitative use of vi pushyanti, See Rig. X, 725,
4.
8. The Ekâṣhṭaka: The birth of Indra is evidently the birth of the sun
after the expiry of thirty dawns. Sâyana, quoting Âpasthamba Grihya Sutra
(VIII, 21, 10), interprets Ekâshtakâ to mean the 8th day of the dark half of
the month of Mâgha (January-February); and in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, VII,
4, 8, quoted and explained by me in Chapter III of Orion, it seems to have
same meaning, (See Orion p. 45), Ekâshtakâ was the first day, or the
consort, of the Year, when the sun turned towards the north from the winter
solstice; and the commencement of all annual sattras is therefore, directed
to be made on the Ekâshtakâ day. This meaning was, however, settled
when the vernal equinox had receded from the asterism of Mriga (Orion) to
that of the Krittikâs (Pleiades). But in earlier days Ekâshtakâ seems to have
meant the last of the dawns which preceded the rise of the sun after the
long darkness, and
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have subdued their enemies; by his powers (he) has become the
slayer of the Asuras.
9. You have made a companion (lit. the after-born) for me, who
was (before) without a companion. Truth-teller (as thou art), I desire
this, that I may have his good will, just as you do not transgress each
the other.
10. The All-knowing has my good will, has got a hold (on it),
has secured a place (therein). May I have his good will just as you do
not transgress each the other.
11. Five milkings answer to the five dawns; the five seasons to
the five-named cow. The five sky-regions, made by the fifteen, have a
common head, directed to one world.

________________________________________________________________

thus commenced the year, which began with the period of sunshine; the
word eka in Ekâshtakâ perhaps denotes the first month, the last dawn
probably falling on the 8th day of the first lunar month of the year.
A companion for me: that is, Indra or the sun, whose birth is
mentioned in the previous verse; and the poet now prays that his new
friend, the after-born follower or companion, should be favorable to him. It
should be noted that the birth of the sun is described after the lapse of
thirty dawns, during which the poet had no companion.
Truth-teller: Sâyana seems to take satyam vadantî as a vocative
plural; but it is not in strict accordance with grammar. In the pada text, it is
evidently a feminine form of nom. sing., and I have translated accordingly,
though not without some difficulty. In Rig. III, 61, 2, the dawn is called
sûnṛitâ îrayantî which expresses the same idea.
Just as you do not transgress each the other: compare the Rig-Veda
VII, 76, 5, where we are told that the Dawns, though collected in the same
place, do not strive against or quarrel with each other.
10. The All-knowing: Sâyana takes Vishva-Vedâḥ to mean the Dawn;
but it obviously refers to the companion (anujâm) mentioned in the
preceding verse. The worshipper asks for a reciprocity of good will. The
All-knowing (Indra) has his good will; let him, he prays, have now the All-
knowing’s good will. The adjective vishva vedâḥ is applied in the Rig-Veda
to Indra or Agni several times, Cf. Rig. VI, 47, 12; I, 147, 3.
11. Five milkings: Sâyana refers to Taitt. Brâh. II, 2, 9, 6-9, where
darkness, light, the two twilights, and day are said to be the five milkings
(dohâḥ) of Prajâpati. The idea seems to be that all the five-fold groups in
the creation proceeded from the five-fold dawn-groups.
Five-caned Cow: the earth, according to Sâyana, who says that the
earth has five different names in the five seasons, e. g. pushpa-vati
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12. The first dawn (is) the child Rita, one upholds the greatness
of Waters, one moves in the regions of Sûrya, one (in those) of
Gharma (fire), and Savitṛi rules one.
13. That, which dawned first, has become a cow in Yama’s
realm. Rich in milk, may she milk for us each succeeding year.
14. The chief of the bright, the omniform, the brindled, the fire-
bannered has come, with light, in the sky. Working well towards a
common goal, bearing (signs of) old age, (yet) O unwasting! O Dawn!
thou hast come.
15. The wife of the seasons, this first has come, the leader of
days, the mother of children. Though one, O Dawn! thou shinest
manifoldly; though unwasting, thou causest all the rest to grow old
(decay).

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(blossomy) in Vasanta (spring), tâpa-vatî (heated) in Grîshma (Summer),

vṛiṣhṭi-vatî (showery) in Varshâ (Rains), jala-prasâda-vatî (clear-watered) in
Sharad (Autumn), and shaitya-vatî (cold) in Hemanta-Shishira (Winter). The
seasons are taken as five by combining Hemanta and Shishira into one.
The fifteen: The fifteen-fold Stoma, called pañcha-dasha, (See Haug’s
Trans. Ait. Br. p. 238).
13. Each succeeding year: This shows that the dawn here described
is the first dawn of the year. In Rig. I, 33, 10, light (cows) is said to be
milked from darkness.
14. Working-well towards a common goal: compare Rig. III, 61, 3,
where, the Dawn “wending to one and the same goal” is asked to “turn on
like a wheel.”
Bearing (signs of) old age: I construe jarâm bibhratî and yet ajare.
Sâyana takes svapasya-rnânâ (working well) as an independent adjective;
and connects bibhratî with artham, and jarâm with âgâḥ. The meaning
would then be “Working well, having a common end, O unwasting Dawn!
thou least reached old age.” But it does not make any appreciable change
in the general sense of the verse.
15. Though one ... shinest manyfoldly: shows that only one
continuous dawn, though made up of many parts, is described in this
hymn.
Leader of days, mother of children — the epithets ahnâm netrî and
gavâm mâtâ are also found used in the Rig-Veda, VII, 77, 2.
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Taitt. Samhitâ V, 3, 4, 7.

It was un-distinguished,* neither day nor night. The Gods

perceived these dawn-bricks (for the laying of which the 15 verses
given above are to be used). They laid them. Then it shone forth.†
Therefore for whom these are laid, it shines forth to him, destroys
(his) darkness.

REMARKS

It has been previously mentioned that the fifteen verses, quoted

above, are used or recited as Mantras at the time of laying down
certain emblematical bricks, called Vyushtî-ishtakâs or dawn-bricks,
on the sacrificial altar. But as the Mantras, or verses, used for
sacrificial purposes are often taken from different Vedic hymns, these
verses are likely to be regarded as unconnected with each other. The
account of the thirty dawns, contained therein, however, shows that
these verses must have originally formed an entire or one
homogeneous hymn. Again if the Mantras had been selected from
different hymns, one for each dawn-brick, there would naturally be 16
verses in all, as 16 dawn-bricks are to be laid on the altar. The very
fact, that the Anuvâka contains only 15 verses (leaving the sacrificer
to select the 16th from elsewhere), therefore, further supports the
same view. It is true that some of these verses are found in the
Atharva-Veda, either detached or in connection with other subjects.
But that does not prevent us from treating the passage in the
Taittirîya Samhitâ, as containing a connected account of thirty dawns
divided into five groups of six each. The question is not, however,
very material, inasmuch as verses 5 and 6, whether

* It was undistinguished: This paragraph, which is found later on in the

Samhitâ, explains how the dawn-bricks came to be laid with the fifteen
verses given above. The portions of the Taittirîya Samhitâ, which contain
such explanations are called Brâhmana.
† Then it shone forth: This shows that aid the thirty Dawns were
understood to have preceded the rise of the sun, I have already quoted
(supra p. 100) a passage from Taitt. Brâh. (II, 5, 6, 5) which says that these
dawns were continuous and unseparated.
 112

they formed part of an entire hymn or not, are by themselves

sufficient to prove the point at issue, viz., that the Vedic Goddess of
Dawn constituted a group of thirty sisters. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda speaks of
“thirty steps” traversed by the Dawn, (VI, 59, 6), or of Dawns going
round “thirty yojanas” (I, 123, 8); but both these statements have, as
yet, remained totally unexplained, or have been but imperfectly
explained by Indian and Western scholars alike. But now that we
know that the Vedic Dawns were thirty in number, both the aforesaid
statements become at once easily comprehensible. The only other
point necessary to be decided, so far as the subject in hand is
concerned, is whether these thirty dawns were the dawns of thirty
consecutive days, or whether they formed a “closely-gathered band”
of thirty continuous dawns; and on reading the two aforesaid
passages from the Taittirîya Samhitâ, the one from the Taittirîya
Brâhmana, II, 5, 6, 5, and other authorities cited in the foregoing
chapter, I do not think, there can be any doubt that the Goddess of
Dawn, worshipped by the Vedic bards, was originally a group of
thirty continuous dawns. It is not contended that the ancestors of the
Vedic bards were unacquainted with ordinary dawns, for, even in the
circumpolar regions there are, during certain parts of the year,
successions of ordinary days and nights and with them of ordinary
dawns. But so far as the Vedic Goddess of morning is concerned,
there is enough evidence to show that it was no other than the
continuous and revolving Dawn at the end of the long night in those
regions, the Dawn that lasted for thirty periods of 24 hours each,
which is possible only within a few degrees round about the North
Pole.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER VI

LONG DAY AND LONG NIGHT

Independent evidence about the long night — Vritra living in long darkness
— Expressions denoting long darkness or long night — Anxiety to reach
the end of darkness — Prayers to reach safely the other end of night — A
night, the other boundary of which was not known according to the Atharva
Veda — The Taittirîya Samhitâ explains that these prayers were due to
fears entertained by the ancient priests that the night would not dawn —
Not caused by long winter nights as supposed by Sâyana — Description of
days and nights in the Rig-Veda — Divided into two typical pairs — One
described as bright, dark and virûpe — Virûpe means “of varying lengths”
and not “of various colors” — Second pair, Ahanî, different from the first —
Durations of days and nights on the globe examined — Ahanî can only be a
couple of the long Arctic day and night — Described as forming the right
and left, or opposite, sides of the Year in the Taittirîya Âranyaka — The sun
is described in the Rig-Veda as unyoking his car in the midst of the sky —
And thereby retaliating Dâsa’s mischief — Represents the long day and the
long night — Summary of evidence regarding long day and long night —
Ushas and Sûrya as Dakshinâ and Dakṣhinâ’s son — Probably imply the
southerly course of both.

When a long continuous dawn of thirty days, or a closely-

gathered band of thirty dawns, is shown to have been expressly
referred to in the Vedic literature, the long night preceding such a
dawn follows as a matter of course; and where a long night prevails, it
must have a long day to match it during the year. The remaining
portion of the year, after deducting the period of the long night, the
long day and the long morning and evening twilights, would also be
characterized by a succession of ordinary days and nights, a day and
night together never exceeding twenty-four hours, though, within the
limit, the day may gradually gain over the night at one time and the
night over the day at another, producing a variety of ordinary days
and nights of different lengths. All these phenomena are so
connected astronomically that if one of them is established, the
others follow as a matter of scientific inference. Therefore, if the long
duration
 114

of the Vedic dawn is once demonstrated, it is, astronomically

speaking, unnecessary to search for further evidence regarding the
existence of long days and nights in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. But as we are
dealing with a state of things which existed several thousand years
ago, and with evidence, which, though traditionally handed down, has
not yet been interpreted in the way we have done, it is safer to treat,
in practice, the aforesaid astronomical phenomena as disconnected
facts, and separately collect evidence bearing on each, keeping the
astronomical connection in reserve till we come to consider the
cumulative effect of the whole evidence in support of the several facts
mentioned above. I do not mean to imply that there is any uncertainty
in the relation of sequence between the above astronomical facts. On
the contrary, nothing can be more certain than such a sequence. But
in collecting and examining the evidence bearing on facts like those
under consideration, it is always advisable in practice to collect as
much evidence and from as many different points of view as possible.
In this and the following two chapters, we, therefore, propose to
examine separately the evidence that can be found in the Vedic
literature about the long day, the long night, the number of months of
sunshine and of darkness, and the character of the year, and see if it
discloses characteristics found only at, or around, the North Pole.
And first regarding the long night, — a night of several days’
duration, such as makes the northern latitudes too cold or
uncomfortable for human habitation at present, but which, in inter-
glacial times, appeared to have caused no further inconvenience than
what might result from darkness, long and continuous darkness for a
number of days, though, by itself, it was not a desirable state of
things, and the end of which must have been eagerly looked for by
men who had to undergo such experience. There are many passages
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda that speak of long and ghastly darkness, in one form
or another, which sheltered the enemies of Indra, and to destroy
which Indra had to fight with the demons or the Dâsas, whose
strongholds are all said to be concealed in this
 115

darkness. Thus in I, 32, 10, Vṛitra, the traditional enemy of Indra, is

said to be engulfed in long darkness (dîrgham tamah âshayad
Indrashatruh), and in V, 32, 5, Indra is described as having placed
Shushna who was anxious to fight, in “the darkness, of the pit”
(tamasi harmye), while the next verse speaks of asûrye tamasi (lit.
sunless darkness), which Max Müller renders by “ghastly darkness.”*
In spite of these passages the fight between Vṛitra and Indra is
considered to be a daily and not a yearly struggle, a theory the
validity of which will be examined when we come to the discussion of
Vedic myths. For the present it is sufficient to note that the above
expressions lose all their propriety, if the darkness, in which the
various enemies of Indra are said to have flourished, be taken to be
the ordinary darkness of twelve, or, at best, of twenty-four hours’
duration. It was, in reality, a long and a ghastly or sunless, darkness,
which taxed all the powers of Indra and his associate Gods to
overcome.
But apart from this legendary struggle, there are other verses in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which plainly indicate the existence of a night longer
than the longest cis-Arctic night. In the first place the Vedic bards are
seen frequently invoking their deities to release them from darkness.
Thus in II, 27, 14, the poet says, “Aditi, Mitra and also Varuna forgive
if we have committed any sin against you! May I obtain the wide
fearless light, O Indra! May not the long darkness comeover us.” The
expression in the original for “long darkness” is dîrghâh tamisrâh, and
means rather an “uninterrupted succession of dark nights (tamisrâh)”
than simply “long darkness.” But even adopting Max Müller’s
rendering given above† the anxiety here manifested for the
disappearance of the long darkness is unmeaning, if the darkness
never lasted for more than twenty-four hours. In I, 46, 6, the Ashvins
are asked “to vouchsafe such strength to the worshipper as may
carry him

* See S. B. E. series, Vol. XXXII, p. 218.

† Hibbert Lectures, p. 231.
 116

through darkness”; and in VII, 67 a the poet exclaims: “The fire has
commenced to burn, the ends of darkness have been seen, and the
banner of the Dawn has appeared in the cast!”* The expression “ends
of darkness” (tamasah antâh) is very peculiar, and it would be a
violation of idiom to take this and other expressions indicating “long
darkness” to mean nothing more than long winter nights, as we have
them in the temperate or the tropical zone. As stated previously the
longest winter night in these zones must be, at best, a little short of
twenty-four hours, and even then these long nights prevail only for a
fortnight or so. It is, therefore, very unlikely that Vedic bards
perpetuated the memory of these long nights by making it a
grievance of such importance as to require the aid of their deities to
relieve them from it. There are other passages where the same
longing for the end of darkness or for the appearance of light is
expressed, and these cannot be accounted for on the theory that to
the, old Vedic bards night was as death, since they had no means
which a civilized person in the twentieth century possesses, of
dispelling the darkness of night by artificial illumination. Even the
modern savages are not reported to be in the habit of exhibiting such
impatience for the morning light as we find in the utterances of the
Vedic bards; and yet the latter were so much advanced in civilization
as to know the use of metals and carriages. Again not only men, but
Gods, are said to have lived in long darkness. Thus, in X, 124, I, Agni
is told that he has stayed “too long in the long darkness,” the phrase
used being jyog eva dîrgham tama âshayishtâh. This double phrase
jyog (long) dîrgham is still more inappropriate, if the duration of
darkness never exceeded that of the longest winter-night. In II, 2,
2, the same deity, Agni, is said to shine during “continuous nights,”
which, according to Max Müller, is

* Rig. I, 46, 6, — या नः पीपरदिना जयोितती तमिरः । तामे रासाथािमषम ॥

े
Rig. VII, 67, 2, — अशोिः सिमधानो अे उपो अौन तमसिदाः । अचित

े ु
कतषसः ु
परािय ु 
े िदवो िहतजायमानः ॥
 117

the meaning of the word kshapah in the original.* The translation is

no doubt correct, but Prof. Max Müller does not explain to us what he
means by the phrase “continuous nights.” Does it signify a
succession of nights uninterrupted by sun-light? or, is it only an
elegant rendering, meaning nothing more than a number of nights?
The learned translator seems to have narrowly missed the true import
of the phrase employed by him.
But we need not depend on stray passages like the above to
prove that the long night was known in early days. In the tenth
Mandala of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda we have a hymn (127) addressed to the
Goddess of night and in the 6th verse of this hymn Night is invoked to
“become easily fordable” to the worshipper (nah sutarâ bhava). In the
Parishishta, which follows this hymn in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and which is
known as Râtri-sûkta or Durgâ-stava, the worshipper asks the Night
to be favorable to him, exclaiming “May we reach the other side in
safety! May we reach the: other side in safety!Ӡ In the Atharva-Veda,
XIX, 47, which is a reproduction, with some variations, of the above
Parishishta, the second verse runs thus. “Each moving thing finds
rest in her (Night), whose yonder boundary is not seen, nor that which
keeps her separate. O spacious, darksome night! May we, uninjured,
reach the end of thee, reach, O thou blessed one, thine end!” And in
the third verse of the 50th hymn of the same book the worshippers
ask that they may pass uninjured in their body, “through each
succeeding night, (râtrim râtrim).” Now a question is naturally raised
why should every one be so anxious about safely reaching the other
end of the night? And why should the poet exclaim that “its yonder
boundary is nor seen, nor what keeps it

* See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XLVI, p. 195.

† The 4th verse in the Râtri-Sûkta. The Atharva-Veda, XIX, 47, 2. Ibid, XIX,
50, 3.
 118

separate?” Was it because it was an ordinary winter night, or, was it

because it was the long Arctic night? Fortunately, the Taittirîya
Samhitâ preserves for us the oldest traditional reply to these
questions and we need not, therefore, depend upon the speculations
of modern commentators. In the Taittirîya Samhitâ I, 5, 5, 4,* we have
a similar Mantra or prayer addressed to Night in these words: — “O
Chitrâvasu! let me safely reach thy end.. A little further (I, 5, 7, 5), the
Samhitâ itself explains this Mantra, or prayer thus: — “Chitrâvasu is
(means) the night; in old times (purâ), the Brâhmans (priests) were
afraid that it (night) would not dawn.” Here we have an express Vedic
statement, that in old times, the priests or the people, felt
apprehensions regarding the time when the night would end. What
does it signify? If the night was not unusually long, where was the
necessity for entertaining any misgivings about the coming dawn?
Sâyana, in commenting on the above passage, has again put forward
his usual explanation, that nights in the winter were long and they
made the priest apprehensive in regard to the coming dawn. But here
we can quote Sâyana against himself, and show that he has dealt
with this important passage in an off hand manner. It is well-known
that the Taittirîya Samhitâ often explains the Mantras, and this portion
of the Samhitâ is called Brâmana, the whole of the Taittirîya Samhitâ
being made up in this way of Mantras and the Brâhmana, or prayers
and their explanations or commentary mixed up together. The
statement regarding the apprehensions of the priests about the
coming dawn, therefore, falls under the Brâhmana portion of the
Samhitâ. Now the contents of the Brâhmanas are usually classified
by

* Taitt Sam. I, 5, 5, 4; Taitt, Sam. I, 5, 7, 5.

 119

Indian divines under the ten following heads — (1) Hetu or reason;
(2) Nirvachana, or etymological explanation; (3) Nindâ, or censure;
(4) Prashamsâ, or praise; (5) Samshaya, or doubt; (6) Vidhi, or the
rule; (7) Parakriyâ, or others’ doings; (8) Purâ-kalpa, or ancient rite or
tradition; (9) Vyavadhârana-kalpanâ or determining the limitations;
(10) Upamâna, an apt comparison or simile. Sâyana in his
introduction to the commentary on the ‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions the first
nine of these, and as an illustration of the eighth, Purâ-kalpa, quotes
the explanatory passage from the Taittirîya Samhitâ, I, 5, 7, 5,
referred to above. According to Sâyana the statement, “In former
times the priests were afraid that it would not dawn,” therefore, comes
under Purâ-kalpa, or ancient traditional history found in the
Brâmanas. It is no Arthavâda, that is, speculation or explanation put
forth by the Brâhmana itself. This is evident from the word purâ which
occurs in the Samhitâ text, and which shows that some piece of
ancient traditional information is here recorded. Now if this view is
correct; a question naturally arises why should ordinary long winter
nights have caused such apprehensions in the minds of the priests
only “in former times,” and why should the long darkness cease to
inspire the same fears in the minds of the present generation. The
long winter nights in the tropical and the temperate zone are as long
to-day as they were thousands of years ago, and yet none of us, not
even the most ignorant, feels any misgiving about the dawn which
puts an end to the darkness of these long nights. It may, perhaps, be
urged that in ancient times the bards had not acquired the knowledge
necessary to predict the certain appearance of the dawn after a lapse
of some hours in such cases. But the lameness of this excuse
becomes at once evident when we see that the Vedic calendar was,
at this time, so much advanced that even the question of the equation
of the
 120

solar and the lunar year was solved with sufficient accuracy Sâyana’s
explanation of winter nights causing misgivings about the coming
dawn must, therefore, be rejected as unsatisfactory. It was not the
long winter-night that the Vedic bards were afraid of in former ages. It
was something else, something very long, so long that, though you
knew it would not last permanently, yet, by its very length, it tired your
patience and made you long for, eagerly long for, the coming dawn.
In short, it was the long night of the Arctic region, and the word purâ
shows that it was a story of former ages, which the Vedic bards knew
by tradition, I have shown elsewhere that the Taittirîya Samhitâ must
be assigned to the Kṛittikâ period. We may, therefore, safely conclude
that at about 2500 B.C., there was a tradition current amongst the
Vedic people to the effect that in former times, or rather in the former
age, the priests grew so impatient of the length of the night, the
yonder boundary of which was not known, that they fervently prayed
to their deities to guide them safely to the other end of that tiresome
darkness. This description of the night is inappropriate unless we take
it to refer to the long and continuous Arctic night.
Let us now see if the ‫ي‬ig-Veda contains any direct reference to
the long day, the long night, or to the Circumpolar calendar, besides
the expressions about long darkness or the difficulty of reaching the
other boundary of the endless night noticed above. We have seen
before that the Rig-Vedic calendar is a calendar of 360 days, with an
intercalary month, which can neither be Polar nor Circumpolar. But
side by side with it the ‫ي‬ig-Veda preserves the descriptions of days
and nights, which are not applicable to the cis-Arctic days, unless we
put an artificial construction upon the passages containing these
descriptions. Day and night is spoken of as a couple in the Vedic
literature, and is denoted by a compound word in the dual number.
Thus we have Ushâsa-naktâ (I, 122, 2), Dawn and Night; Naktoshâsâ
(I, 142, 7), Night and Dawn; or simply Ushâsau (I, 188, 6) the two
Dawns; all meaning a couple of Day and Night. The word
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Aho-ratre also means Day and Night; but it does not occur in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, though Aitareya Brâhmana (II, 4) treats it as synonymous with
Ushâsâ-naktâ. Sometimes this pair of Day and Night is spoken of as
two sisters or twins; but whatever the form in which they are
addressed, the reference is usually unambiguous. Now one of the
verses which describes this couple of Day and Night is III, 55, 11.*
The deity of the verse is Aho-ratre, and it is admitted on all hands that
it contains a description of Day and Night. It runs thus: —

Nânâ chakrâte yamyâ vapûmshi

tayor anyad rochate krishnam anyat |
Shyâvî cha yad arushî cha swasârau
mahad devânâm asuratvam ekam ||

The first three quarters or feet of this verse contain the principal
statements, while the fourth is the refrain of the song or the hymn.
Literally translated it means: — “The twin pair (females) make many
forms; of the two one shines, the other (is) dark; two sisters (are)
they, the dark (shyâvî), and the bright (arushi). The great divinity of
the Gods is one (unique).” The verse looks simple enough at the first
sight, and simple it is, so far as the words are concerned. But it has
been misunderstood in two important points. We shall take the first
half of the verse first. It says “the twin pair make many forms; of the
two one shines and the other is dark.” The twin pair are Day and
Night, and one of them is bright and the other dark. So far, therefore,
there is no difficulty. But the phrase “make many forms” does not
seem to have been properly examined or interpreted. The words
used in the original verse are nânâ chakrâte vapûmshi, and they
literally mean “make many bodies or forms.” We have thus a two-fold
description of the couple; it is called the shining and the dark and also
described as possessed of many forms. In I, 123, 7, the couple of
Day and Night is said to be vishurûpe; while in other places the
adjective: virûpe is used in the same

ूं तयोरद रोचते कमत

* Rig. III, 55, 11, — नाना चबाते या वपिष  । शयावी च
यदषी च सवसारौ म... ॥
 122

sense. It is evident, therefore, that the “bodies” or “forms” intended to

be denoted by these words must be different from the two-fold
character of the couple as shining and dark and if so, the phrases
vishurûpe virûpe or nânâ vapûmshi used in connection with the
couple of Day and Night must be taken to mean something different
from “bright and dark,” if these expressions are not to be considered
as superfluous or tautological. Sâyana interprets these phrases as
referring to different colors (rûpa), like black, white, &c., and some of
the Western scholars seem to have adopted this interpretation. But I
cannot see the propriety of assigning different colors to Day and
Night. Are we to suppose that we may have sometimes green- violet,
yellow or blue days and nights? Again though the word rûpa lends
itself to this construction, yet vapûmshi cannot ordinarily be so
understood. The question does not, however, seem to have attracted
the serious attention of the commentators; so that even Griffith
translates vishurûpe by “unlike in hue” in I, 123, 7. The Naktoshâsâ
are described as virûpe also in I, 113, 3, but there too Sâyana gives
the same explanation. It does not appear to have occurred to any one
that the point requires any further thought. Happily, in the case of ‫ي‬ig.
I, 113, 3, we have, however, the advantage of consulting a
commentator older than Sâyana. The verse occurs in the Uttarârchika
of Sâma-Veda (19, 4, 2, 3), Mâdhava in his Vivarana, a commentary
on the Sâma-Veda explains virûpe thus: — “In the Dakshinâyana
during the year there is the increase of night, and in the Uttarâyana of
day.”* Mâdhava’s Vivarana is a scarce book, and I take the above
quotation from an extract from his commentary given in a footnote to
the Calcutta edition of the Sâma-Veda Samhitâ, with Sâyana’s
commentary, published by Satyavrata Sâmashramî, a learned Vedic
scholar of Calcutta. It is

* See Sâma-Veda, Cal. Ed. Utta. 19, 4, 2, 3.

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not known who this Mâdhava is, but Pandit Satyavrata states that he
is referred to by Durga, the commentator of Yâska. We may,
therefore, take Mâdhava to be an old commentator, and it is
satisfactory to find that he indicates to us the way out of the difficulty
of interpreting the phrases vishurûpe and virûpe occurring so many
times in ‫ي‬ig-Veda, in connection with the couple of Day and Night.
The word “form” (rûpa) or body (vapus) can be used to denote the
extent, duration, or length of days and nights, and virûpe would
naturally denote the varying lengths of days and nights, in addition to
their color which can be only two-fold, dark or bright. Taking our clue
from Mâdhava, we may, therefore, interpret the first half of the verse
as meaning “The twin pair assume various (nânâ) lengths
(vapûmshi); of the two one shines and the other is dark.”
But though the first half may be thus interpreted, another
difficulty arises, as soon as we take up the third quarter of the verse.
It says, “Two sisters are they, the dark (shyâvî) and the bright
(arûshî).” Now the question is whether the two sisters (svasârau) here
mentioned are the same as,, or different from, the twin pair (yamyâ)
mentioned in the first half of the verse. If we take them as identical,
the third pâda or quarter of the verse becomes at once superfluous. If
we take them as different, we must explain how and where the two
pairs differ. The commentators have not been able to solve the
difficulty, and they have, therefore, adopted the course of regarding
the twins (yamyâ) and the sisters (svasârau) as identical, even at the
risk of tautology. It will surely be admitted that this is not a satisfactory
course, and that we ought to find a better explanation, if we can. This
is not again the only place where two distinct couples of Day and
Night are mentioned. There is another word in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which
denotes a pair of Day and Night. It is Ahanî, which does not mean
“two days” but Day and Night, for, in VI, 9, 1, we are expressly told
that “there is a dark ahah (day) and a bright ahah (day).” Ahanî,
therefore, means a couple of Day and Night, and we have seen
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that Ushâsâ-naktâ also means a couple of Day and Night. Are the
two couples same or different? If Ahanî be regarded as synonymous
with Ushâsâ-naktâ or Aho-râtre, then the two couples would be
identical; otherwise different. Fortunately, ‫ي‬ig. IV, 55, 3, furnishes us
with the means of solving this difficulty. There Ushâsâ-naktâ and
Ahanî are separately invoked to grant protection to the worshipper
and the separate invocation clearly proves that the two couples are
two separate dual deities, though each of them represents a couple
of Day and Night.* Prof. Max Müller has noticed this difference
between Ushâsâ-naktâ and Ahanî or the two Ahans but he does not
seem to have pushed it to its logical conclusion. If all the 360 days
and nights of the year were of the same class as with us, there was
no necessity of dividing them into two representative couples as
Ushâsâ-naktâ and Ahanî. The general description “dark, bright and of
various lengths,” would have been quite sufficient to denote all the
days and nights of the year. Therefore, if the distinction between
Ushâsâ-naktâ and Ahanî, made in IV, 55, 3, is not to be ignored, we
must find out an explanation of this distinction; and looking to the
character of days and nights at different places on the surface of the
earth from the Pole to the Equator the only possible explanation that
can be suggested is that the year spoken of in these passages was a
circum-Polar year, made up of one long day and one long night,
forming one pair, and a number of ordinary days and nights of various
lengths, which, taking a single day and night as the type can be
described as the second couple, “bright, dark and. of varying
lengths.” There is no other place on the surface of the earth where
the description holds good. At the Equator, we have only equal days
and nights throughout the year and they can be represented by a
single couple “dark and bright, but always of the same length.” In fact,
instead of virûpe the pair would be sarûpe. Between the Equator and

* Rig. IV, 55, 3, — पर पाम अिदितं िसमु अकः सविम ईळे साय दवीम
े । उभे
यथा नो अहनी िनपात उषासाना करताम अदे ॥ See Max Müller’s Lectures on the
science of Language, Vol. II, p. 534
 125

the Arctic Circle, a day and night together never exceed twenty-four
hours, though there may be a day of 23 hours and a night of one hour
and vice versa, as we approach the Arctic Circle. In this case, the
days of the year will have to be represented by a typical couple, “dark
and night, but of various lengths, virûpe.” But as soon as we cross the
Arctic Circle and go into “The Land of the Long Night,” the above
description requires to be amended by adding to the first couple,
another couple of the long day and the long night, the lengths of
which would vary according to latitude. This second couple of the
long day and the long night, which match each other, will have also to
be designated as virûpe, with this difference, however, that while the
length of days and nights in the temperate zone would vary at the
same place, the length of the long night and the long day would not
vary at one and the same place but only at different latitudes. Taking
a couple of Day and Night, as representing the days and nights of the
year, we shall have, therefore, to divide the different kinds of diurnal
changes over the globe into three classes: —
(i) At the Equator, — A single couple; dark and bright but
always of the same form, or length (sarûpe).
(ii) Between the Equator and the Arctic Circle, — A single
couple; dark and bright, but of various forms, or lengths, (virûpe).
(iii) Between the Arctic Circle and the Pole, — Two couples;
each dark and bright, but of various forms or lengths (virûpe).
At the Pole, there is only one day and one night of six months
each. Now if we have an express passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (IV, 55, 3)
indicating two different couples of Day and. Night Ushâsâ-naktâ and
Ahanî, it is evident that the ahorâtre represented by them are the
days and nights of the Circum-Polar regions, and of those alone. In
the light of IV, 55, 3, we must, therefore, interpret III, 55, 11, quoted
above, as describing two couples, one of the twin pair and the other
of two sisters. The verse must, therefore, be translated: —
 126

“The twin pair (the first couple) make many forms (lengths); of the two
one shines and the other is dark. Two sisters are they the shyâvî or
the, dark and arushî or the bright (the second couple).” No part of the
verse is thus rendered superfluous, and the whole becomes far more
comprehensible than otherwise.
We have seen that days and nights are represented by two
distinct typical couples in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda Ushasâ-naktâ and Ahanî; and
that if the distinction is not unmeaning we must take this to be the
description of the days and nights within the Arctic Circle. Whether
Ahanî means a couple of Day and Night distinct from Ushasâ-naktâ in
every place where the word occurs, it is difficult to say. But that in
some places, at least, it denotes a peculiar couple of the Day and
Night, not included in, and different from, Ushâsa-naktâ is evident
from IV, 55, 3. Now if Ahanî really means the couple of the long day
and the long night, as distinguished from the ordinary days and
nights, there is another way in which these two couples can be
differentiated from each other. The ordinary days and nights follow
each other closely the day is succeeded by the night and the night by
the day; and the two members of the couple, representing these days
and nights, cannot be described as separated from each other. But
the long night and the long day, though of equal duration do not
follow each other in close succession. The long night occurs about
the time when the sun is at the winter solstice, and the long day when
he is at the summer solstice; and these two solstitial points are
separated by 180°, being opposite to each other in the ecliptic. This
character of Ahanî seems to have been traditionally known in the time
of the Âranyakas. Thus the Taittirîya Âranyaka, I, 2, 3, in discussing
the personified year,* first says that the Year has one head, and two
different mouths, and then remarks that all this is “season-
characteristic,” which the commentator explains by stating that the
Year-God is said to have two mouths

* Taitt. Âran. I, 2, 3.
 127

because it has two Ayanas, the northern and the southern, which
include the seasons. But the statement important for our purpose is
the one which follows next. The Âranyaka continues “To the right and
the left side of the Year-God (are) the bright and the dark (days)” and
the following verse refers to it: — “Thy one (form) is bright, thy
another sacrificial (dark), two Ahans of different forms, though art like
Dyau. Thou, O Self-dependent! protectest all magic powers, O
Pûshan! let thy bounty be here auspicious.”* The verse, or the
Mantra, here referred to is ‫ي‬ig. VI, 58, 1. Pûshan is there compared
to Dyau and is said to have two forms, dark and bright, like the Ahanî.
These dark and bright forms of Ahanî are said to constitute the right
and left side of the Year-God, that is, the two opposite parts of the
body of the personified year. In other words the passage clearly
states that the dark and the bright part of Ahanî, do not, follow each
other closely, but are situated on the diametrically opposite sides of
the year. This can only be the case if the couple of Day and Night,
represented by Ashanî, be taken to denote the long night and the
long day in the Arctic regions. There the long night is matched by the
long day and while the one occurs when the sun is at the winter-
solstice, the other occurs when he is at the summer-solstice. The two
parts of Ahanî are, therefore, very correctly represented as forming
the right and the left side of the Year-God, in the Âranyaka, and the
passage thus materially supports the view about the nature of Ahanî
mentioned above.
Lastly, we have express passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where a long
day is described. In V, 54, 5, an extended daily course (dirgham
yojanam) of the sun is mentioned and the Maruts are said to have
extended their strength and greatness in a similar way.† But the most
explicit statement about the long

* Taitt. Âranyaka, I, 2, 4.
ू न योजनम । एता न यामे
† Rig. V, 54, 5, — तद वीय वो मतो मिहनं दीघ ततान सय
अभीतशोिचषो ऽनदां यन नय अयातना िगिरम ॥
 128

day is found in X, 138, 3. This hymn celebrates the exploits of Indra,

all of which are performed in aerial or heavenly regions. In the first
verse the killing of Vṛitra and the releasing of the dawns and the
waters are mentioned; and in the second the sun is said to have been
made to shine by the same process. The third verse* is as follows: —

Vi sûryo madhye amuchad ratham divo

vidad dâsâya pratimânam âryah |
Dridhâni Pipror asurasya mâyinah
Indro vyâsyach chakrivâm Rijishvanâ ||

The fourth, fifth and the sixth verses all refer to the destruction
of Vṛitra’s forts, the chastisement of Ushas and placing of the moons
in the heaven. But the third verse quoted above is alone important for
our purpose. The words are simple and easy and the verse may be
thus translated “The sun unyoked his car in the midst of heaven; the
Ârya found a counter-measure (pratimânam) for the Dâsa. Indra,
acting with ‫ي‬ijishvan, overthrew the solid forts of Pipru, the conjuring
Asura. “It is the first half of the verse that is relevant to our purpose.
The sun is said to have unyoked his car, not at sunset, or on the
horizon, but in the midst of heaven, there to rest for some time. There
is no uncertainty about it, for the words are so clear; and the
commentators have found it difficult to explain this extraordinary
conduct of the sun in the midway of the heavens. Mr. Griffith says
that it is, perhaps an allusion to an eclipse, or to the detention of the
sun to enable the Aryans to complete the overthrow of their enemies.
Both of these suggestions are, however, not satisfactory. During a
solar eclipse the sun being temporarily hidden by the moon is
invisible wholly or partially and is not besides stationary. The
description that the sun unyoked his car in the mid-heaven cannot,
therefore, apply to the eclipsed sun. As regards the other suggestion,
viz., that the sun remained stationary for a while to

* Rig. X, 138, 3 — िव सय ु रथं िदवो िवदद दासय परितमानमायः । दळािन

ू मे अमचद 
ु
िपूोरसर माियन इो वयावान रिजना ॥
 129

allow his favorite race, the Aryans, to overthrow their enemies, it

seems to have had its origin in the Biblical passage (Joshua, X, 12,
13), where the sun is said to have stood still, at the word of Joshua,
until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. But
there is no authority for importing this Biblical idea into the ‫ي‬ig-Veda.
Indra’s exploits are described in a number of hymns in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
but in no other hymn he is said to have made the sun stand still for
the Aryans. We must, therefore, reject both the explanations
suggested by Griffith. Sâyana gets over the difficulty by interpreting
the phrase, ratham vi amuchat madhye divah, as meaning that “the
sun loosened (viamuchat) his carriage, that is, set it free to travel,
towards the middle (madhye) of heaven, (ratham prasthânâya
vimuktavân).” Sâyana’s meaning, therefore, is that when Indra
obtained compensation from Vṛitra, he let loose the chariot of the sun
to travel towards the midst of the sky. But the construction is evidently
a strained one. The verb vi much is used in about a dozen places in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda in relation to horses, and everywhere it means to
“unharness,” “unyoke,” or “separate the horses from the carriage for
rest,” and even Sâyana has interpreted it in the same way. Thus vi-
muchya is explained by him as rathât vishlishya in I, 104, 1, and
rathât vi-muchya in III, 32, 1, and rathât visrijya in X, 160, 1, (also
compare I, 171, 1; I, 177, 4; VI, 40, 1). The most natural meaning of
the present verse would, therefore, be that the “sun unyoked his
carriage.” But even supposing that vi much can be interpreted to
mean “to loosen for travel,” the expression would be appropriate only
when there is an antecedent stoppage or slow motion of the sun. The
question why the sun stopped or slackened his motion in the midst of
the sky would, therefore, still remain unsolved. The phrase divah
madhye naturally means “in the midst of the sky,” and cannot be
interpreted to mean “towards the mid-heaven.” Of course if the sun
was below the horizon, we may describe him as having loosened his
horses for travel as in V, 62, 1; but even there the meaning seems to
 130

be that the horses rested at the place. In the present case the sun is
already in the midst of heaven, and we cannot take him below the
horizon without a palpable distortion of meaning. Nor can we properly
explain the action of retaliation (pratimânam), if we accept Sâyana’s
interpretation. We must, therefore, interpret the first half of the verse
to mean that “the sun unyoked his carriage in the midst of heaven.”
There is another passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which speaks of the sun
halting in the midst of heaven. In VII, 87, 5, the king Varuna is said to
have made “the golden (sun) rock like a swing in the heaven” (chakre
divi prenkhâm hiranmayam), clearly meaning that the sun swayed
backwards and forwards in the heaven being visible all the time, (cf.
also VII, 88, 3). The idea expressed in the present verse is exactly
the same, for even within the Arctic regions the sun will appear as
swinging only during the long continuous day, when he does not go
below the horizon once every twenty-four hours. There is, therefore,
nothing strange or uncommon in the present verse which says that,
“the sun unyoked his carriage for some time in the midst of the sky;”
and we need not be impatient to escape from the natural meaning of
the verse. A long halt of the sun in the midst of the heaven is here
clearly described, and we must take it to refer to the long day in the
Arctic region. The statement in the second line further supports the
same view. European scholars appear to have been misled, in this
instance, by the words Ârya and Dâsa, which they are accustomed to
interpret as meaning the Aryan and the non-Aryan race. But though
the words may be interpreted in this way in some passages, such is
not the case everywhere. The word Dâsa is applied to Indra’s
enemies in a number of places. Thus Shambara is called a Dâsa (IV,
30, 14,) and the same adjective is applied to Pipru in VIII, 32, 2, and
to Namuchi in V, 30, 7. Indra is said to inspire fear into the Dâsa in X,
120, 2 and in II, 11, 2 he is described as having rent the Dâsa who
considered himself immortal. In the verse under consideration Indra’s
victory over Pipru is celebrated, and we know that Pipru is
 131

elsewhere called a Dâsa. It is, therefore, quite natural to suppose that

the words Ârya and Dâsa in the above verse, refer to Indra and Pipru,
and not to the Aryan and the non-Aryan race. The exploits described
are all heavenly, and it jars with the context to take a single sentence
in the whole hymn as referring to the victory of the Aryan over the
non-Aryan race. There is again the word Pratimâna (lit. counter-
measure), which denotes that what has been done is by way of
retaliation, a sort of counter-poise or counterblast, with a view to
avenge the mischief done by Dâsa. A battle between the Aryans and
the non-Aryans cannot be so described unless a previous defeat of
the Aryans is first alluded to. The plain meaning of the verse,
therefore, is that the sun was made to halt in the midst of the sky,
producing a long day, and Indra thus found a counter-poise for Dâsa
his enemy. For we know that darkness is brought on by the Dâsa,
and it is he who brings on the long night; but if the Dâsa made the
night long, Indra retaliated or counter-acted by making the day as
long as the night of the Dâsa. The long night of the Arctic regions is,
we have seen, matched by the long day in those regions, and the
present verse expresses the same idea of matching the one by the
other. There is no reference to the victory of the Aryan race over the
non-Aryans, or anything of that kind as supposed by Western
scholars. Sâyana, who had no historic theories to mislead him, has
rightly interpreted Ârya and Dâsa in this verse as referring to Indra
and his enemy; but he, in his turn, has misinterpreted as shown
above, the first half of the verse in regard to the sun’s long halt in the
midst of the sky. The misinterpretation of the: second hemistich
conies from Western scholars, like Muir who interprets Ârya as
meaning the Aryans and Dâsa, the non-Aryans. This shows how in
the absence of the true key to the meaning of a passage, we may be
led away by current theories, even where the words are plain and
simple in themselves.
We thus-see that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda speaks of two different couples
of Day and Night, one alone of which represents the
 132

ordinary days and nights in the year and the second, the Ahanî, is a
distinct couple by itself, forming, according to the Taittirîya Âranyaka,
the right and the left hand side of the Year, indicating the long Arctic
day and night. The Taittirîya Samhitâ again gives us in clear terms a
tradition that in the former age the night was so long that men were
afraid it would not dawn. We have also a number of expressions in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda denoting “long nights” or “long and ghastly darkness”
and also the “long journey” of the sun. Prayers are also offered to
Vedic deities to enable the worshipper to reach safely the end of the
night, the “other boundary of which is not known.” Finally we have an
express text declaring that the sun halted in the midst of the sky and
thereby retaliated the mischief brought on by Dâsa’s causing the long
night. Thus we have not only the long day and the long night
mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but the idea that the two match, each
other is also found therein, while the Taittirîya Âranyaka tells us that
they form the opposite sides of Year-God. Besides the passages
proving the long duration of the dawn, we have, therefore, sufficient
independent evidence to hold that the long night in the Arctic regions
and its counterpart the long day were both known to the poets of the
‫ي‬ig-Veda and the Taittirîya Samhitâ distinctly informs us that it was a
phenomenon of the former (purâ) age.
I shall close this chapter with a short discussion of another
Circum-Polar characteristic, I mean the southern course of the sun. It
is previously stated, that the sun can never appear overhead at any
station in the temperate or the frigid zone and that an observer
stationed within these zones in the northern hemisphere will see the
sun to his right hand or towards the south, while at the North Pole the
sun will seem to rise from the south. Now the word dakshinâ in Vedic
Sanskrit denotes both the “right hand” and the “south” as it does in
other Aryan languages; for, as observed by Prof. Sayce, these people
had to face the rising sun with their right hands to the south, in
addressing their gods and hence Sanskrit dakshinâ, Welsh dehau
and Old Irish des all mean
 133

at once “right hand” and “south.”* With this explanation before us, we
can now understand how in a number of passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
Western scholars translate dakshinâ by “right side,” where Indian
scholars take the word to mean “the southern direction.” There is a
third meaning of dakshina, viz., “largess” or “guerdon,” and in some
places the claims of rich largesses seem to have been pushed too
far. Thus when the suns are said to be only for dakshinâvats in I, 125,
6, it looks very probable that originally the expression had some
reference to the southern direction rather than to the gifts given at
sacrifices. In III, 58, I, Sûrya is called the son of Dakshinâ and even if
Dakshinâ be here taken to mean the Dawn, yet the question why the
Dawn was called Dakshinâ remains, and the only explanation at
present suggested is that Dakshinâ means “skilful” or “expert.” A
better way to explain these phrases is to make them refer to the
southerly direction; and after what has been said above such an
explanation will seem to be highly probable. It is, of course,
necessary to be critical in the interpretation of the Vedic hymns, but I
think that we shall be carrying our critical spirit too far, if we say that
in no passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda dakshinâ or its derivatives are used to
denote the southerly direction (I, 95, 6; II, 42, 3). Herodotus informs
us (IV, 42) that certain Phoenician mariners were commanded by
Pharaoh Neco, king of Egypt, to sail round Libya (Africa) and return
by the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). The mariners
accomplished the voyage and returned in the third year. But
Herodotus disbelieves them, because, on their return they told such
(to him incredible) stories, that in rounding Libya they saw the sun to
their right. Herodotus could not believe that the sun would ever
appear in the north; but the little thought that what was incredible to
him would itself be regarded as indisputable evidence of the
authenticity of the account in later days. Let

* See Sayce’s Introduction to the Science of Language, Vol. II, p. 130.

 134

us take a lesson from this story, and not interpret dakshinâ, either by
“right-hand side” or by “largess,” in every passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda.
There may not be distinct passages to show that the sun, or the
dawn, came from the south. But the very fact that Ushas is called
Dakshinâ (I, 123, 1; X, 107, 1), and the sun, the son of Dakshinâ (III,
58, 1), is itself very suggestive, and possibly we have here phrases
which the Vedic bards employed because in their days these were
old and recognized expressions in the language. Words, like fossils,
very often preserve the oldest ideas or facts in a language; and
though Vedic poets may have forgotten the original meaning of these
phrases, that is no reason why we should refuse to draw from the
history of these words such conclusions as may legitimately follow
from it. The fact that the north is designated by the word ut-tara,
meaning “upper” and the south by adha-ra, meaning “lower,” also
points to the same conclusion; for the north cannot be over-head or
“upper” except to an observer at or near the North Pole. In later
literature, we find a tradition that the path of the sun lies through
regions which are lower (adha) than the abode of the Seven ‫ي‬ishis,
or the constellation of Ursa Major.* That ecliptic lies to the south of
the constellation is plain enough, but it cannot be said to be below the
constellation, unless the zenith of the observer is in the constellation,
or between it and the North Pole, a position, possible only i n the
case of an observer in the Arctic region. I have already quoted a
passage from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, which speaks of the Seven Bears
(Rikshâh), as being placed on high in the heavens (uchchâh). But I
have been not able to find out any Vedic authority for the tradition that
the sun’s path lies below the constellation of the Seven Bears. It has
also been stated previously that mere southerly direction of the sun,
even if completely established, is not a sure indication

* See Kâlidâsa’s Kumârasambhava, VI, 7. Also I, 16. See also Mallinâtha’s

commentary on these verses.
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of the observer being within the circum-polar region as the sun will
appear to move always to the south of the observer even in the
temperate zone. It is, therefore, not necessary to pursue this point
further. It has been shown that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions the long night
and the long day and we shall see in the next chapter that the months
and the seasons mentioned in this Old Book fully accord with the
theory we have formed from the evidence hitherto discussed.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER VII

MONTHS AND SEASONS

Evidence of rejected calendar generally preserved in sacrificial rites by
conservative priests — Varying number of the months of sunshine in the
Arctic region — Its effect on sacrificial sessions considered — Sevenfold
character of the sun in the Vedas — The legend of Aditi — She presents her
seven sons to the gods and casts away the eighth — Various explanations
of the legend in Brâhmanas and the Taittirîya Âranyaka — Twelve suns
understood to be the twelve month-gods in later literature — By analogy
seven suns must have once indicated seven months of sunshine —
Different suns were believed to be necessary to produce different seasons
— Aditi’s legend belongs to the former age, or pûrvyam-yugam — Evidence
from sacrificial literature — The families of sacrificers in primeval times —
Called “our ancient fathers” in the Rig-Veda — Atharvan and Angiras
traced to Indo-European period — Navagvas and Dashagvas, the principal
species of the Angirases — Helped Indra in his fight with Vala — They
finished their sacrificial session in ten months — The sun dwelling in
darkness — Ten months’ sacrifices indicate the only ten months of
sunshine, followed by the long night — Etymology of Navagvas and
Dashagvas — According to Sâyana the words denote persons sacrificing
for nine or ten months — Prof. Lignana’s explanation improbable — The
adjectives Virûpas applied to the Angirases — Indicates other varieties of
these sacrificers — Saptagu, or seven Hotris or Vipras — Legend of
Dîrghatamas — As narrated in the Mahâbhârata — A protégé of Ashvins in
the Rig-Veda — Growing old in the tenth yuga — Meaning of yuga
discussed — Mânuṣhâ yugâ means “human ages,” and not always “human
tribes” in the Rig-Veda — Two passages in proof thereof — Interpretations
of Western scholars examined and rejected — Mânuṣhâ yuga denoted
months after the long dawn and before the long night — Dîrghatamas
represents the sun setting in the tenth month — Mânuṣhâ yuga and
continuous nights — The five seasons in ancient times — A Rig-Veda
passage bearing on it discussed — The year of five seasons described as
residing in waters — Indicates darkness of the long night — Not made up
by combining any two consecutive seasons out of six — The explanation in
the Brâhmanas improbable — Summary.

Starting with the tradition about the half yearly night of the Gods
found everywhere in Sanskrit literature, and also in the Avesta, we
have found direct references in ‫ي‬ig-Veda to a long continuous dawn
of thirty days, the long day and the
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long night, when the sun remained above the horizon or went below it
for a number of 24 hours; and we have also seen that the ‫ي‬ig-Vedic
texts describe these things as events of a bye-gone age. The next
question, therefore, is — Do we meet in the Vedas with similar traces
of the Arctic condition of seasons months or years? It is stated
previously that the calendar current at the time of the Vedic Samhitâs
was different from the Arctic calendar. But if the ancestors of the
Vedic people ever lived near the North Pole, “we may,” as observed
by Sir Norman Lockyer with reference to the older Egyptian calendar,
“always reckon upon the conservatism of the priests of the temples
retaining the tradition of the old rejected year in every case.” Sir
Norman Lockyer first points out how the ancient Egyptian year of 360
days was afterwards replaced by a year of 365 days; and then gives
two instances of the traditional practice by which the memory of the
old year was preserved. “Thus even at Philæ in later times,” says he
“in the temple of Osiris, there were 360 bowls for sacrifice, which
were filled daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests. At
Acanthus there was a perforated cask into which one of the 360
priests poured water from the Nile daily.”* And what took place in
Egypt, we may expect to have taken place in Vedic times. The
characteristics of an Arctic year are so unlike those of a year in the
temperate zone, that if the ancestors of the Vedic people ever lived
within the Arctic regions, and immigrated southwards owing to
glaciation, an adaptation of the calendar to the altered geographical
and astronomical conditions of the new home was a necessity, and
must have been effected at the time. But in making this change, we
may, as remarked by Sir Norman Lockyer, certainly expect the
conservative priests to retain as much of the old calendar as possible,
or at least preserve the traditions of the older year in one form or
another especially in their sacrificial rites. Indo-European
etymological equations have established the fact that sacrifices,

* See Lockyer’s Dawn of Astronomy, p. 243.

 138

or rather the system of making offerings to the gods for various

purposes, existed from the primeval period,* and if so, the system
must have undergone great modifications as the Aryan races moved
from the Arctic to the temperate zone. I have shown elsewhere that
calendar and sacrifice, especially the annual sattras, are closely
connected, and that in the case of the annual sattras, or the sacrificial
sessions which lasted for one year, the priests had in view, as
observed by Dr. Haug,† the yearly course of the sun. It was the duty
of these priests to keep up sacrificial fire, as the Parsi priests now do
and to see that the yearly rounds of sacrifices were performed at
proper times (ritus). The sacrificial calendar in the Arctic home must,
however, have been different from what it came to be afterwards; and
happily many traces of this calendar are still discoverable in the
sacrificial literature of Vedic times, proving that the ancient
worshippers or sacrificers of our race must have lived in circum-polar
regions. But before discussing this evidence, it is necessary to briefly
describe the points wherein we might expect the ancient or the oldest
sacrificial system to differ from the one current in Vedic times.
In the Samhitâs and Brâhmanas, the annual sattras, or yearly
sacrificial sessions, are said to extend over twelve months. But this
was impossible within the Arctic region where the sun goes below the
horizon for a number of days or months during the year, thereby
producing the long night. The oldest duration of the annual sattras, if
such sattras were ever performed within the Polar regions, would,
therefore, be shorter than twelve months. In other words, an annual
sattra of less than twelve months would be the chief distinguishing
mark of the older sacrificial system, as contrasted with the later
annual sattra of twelve months. It must also be

* See Schrader’s Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples’ Part IV,

Chap. XIII, translated by Jevons, p. 421. Cf. Sans. yaj; Zend yaz; Greek
azomai, agios. See Orion Chap. II.
† See Dr. Haug’s Aitareya Brâh. Vol. I, Introduction, p. 46.
 139

borne in mind that the number of the months of sunshine and

darkness cannot be the same everywhere in the Circum-Polar
regions. At the Pole the sun is alternately above and below the
horizon for six months each. But as all people cannot be expected to
be stationed precisely at the Pole, practically the months of sunshine
will vary from seven to eleven for the inhabitants of the Arctic region,
those nearest to the North Pole having seven month’s sunshine,
while those living father south from the Pole having the sun above
their horizon for eight, nine or ten months according to latitude. These
periods of sunshine would be made up of the long Arctic day at the
place and a succession of ordinary days and nights closely following
each other; and sacrificial sessions would be held, or principal
business transacted, and important, religious and social ceremonies
performed only during this period. It would, so to say, be a period of
action, as contrasted with the long night, by which it was followed.
The long dawn following the long night, would mark the beginning of
this period of activity; and the Arctic sacrificial year would, practically,
be made up, only of these months of sunshine. Therefore, the varying
number of the months of sunshine would be the chief peculiarity of
the Arctic sacrificial calendar, and we must bear it in mind in
examining the traces of the oldest calendar in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, or other
Samhitâs.
A dawn of thirty days, as we measure days, implies a position
so near the North Pole, that the period of sunshine at the place could
not have been longer than about seven months, comprising, of
course, a long day of four or five months, and a succession of regular
days and nights during the remaining period; and we find that the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda does preserve for us the memory of such months of sunshine.
We refer first to the legend of Aditi, or the seven Âdityas (suns),
which is obviously based on some natural phenomenon. This legend
expressly tells us that the oldest number of Âdityas or suns was
seven, and the same idea is independently found in many other
places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Thus in IX, 114, 3, seven Âdityas and seven
priests are mentioned together, though the
 140

names of the different suns are not given therein. In II, 27 1, Mitra,
Aryaman, Bhaga, Varuna, Daksha and Amsha are mentioned by
name as so many different Âdityas but the seventh is not named.
This omission does not, however, mean much, as the septenary
character of the sun is quite patent from the fact that he is called
saptâshva (seven-horsed, in V, 45, 9, and his “seven-wheeled”
chariot is said to be drawn by “seven bay steeds” (I, 50, 8 ), or by a
single horse “with seven names” in I, 164, 2. The Atharva Veda also
speaks of “the seven bright rays of the sun” (VII, 107, 1); and the
epithet Âditya, as applied to the sun in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, is rendered
more clearly by Aditeh putrah (Aditi’s son) in A.V. XIII, 2, 9. Sâyana,
following Yâska, derives this sevenfold character of the sun from his
seven rays, but why solar rays were taken to be seven still remain
unexplained, unless we hold that the Vedic bards had anticipated the
discovery of seven prismatic rays or colors, which were unknown
even to Yâska or Sâyana. Again though the existence of seven suns
may be explained on this hypothesis, yet it fails to account for the
death of the eighth sun, for the legend of Aditi (‫ي‬ig. X, 72, 8-9) tells
us, “Of the eight sons of Aditi, who were born from her body, she
approached the gods with seven and cast out Mârtânda. With seven
sons Aditi approached (the gods) in the former age (pûrvyam yugam);
she brought thither Mârtânda again for birth and death.”* The story is
discussed in various places in the Vedic literature and many other
attempts, unfortunately all unsatisfactory, have been made to explain
it in a rational and intelligent way. Thus in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, VI,
5, 61 ƒ. the story of Aditi cooking a Brahmaudana oblation for the
gods, the Sâdhyas, is narrated. The remnant of the oblation was
given to her by the gods, and four Âdityas were born to her

े ु ैत सिभः परा
ु सो अिदतये  जातास पिर । दवानपू
* Rig. X, 72, 8 & 9: — अौ पऽा

माताडमात ु रिदितप परैत प
॥ सिभः पऽै ु
ू  यगम । परजाय ै मव े तवत
ु  
पनमाताडमाभरत ॥
 141

from it. She then cooked a second oblation and ate it herself first; but
the Âditya born from it was an imperfect egg. She cooked a third time
and the Âditya Vivasvat, the progenitor of man, was born. But the
Samhitâ does not give the number and names of the eight Âdityas
and this omission is supplied, by the Taittirîya Brâhmana (I, 1, 9, 1ƒ).
The Brâhmana tells us that Aditi cooked the oblation four times and
each time the gods gave her the remnant of the oblation. Four pairs
of sons were thus born to her; the first pair was Dhâtṛi and Aryaman,
the second Mitra and Varuna, the third Amsha and Bhag and the
fourth Indra and Vivasvat. But the Brâhmana does not explain why
the eighth son was called Mârtânda and cast away. The Taittirîya
Aranyaka, I, 13, 2-3, (cited by Sâyana in his gloss on ‫ي‬ig. II, 27, 1,
and X, 72, 8) first quotes the two verses from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X, 72, 8
and 9 which give the legend of Aditi but with a slightly different
reading for the second line of the second verse. Thus instead, of tvat
punah Mârtândam â abharat (she brought again Mârtânda thither for
birth and death), the Aranyaka reads tat parâ Mârtândam â abharat
(she set aside Mârtânda for birth and death). The Aranyaka then
proceeds to give the names of the eight sons, as Mitra, Varuna,
Dhâtṛi, Aryaman, Amsha, Bhaga, Indra and Vivasvat. But no further
explanation is added, nor are we told which of these eight sons
represented Mârtânda. There is, however, another passage in the
Âranaka (I, 7, 1-6) which throws some light on the nature of these
Âdityas.* The names of the suns here given are different. They are:
— Aroga, Bhrâja, Patara, Patanga, Svarnara, Jyotishîmat,

* See Taittirîya Aranyaka, I, 7.

 142

Vibhâsa and Kashyapa; the last of which is said to remain, constantly

at the great mount Meru, permanently illumining that region. The
other seven suns are said to derive their light from Kashyapa and to
be alone visible to man. We are then told that these seven suns are
considered by some Achâryas to be the seven manifestations of the
Prânas, or the vital powers in man; while others are said to hold the
opinion that they are the types of seven officiating priests (ritvijah). A
third explanation is then put forward, viz., that the distinction of seven
suns is probably based on the different effects of sun’s rays in
different months or seasons, and in support of it a Mantra, or Vedic
verse, Dig-bhrâja ritrûn karoti; (resorting to, or shining in, different
regions) they (make the seasons), is quoted. I have not been able to
find the Mantra in the existing Samhitâs, nor does Sâyana give us
any clue to it, butt simply observes “the different features of different
seasons cannot be accounted for, except by supposing them to have
been caused by different suns; therefore, different suns must exist in
different regions.”* But this explanation is open to the objection
(actually raised by Vaishampâyana), that we shall have, on this
theory, to assume the existence of thousands of suns as the
characteristics of the seasons are so numerous. The Âranyaka
admits, to a certain extent the force of this objection, but says —
ashtau to vyavasitâh, meaning that the number eight is settled by the
text of the scripture, and there is no further arguing about it. The
Shatapatha Brâhmana, III, 1, 3, 3, explains the legend of Aditi
somewhat on the same lines. It says that seven alone of Aditi’s sons
are styled Devâh Âdityâh (the gods Âdityas) by men, and

* See Sâyana’s explanation quoted on the last page.

 143

that the eighth Mârtânda was born undeveloped, whereupon the

Âditya gods created man and other animals out of him. In two other
passages of the Shatapath Brâhmana, VI, 1, 2, 8, and XI, 6, 3, 8, the
number of dityas Âis, however, given as twelve. In the first (VI, 1, 2,
8) they are said to have sprung from twelve drops generated by
Prâjapati and then placed in different regions (dikshu); while in
second (XI, 6, 3, 8)* these twelve Âdityas are identified with the
twelve months of the year. The number of Âdityas is also given as
twelve in the Upanishads: while in the post-Vedic literature they are
everywhere said to be twelve, answering to the twelve months of the
year. Muir, in his Original Sanskrit Texts Volumes IV and V, gives
most of these passages, but offers no explanation as to the legend of
Aditi, except such as is to be found in the passages quoted. There
are many different speculations or theories of Western Scholars
regarding the nature and character of Aditi, but as far as the number
of Âdityas is concerned, I know of no satisfactory explanation as yet
suggested by them. On the contrary the tendency is, as observed by
Prof. Max Müller, to regard the number, seven or eight, as
unconnected with any solar movements. A suggestion is made that
eight Âdityas may be taken to, represent the eight cardinal points of
the compass, but the death or casting away of the eighth Âditya seals
the fate of this explanation, which thus seems to have been put
forward only to be rejected like Mârtânda, the eighth Âditya..
We have here referred to, or quoted, the texts and passages
bearing on Aditi’s legend. or the number of Âdityas at some length, in
order to show how we are apt to run into wild speculations about the
meaning of a simple legend when the key to it is lost: That the twelve
Âdityas are understood to represent the twelve month-gods in later
Vedic literature

* Shatapatha Brâhmana, VI, 1, 2, 8.

 144

is evident from the passage in the Shatapatha Brâhmana (XI, 6, 3, 8

= Bṛih. Ârn. Up. III, 9, 5) which says, “There are twelve months of the
year; these are the Âdityas.” With this explanation before us, and the
belief that different seasonal changes could be explained only by
assuming the existence of different suns, it required no very great
stretch of imagination to infer that if twelve Âdityas now represent the
twelve months of the year, the seven Âdityas must have once
(pûrvyam yugam) represented the seven months of the year. But this
explanation, reasonable though it was, did not commend itself, or we
might even say, occur to Vedic scholars, who believed that the home
of the Aryans lay somewhere in Central Asia. It is, therefore,
satisfactory to find that the idea of different suns producing different
months is recognized so expressly in the Taittirîya Aranyaka, which
quotes a Vedic text, not now available, in support thereof and finally
pronounces in favor of the theory, which regards the seven suns as
presiding over seven different heavenly regions and thereby
producing different seasons, in spite of the objection that it would lead
to the assumption of thousands of suns — an objection, which the
Aranyaka disposes of summarily by observing that eight is a settled
number and that we have no right to change it. That this explanation
is the most probable of all is further evident from ‫ي‬ig. IX, 114, 3,
which says “There are seven sky-regions (sapta dishah), with their
different suns (nânâ sûryâh), there are seven Hotṛis as priests, those
who are the seven gods, the Âdityas, — with them. O Soma! protect
us.” Here nânâ sûryâh is an adjective which qualifies dishah (sapta),
and the correlation between seven regions and seven suns is thus
expressly recognized. Therefore, the simplest explanation of Aditi’s
legend is that she presented to the gods, that is, brought forth into
heavens, her seven sons, the Âdityas, to form the seven months of
sunshine in the place. She had an eighth son, but he was born in an
undeveloped state, or, was, what we may call, stillborn; evidently
meaning that the eighth month was
 145

not a month of sunshine, or that the period of darkness at the place

commenced with the eighth month. All this occurred not in this age,
but in the previous age and the words pûrvyam yugam in X, 72, 9, are
very important from this point of view. The word yuga is evidently
used to denote a period of time in the first and second verses of the
hymn, which refer to the former age of the gods (devânâm pûrvye
yuge) and also of later age (uttare yuge). Western scholars are
accustomed to interpret yuga to mean “a generation of men” almost
in every place where the phrase is met with; and we shall have to
consider the correctness of this interpretation later on. For the
purpose of this legend it is enough to state that the phrase pûrvyam
yugam occurs twice in the hymn and that where it first occurs (in
verse 2), it clearly denotes “an early age” or “some division of time.”
Naturally enough we must, therefore, interpret it in the same way
where it occurs again in the same hymn, viz. in the verse describing
the legend of Aditi’s seven sons. The sun having seven rays, or
seven horses, also implies the same idea differently expressed. The
seven months of sunshine, with their different temperatures, are
represented by seven suns producing these different results by being
differently located, or as having different kinds of rays, or as having
different chariots, or horses, or different wheels to the same chariot. It
is one and the same idea in different forms, or as the ‫ي‬ig-Veda puts
it, “one horse with seven names” (I, 164, 2). A long dawn of thirty
days indicates a period of sunshine for seven months, and we now
see that the legend of Aditi is intelligible only if we interpret it as a
relic of a time when there were seven flourishing month-gods, and the
eighth was either still-born, or cast away. Mârtânda is etymologically
derived from mârta meaning “dead or undeveloped,” (being
connected with mrita, the past participle of mri to die) and ânda, an
egg or a bird; and it denotes a dead sun, or a sun that has sunk
below the horizon, for in ‫ي‬ig. X, 55, 5, we find the word mamâra
(died) used to denote the setting of the daily sun. The sun is also
represented as a bird in many places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (V, 47, 3; X, 55,
6; X, 177,
 146

1; X, 189, 3). A cast away bird (Mârtânda) is, therefore, the sun that
has set or sunk below the horizon, and whole legend is obviously a
reminiscence of the place where the sun shone above the horizon for
seven months and went below it in the beginning of the eighth. If this
nature of the sun-god is once impressed on the memory, it cannot be
easily forgotten by any people simply by their being obliged to change
their residence; and thus the sevenfold character of the sun-god must
have been handed down as an old tradition, though the Vedic people
lived later on in places presided over by the twelve Âdityas. That is
how ancient traditions are preserved everywhere, as, for instance,
those relating to the older year in the Egyptian literature, previously
referred to.
We have seen above that the peculiar characteristic of the
Arctic region is the varying number of the months of sunshine in that
place. It is not, therefore, enough to say that traces of a period of
seven months’ sunshine are alone found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. If our
theory is correct, we ought to find references to periods of eight, nine
or ten months’ sunshine along with that of seven months either in the
shape of traditions, or in some other form; and fortunately there are
such references in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, only if we know where to look for
them. We have seen that the sun’s chariot is said to be drawn by
seven horses, and that this seven-fold character of the sun has
reference to the seven suns conceived as seven different month-
gods. There are many other legends based on this seven-fold
division, but as they do not refer to the subject under discussion, we
must reserve their consideration for another occasion. The only fact
necessary to be mentioned in this place is that the number of the
sun’s horses is said to be not only seven (I, 50, 8), but also ten in IX,
63, 9; and if the first be taken to represent seven months, the other
must be understood to stand for ten months as well. We need not,
however, depend upon such extension of the legend of seven Âdityas
to prove that the existence of nine or ten months of sunshine was
known to the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. The
 147

evidence, which I am now going to cite, comes from another source, I

mean, the sacrificial literature, which is quite independent of the
legend of the seven Âdityas. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions a number of
ancient sacrificers styled “our fathers” (II, 33, 13; VI, 22, 2), who
instituted the sacrifice in ancient times and laid down, for the
guidance of man, the path which he should, in future, follow. Thus the
sacrifice offered by Manu, is taken as the type and other sacrifices
are compared with it in I, 76, 5. But Manu was not alone to offer this
ancient sacrifice to the gods. In X, 63, 7, he is said to have made the
first offerings to the gods along with the seven Hotṛis; while Angiras
and Yayâti are mentioned with him as ancient sacrificers in I, 31, 17,
Bhṛigu and Angiras in VIII, 43, 13, Atharvan and Dadhyañch in I, 80,
16 and Dadhyañch, Angiras, Atri and Kanva in I, 139, 9. Atharvan by
his sacrifices is elsewhere described, as having first extended the
paths, whereupon the sun was born (I, 83, 5), and the Atharvans, in
the plural, are styled “our fathers” (nah pitarah) along with Angirases,
Navagvas and Bhṛgus in X, 14, 6. In II, 34, 12, Dashagvas are said to
have been the first to offer a sacrifice; while in X, 92, 10 Atharvan is
spoken of, as having established order by sacrifices, when the
Bhṛigus showed themselves as gods by their skill. Philologically the
name of Atharvan appears as Athravan, meaning a fire-priest, in the
Avesta, and the word Angiras is said to be etymologically connected
with the Greek Aggilos, a “messenger” and the Persian Angara “a
mounted courier.” In the Aitareya Brâhmana (III, 34) Angirases are
said to be the same as Angârâh, “burning coals or fire,” (Cf. ‫ي‬ig. X.
62, 5). Whether we accept these etymologies as absolutely correct or
not, the resemblance between the different words sufficiently
warrants the assumption that Atharvan and Angiras must have been
the ancient sacrificers of the whole Aryan race and not merely of the
Vedic people. Therefore, even though Manu, Atharvan, Angiras be
not the names of particular individuals, still there can be little doubt
that they represented families of priests who conducted, if not
originated the sacrifices in primeval
 148

times, that is, before the Aryan separation, and who, for this reason,
seem to have attained almost divine character in the eyes of the
poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. They have all been described as more or less
connected with Yama in X, 14, 3-6; but it does not follow therefrom
that they were all Yama’s agents or beings without any human origin.
For, as stated above, there are a number of passages in which they
are described as being the first and the most ancient sacrificers of the
race; and if after their death they are said to have gone to Yama and
become his friends and companions, that does not, in any way,
detract from their human character. It is, therefore, very important in
the history of the sacrificial literature to determine if any traditions are
preserved in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda regarding the duration of the sacrifices
performed by these ancient ancestors of the Vedic people (nah pûrve
pitarah, VI, 22, 2), in times before the separation of the Aryan people,
and see if they lend any support to the theory of an early Circum-
Polar home.
Now so far as my researches go, I have not been able to find
any Vedic evidence regarding the duration of the sacrifices performed
by Manu, Atharvan, Bhṛigu, or any other ancient sacrificers, except
he Angirases. There is an annual sattra described in the Shrauta
Sûtras, which is called the Angirasâm-ayanam, and is said to be a
modification of the Gavâm ayanam, the type of all yearly sattras. But
we do not find therein any mention of the duration of the sattra of the
Angirases. The duration of the Gavâm ayanam is, however, given in
the Taittirîya Samhitâ, and will be discussed in the next chapter. For
the present, we confine ourselves to sattra of the Angirases, and
have to see if we can find out other means for determining its
duration. Such a means is, fortunately, furnished by the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
itself. There are two chief species of the Angirases (Angiras-tama),
called the Navagvas and the Dashagvas, mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
(X, 62, 5 and 6). These two classes of ancient sacrificers are
generally mentioned together, and the facts attributed to the
Angirases are also attributed to them. Thus, the Navagvas
 149

are spoken of as “our ancient fathers,” in VI. 22, 2, and as “our

fathers” along with Angirases and Bhṛigu in X, 14, 6. Like the
Angirases, the Navagvas are also connected with the myth of Indra
overthrowing Vala, and of Sarmâ and Panis (I, 62, 3 and 4; V, 29, 12;
V, 45, 7; X, 108, 8). In one of these Indra if described as having taken
their assistance when he rent the rock and Vala (I, 62, 4); and in V,
29, 12, the Navagvas are said to have praised Indra with songs and
broken open the firmly closed stall of the cows. But there are only two
verses in which the duration of their sacrificial session is mentioned.
Thus V, 45, 7 says, “Here, urged by hands, hath loudly rung the
press-stone, with which the Navagvas sang (sacrificed) for ten
months”; and in the eleventh verse of the same hymn the poet says,
“I place upon (offer to) the waters your light-winning prayers
wherewith the Navagvas completed their ten months.”* In II, 34, 12,
we again read, “They, the Dashagvas brought out (offered) sacrifice
first of all. May they favor us at the flashing forth of the dawn”: while
in IV, 51, 4,† the Dawns are said “to have dawned richly on the
Navagva Angira, and on the seven-mouthed Dashagva,” evidently
showing that their sacrifice was connected with the break of the Dawn
and lasted only for ten months. What the Navagvas or the Dashagvas
accomplished by means of their sacrifices is further described in V,
29, 12, which says, “The Navagvas and the Dashagvas, who, had
offered libations of Soma, praised Indra with songs; laboring (at it) the
men laid open the stall of kine though firmly closed;” while in III, 39, 5,
we read “Where the friend (Indra), with the friendly energetic
Navagvas, followed up the cows on his knees, there verily with ten
Dashagvas did Indra find the sun dwelling in darkness

ू
* Rig. V, 45, 7, — अननोद अऽ हयतो अििर आचन यने दश मासो नववाः । रतं यती
सरमा गा अिवद िवािन साङिगराश चकार ॥ V, 45, 11 — िधयं वो अ ु दिधषे सवषा
े
ययातरन दश मासो नववाः । अया िधया सयाम दवगोपा ु ु 
अया िधया ततयामा अहः
ं ॥
ु
† Rig. IV, 51, 4, — किवत स दवीः ू
े सनयो नवो वा यामो बभयाद े
उषसो वो अ । यना
े
नववे अङिगरे दशवे साे रवती े ऊष ॥
रवद
 150

(tamasi kshiyantam).”* In X, 62, 2 and 3, the Angirases, of whom the

Dashagvas and Navagvas were the principle species (Angiras-tama,
X, 62, 6), are however, said to have themselves performed the feat of
vanquishing Vala, rescuing the cows and bringing out the sun, at the
end of the year (pari vatsare Valam abhindan); but it obviously means
that they helped Indra in achieving it at the end of the year.
Combining all these statements we can easily deduce (1) that the
Navagvas and the Dashavgas completed their sacrifices in ten
months, (2) that these sacrifices were connected with the early flush
of the Dawn; (3) that the sacrificers helped Indra in the rescue of the
cows from Vala at the end of the year; and (4) that at the place where
Indra wept in search for the cows, he discovered the sun “dwelling in
darkness.”
Now we must examine a little more closely the meaning of
these four important statements regarding the Navagvas and the
Dashagvas. The first question that arises in this connection is —
What is meant by their sacrifices being completed in ten months, and
why did they not continue sacrificing for the whole year of twelve
months? The expression for ‘ten months’ in the original is dasha
mâsâh, and the wards are so plain that there can be no doubt about
their import. We have seen that the Navagvas used to help Indra in
releasing the cows from the grasp of Vala, and in X, 62, 2 and 3, the
Angirases are said to have defeated Vala at the end of the year, and
raised the sun to heaven. This exploit of Indra, the Angirases, the
Navagvas and the Dashagvas, therefore, clearly refers to the yearly
rescue of the sun, or the cows of the morning, from the dark prison
into which they are thrown by Vala; and the expression “Indra found
the sun, dwelling in darkness,” mentioned above further supports this
view. In I, 117, 5, the Ashvins are said to have rescued Vandana, like
some bright buried gold, “like one asleep in the lap of

* Rig. III, 39, 5, — सखा ह यऽ सिखिभनववै ु

 रिभा सिभगा अनमन । सं तिदो

दसिभदशिः ू  िववदतमिस
सय े किषयम ॥
 151

Nir-ṛiti (death), like the sun dwelling in darkness (tamasi kshiyantam).”

This shows that the expression “dwelling in darkness,” as applied to
the sun, means that the sun was hidden or concealed below the
horizon so as not to be seen by man. We must, therefore, hold that
Indra killed or defeated Vala at the end of the year, in a place of
darkness, and that the Dashagvas helped Indra by their songs at the
time. This might lead any one to suppose that the Soma libations
offered by the Navagvas and the Dashagvas for ten months, were
offered during the time when war with Vala was waging. But the
Vedic idea is entirely different. For instance the morning prayers are
recited before the rise of the sun, and so the sacrifices to help Indra
against Vala had to be performed before the war. Darkness or a dark
period, of ten months is again astronomically impossible anywhere on
the globe, and as there cannot be ten months of darkness the only
other alternative admissible is that the Dashagvas and the Navagvas
carried on their ten months’ sacrifice during the period of sunshine.
Now if this period of sunshine had extended to twelve months, there
was no reason for the Dashagvas to curtail their sacrifices and
complete them in ten months. Consequently the only inference we
can draw from the story of the Navagvas and the Dashagvas is that
they carried on their sacrifices during ten months of sunshine and
after that period the sun went to dwell in darkness or sank below the
horizon, and Indra, invigorated by the Soma libations of the
Dashagvas, then entered into the cave of Vala, rent it open, released
the cows of the morning and brought out the sun at the end of the old
and the beginning of the new year, when the Dashagvas again
commenced their sacrifices after the long dawn or dawns. In short,
the Dashagvas and the Navagvas, and with them all the ancient
sacrificers of the race, live in a region where the sun was above the
horizon for ten months, and then went down producing a long yearly
night of two months’ duration. These ten months, therefore, formed
the annual sacrificial session, or the calendar year, of the oldest
sacrificers of the Aryan
 152

race and we shall see in the next chapter that independently of the
legend of the Dashagvas this view is fully supported by direct
references to such a session in the Vedic sacrificial literature.
The etymology of the words Navagva and Dashagva leads us
to the same conclusion. The words are formed by prefixing nava and
dasha to gva. So far there is no difference of opinion. But Yâska (XI,
19) takes nava in navagva to mean either “new” or “charming,”
interpreting the word to mean “those who have charming or new
career (gva, from gam to go).” This explanation of Yâska is, however,
unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the Navagvas and the Dashagvas are
usually mentioned together in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and this close and
frequent association of their names makes it necessary for us to find
out such an etymological explanation of the words as would make
Navagva bear the same relation to nava as Dashagva may have to
dasha. But dasha or rather dashan, is a numeral signifying “ten” and
cannot be taken in any other sense therefore, as observed by Prof.
Lignana,* nava or rather navan must be taken to mean “nine.” The
meaning of gva (gu+a) is, however, yet to be ascertained. Some
derive it from go, a cow, and others from gam, to go. In the first case
the meaning would be “of nine cows” or “of ten cows”; while in the
second case the words would signify “going in nine” or “going in ten,”
and the fact that the Dashagvas, are said to be ten in III, 39, 5, lends
support to the latter view. But the use of the words Navagva and
Dashagva, sometimes even in the singular number as an adjective
qualifying a singular noun, shows that a group or a company of nine
or ten men, is not, at any rate, always intended. Thus in VI, 6, 3, the
rays of Agni are said to be navagvas, while Adhrigu is said to be
dashagva in VIII, 12,

* See his Essay on “The Navagvas and the Dashagvas of the Rig-Veda” in
the Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Orientalists, 1886, pp.
59-68. The essay is in Italian and I am indebted to the kindness of Mr.
Shrinivâs Iyengar B.A., B.L., High Court Pleader, Madras, for a translation
of the same.
 153

2, and Dadhyañch navagva in IX, 108, 4. We must, therefore, assign

to these epithets some other meaning, and the only other possible
explanation of the numerals “nine” and “ten” is that given by Sâyana,
who says (Comm. on ‫ي‬ig. I, 62, 4), “The Angirases are of two kinds,
the Navagvas or those who rose after completing sattra in nine
months, and the Dashagvas or those who rose after finishing the
sattra in ten months.” We have seen that in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda V, 45, 7
and 11, the Navagvas are said to have completed their sacrifices in
ten months. Sâyana’s explanation is therefore, fully warranted by
these texts, and very probably it is based on some traditional
information about the Dashagvas. Prof. Lignana of Rome,* suggests
that the numerals navan and dashan in these names should be taken
as referring to the period of gestation, as the words nava-mâhya and
dasha-mâhya occur in the Vendidad, V, 45, (136), in the same sense.
Thus interpreted Navagva would mean “born of nine months,” and
Dashagva “born of ten months.” But this explanation is highly
improbable, inasmuch as we cannot first suppose that a number of
persons were born prematurely in early times, and secondly that it
was specially such persons that attained almost divine honors. The
usual period of gestation is 280 days or ten lunar months (V, 78, 9),
and those that were born a month earlier cannot be ordinarily
expected to live long or to perform feats which would secure them
divine honors. The reference to the Vendidad proves nothing, for
there the case of a still-born child after a gestation of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9 or 10 months is under consideration, and Ahura Mazda

* See his Essay in the Proceedings of the 7th international Congress of the
Orientalists, pp. 59-68.
 154

enjoins that the house where such as a still-born child is brought forth
should be cleaned and sanctified in a special way. Prof. Lignana’s
explanation again conflicts with the Vedic texts which say that the
Dashagvas were ten in number (III, 39, 5), or that the Navagvas
sacrificed only for ten months (V, 47, 5) Sâyana’s explanation is,
therefore, the only one entitled to our acceptance. I may here mention
that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (V, 47, 7 and 11) speaks of ten months’ sacrifice
only in connection with the Navagvas, and does not mention any
sacrifice of nine months. But the etymology of the names now helps
us in assigning the ten months’ sacrifice to the Dashagvas and the
nine month’s to the Navagvas. For navan in Navagva is only a
numerical variation for dashan in Dashagva, and it follows, therefore,
that what the Dashagvas did by tens, the Navagvas did by nines.
There is another circumstance connected with the Angirases
which further strengthens our conclusion, and which must, therefore,
be stated in this place. The Angirases are sometimes styled the
Virûpas. Thus in III, 53, 7, the Angirases are described as “Virûpas,
and sons of heaven”; and the name Virûpa once occurs by itself as
that of a single being who sings the praises of Agni, in a stanza (VIII,
75, 6) immediately following one in which Angiras is invoked, showing
that Virûpa is here used as a synonym for Angiras. But the most
explicit of these references is X, 62, 5 and 6. The first of these verses
states that the Angirases are Virûpas, and they are the sons of Agni;
while the second describes them along with the Navagva and the
Dashagva in the following terms, “And which Virûpas were born from
Agni and from the sky; the Navagva or the Dashagva, as the best of
the Angirases (Angiras-tama), prospers in the assemblage of the
gods.”* Now Virûpas literally means “of various forms” and in the
above verses it seems to have been used as an adjective qualifying
Angirases to denote that there are many species

ु
* Rig. X, 62, 6, — ये अःे पिर जिरे िवपासो िदवस पिर । नववो नदशवो
े े ु मअत
अङिगरमो सचा दवष ं े॥
 155

of them. We are further told that the Navagvas and the Dashagvas
were the most important (Angiras-tamah) of these species. In the last
chapter I have discussed the meaning of the adjective Virûpa as
applied to a couple of Day and Night and have shown, on the
authority of Mâdhava, that the word, as applied to days and Nights,
denotes their duration, or the period of time over which they extend.
Virûpas in the present instance appears to be used precisely in the
same sense. The Navagvas and the Dashagvas were no doubt the
most important of the early sacrificers, but these too were not their
only species. In other words they were not merely “nine-going,” and
“ten-going,” but “various-going” (virûpas), meaning that the duration
of their sacrifices was sometimes shorter than nine and sometimes
longer than ten months. In fact a Sapta-gu (seven-going) is
mentioned in X, 47, 6, along with Bṛihaspati, the son of Angiras, and it
seems to be used there as an adjective qualifying Bṛihaspati; for
Bṛihaspati is described in another place (IV, 50, 4) as saptâsya
(seven-mouthed), while the Atharva-Veda IV, 6, 1, describes the first
Brâhmana, Bṛihaspati, as dashâsya or ten-mouthed. We have also
seen that in IV, 51, 4, the Dashagva is also called “seven-mouthed.”
All these expressions can be satisfactorily explained only by
supposing that the Angirases were not merely “nine-going” or “ten-
going,” but virûpas or “various going,” and that they completed their
sacrifices within the number of months for which the sun was above
the horizon at the place where these sacrifices were performed. It
follows, therefore, that in, ancient times the sacrificial session lasted
from seven to ten months; and the number of sacrificers (Hotris)
corresponded with the number of the months, each doing his duty by
rotation somewhat after the manner of the Egyptian priests previously
referred to. These sacrifices were over when the long night
commenced, during which Indra fought with Vala and vanquished him
by the end of the year (parivatsare, X, 62, 2). The word parivatsare
(at the end of the year) is very suggestive and shows that the year
closed with the long night.
Another reference to a period of ten months’ sunshine
 156

is found in the legend of Dîrghatamas whom the Ashvins are said to

have saved or rescued from a pit, into which he was thrown, after
being made blind and infirm. I have devoted a separate chapter later
on to the discussion of Vedic legends. But I take up here the legend
of Dîrghatamas because we have therein an express statement as to
the life of Dîrghatamas, which remarkably corroborates the
conclusion we have arrived at from the consideration of the story of
the Dashagvas. The story of Dîrghatamas is narrated in the
Mahâbhârata, Âdiparvan, Chap. 104. He is said to be the son of
Mamatâ by Utathya, and born blind through the curse of Bṛihaspati
his uncle. He was, however, married and had several sons by
Pradveshî. The wife and the sons eventually became tired of feeding
the blind Dîrghatamas (so called because he was born blind), and the
sons abandoned him afloat on a worn-out raft in the Ganges. He
drifted on the waters for a long time and distance, when at last the
king Bali picked him up. Dîrghatamas then had several sons born to
him from a dâsi or a female slave, and also from the wife of Bali, the
sons of Bali’s wife becoming kings of different provinces. In the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda Dîrghatamas is one of the protégés of the Ashvins, and about
25 hymns in the first Mandala are ascribed to him. He is called
Mâmateya, or the son of Mamatâ in I, 152, 6, and Uchathya’s
offspring in I, 158, 4. In the latter hymn he invokes the Ashvins for the
purpose of rescuing him from the ordeals of fire and water to which
he was subjected by the Dâsa Traitana. In I, 147, 3 and IV, 4, 13,
Agni is, however, said to have restored to Dîrghatamas his eyesight.
But the statement need not surprise us as the achievements of one
deity are very often ascribed to another in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Dîrghatamas
does not stand alone in being thus rescued by the Ashvins.
Chyavâna is spoken of as another protégé of the Ashvins, and they
are said to have restored him to youth. Vandana and a host of others
are similarly mentioned as being saved, rescued, cured, protected or
rejuvenated by the Ashvins. All these achievements are new
understood as referring to the exploit of restoring to the sun
 157

his decayed power in the winter. But with the expression “like the sun
dwelling in darkness” before us, in the legend of Vandana (I, 117, 5),
we must make these legends refer not merely to the decayed power
of the sun in winter, but to his actual sinking below the horizon for
some time. Bearing this in mind, let us try to see what inference we
can deduce, so far as the subject in hand is concerned, from the
legend of Dîrghatamas.
The statement in the myth or legend, which is most important
for our purpose, is contained in I, 158, 6. The verse may be literally
translated as follows: — “Dîrghatamas, the son of Mamatâ, having
grown decrepit in the tenth yuga, becomes a Brahman charioteer of
the waters wending to their goal.”* The only expressions which
require elucidation in this verse are “in the tenth yuga,” and “waters
wending to their goal.” Otherwise the story is plain enough.
Dîrghatamas grows old in the tenth yuga, and riding on waters, as the
Mahâbhârat story has it, goes along with them to the place which is
the goal of these waters. But scholars are not agreed as to what yuga
means. Some take it to mean a cycle of years, presumably five as in
the Vedânga-Jyotisha, and invest Dîrghatamas with infirmity at the
age of fifty. The Petersburg Lexicon would interpret yuga, wherever it
occurs in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, to mean not, “a period of time,” but “a
generation,” or “the relation of descent from a common stock”; and it
is followed by Grassmann in this respect. According to these scholars
the phrase “in the tenth yuga” in the above verse would, therefore,
signify “in the tenth generation” whatever that may mean. Indeed,
there seems to be a kind of prejudice against interpreting yuga as
meaning “a period of time” in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and it is therefore,
necessary to examine the point at some length in this place. That the
word yuga by itself means “a period of time” or that, at any rate, it is
one of its meanings goes without saying. Even the


* Rig. I, 158, 6, — दीघतमा ु ु  दशमे यगु े । अपामथ यतीनां बरा भवित
े जजवान
मामतयो
सारिथः ॥
 158

Petersburg Lexicon assigns this meaning to yuga in the Atharva Veda

VIII, 2, 21; but so far as the ‫ي‬ig-Veda is concerned yuga according to
it, must mean “descent,” or “generation,” or something like it, but
never “a period of time.” This is especially the case, with the phrase
Mânushâ yugâ, or Mânushyâ yugâni, which occurs several times in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Western scholars would everywhere translate it to
mean “generations of men,” while native scholars, like Sâyana and
Mahîdhara; take it to refer to “mortal ages” in a majority of places. In
some cases (I, 124, 2; I, 144, 4) Sâyana, however, suggests as an
alternative, that the phrase may be understood to mean “conjunction”
or “couples (yuga) of men”; and this has probably given rise to the
interpretation put upon the phrase by Western scholars.
Etymologically the word yuga may mean “conjunction” or “a couple”
denoting either (1) “a couple of day and night,” or (2) “a couple of
months” i.e. “a season,” or (3) “a couple of fortnights” or “the time of
the conjunction of the moon and the sun,” i.e. “a month.” Thus at the
beginning of the Kali-Yuga the planets and the sun were, it is
supposed, in conjunction and hence it is said to be called a yuga. It is
also possible that the word may mean “a conjunction, or a couple, or
even a generation of men.” Etymology, therefore, does not help us in
determining which of these meanings should be assigned to the word
yuga or the phrase, Mânushâ yugâ in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and we must find
out some other means for determining it. The prejudice we have
referred to above, appears to be mainly due to the disinclination of
the Western scholars to import the later Yuga theory into the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda. But it seems to me that the caution has been carried too far, so
far as almost to amount to a sort of prejudice.
Turning to the hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, we find as remarked by
Muir, the phrase yuge yuge used at least in half a dozen places (III,
26, 3; VI, 15, 8; X, 94, 12, &c.), and it is interpreted by Sâyana to
mean a period of time. In III, 33, 8, and X, 10, we have uttara yugâni
“later age,” and in X, 72, 1, we read uttare yuge “in a later age”; whilst
in the
 159

next two verses we have the phrases Devânâm pûrve yuge and
Devânâm prathame yuge clearly referring to the later and earlier ages
of the gods. The word Devânâm is in the plural and yuga is in the
singular, and it is not therefore possible to take the phrase to mean
“generations of gods.” The context again clearly shows that a
reference to time is intended, for the hymn speaks of the creation and
the birth of the gods in early primeval times. Now if we interpret
Devânâm yugam to mean “an age of gods,” why should mânushyâ
yugâni or mânushâ yugâ be not interpreted to mean “human ages,” is
more than I can understand. There are again express passages in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where mânushâ yugâ cannot be taken to mean
“generations of men.” Thus in V, 52, 4, which is a hymn to Maruts, we
read Vishve ye mânushâ yugâ pânti martyam rishah. Here the verb
pânti (protect), the nominative vishve ye (all those), and the object is
martyam (the mortal man), while rishah (from injury), in the ablative,
denotes the object against which the protection is sought. So far the
sentence, therefore, means “All those who protect man from injury”;
and now the question is, what does mânushâ yugâ mean? If we take
it to mean “generations of men” in the objective case it becomes
superfluous, for martyam (man) is already the object of pânti
(protect). It is, therefore, necessary to assign to mânushâ yugâ the
only other meaning we know of, viz., “human ages” and take the
phrase as an accusative of time. Thus the interpreted the whole
sentence means “All those, who protect man from injury during
human ages.” No other construction is more natural or reasonable
than this; but still Prof. Max Müller translates the verse to mean “All
those who protect the generations of men, who protect the mortal
from injury,”* in spite of the fact that this is tautological and that there
is no conjunctive particle in the texts (like cha) to join what according
to him are the two objects of the verb “protect.” Mr. Griffith seems to
have perceived this difficulty, and has translated, “Who all,

* See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. 312.

 160

through ages of mankind, guard mortal man from injury.” Another

passage which is equally decisive on this point, is X, 140, 6. The
verse* is addressed to Agni, and people are said to have put him in
front to secure his blessings. It is as follows: —

Ritâvânam mahisham vishva-darshatam

agnim sumnâya dadhire puro janâh |
Shrut-karnam saprathas-taman
tvâ girâ daivyam mânushâ yugâ ||

Here ritâvânam (righteous), mahisham (strong), vishva-

darshatam (visible to all), agnim (Agni, fire), shrut-karnam (attentive
eared), saprathas-taman (most widely-reaching), tvâ (thee) and
daivyam (divine) are all in the accusative case governed by dadhire
(placed), and describe the qualities of Agni. Janâh (people) is the
nominative and dadhire (placed) is the only verb in the text. Sumnâya
(for the welfare) denotes the purpose for which the people placed
Agni in front (puro) and girâ (by praises) is the means by which the
favor of Agni, is to be secured. If we, therefore, leave out the various
adjectives of Agni, the verse means, “The people have placed Agni
(as described) in front for their welfare, with praises.” The only
expression that remains is mânushâ yugâ, and it can go in with the
other words in a natural way only as an accusative of time. The verse
would then mean “The people have placed Agni (as described), in
front for their welfare, with praises, during human ages.” But Griffith
takes yuga to mean “generations,” and supplying a verb of his own;
translates the last part of the verse thus: “Men’s generations magnify
(Agni) with praise-songs (girâ).” This shows what straits, we are
reduced to if we once make up our mind not to interpret mânushâ
yugâ to mean “a period of time,” for the word “magnify” does not exist
in the original. This verse also occurs in the Vâjasaneyî Samhitâ (XII,
111),


* Rig. X, 140, 6, — रतावानं मिहषं िवदशतमि ु
ं साय े ु जनाः । शण
दिधरपरो
ु यगा
सूथमं तवा िगरा दैानषा ु ॥
 161

and Mahîdhara there explains mânushâ yugâ to mean “human ages,”

or “periods of time” such as fortnights. We have, therefore, at least
two passages, where mânushâ yugâ, must, according to the
recognized rules of interpretation, be taken to mean “periods of time,”
and not “generations of men,” unless we are prepared to give up the
natural construction of the sentence. There are no more passages in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where mânushâ yugâ, occurs in juxtaposition with
words like janâh or martyam, so as to leave no option as regards the
meaning to be assigned to yuga. But if the meaning of a phrase is
once definitely determined even from a single passage, we can safely
understand the phrase in the same sense in other passages,
provided the meaning does not conflict there with the context. That is
how the meaning of many a Vedic word has been determined by
scholars like Yâska, and we are not venturing on a new path in
adopting the same process of reasoning in the present case.
But if mânushâ yugâ means “human ages” and not “human
generations,” we have still to determine the exact duration of these
ages. In the Atharva-Veda, VIII, 2, 21, which says, “We allot to thee, a
hundred, ten thousand years, two, three or four yugas,” the word
yuga obviously stands for a period of time, not shorter than ten
thousand years. But there are grounds to hold that in the early days
of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda yuga must have denoted a shorter period of time, or,
at least, that was one of its meanings in early days. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda
often speaks of “the first” (prathamâ) dawn, or “the first of the coming”
(âyatînâm prathamâ) dawns (‫ي‬ig. I, 113, 8; 123, 2; VII, 76, 6; X, 35,
4); while “the last” (avamâ) dawn is mentioned in VII, 71, 3, and the
dawn is said to have the knowledge of the first day in I, 123, 9. Now,
independently of what I have said before about the Vedic dawns, the
ordinal numeral “first” as applied to the dawn is intelligible only if we
suppose it to refer to the first dawn of the year, or the dawn on the
first day of the year, somewhat like the phrase “first night” (prathamâ
râtrih) used in the Brâhmanas (see Orion p. 69). The “first”
 162

(prathamâ) and the “last” (avamâ) dawn must, therefore, be taken to

signify the beginning and the end of the year in those days; and in the
light of what has been said about the nature of the Vedic dawns in the
fifth chapter, we may safely conclude that the “first” of the dawns was
no other than the first of a set or group of dawns that appeared at the
close of the long night and commenced the year. Now this “first
dawn” is described as “wearing out human ages” (praminatî
manushyâ yugâni) in I, 124, 2, and I, 92, 11; while in I, 115, 2, we are
told that “the pious or godly men extend the yugas,” on the
appearance of the dawn (yatrâ naro devayanto yugâni vitanvate).
European scholars interpret yuga in the above passages to mean
“generations of men.” But apart from the fact that the phrase
mânusha yugâ must be understood to mean “human ages” in at least
two passages discussed above, the context in I, 124, 2 and I, 92, 11
is obviously in favor of interpreting the word yuga, occurring therein,
as equivalent to a period of time. The dawn is here described as
commencing a new course of heavenly ordinances, or holy sacrifices
(daivyani vratâni), and setting in motion the manushyâ yugâni,
obviously implying that with the first dawn came the sacrifices, as well
as the cycle of time known as “human ages” or that “the human ages”
were reckoned from the first dawn. This association, of mânusha
yugâ, or “human ages,” with the “first dawn” at once enables us to
definitely determine the length or duration of “human ages”; for if
these ages (yugas) commenced with the first dawn of the year, they
must have ended on the last (avamâ) dawn of the year. In other
words mânusha yugâ collectively denoted the whole period of time
between the first and the last dawn of the year, while a single yuga
denoted a shorter division of this period.
Apart from the legend of Dîrghatamas, we have, therefore,
sufficient evidence in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda to hold that the world, yuga was
used to denote a period of time, shorter than one year, and that the
phrase mânusha yugâ meant “human ages” or “the period of time
between the first and the last dawn of
 163

year” and not “human generations.” The statement that “Dîrghatamas

grew old in the tenth yuga” is now not only easy to understand, but it
enables us to determine, still more definitely, the meaning of yuga in
the days of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. For, if yuga was a part of mânusha yugâ,
that is, of the period between the first and the last dawn of the year,
and the legend of Dîrghatamas a solar legend, the statement that
“Dîrghatamas grew old in the tenth yuga” can only mean that “the sun
grew old in the tenth month.” In other words, ten yugas were
supposed to intervene between the first and the last dawn, or the two
termini, of the year; and as ten days or ten fortnights would be too
short, and ten seasons too long a period of time to lie between these
limits, the word yuga in the phrase dashame yuge, must be
interpreted to mean “a month” and nothing else. In short,
Dîrghatamas was the sun that grew old in the tenth month, and riding
on the aerial waters was borne by them to their goal, that is, to the
ocean (VII, 49, 2) below the horizon. The waters here referred to are,
in fact, the same over which the king Varuna is said to rule, or which
flow by his commands, or for which he is said to have dug out a
channel (VII, 49, 1-4; II, 28 4; VII, 87, 1) and so cut out a path for
Sûrya, and which being released by Indra from the grass of Vṛitra,
bring on the sun (I, 51, 4). Prof. Max Müller, in his Contributions to the
Science of Mythology (Vol. II, pp. 583-598), has .shown that most of
the achievements of the Ashvins can be rationally explained by taking
them as referring to the decaying sun. The legend of Dîrghatamas is
thus only a mythical representation of the Arctic sun, who ascends
above the “bright ocean” (VII, 60, 4,), becomes visible for mânusha
yugâ or ten months, and then drops again into the nether waters.
What these waters are and how their nature has been long
misunderstood will be further explained in a subsequent chapter,
when we come to the discussion of Vedic myths. Suffice it to say for
the present that the legend of Dîrghatamas, interpreted as above, is
in full accord with the
 164

legend of the Dashagvas who are described as holding their

sacrificial session only for ten months.
I have discussed here the meaning of yugâ and mânusha yugâ
at some length, because the phrases have been much
misunderstood, in spite of clear passages showing that “a period of
time” was intended to be denoted by them. These passages (V, 52, 4;
X, 140, 6) establish the fact that mânusha yugâ denoted “human
ages,” and the association of these ages with the “first dawn” (I, 124,
2; I, 115, 2) further shows that the length of a yuga was regarded to
be shorter than a year. The mention of the tenth yuga finally settles
the meaning of yuga as “one month.” That is how I have arrived at the
meaning of these phrases, and I am glad to find that I have been
anticipated in my conclusions by Prof. Rangâchârya of Madras, on
different grounds. In his essay on the yugas,* he discusses the root
meaning of yuga, and, taking it to denote “a conjunction,” observes as
follows, “The phases of the moon being so readily observable, it is
probable that, as suggested by Professor Weber, the idea of a period
of time known as a yuga and depending upon a conjunction of certain
heavenly bodies, was originally derived from a. knowledge of these
phases. The Professor (Weber) further strengthens his supposition by
referring to a passage cited in the Shadvimsha Brâhmana (IV, 6)
wherein the four yugas are still designated by their more ancient
names and are con necked with the four lunar phases to which they
evidently owe their origin.” Mr. Rangâchârya then refers to darsha,
the ancient name for the conjunction of the sun and moon, and
concludes, “There is also old mythological or other evidence which
leads us to conclude that our forefathers observed many other kinds
of interesting celestial conjunctions; and in all probability the earliest
conception of a yuga meat the period from, new moon to new moon,”
that is, one lunar month. The

* The Yugas, or a Question of Hindu Chronology and History, p. 19.

 165

passage stating that it was the first dawn that set the cycle of
mânusha yugâ in motion is already quoted above; and if ‘we compare
this statement with ‫ي‬ig. X, 138, 6, where Indra after killing Vṛitra and
producing the dawn and the sun, is said “to have set the ordering of
the months in the sky,” it will be further evident that the cycle of the
time which began with the first dawn was a cycle of months. We may,
therefore, safely conclude that mânusha yugâ represented, in early
days, a cycle of months during which the sun was above the horizon,
or rather that period of sunshine and action when the ancestors of the
Aryan race held their sacrificial sessions or performed other religious
and social ceremonies.
There are many other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which support
the same view. But mânusha yugâ being everywhere interpreted by
Western scholars to mean “human generations or tribes,” the real
meaning of these passages has become obscure and unintelligible.
Thus in VIII, 46, 12, we have. “All (sacrificers), with ladles lifted,
invoke that mighty Indra for mânusha yugâ; and the meaning
evidently is that Soma libations were offered to Indra during the
period of human ages. But taking mânusha yugâ; to denote “human
tribes,” Griffith translates “All races of mankind invoke &c.” a
rendering, which, though intelligible, does not convey the spirit of the
original. Similarly, Agni is said to shine during “human ages” in VII, 9,
4. But there too the meaning “human tribes” is unnecessarily foisted
upon the phrase. The most striking illustration of the impropriety of
interpreting yuga to mean “a generation” is, however, furnished by
‫ي‬ig. II, 2, 2. Here Agni is said to shine for mânusha yugâ and
kshapah. Now kshapah means “nights” and the most natural
interpretation would be to take mânusha yugâ and kshapah as allied
expressions denoting a period of time. The verse will then mean: —
“O Agni! thou shinest during human ages and nights.” It is necessary
to mention “nights” because though mânusha yugâ is a period of
sunshine, including a long day and a succession of ordinary days and
nights, yet the long or the continuous night which followed mânusha
yugâ could not
 166

have been included in the latter phrase. Therefore, when the whole
period of the solar year was intended, a compound expression like
“mânusha yugâ and the continuous nights” was necessary and that is
the meaning of the phrase in II, 2, 2. But Prof. Oldenberg,* following
Max Müller, translates as follows “O Agni! thou shinest on human
tribes, on continuous nights.” Here, in the first place, it is difficult to
understand what “shining on human tribes” means and secondly if
kshapah means “continuous nights,” it could mean nothing except
“the long continuous night,” and if so, why not take mânusha yugâ to
represent the period of the solar year, which remains after the long
night is excluded from it? As observed by me before, Prof. Max Müller
has correctly translated kshapah by “continuous nights,” but has
missed the true meaning of the expression mânusha yugâ in this
place. A similar mistake has been committed with respect to IV, 16,
19, where the expression is kshapah madema sharadas cha pûrvîh.
Here, in spite of the accent, Max Müller takes kshapah as accusative
and so does Sâyana. But Sâyana correctly interprets the expression
as “May we rejoice for many autumns (seasons) and nights.”
“Seasons and nights” is a compound phrase, and the particle cha
becomes unmeaning if we split it up and take nights (kshapah) with
one verb, and seasons (sharadah) with another. Of course so long as
the Arctic theory was unknown the phrase “seasons and nights” or
“mânusha yugâ and nights” was unintelligible inasmuch as nights
were included in the seasons or the yugas. But Prof. Max Müller has
himself suggested the solution of the difficulty by interpreting kshapah
as “continuous nights” in II, 2, 2; and adopting this rendering, we can,
with greater propriety, take seasons and nights together, as indicated
by the particle cha and understand the expression to mean a
complete solar year including the long night. The addition of kshapah
to mânusha yugâ, therefore, further supports the conclusion that the
phrase indicated a period of sunshine as stated above. There

* See S. B. E. Series Vol. XLVI, pp. 193, 195.

 167

are many other passages in translating which unnecessary confusion

or obscurity has been caused by taking mânusha yugâ to mean
human tribes; but a discussion of these is not relevant to the subject
in hand.
An independent corroboration of the conclusion we have drawn
from the legends of the Dashagvas and Dîrghatamas is furnished by
the number of seasons mentioned in certain Vedic texts. A period of
sunshine of ten months followed by along night of two months can
well be described as five seasons of two months each, followed by
the sinking of the sun into the waters below the horizon; and as a
matter of fact we find the year so described in I, 164, 12, a verse
which occurs also in the Atharva Veda (IX, 9, 12) with a slight
variation and in the Prashnopanishad I, 11. It may be literally
translated as follows: — “The five-footed (pañcha-pâdam) Father of
twelve forms, they say, is full of watery vapors (pursîhinam) in the
farther half (pare ardhe) of the heaven. These others again say (that)
He the far-seeing (vichakshanam) is placed on the six-spoked (shad-
are) and seven-wheeled (car), in the nearer (upare scil. ardhe) half of
the heaven.”* The adjective “far-seeing” is made to qualify “seven-
wheeled” instead of “He” in the Atharva Veda, (vichakshane) being in
the locative case while Shankarâchârya in his commentary on the
Prashnopanishad splits upare into two words u and pare taking u as
an expletive. But these readings do not materially alter the meaning
of the verse. The context everywhere clearly indicates that the year-
god of twelve months (âkriti X, 85, 5) is here described. The previous
verse in the hymn (‫ي‬ig. I, 164) mentions

ु
* Rig. I, 164, 12, — पपादं िपतरं दवादशाितं िदव आः परे अध परीिषणम े े अ
। अथम
 ॥
उपरे िवचणं सचबे षळर आरिपतम
 168

“The twelve-spoked wheel, in which 720 sons of Agni are

established,” a clear reference to a year of twelve months with Tao
days and nights. There is, therefore, no doubt that the passage
contains the description of the year and the two halves of the verse,
which are introduced by the phrases “they say’” and “others say,” give
us two opinions about the nature of the year-god of twelve forms. Let
us now see what these opinions are. Some say that the year-god is
five-footed (pañcha-pâdam), that is divided into five seasons; and the
others say that he has a six-spoked car, or six seasons. It is clear
from this that the number of seasons was held to be five by some and
six by others in early days. Why should there be this difference of
opinion? The Aitareya Brâhmana I, 1, (and the Taittirîya Samhitâ I, 6,
2, 3) explains that the two seasons of Hemanta and Shishir together
made a joint season, thereby reducing the number of seasons from
six to five. But this explanation seems to be an afterthought, for in the
Shatapatha Brâhmana, XIII, 6, 1, 10, Varshâ and Sharad are
compounded for this purpose instead of Hemanta and Shishir. This
shows that in the days of the Taittirîya Samhitâ and the Brâhmanas it
was not definitely known or settled which two seasons out of six
should be compounded to reduce the number to five; but as five
seasons were sometimes mentioned in the Vedas, some explanation
was felt to be necessary to account for the smaller number and such
explanation was devised by taking together any two consecutive
seasons out of six and regarding them as one joint season of four
months. But the explanation is too vague to be true; and we cannot
believe that the system of compounding airy two seasons according
to one’s choice was ever followed in practice. We must, therefore,
give up the explanation as unsatisfactory and see if the verse from
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, quoted above, enables us to find out a better
explanation of the fact that the seasons were once held to be five.
Now the first half of this verse describes the five-footed father as full
of watery vapors in the farther part of heaven, while the year of six-
spoked car is said to be far-seeing. In short, purîshinam (full of, or
 169

dwelling in waters) in the first line appears to be a counterpart of

vichakshanam (far-seeing) in the second line. This is made clear by
the verses which follow. Thus the 13th verse in the hymn speaks of
“the five-spoked wheel” as remaining entire and unbroken though
ancient; and the next or the 14th verse says that “the unwasting
wheel with its felly revolves; the ten draw (it) yoked over the expanse.
The sun’s eye goes covered with rajas (aerial vapor); all worlds are
dependent on him.”* Comparing this with the 11th verse first quoted,
it may be easily seen that purîshinam (full of watery vapors) and
rajasâ âvritam (covered with rajas) are almost synonymous phrases
and the only inference we can draw from them is that the five-footed
year-god or the sun event to dwell in watery vapors i.e., became
invisible, or covered with darkness and (rajas), for some time in the
farther part of the heaven. The expression that “The ten, yoked, draw
his carriage,” (also cf. ‫ي‬ig. IX, 63, 9) further shows that the five
seasons were not made by combining any two consecutive seasons
out of six as explained in the Brâhmanas (for in that case the number
of horses could not be called ten), but that a real year of five seasons
or ten months was here intended. When the number of seasons
became increased to six, the year-god ceased to be purîshin (full of
waters) and became vichakshanam or far-seeing. We have seen that
the sun, as represented by Dîrghatamas, grew old in the tenth month
and riding on aerial waters went into the ocean. The same .idea is
expressed in the present verse which describes two different views
about the nature of the year, one of five and the other of six seasons
and contrasts their leading features with each other. Thus pare ardhe
is contrasted with upare ardhe in the second line, pañcha-pâdam
(compare pacñhâre in the next verse, i.e. ‫ي‬ig-Veda I. 164, 13) with
shad-are, and purîshinam with

* Rig. I, 164, 13, & 14, — पारे चबे पिरवतमान ु ु

 े तिा तभवनािन िवा । त
ू
नाते भिरभारः सनादवे न शीयत े सनािभः ॥ सनिम
े चबमजरं िव वात उानायां दश
ु वहि । सूय
या  चू रजस ैातं तिािपता ु
 भवनािन िवा ॥
 170

vichakshanam. In short, the verse under consideration describes the

year either (1) as five-footed, and lying in waters in the farther part of
heaven, or (2) as mounted on a six-spoked car and far-seeing in the
nearer part of the heaven. These two descriptions cannot evidently
apply to seasons in one and the same place, and the artifice of
combining two consecutive seasons cannot be accepted as a solution
of the question. Five seasons and ten months followed by the watery
residence of the sun or dark nights, is what is precisely described in
the first half of this passage (I, 164, 12), and, from what has been
said hitherto, it will be easily seen that it is the Arctic year of ten
months that is here described. The verse, and especially the contrast
between purîshinam and vichakshanam, does not appear to have
attracted the attention it deserves. Bu in the light of the Arctic theory
the description is now as intelligible as any. The Vedic bards have
here preserved for us the memory of a year of five seasons or ten
months, although their year had long been changed into one of
twelve months. The explanation given in the Brâhmanas are all so
many post-facto devices to account for the mention of five seasons in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and I do not think we are bound to accept them when
the fact of five seasons can be better accounted for. I have remarked
before that in searching for evidence of ancient traditions we must
expect to find later traditions associated with them, and ‫ي‬ig. I, 164,
12, discussed above, is a good illustration of this remark. The first line
of the verse, though it speaks of five seasons, describes the year as
twelve-formed; while the second line, which deals with a year of six
seasons or twelve months, speaks of it as “seven-wheeled,” that is
made up of seven months or seven suns, or seven rays of the sun.
This may appear rather inconsistent at the first sight; but the history
of words in any language will show that old expressions are
preserved in the language long after they have ceased to denote the
ideas primarily expressed by them. Thus we now use coins for
exchange, yet the word “pecuniary” which is derived from pecus =
cattle, is still retained in the
 171

language; and similarly, we still speak of the rising of the sun, though
we now know that it is not the luminary that rises, but the earth, by
rotating round its axis, makes the sun visible to us. Very much in the
same way and by the same process, expressions like saptâshva
(seven horsed) or sapta-chakra (seven-wheeled), as applied to the
year or the sun, must have become recognized and established as
current phrases in the language before the hymns assumed their
present form, and the Vedic bards could not have discarded them
even when they knew that they were not applicable to the state of
things before them. On the contrary, as we find in the Brâhmanas
every artifice, that ingenuity could suggest, was tried to make these
old phrases harmonize with the state of things then in, vogue, and
from the religious or the sacrificial point of view it was quite necessary
to do so. But when we have to examine the question from a historical
stand-point, it is our duty to separate the relics of the older period
from facts or incidents of the later period with which the former are
sometimes inevitably mixed up; and if we analyze the verse in
question (I, 164, 12) in this way we shall clearly see in it the traces of
a year of ten months and five seasons. The same principle is also
applicable in other cases, as, for instance, when we find the
Navagvas mentioned together with the seven vîpras in VI, 22, 2. The
bards, who gave us the present version of the hymns, knew of the
older or primeval state of things only by traditions, and it is no wonder
if these traditions are occasionally mixed up with later events. On the
contrary the preservation of so many traditions of the primeval home
is itself a wonder, and it is this fact, which invests the oldest Veda
with such peculiar importance from the religious as well as the
historical point of view.
To sum up there are clear traditions preserved in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
which show that the year once consisted of seven months or seven
suns, as in the legend of Aditi’s sons, or that there were ten months
of the year as in the legend of the Dashagvas or Dîrghatamas; and
these cannot be accounted for except on the Arctic theory. These ten
months formed the
 172

sacrificial session of the primeval sacrificers of the Aryan race and

the period was denominated as mânusha yugâ or human ages, an
expression much misunderstood by Western scholars. The sun went
below the horizon in the tenth of these yugas and Indra fought with
Vala in the period of darkness which followed and at the end of the
year, again brought back the sun “dwelling in darkness” during the
period. The whole year of twelve months was thus made up of
mânusha yugâ and continuous nights, and, in spite of the fact that the
Vedic bards lived later on in places where the sun was above the
horizon for twelve months, the expression “mânusha yugâ and
kshapah (nights)” is still found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. It is true that the
evidence discussed in this chapter is mostly legendary; but that does
not lessen its importance in any way, for it will be seen later on that
some of these traditions are Indo-European in character. The tradition
that the year was regarded by some to have been made up only of
five seasons, or that only ten horses were yoked to the chariot of the
sun, is again in full accord with the meaning of these legends; and it
will be shown in the next chapter that in the Vedic literature there are
express statements about a sacrificial session of ten months, which
are quite independent of these traditions, and which, therefore,
independently prove and strengthen the conclusions deduced from
the legends discussed in this chapter.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER VIII

THE COWS’ WALK

The Pravargya ceremony — Symbolizes the revival of the yearly sacrifice —
Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra — Mantras used on
the occasion of pouring milk into it — The two creating the five, and the ten
of Vivasvat — Indicate the death of the year after five seasons or ten
months — The tradition about the sun falling beyond the sky — Annual
Sattras — Their type, the Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows’ walk — Lasted for 10
or 12 months according to the Aitareya Brâhmana — Two passages from
the Taittirîya Samhitâ describing the Gavâm-ayanam — Mention to months’
duration of the Sattra, but give no reason except that it was an ancient
practice — Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial year of ten months-
Comparison with the old Roman year of ten months or 304 days — How the
rest of 360 days were disposed of by the Romans not yet known — They
represented a long period of darkness according to the legend of the
Dashagvas — Thus leading to the Arctic theory — Prof. Max Müller on the
threefold nature of cows in the Vedas — Cows as animals, rain and dawns
or days in the Rig-Veda — Ten months’ Cows’ walk thus means the ten
months’ duration of ordinary days and nights — 350 oxen of Helios —
Implies a night of ten days — The stealing of Apollon’s oxen by Hermes —
Cows stolen by Vritra in the Vedas — Represent the stealing of day-cows
thereby causing the long night — Further sacrificial evidence from the
Vedas — Classification of the Soma-sacrifices — Difference between Ekâha
and Ahîna — A hundred nightly sacrifices — Annual Sattras like the
Gavâm-ayanam — Model outline or scheme of ceremonies therein — Other
modifications of the same — All at present based upon a civil year — But
lasted for ten months in ancient times — Night-sacrifices now included
amongst day-sacrifices — The reason why the former extend only over 100
nights is yet unexplained — Appropriately accounted for on the Arctic
theory — Soma juice extracted at night in the Atirâtra, or the trans
nocturnal sacrifice even now — The analogy applied to other night-
sacrifices — Râtrî Sattras were the sacrifices of the long night in ancient
times — Their object — Soma libations exclusively offered to Indra to help
him in his fight against Vala — Shata-râtra represented the maximum
duration of the long night — Corroborated by Aditi’s legend of seven
months’ sunshine — Explains why India was called Shata-kratu in the
Purânas — The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars — Similarity
between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices — The epithet Shata-kratu
unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Vedas — Implies that it was
peculiar or proper to Indra — Dr. Haug’s view that kratu means a sacrifice
in the Vedas — Hundred forts or
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puraḥ (cities) of Vritra — Explained as hundred seats of darkness or nights

— Legend of Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha in the Avesta — Only a
reproduction of Indra’s fight with Vritra — Tishtrya’s fight described as
lasting from one to a hundred nights in the Avesta — Forms an
independent corroboration of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices — The
phrase Sato-karahe found in the Avesta — The meaning of the nature of
Ati-râtra discussed — Means a trans-nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end
of the long night — Production of the cycle of day and night therefrom —
Hence a fitting introduction to the annual Sattras — Marked the close of the
long night and the beginning of the period of sunshine — Sattra Ati-râtra,
night sacrifices and Ati-râtra again thus formed the yearly round of
sacrifices in ancient times — Clearly indicate the existence of a long
darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year — Ancient sacrificial system
thus corresponded with the ancient year — Adaptation of both to the new
home effected by the Brâhmanas, like Numa’s reform in the old Roman
Calendar — The importance of the results of sacrificial evidence.

The legend of the Dashagvas, who completed their sacrifices

during ten months, is not the only relic of the ancient year preserved
in the sacrificial literature. The Pravargya ceremony, which is
described in the Aitareya Brâhmana (I, 18-12), furnishes us with
another instance, where a reference to the old year seems to be
clearly indicated. Dr. Haug, in his translation of the Aitareya
Brâhmana, has fully described this ceremony in a note to I, 18. It lasts
for three days and precedes the animal and the Soma sacrifice, as no
one is allowed to take part in the Soma feast without having
undergone this ceremony. The whole ceremony symbolizes the
revival of the sun or the sacrificial ceremony (yajña), which, for the
time being, is preserved as seed in order that it may grow again in
due time (Ait. Br. I, 18). Thus one of the chief implements used in the
ceremony is a peculiar earthen pot called Gharma or Mahâvîra.
Placing it on the Vedic altar the Adhvaryu makes a circle of clay
called khara, because it is made of earth brought on the back of a
donkey to the sacrificial ground. He places the pot on the circle and
heats it so as to make it quite hot (gharma). It is then lifted by means
of two shaphas (two wooden pieces), and then milking a cow, the
milk is poured into the heated pot and mixed with the milk of a goat
whose kid is dead. After
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this has been done, the contents of the Mahâvîra are thrown into the
Âhavanîya fire. But all the contents of the pot are not thus thrown
away, for the Hotṛi is described as eating the remainder of the
contents of the Gharma, which are said to be full of honey, full of sap,
full of food and quite hot. The Aitareya Brâhmana (I, 22) gives us a
rational of this ceremony as follows “The milk in the vessel is the
seed. This seed (in the shape of milk) is poured in Agni (fire) as the
womb of the gods for production, for Agni is the womb of the gods.”
This explanation proves the symbolic nature of the ceremony, and
shows that the sun, the sacrifice or the year is thus preserved as
seed for time, and then revived at the proper season. The Mantra or
the verse, which is recited on the occasion of pouring the milk into the
Mahâvîra is taken from the ‫ي‬ig-Veda VIII, 72 (61) 8, and it is very
likely that the verse was selected not simply on account of mere
verbal correspondence. The hymn, where the verse occurs, is rather
obscure. But the verse itself, as well as the two preceding verses
(VIII, 72 (61), 6-7-8) present no verbal difficulty and may be translated
as follows: —
“6. And now that mighty and great chariot of his with horses (as
well as) the line of his chariot is seen.”
“7. The seven milk the one, and the two create the five, on the
ocean’s loud-sounding bank.”
“8. With the ten of Vivasvat, Indra by his three-fold hammer,
caused the heaven’s bucket to drop down.”*
Here, first of all, we are told that his (sun’s) chariot, the great
chariot with horses has become visible, evidently meaning that the
dawn has made its appearance on the horizon. Then the seven,
probably the seven Hotris, or seven rivers, are said to milk this dawn
and produce the two. This milking is a familiar process in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda and in one place the cows of the morning are said to be milked
from darkness

* Rig. VIII. 72, 6-8, — उतो नव यन महदावद योजनं बहद । दामा रथ दशे ॥
हि स ैकामपु दवा प सजतः
 । तीथ िसोरिध सवरे ॥ आ दशिभिववत
 इः
ु
कोशमचवीत े तिरता िदवः ॥
। खदया
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(I, 33, 10). The two evidently mean day and night and as soon as
they are milked, they give rise to the five seasons. The day and the
night are said to be the two mothers of Sûrya in III, 55, 6, and here
they are the mothers of the five seasons. What becomes after the
expiry of the seasons is, described in the eighth verse. It says that
with the ten of Vivasvat, or with the lapse of ten months, Indra with
his three-fold hammer shook down the heavenly jar. This means that
the three storing places of the aerial waters (VII, 101, 4) were all
emptied into the ocean at this time and along with it the sun also went
to the lower world, for sunlight is described to be three-fold in (VII,
101, 2 and Sâyana there quotes the Taittirîya Samhitâ (II, 1, 2, 5),
which says that the sun has three lights; the morning light being the
Vasanta, the midday the Grîshma, and the evening the Sharad. The
verse, therefore, obviously refers to the three-fold courses of waters
in the heaven and the three-fold light of the sun and all this is. said to
come to an end with the ten of Vivasvat The sun and the sacrifice are
then preserved as seed to be re-generated some time after, — a
process symbolized in the Pravargya ceremony. The idea of the sun
dropping from heaven is very common in the sacrificial literature.
Thus in the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 18) we read, “The gods, being
afraid of his (sun’s) falling beyond them being turned upside down,
supported him by placing above him the highest worlds”;* and the
same idea is met with in the Tândya Brâhmana (IV, 5, 9, 11). The
words “falling beyond” (parâchas atipâtât) are very important,
inasmuch as they show that the sun dropped into regions that were
en the yonder side. One of the Ashvin’s protégé is also called
Chyavâna, which word Prof. Max Müller derives from chyu to drop.
The Ashvins are said to have restored him to youth, which, being
divested of its legendary form, means the rehabilitation of the sun that
had dropped into the nether world. The Pravargya ceremony, which
preserves

* Ait. Brâh. VI, 18.

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serves the seed of the sacrifice, is, therefore, only one phase of the
story of the dropping sun in the sacrificial literature and the verses
employed in this ceremony, if interpreted in the spirit of that
ceremony, appear, as stated above, to indicate an older year of five
seasons and ten months.
But the Mantras used in the Pravargya ceremony are not so
explicit as one might expect such kind of evidence to be. Therefore,
instead of attempting to give more evidence of the same kind, — and
there are many such facts in the Vedic sacrificial literature, — I
proceed to give the direct statements about the duration of the annual
Sattras from the well-known Vedic works. These statements have
nothing of the legendary character about them and are, therefore,
absolutely certain and reliable. It has been stated before that
institution of sacrifice is an old one, and found amongst both the
Asiatic and the European branches of the Aryan race. It was, in fact
the main ritual of the religion of these people and naturally enough
every detail concerning the sacrifices was closely watched, or
accurately determined by the priests, who had the charge of these
ceremonies. It is true that in giving reasons for the prevalence of a
particular practice, these priests sometimes indulged in speculation;
but the details of the sacrifice were facts that were settled in strict
accordance with custom, and tradition, whatever explanations might
be given in regard to their origin. But sometimes the facts were found
to be so stubborn as to, defy any explanation, and the priests had to
content themselves with barely recording the practice, and adding
that “such is the practice from times immemorial.” It is with such
evidence that we have now to deal in investigating the duration of the
annual Sattras in ancient times.
There are many annual Sattras like Âdityânâm-ayanam,
Angirasâm-ayanam, Gavâm-ayanam, &c. mentioned in the
Brâhmanas and the Shrauta Sûtras; and, as observed by Dr. Haug,
they seem to have been originally established in imitation of the sun’s
yearly course. They are the oldest of the Vedic sacrifices and their
duration and other details have
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been all very minutely and carefully noted down in the sacrificial
works. All these annual Sattras are not, however, essentially different
from each other, being so many different varieties or modifications,
according to circumstances, of a common model or type, and the
Gavâm-ayanam is said to be this type; (vide, com. on Âshv. S.S. II, 7,
1). Thus in the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 17) we are told that “They
hold the Gavâm-ayanam, that is, the sacrificial session called the
Cows’ walk. The cows are the Âdityas (gods of the months). By
holding the session called the Cows’ walk they also hold the
Âdityânâm-ayanam (the walk of the Âdityas).”* If we, (therefore,
ascertain the duration of the Gavâm-ayanam, the same rule would
apply to all other annual Sattras and we need not examine the latter
separately. This Gavâm-ayanam, or the Cows’ walk, is fully described
in three places. Once in the Aitareya Brâhmana and twice in the
Taittirîya Samhitâ. We begin with the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 17),
which describes the origin and duration of the Sattra as follows: —
“The cows, being desirous of obtaining hoofs and horns, held
(once) a sacrificial session. In the tenth month (of their sacrifice) they
obtained hoofs and horns. They said, ‘We have obtained fulfillment of
that wish for which we underwent the initiation into the sacrificial rites.
Let us rise (the sacrifice being finished).’ Those that arose, are these,
who have horns. Of those, who, however, sat (continued the session)
saying, ‘Let us finish the year,’ the horns went off on account of their
distrust. It is they, who are hornless (tûparâh). They (continuing their
sacrificial session) produced vigor (ûrjam). Thence after (having been
sacrificing for twelve months and) having secured all the seasons,
they rose (again) at the end. For they had produced the vigor (to
reproduce horns, hoofs, &c. when decaying). Thus

* See Dr. Haug’s Ait. Brâh. Vol. II, p. 287.

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the cows made themselves beloved by all (the whole world), and are
beautified (decorated) by all.”*
Here it is distinctly mentioned that the cows first obtained the
fulfillment of their desire in ten months, and a number of them left off
sacrificing further. Those, that remained and sacrificed for two
months more, are called “distrustful,” and they had to suffer for their
distrust by forfeiting the horns they had obtained. It is, therefore,
clear, that this yearly Sattra, which in the Samhitâs and Brâhmanas is
a Sattra of twelve months in imitation of the sun’s yearly course, was
once completed in ten months. Why should it be so? Why was a
Sattra, which is annual in its very nature and which now lasts for
twelve months, once completed in ten months? How did the
sacrificers obtain all the religious merit of a twelve months’ sacrifice
by sacrificing for ten months only? These are very important
questions; but the Aitareya Brâhmana neither raises them, nor gives
us any clue to their solution. If we, however, go back to the Taittirîya
Samhitâ, the oldest and most authoritative work on the sacrificial
ceremonies, we find the questions distinctly raised. The Samhitâ
expressly states that the Gavâm-ayanam can be completed in ten or
twelve months, according to the choice of the sacrificer; but it plainly
acknowledges its inability to assign any reason how a Sattra of twelve
months could be completed in ten, except the fact that “it is an old
practice sanctioned by immemorial usage.” These passages are very
important for our purpose, and I give below a close translation

* See Dr. Haug’s Ait. Brâh. Trans. Vol. II, p. 287.

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of each. The first occurs in the Taittirîya Samhitâ (VII. 5, 1, 1-2),* and
may be rendered as follows: —
“The cows held this sacrificial session, desiring that ‘being
hornless let horns grow unto us.’ Their session lasted (for) ten
months. Then when the horns grew (up) they rose saying, ‘We have
gained.’ But those, whose (horns) were not grown, they rose after
completing the year, saying ‘We have gained.’ Those, that had their
horns grown, and those that had not, both rose saying ‘We have
gained.’ Cow’s session is thus the year (year session). Those, who
know this, reach the year and prosper verily. Therefore, the hornless
(cow) moves (grazes) pleased during the two rainy months. This is
what the Sattra has achieved for her. Therefore, whatever is done in
the house of one performing the yearly Sattra is successfully, timely
and properly done.
This account slightly differs from that given in the Aitareya
Brâhmana. In the Samhitâ the cows whose session lasted for twelve
months, are said to be still hornless; but instead of getting vigor
(ûrjam), they are said to have obtained as a reward for their additional
sitting, the pleasure of comfortable grazing in the two rainy months,
during which as the commentator observes, the horned cows find
their horns an impediment to graze freely in the field, where new
grass has grown up. But the statement regarding the duration of the
Sattra viz., that it lasted for ten or twelve months, is the same both in
the Samhitâ and in the Brâhmana. The Samhitâ again takes up the
question in the next Anuvâka (VII, 5, 2,

* Taitt. Sam. VII, 5, 1, 1-2.

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1-2 ),* and further describes the cows’ session as follows: —

“The cows held this sacrificial session, being hornless (and)
desiring to obtain horns. Their session lasted (for) ten months; then
when the horns grew (up), they said, ‘We have gained, let us rise, we
have obtained the desire for which we sat (commenced the session).’
Half, or as many, of them as said, ‘We shall certainly sit for the two
twelfth (two last) months, and rise after completing the year,’ (some of
them had horns in the twelfth month by trust, (while) by distrust those
that (are seen) hornless (remained so). Both, that is, those who got
horns, and those who obtained vigor (ûrjam), thus attained their
object. One who knows this, prospers, whether rising (from the
sacrifice) in the tenth month or in the twelfth. They indeed go by the
path (padena); he going by the path indeed attains (the end). This is
that successful ayanam (session). Therefore, it is go-sani (beneficial
to the cows).”
This passage, in its first part repeats the story given in the
previous anuvâka of the Samhitâ and in the Aitareya Brâhmana with
slight variations. But the latter part contains two important statements:
firstly that whether we complete the sacrifice within ten months or
twelve months the religious merit or fruit obtained is the same in
either case, for both are said to prosper equally; and secondly this is
said, to be the case because it is the “path” or as Sâyana explains
“an immemorial custom.” The Samhitâ is, in fact, silent as to the
reason why an annual sattra which ought to, and as a matter of fact
does, now last for twelve months could be completed in ten months;

* Taitt. Sam. VII, 5, 2, 1-2.

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and this reticence is very remarkable, considering how the Samhitâ

sometimes indulges in speculations about the origin of sacrificial rites.
Any how we have two facts clearly established, (1) that at the time of
the Taittirîya Samhitâ the Gavâm-ayanam the type of all annual
Sattras could be completed in ten months; and (2) that no reasons
was known at the time, as to why a Sattra of twelve months could be
thus finished in ten, except that it was “an immemorial custom.” The
Tândya Brâhmana IV, 1, has a similar discussion about Gavâm-
ayanam, and clearly recognizes its two-fold characters so far as its
duration is concerned. Sâyana and Bhatt Bhâskara, in their
commentaries on the Taittirîya Samhitâ, cannot therefore, be said to
have invented any new theory of their own as regards the double
duration of the annual Sattra. We shall discuss later on what is
denoted by “cows” in the above passages. At present we are
concerned with the duration of the Sattra; and if we compare the
above matter-of-fact statements in the Samhitâ about the double
duration of the annual Sattra with the legend of the Dashagvas
sacrificing for ten months, the conclusion, that in ancient times the
ancestors of the Vedic Aryas completed their annual sacrificial
session in ten months, becomes irresistible. This duration of the
Sattra must have been changed and all such Sattras made to last for
twelve months when the Vedic people came to live in regions where
such an annual session was impossible. But conservatism in such
matters is so strong that the old practice must have outlived the
change in the calendar, and it had to be recognized as an alternative
period of duration for this Sattra in the Samhitâs. The Taittirîya
Samhitâ has thus to record the alternative period, stating that it is an
ancient practice, and I think it settles the question, so far as the
duration of these Sattras in ancient times is concerned. Whatever
reasons we may assign for it, it is beyond all doubt that the oldest
annual Sattras lasted only for ten months.
But the Taittirîya Samhitâ is not alone in being thus unable to
assign any reason for this relic of the ancient calendar, or the
duration of the annual Sattra. We still designate
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the twelfth month of the European solar year as December which

word etymologically denotes the tenth month, (Latin decem, Sans.
dashan, ten; and ber Sans. vâra, time or period), and we all know that
Numa added two months to the ancient Roman year and made it of
twelve months. Plutarch, in his life of Numa records another version
of the story, viz., that Numa according to some, did not add the two
months but simply transferred them from the end to the beginning of
the year. But the names of the months clearly show that this could not
have been the case, for the enumeration of the months by words
indicating their order as the fifth or Quintilis (old name for July), the
sixth or Sixtilis, (old name for August), the seventh or September and
so on the rest in their order, cannot, after, it is once begun, be
regarded to have abruptly stopped at December, allowing only the
last two months to be differently named. Plutarch has, therefore,
rightly observed that “we have a proof in the name of the last (month)
that the Roman year contained, at first ten months only and not
twelve.”* But if there was any doubt on the point, it is now removed by
the analogy of the Gavâm-ayanam and the legends of the Dashagvas
and Dîrghatamas. Macrobius (Saturnal Lib. I. Chap. 12) confirms the
story of Numa’s adding and not simply transposing, two months to the
ancient year of ten months. What the Avesta has to say on this
subject we shall see later on where traditions about the ancient year
amongst the other Aryan races will also be considered. Suffice it to
say for the present that, according to tradition, the ancient Roman
year consisted only of ten months, and like the duration of the
Gavâm-ayanam, it was subsequently changed into a year of twelve
months; and yet, so far as I know, no reason has yet been
discovered, why the Roman year in ancient times was considered to
be shorter by two months. On the contrary, the tendency is either to
explain away the

* See Plutarch’s Lives, translated into English by the Rev. John and William
Langhorne (Ward, Lock & Co.), p. 54, ƒ.
 184

tradition some how as inconvenient, or to ignore it altogether as

incredible. But so long as the word December is before us and we
know how it is derived, the tradition cannot be so lightly set side. The
Encyclopædia Britannica (s.v. calendar) records the ancient tradition
that the oldest Roman year of Romulus was of ten months of 304
days and observes “it is not known how the remaining days were
disposed of.” If, with all the resources of modern science at our
command, we have not yet been able to ascertain why the oldest
Roman year was of ten months only and how the remaining days
were disposed of, we need not be surprised if the Taittirîya Samhitâ
refrained from speculating on the point and contented itself with
stating that such was the “path” or the old custom or practice handed
down from generation to generation from times immemorial. The
Arctic theory, however, now throws quite a new light on these ancient
traditions, Vedic as well as Roman; and if we take the Gavâm-
ayanam of ten months and the old Roman year of ten months as
relics of the period when the ancestors of both these races lived
together within the circum-polar regions, there is no difficulty of
explaining how the remaining days were disposed of. It was the
period of the long night, — a time when Indra fought with Vala, to
regain the cows imprisoned by the latter and Hercules killed the giant
Cacus, a three-headed fire-vomiting monster, who had carried off
Hercules’ cows and hid them in a cave, dragging them backwards in
order that the foot-marks might not be traced. When the Aryan people
migrated southwards from this ancient home they had to change this
calendar to suit their new home by adding two more months to the old
year. But the traces of the old calendar could not be completely wiped
off, and we have still sufficient evidence, traditional or sacrificial, to
warrant us in holding that a year of ten months followed by a night of
two months was known in the Indo-Germanic period — a conclusion,
which is further confirmed by Teutonic myths and legends, gas
explained by Prof. Rhys, whose views will be found summarized in a
subsequent chapter.
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The Taittirîya Samhitâ and the Aitareya Brâhmana speak of the

Gavâm-ayanam as being really held by the cows. Was it really a
session of these animals? Or was it something else? The Aitareya
Brâhmana, we have seen, throws out a suggestion that “the cows are
the Âdityas,” that is the month-gods, and the Cows’ session is really
the session of the monthly sun-gods.* Comparative mythology now
fully bears out the truth of this remarkable suggestion put forward by
the Brâhmana. Cows, such as we meet them in the mythological
legends, represent days and nights of the year, not only in the Vedic
but also in the Greek mythology; any we can, therefore, now give a
better account of the origin of this sacrificial session than that it was a
session of bovine animals for the purpose of obtaining horns.
Speaking of cows in the Aryan mythology, Prof. Max Müller in his
Contributions to the Science of Mythology (Vol. II. p. 761) writes as
follows: —
“There were thus three kinds of cows, the real cows, the cows
in the dark cloud (rain = milk), and the cows stepping forth from the
dark stable of the night (the rays of the morning). These three are not
always easy to distinguish in the Veda; nay, while we naturally try to
distinguish between them, the poets themselves seem to delight in
mixing them up. In the passage quoted above (I, 32, 11), we saw how
the captive waters were compared to cows that had been stolen by
Pani (niruddhâh âpah Pânînâ iva gâvah), but what is once compared
in the Veda is soon identified. As to the Dawn, she is not only
compared to a cow, she is called the cow straight out. Thus when we
read, R.V. I. 92, 1. These dawns have made a light on the eastern
half of the sky, they brighten their splendor, the bright cows approach,
the mothers, the cows, gâvah, can only be the dawns themselves, the
plural of dawn being constantly in the Veda used where we should
use the singular. In R.V. 1, 93, 4, we read that ‘Agnîshomau deprived
Pani of his cows and found light

* See Aitareya Brâh. IV, 17, quoted supra.

 186

for many.’ Here again the cows are the dawns kept by Pani in the
dark stable or cave of the night, discovered by Saramâ and delivered
every morning by the gods of light.”
“We read in R.V. I, 62, 3, that Bṛihaspati split the rock and
found the cows.”
“Of Indra it is said, II, 19, 3, that he produced the sun and found
the cows; of Bṛihaspati, II, 24, 3, that he drove out the cows, that he
split the cave by his word, that he hid the darkness, and lighted up
the sky. What can be clearer? The Maruts also, II, 34, 1, are said to
uncover the cows and Agni. V, 14, 4, is praised for killing the friends,
for having overcome darkness by light, and having found the cows,
water and the sun.”
“In all these passages we find no iva or na, which would
indicate that the word cow was used metaphorically. The dawns or
days as they proceed from the dark stable, or are rescued from evil
spirits, are spoken of directly as the cows. If they, are spoken of in the
plural, we find the same in the case of the Dawn (ushas) who is often
conceived as many, as in II, 28, 2, upâyane ushasâm gomatînâm, ‘at
the approach of the dawns with their cows.’ From that it required but
a small step to speak of the one Dawn as the mother of the cows, IV,
52, 2, mâtâ gavâm.”
“Kuhn thought that these cows should be understood as the red
clouds of the morning. But clouds are not always present at sunrise,
nor can it well be said that they are carried off and kept in prison
during the night by the powers of darkness.”
“But what is important and settles the point is the fact that these
cows or oxen of the dawn or of the rising sun occur in other
mythologies also and are there clearly meant for days. They are
numbered as 12 × 30, that is, the thirty days of the 12 lunar months. If
Helios has 350 oxen and 350 sheep, that can only refer to the days
and to the nights of the year, and would prove the knowledge of a
year of 350 days before the Aryan separation.”
Thus the cows in mythology are the days and nights, or
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dawns, that are imprisoned by Pani, and not real living cows with
horns. Adopting this explanation and substituting these metaphorical
cows for gâvah in the Gavâm-ayanam, it is not difficult to see that
underneath the strange story of cows holding a sacrificial session for
getting horns, there lies concealed the remarkable phenomenon, that,
released from the clutches of Pani, these cows of days and nights
walked on for ten months, the oldest duration of the session known
as Cows, walk. In plain language this means, if it means anything,
that the oldest Aryan year was one of ten months followed by the long
night, during which the cows were again carried away by the powers
of darkness. We have seen that the oldest Roman year was of ten
months, and the Avesta, as will be shown later on, also speaks of ten
months’ summer prevailing in the Airyana Vaêjo before the home
:was invaded by the evil spirit, who brought on ice and severe winter
in that place. A year of ten months with a long night of two months
may thus be taken to be known before the Aryan separation, and the
references to it in the Vedic literature are neither isolated nor
imaginary. They are the relics of ancient history, which have been
faithfully preserved in the sacrificial literature of India, and if they were
hitherto misunderstood it was because the true key required for their
solution was as yet unknown.
But as stated in the previous chapter, a year in the circum-polar
region will always have a varying number of the months or sunshine
according to latitude. Although, therefore, there is sufficient evidence
to establish the existence of, a year of ten months, we cannot hold
that it was the only year known in ancient times. In fact we have seen
that the legend of Aditi indicates the existence of the seven months of
sunshine; and a band of thirty continuous dawns supports the same
conclusion. But it seems that a year of ten months of sunshine was
more prevalent, or was selected as the mean of the different varying
years. The former view is rendered probable by the fact that of the
Angirases of various forms (virûpas) the Navagvas and the
Dashagvas are said to be the
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principal or the most important in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X, 62, 6), But
whichever view we adopt, the existence of a year of seven, eight,
nine, ten or eleven months of sunshine follows as a matter of course,
if the ancient Aryan home was within the Arctic circle. Prof. Max
Müller, in his passage quoted above, points out that the old Greek
year probably consisted of 350 days, the 350 oxen of Helios
representing the days, and 350 sheep representing the nights. He
also notices that in German mythology 700 gold rings of Wieland, the
smith, are spoken of, and comparing the number with 720 sons of
Agni mentioned in I, 164, 11, he draws from it the conclusion that a
year of 350 days is also represented in the German mythology. This
year is shorter by ten days than the civil year of 360 days, or falls
short of the full solar year by 15 days. It is, therefore, clear that if a
year of 350 days existed before the Aryan separation, it must have
been followed by a continuous night of ten days; while where the year
was of 300 days, the long night extended over 60 days of 24 hours
each. We shall thus have different kinds of long nights; and it is
necessary to see if we can collect evidence to indicate the longest
duration of the night known before the Aryan separation. Speaking of
the cows or oxen of Helios, as stated in the passage quoted above,
Prof. Max Müller goes on to observe: —
“The cows or oxen of Hêlios thus receive their background from
the Veda, but what is told of them by Homer is by no means clear.
When it is said that the companions of Odysseus consumed the oxen
of Helios, and that they thus forfeited their return home, we can
hardly take this in the modern sense of consuming or wasting their
days, thought it may be difficult to assign any other definite meaning
to it. Equally puzzling is the fable alluded to in the Homeric hymn that
Hermes stole the oxen of Apollon and killed two of them. The number
of Apollon’s oxen is given as fifty (others give the number as 100
cows, twelve oxen and one bull), Which looks like the number of
weeks in the lunar year, but why Hermes should be represented as
carrying off the whole herd
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and then killing to, is difficult to guess, unless we refer it to the two
additional months in a cycle of four years.”
In the light of the Arctic theory the puzzle here referred to is
solved without any difficulty. The stealing away or the carrying off of
the cows need not now he taken to mean simple wasting of the days
in the modern sense of the word; nor need we attribute such stories
to the “fancy of ancient bards and story tellers.” The legend or the
tradition of stealing consuming, or carrying off the cows or oxen is but
another form of stating that so many days were lost, being swallowed
up in the long night that occurred at the end of the year and lasted,
according to latitude, for varying period of time. So long as everything
was to be explained on the theory of a daily struggle between light
and darkness, these legends were unintelligible. But as soon as we
adopt the Arctic theory the whole difficulty vanishes and what was
confused and puzzling before becomes at once plain and
comprehensible. In the Vedic mythology cows are similarly said to be
stolen by Vṛitra or Vala, but their number is nowhere given, unless we
regard the story of ‫ي‬ijrâshva (the Red-horse) slaughtering 100 or 101
sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour (I, 116, 16; 117, 18),
as a modification of the story of stealing the cows. The Vedic
sacrificial literature does, however, preserve for us an important relic;
besides the one above noted, of the older calendar and especially the
long night. But in this case the relic is so deeply buried under the
weight of later explanations, adaptations and emendations, that we
must here examine at some length the history of the Soma sacrifices
in order to discover the original meaning of the rites which are
included under that general name. That the Some sacrifice is an
ancient institution is amply proved by parallel rites in the Parsi
scriptures; and whatever doubt we may have regarding the
knowledge of Soma in the Indo. European period, as the word is not
found in the European languages, the system of sacrifices can be
clearly traced back to the primeval age. Of this sacrificial system„ the
Soma sacrifice may, at any rate, be safely taken as the oldest
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representative, since it forms the main feature of the ritual of the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda and a whole Mandala of 114 hymns in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda is
dedicated to the praise of Soma. A careful analysis of the Soma
sacrifice may, therefore, be expected to disclose at least partially, the
nature of the oldest sacrificial system of the Aryan race; and we,
therefore, proceed to examine the same.
The chief characteristic of the Soma sacrifice, as distinguished
from other sacrifices, is, as the name indicates, the extraction of the
Soma juice and the offering thereof to gods before drinking it. There
are three libations of Soma in a day, one in the morning, one in mid-
day and the last in the evening, and all these are accompanied by the
chanting of hymns during the sacrifice. These Soma sacrifices, if
classed according to their duration, fall under three heads; (1) those
that are performed in a single day, called Ekâhas, (2) those that are
performed in more than one and less than thirteen days called
Ahînas, and (3) those that take thirteen or more than 13 days and
may last even for one thousand years, called Sattras. Under the first
head we have the Agnishtoma, fully described in the Aitareya
Brâhmana (III, 39-44), as the key or the type of all the sacrifices that
fall under this class. There are six modifications of Agnishtoma, viz.,
Ati-agnishtoma, Ukthya, Shodashî, Vâjapeya, Atirâtra and
Aptoryâma, which together with Agnishtoma, form the seven parts,
kinds or modifications of the Jyotishtoma, sacrifice, (Ashv. S.S. VI,
11, 1). The modification chiefly consists in the number of hymns to be
recited at the libations, or the manner of recitation, or the number of
the Grahvas or Soma-cups used on the occasion. But with these we
are not at present concerned. Of the second class of Soma sacrifices,
the Dvâdashâha or twelve days’ sacrifice is celebrated both as Ahîna
and Sattra and is considered to be very important. It is made up of
three tryahas (or three days’ performances, called respectively Jyotis,
Go, and Ayus), the tenth day and the two Atirâtras (Ait. Br. IV, 23-4).
The nine days’ performance (three tryahas) is called Nava-râtra. Side
by side with this,
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there are, under this head, a number of Soma sacrifices extending

over two nights or three nights, four nights, up to twelve nights, called
dvi-râtra, tri-râtra and so on (Tait. Sam. VII, 1, 4; VII, 3, 2. Ashv. Shr.
Sut. X and XI; Tân. Brâ. 20, 11, 24, 19). In the third class we have the
annual Sattras and of these the Gavâm-ayanam is the type. Some
Sattras which come under this class are described as extending over
1,000 years and a discussion is found in sacrificial works as to
whether the phrase one thousand years signifies 1,000 real years, or
whether it stands for 1,000 days. But we may pass it over as
unnecessary for our purpose. The annual Sattras are the only
important Sattras of this class, and to understand their nature we
must see what a shalaha means. The word literally denotes a group
of six days (shat + ahan) and is used to denote six days’ performance
in the sacrificial literature. It is employed as a unit to measure a
month in the same way as we now use a week, a month being made
up of five shalahas. The shalaha, in its turn, consists of the daily
sacrifices called Jyotis, Go, Âyus and the same three taken in the
reverse order as Âyus, Go and Jyotis. Every shalaha, therefore,
begins and ends with a Jyotishtoma (Ait. Br. IV, 15). The shalaha is
further distinguished into Abhiplava and Prishthya, according to the
arrangement of the stomas or songs sung at the Soma libations. An
annual Sattra is in the main, made up of a number of shalahas joined
with certain special rites at the beginning, the middle and the close of
the Sattra. The central day of the Sattra is called Vihuvân, and stands
by itself, dividing the Sattra into two equal halves like the wings of a
house (Tait. Br. I, 2, 3, 1); and the rites in the latter half of the session
or after the Vihuvân day are performed in an order which is the
reverse of that followed in forming the ceremonies in the first half of
the sacrifice. The model annual Sattra (the Gavâm-anayam) thus;
consists of the following parts: —
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Parts Days
1. The introductory Atirâtra ……………………………………….......... 1
2. The Chaturvimsha day, otherwise called the Ârambhaniya (Aît.
Br. IV, 12), or the Prâyanîya (Tând. Br. IV. 2), the real beginning
of the Sattra …………………………………………............................ 1
3. Four Abhiplava, followed by one Prishthya shalaha each
month; continued in this way for five months .............................. 150
4. Three Abhiplava and one Prishthya shalaha ……………………... 24
5. The Abhijit day …………………………………………………............ 1
6. The Three Svara-Sâman days ………………………………….......... 3
7. Vishnuvân or the Central day which stands by itself i.e., not
counted in the total of the Sattra days
8. The three Svara-Sâman days ……………………………………....... 3
9. The Vishvajit day ……………………………………………................ 1
10. One Prishthya and three Abhiplava shalahas …………………..... 24
11. One Prishthya and four Abhiplava shalahas each month
continued in this way for four months …………………………...... 120
12. Three Abhiplava shalahas, one Go-shtoma, one Âyu-shtoma,
and one Dasharâtra (the ten days of Dvâdashâha), making up
one month ………………………………………………………............. 30
13. The Mahâvrata day, corresponding to the Chaturvimsha day at
the beginning ……………………………………………………........... 1
14. The concluding Atirâtra ………………………………………............ 1

Total days: 360

It will be seen from the above scheme that there are really a
few sacrificial rites which are absolutely fixed and unchangeable in
the yearly Sattra. The two Atirâtras, the introductory and the
concluding, the Chaturvimsha and the Mahâvrata day, the Abhijit and
the Vishvajit, the three Svara-Sâman days on either side of Vishuvân,
the Vishuvân itself, and the ten days of Dvâdashâha, making up 22
days in all exclusive of Vishuvân, are the only parts that have any
specialty about them. The rest of the days are all made up by
Abhiplava and Prishthya shalahas which therefore constitute what
may be called the elastic or the variable part of the yearly Sattra.
Thus if we want a Gavâm-ayanam of ten months, we have only to
strike off five shalahas from the
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parts marked 3 and 11 in the above scheme. The Adityânâm-ayanam

is another modification of the above scheme in which amongst other
changes, the shalahas are all Abhiplava, instead of being a
combination of Abhiplava and Prishthya; while if all the shalahas are
Prishthya, along with some other changes, it becomes the
Angirasâm-ayanam. All these modifications do not however, touch
the total number of 360 days. But there were sacrificers, who adopted
the lunar year of 354 days and therefore, omitted 6 days from the
above scheme and their Sattra is called the Utsarginâm-ayanam
(Tait. Sam. VII, 5, 7, 1, Tândya Brâh. V, 10). In short, the object was
to make the Sattra correspond with the year adopted, civil or lunar, as
closely as possible. But these points are not relevant to our purpose.
The Brâhmanas and the Shrauta Sûtras give further details about the
various rites to be performed on the Vishuvân, the Abhijit and the
Vishvajit or the Svara-Sâman day. The Aitareya Aranyaka describes
the Mahâvrata ceremony; while the Atirâtra and the Chaturvimsha are
described in the fourth book of the Aitareya Brâhmana. The
Chaturvimsha is so called because the stoma to be chanted on that
day is twenty-four-fold. It is the real beginning of the Sattra as the
Mahâvrata is its end. The Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 14) says, “The
Hotṛi pours forth the seed. Thus he makes the seed (which is poured
forth) by means of the Mahâvrata day produce off-spring. For seed if
effused every year is productive.” This explanation shows that like the
Pravargya ceremony, the Mahâvrata was intended to preserve the
seed of the sacrifice in order that it might germinate or grow at the
proper time. It was a sort of link between the dying and the coming
year and appropriately concluded the annual Sattra. It will be further
seen that every annual Sattra had an Ati-râtra at each of its ends and
that the Dvâdashâha, or rather the ten days thereof, formed an
important concluding part of the Sattra.
The above is only a brief description, a mere outline of the
scheme of the annual Sattras mentioned in sacrificial works, but it is
sufficient for our purpose. We can see from it that
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a civil year of 360 days formed their basis, and the position of the
Vishuvân was of great importance inasmuch as the ceremonies after
it were performed in the reverse order. I have shown elsewhere what
important inferences can be drawn from the position of the Vishuvân
regarding the calendar in use at the time when the scheme was
settled. But we have now to consider of times which preceded the
settlement of this scheme, and for that purpose we must describe
another set of Soma sacrifices included under the general class of
Sattras. It has been stated above that side by side with the
Dvâdashâha, there are Ahîna sacrifices of two nights, three nights,
etc. up to twelve nights. But these sacrifices do not stop with the
twelve nights’ performance. There are thirteen nights’, fourteen
nights’, fifteen nights’, and so on up to one hundred nights’ sacrifice
called Trayodasha-râtra, Chaturdasha-râtra and so on up to Shata-
râtra. But since the Ahîna has been defined to be a sacrifice
extending over not more than twelve or less than thirteen days, all the
night-sacrifices extending over a period longer than twelve-nights are
included in the third class, viz., the Sattras. If we, however, disregard
this artificial division, it will be found that along with the Ekâha, the
Dvâdashâha and the annual Sattras, there is a series of, what are
termed, the night-sacrifices or sattras extending over a period of time
from two to one hundred nights, but not further. These night-sacrifices
or Ratri-sattras are mentioned in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, the
Brâhmanas and the Shrauta Sûtras in clear terms and there is no
ambiguity about their nature, number, or duration. The Taittirîya
Samhitâ in describing them often uses the word Râtrih (nights) in the
plural, stating, that so and so was the first to institute or to perceive
so many nights meaning so many nights’ sacrifice, (vimshatim râtrih,
VII. 3, 9, 1; dvâtrimshatam râtrih VII, 4, 4, 1). According to the
principle of division noted above all night-sacrifices of less than
thirteen nights’ duration will be called Ahîna, while those extending
over longer time up to one hundred nights will come under Sattras;
but this is, as remarked
 195

above, evidently an artificial division, and one, who reads carefully

the description of these sacrifices, cannot fail to be struck by the fact
that we have here a series of night-sacrifices from two to a hundred
nights, or if we include the Ati-râtra in this series, we have practically
a set of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices, though, according to the
principle of division adopted, some may fall under the head of Ahîna
and some under that of Sattras.
Now an important question in connection with these Sattras is
why they alone should be designated “night-sacrifices” (râtri-kratus),
or “night-sessions” (râtri-sattras)? and why their number should be
one hundred? or, in other words, why there are no night-sattras of
longer duration than one hundred nights? The Mîmâmsakas answer
the first part of the question by asking us to believe that the word
“night” (râtrih) is really used to denote a day in the denomination of
these sacrifices (Shabara on Jaimini VIII, 1, 17). The word dvi-râtra
according to this theory means two days’ sacrifice, and shata-râtra a
hundred days’ sacrifice. This, explanation appears very good at the
first sight, and as a matter of fact it has been accepted by all writers
on the sacrificial ceremonies. In support of it, we may also cite the
fact that as the moon was the measurer of time in ancient days, the
night was then naturally more marked then the day, and instead of
saying “so many days” men often spoke of “so many nights,” much in
the same way as we now use the word “fort-night.” This is no doubt
good so far as it goes; but the question is why should there be no
Soma sacrifices of a longer duration than one hundred nights? and,
why a gap, a serious gap, is left in the series of Soma sacrifices after
one hundred nights Sattra until we come to the annual Sattra of 360
days? Admitting that “night” means “day,” we have Soma sacrifices
lasting from 1 to 100 days; and if so where was the harm to complete
the series until the yearly Sattra of 360 days was reached? So far as I
know, no writer on sacrificial ceremonies has attempted to answer
this question satisfactorily. Of course adopting the
 196

speculative manner of the Brâhmanas we might say that there are no

Soma sacrifices of longer than one hundred nights’ duration, because
the life of a man cannot extend beyond a hundred years (Tait. Br. III,
8, 16, 2). But such an explanation can never be regarded as
satisfactory, and the Mîmâmsakas, who got over one difficulty by
interpreting “night” into “day,” have practically left this latter question
untouched, and therefore, unsolved. In short, the case stands thus:
— The sacrificial literature mentions a series of 99 or practically one
hundred Soma sacrifices, called the “night-sacrifices”; but these do
not form a part of any annual Sattra like the Gavâm-ayanam, nor is
any reason assigned for their separate existence, nor is their duration
which never exceeds a hundred nights, accounted for. Neither the
authors of the Brâhmanas nor those of the Shrauta Sûtras much less
Sâyana and Yâska give us any clue to the solution of this question;
and the Mîmâmsakas, after explaining the word “night” occurring in
the names of these sacrifices as equal to “day” have allowed these
night-sacrifices to remain as an isolated group in the organized
system of Soma sacrifices. Under these circumstances it would no
doubt appear presumptuous for any one to suggest an explanation,
so many centuries after what may be called the age of the Sattras.
But I feel the Arctic theory which, we have seen, is supported by
strong independent evidence, not only explains but appropriately
accounts for the original existence of this isolated series of a hundred
Soma sacrifices; and I, therefore, proceed to give my view on the
point.
It seems to me that if the word râtri in Atî-râtra is still
understood to mean “night,” and that if the Ati-râtra sacrifice is even
now performed during the night, there is no reason why we should
not similarly interpret the same word in Dvi-râtra, Tri-râtra &c. up to
Shata-râtra. The objection, that the Soma juice is not extracted during
the night, is more imaginary than real; for as a matter of fact Soma
libations are made in the usual way, during the Ati-râtra sacrifice. The
Ati-râtra sacrifice is performed at the beginning and the end
 197

of every Sattra; and all the three libations of Soma are always offered
during the three turns, or paryâyas, of the night. The Aitareya
Brâhmana (IV, 5), in explaining the origin of this sacrifice, tells us that
the Asuras had taken shelter with the night and the Devas, who had
taken shelter with the day, wanted to expel them from the dark
region. But amongst the Devas, Indra alone was found ready and
willing to undertake this task; and entering into darkness, he with the
assistance of Metres, turned the Asuras out of the first part of the
night by the first Soma libation, while by means of the middle turn
(paryâya) of passing the Soma-cup, the Asuras were turned out of
the middle part and by the third turn out of the third or the last part of
the night. The three Soma libations, here spoken of, are all made
during the night and the Brâhmana further observes that there is no
other deity save Indra and the Metres to whom they are offered (Cf.
Apas. Sh. Su. XIV, 3, 12). The next section of the Brâhmana (IV, 6)
distinctly raises the question, “How are the Pavamâna Stotras to be
chanted for the purification of the Soma juice provided for the night,
whereas such Sutras refer only to the day but not to the night?” and
answers it by stating that the Stotras are the same for the day and the
night. It is clear from this that Soma juice was extracted and purified
at night during Ati-râtra sacrifice and Indra was the only deity to
whom the libations were offered in order to help him in his fight with
the Asuras, who had taken shelter with the darkness of the night.
That the Ati-râtra is an ancient sacrifice is further proved by the
occurrence of a similar ceremony in the Parsi scriptures. The word
Ati-râtra does not occur in the Avesta, but in the Vendibad, XVIII, 18,
(43)-22 (48), we are told that there are three parts of the night and
that in the first of these parts (trishvai), Fire, the son of Ahura Mazda,
calls upon the master of the house to arise and put on his girdle and
to fetch clean wood in order that he may burn bright; for, says the
Fire, “Here comes Azi (Sans. Ahi) made by the Daêvas (Vedic
Asuras), who is about to strive against me and wants
 198

to put out my life.” And the asme request is made during the second
and the third part of the night. The close resemblance between this
and the three paryâyas of the Ati-râtra sacrifice does not seem to
have been yet noticed; but whether noticed or not it shows that the
Ati-râtra is an ancient rite performed during the night for the purpose
of helping Indra, or the deity that fought with the powers of darkness,
and that such sacrificial acts as putting on the girdle (kosti) or
squeezing the Soma, were performed during this period of darkness.
Now what applies to the sacrifice of a single night may well be
extended to cases where sacrifices had to be performed for two,
three or more continuous nights. I have already shown before that the
ancient sacrificers completed their sacrificial sessions in ten months
and a long night followed the completion of these sacrifices. What did
the sacrificers do during this long night? They could not have slept all
the time; and as a matter of fact we know that the people in the
extreme north of Europe and Asia do not, even at present sleep
during the whole of the long night which occurs in their, part of the
globe. Paul Du Chaillu, who has recently (1900) published an account
of his travels in The Land of the Long Night, informs us (p. 75) that
although the sun went below the horizon for several days in the Arctic
regions, yet during the period “the Lapps could tell from the stars
whether it was night or day, for they were accustomed to gauge time
by the stars according to their height above the horizon, just as we do
at home with the sun”; and what the Lapps do now, must have been
done by the oldest inhabitants of the circum-polar regions. It is,
therefore, clear that the ancient sacrificers of the Aryan race could not
have gone to sleep after sacrificing for ten months. Did they then sit
idle with their hands folded when Indra was fighting for them with the
powers of darkness? They performed their sacrifices for ten months
with a view to help Indra in his war with Vala; and just at the time
when Indra most needed the help of invigorating songs and Soma
libations, are we to suppose
 199

that these sacrificers sat idle, gave up the sacrifices and left Indra to
fight with Vala alone and single-handed as best as be could? The
whole theory of sacrifices negatives such a supposition. Therefore, if
the Arctic theory is true, and if the ancestor of the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis ever
lived in a region where the darkness of the night lasted for several
days (a day being taken as a measure of time equal to 24 hours), we
naturally expect to find a series of nightly Soma sacrifices performed
during the period, to help the gods in their struggle with the demons
of darkness; and as a matter of fact, there are in the Vedic sacrificial
literature, a number of sacrifices which, if we include the Ati-râtra in it,
extend from one to a hundred nights. The Mîmâmsakas and even the
authors of the Brâhmanas, who knew little about the ancient Arctic
home, have converted these night-sacrifices into day-sacrifices; but
the explanation evidently appears to be in vented at a time when the
true nature of the Râtri-kratus or Râtri-sattras was forgotten, and it
does not, therefore, preclude us from interpreting these facts in a
different way. I have already stated above that if we accept the
explanation of the Mîmâmsakas, we cannot explain why the series of
the night-sacrifices should abruptly end with the Shata-râtra or a
hundred nights’ sacrifice; but by the Arctic theory we can explain the
fact satisfactorily by supposing that the duration of the long night in
the ancient home varied from one night (of 24 hours) to a hundred
continuous nights (of 2400 hours) according to latitude, and that the
hundred nightly Soma sacrifices corresponded to the different
durations of the night at different places in the ancient home. Thus
where the darkness lasted only for ten nights (240 hours) a Dasha-
râtra sacrifice was performed, while where it lasted for 100 nights
(2400 hours) a Shata-râtra sacrifice was necessary. There are no
sacrifices after the Shata-râtra because a hundred continuous nights
marked the maximum duration of darkness experienced by the
ancient sacrificers of the race. We have seen that the legend of Aditi
indicates a period of seven months’ sunshine; join to it the Dawn and
the Twilight of 30
 200

days each, and there are left three months, (or if we take the year to
consist of 365 days, then 95 days), for the duration of the long
continuous night, — a result which remarkably corresponds to the
longest duration of the night-sacrifices known in the Vedic literature.
The Dawn marked the end of the long night, and could not; therefore,
be included in the latter at least for sacrificial purposes. In fact
separate sacrifices are enjoined for the Dawn in sacrificial works; and
we may, therefore, safely exclude the long Dawn from the province of
the nightly sacrifices, and the same may be said of the period of the
long evening twilight. A hundred nights’ sacrifice thus marked the
maximum duration of darkness during which Indra fought with Vala
and was strengthened by the Soma libations offered to him in this
sacrifice. As there is no other theory to account for the existence of
the night-sacrifices, and especially for their number, to wit, one
hundred, these sacrifices may be safely taken to indicate the
existence of an ancient year approximately divided into seven
months’ sunshine, one month’s dawn, one month’s evening twilight
and three months’ long continuous night.
There are other considerations which point out to the same
conclusion. In the post-Vedic literature we have a persistent tradition
that Indra alone of all gods is the master of a hundred sacrifices
(shata-kratu), and that as this attribute formed, so to say, the very
essence of Indraship, he always jealously watched all possible
encroachments against it. But European scholars relying upon the
fact that even Sâyana prefers, except in a few places (III, 51, 2) to
interpret shata-kratu, as applied to Indra in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, as
meaning, not “the master of a hundred sacrifices,” but “the lord of a
hundred mights or powers,” have not only put aside the Purânic
tradition, but declined to interpret the word kratu in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
except in the sense of “power, energy, skill, wisdom, or generally
speaking, the power of body or mind.” But if the above explanation of
the origin of the night sacrifices is correct, we must retrace our steps
and acknowledge
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that the Purânic tradition or legend is, fater all, not built upon a pure
misunderstanding of the original meaning of the epithet shata-kratu
as applied to Indra in the Vedic-literature. I am aware of the fact that
traditions in the post-Vedic literature are often found to have but a
slender basis in the Vedas, but in the present case we have
something more reliable and tangible to go upon. We have a group,
an isolated group of a hundred nightly Soma sacrifices and as long as
it stands unexplained in the Vedic sacrificial literature it would be
unreasonable to decline to connect it with the Purânic tradition of
Indra’s sole mastership of hundred sacrifices, especially when in the
light of the Arctic theory the two can be so well and intelligibly
connected. The hundred sacrifices, which are regarded as
constituting the essence of Indraship in the Purânas, are there said to
be the Ashvamedha sacrifices and it may, at the outset, be urged that
the shata-râtra sacrifice mentioned in the sacrificial works is not an
Ashvamedha sacrifice. But the distinction is neither important, nor
material. The Ashvamedha sacrifice is a Soma sacrifice and is
described in the sacrificial works along with the night-sacrifices. In the
Taittirîya Samhitâ ( VII, 2, 11) a hundred offerings of food to be made
in the Ashvamedha sacrifice are mentioned, and the Taittirîya
Brâhmana (III, 8, 15, 1) states that Prajâpati obtained these offerings
“during the night,” and consequently they are called Râtri-homas. The
duration of the Ashvamedha sacrifice is again not fixed, inasmuch as
it depends upon the return of the horse and in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 163,
1) the sacrificial horse is identified with the sun moving in waters. The
return of the sacrificial horse may, therefore, be taken to symbolize
the return of the sun after the long night and a close resemblance
between the Ashvamedha and the night-sacrifices, which were
performed to enable Indra to fight with Vala and rescue the dawn and
the sun from his clutches, may thus be taken as established. At any
rate, we need not be surprised if the Shata-râtra Soma sacrifice
appears in the form of a hundred Ashvamedha sacrifices in the
Purânas. The tradition is substantially the
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same in either case and when it can be so easily and naturally

explained on the Arctic theory, it would not be reasonable to set it
aside and hold that the writers of the Purânas created it by
misinterpreting the word Shata-kratu occurring in the Vedas.
We have seen that shata-kratu as applied to Indra is interpreted
by Western scholars and in many places even by Sâyana himself, as
meaning the lord of a hundred powers. Sâyana now and then (III, 51,
2; X, 103, 7) suggests or gives an alternative explanation and makes
Indra “the master of a hundred sacrifices”; but Western scholars have
gone further and discarded all other explanations except the one
noted above. It is, therefore, necessary to examine the meaning of
this epithet, as used in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, a little more closely in this
place. If the word kratu in shata-kratu be interpreted to mean “might”
or “power,” the numeral shata, which strictly denotes “a hundred,” will
have to be taken as equivalent to “many” or “numerous” inasmuch as
no definite set of a hundred powers can be pointed out as specially
belonging to Indra. That the word shata may be so interpreted is
evident from the fact that adjectives like shata-nîtha (I, 100, 12) and
shatam-ûti (I, 102, 6; 130, 8), as applied to India in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, are
found in other places in the form of sahasra-nîtha (III, 60, 7), and
sahasram-ûti (I, 52, 2). Again Indra’s arrow is once called shata-
bradhna and also sahasra-parna in the same verse (VIII, 77, 7); while
Soma is represented as going in a hundred ways (shata-yâman) in
IX, 86, 16, and a few hymns after it is said to be sahasra-yâman or
going in a thousand ways (IX, 106, 5). Even the adjective shata-
manyu which Sâyana interprets as meaning “the master of a hundred
sacrifices” in X, 103, 7, has its counterpart, if not in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda at
least in the Sâma-Veda which reads sahasra-manyu for sahasra-
mushka in ‫ي‬ig-Veda VI, 46, 3. This shows that the Vedic bards
considered shata (a hundred) and sahasra (a thousand) as
interchangeable numerals in some places and if the numeral shata in
shata-kratu had been of the same character, we should naturally
have met with a paraphrase
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of the epithet as sahasra-kratu somewhere in the Vedic literature. But

although the epithet shata-kratu, as applied to Indra, occurs about
sixty times in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and several times in other Vedic works,
nowhere do we find it paraphrased as sahasra-kratu, which shows
that the Vedic bards did not feel themselves at liberty to alter or
paraphrase it as they liked., The adjective amita-kratu is applied to
Indra in I, 102, 6; but as amita does not necessarily mean more than
“one hundred,” it does not follow that on this account we should give
up the ordinary meaning of shata in shata-kratu. If the word kratu had
nowhere been used in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda to denote a sacrifice, we may
have been justified in interpreting shata-kratu in the way suggested
by Western scholars. But, as observed by Dr. Haug, when Vasishtha
prayed to Indra (VII, 32, 26) “Carry, O Indra! our sacrificial
performance (kratum) through, just as a father does to his sons (by
assisting them). Teach us, O thou, who art invoked by many that we
may, in this turn (of the night) reach alive the (sphere of) light
(jyotis),”* the prayer in all probability refers to the sacrificial
performance (kratu) held for the purpose of enabling the sacrificers to
safely reach the other end of the night. In fact, it refers to the Ati-râtra
sacrifice and the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 10) quotes and interprets it
in the same way. Sâyana in his commentary on the Aitareya
Brâhmana though not in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda Bhâshya, also takes the same
view; and as the Ati-râtra sacrifice is referred to expressly by its name
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (VII, 103, 7) it is not at all unlikely that a verse
referring to this Soma sacrifice should occur in other hymns. Hence if
there are passages where kratu can be taken to mean “a sacrifice”
there is no reason why the epithet shata-kratu be not understood to
mean “the master of a hundred sacrifices” as suggested by the
Purânic tradition.

* See Dr. Haug’s Ait. Br. (IV, 10), Trans. Vol. II, p. 274, and the translator’s
note thereon. Dr. Haug thinks that the verse (Rig. VII, 32, 26 ) evidently
refers to the Ati-râtra feast, for which occasion it was in all likelihood
composed by Vasishtha.
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Another fact which favors this interpretation, is that in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda

Indra is described as destroying 90, 99 or 100 fortresses or cities
(purah) of his enemies (I, 130, 7; II, 19, 6; VI, 31, 4; II, 14, 6). Now
deva-purâh, which means “the fortresses of the gods,” has been
interpreted to mean “days” in the description of the dash râtra
sacrifice in the Taittirîya Samhitâ VII, 2, 5, 3-4; and if deva-purâh
means “days,” the purâh (cities, fortresses) of Shambara may well be
taken to mean “nights.” This view is confirmed by the statement in the
Aitareya Brâhmana previously quoted, which says that the Asuras
found shelter with the night, or in other words, the darkness of the
night was, so to say, their fortress. Indra’s destroying a hundred forts
of Shambara is, therefore, equivalent to his fighting with the enemy
for a hundred continuous nights, a period during which the ancient
sacrificers offered him Sonia libations in order that he may be better
prepared for the struggle with Vala. The destruction of 99 or 100 forts
of the enemy, a group of a hundred nightly sacrifices, the nine and
ninety rivers (sravantîh) which Indra is described as crossing during
his fight with Ahi (I, 32, 14), and a hundred leather straps with which
Kutsa is said to have bound down Indra to his sacrifice in the Tândya
Brâhmana IX, 2, 22, and from which he is invoked to free himself in
‫ي‬ig. X, 38, 5, are but so many different kaleidoscopic views of the
same idea which makes Indra and Indra alone the lord of a hundred
sacrifices; and if we take all these together they undoubtedly point out
to the existence of a hundred continuous nights in the ancient home
of the ancestors of the Vedic people. In V, 48, 3, “a hundred,” moving
in the abode of Indra are said to turn on and turn off the course of
ordinary days when Indra strikes Vṛitra with his bolt;* and I think we
have

* Rig. V, 48, 3, — आ गराविभर अहिभर ु

े अिभर विरं वळम आ िजघित माियिन । शतं
ं 
वा य परचरन सवे दमे सवतयो  अहा ॥
िव च वतय
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here a distinct allusion either to a hundred sacrifices performed or to

a hundred continuous nights required for securing a complete victory
over the powers of darkness in the nether world, and which nights (or
rather one long night of hundred days) may well be described as
breaking off and bringing back the succession of ordinary days and
nights, inasmuch as the long night immediately follows and precedes
the period of sunshine in the Arctic regions.
But a far more striking corroboration of the above view is
furnished by certain passages in the Avesta which describe the fight
of Tishtrya with the demon of draught called Apa osha or “the burner”
in the Parsi scriptures. In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda the fight of Indra with Vṛitra
(Vritra-tûrya) is often represented as “a struggle for waters” (up-
tûrya), or as “the striving for cows” (go-ishti), or “the striving for day”
(div-ishti) and Indra is said to have released the cows or waters, and
brought on the dawn or the sun by killing Vṛitra (I, 51, 4; II, 19, 3).
Now India, as Vritra-han, appears as Verethraghna in the Avesta; but
the fight for waters is therein ascribed not to Verethraghna but to
Tishtrya, the star of rain. It is he, who knocks down Apaosha and
liberates the waters for the benefit of man, “with the assistance of the
winds, and the light that dwells in the waters.” In short Tishtrya’s
conquest over Apaosha is an exact parallel of Indra’s conquest over
Vṛitra as described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; and as the legends are
interpreted at present, they are said to refer to the breaking up of the
clouds and the bringing on of the rains on the earth. Tishtrya being
supposed to be the star of rain. But this theory fails to account for the
fact how the recovery of the dawn and the rising of the sun, or the
bringing on of light, were included amongst the effects of Indra’s
victory over Vṛitra. It will be shown in the next chapter that the
struggle for waters has very little to do with rain, and that the fight for
waters and the fight for light are really synchronous, being two
different versions of the same story. In short, both of these legends
really represent the victory of the powers of light over darkness.
Shushna or “the scorcher”
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is one of the names given to Indra’s enemy in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 51,
11), and the result of the conflict between Indra and Shushna is the
release of the waters, as well as the finding of the morning cows (VIII,
96, 17), and the winning of the sun (VI, 20, 5). Apaosha is thus
Shushna under a different garb, and the only difference between the
two legends is that while Indra is the chief actor in the one, Tishtrya is
the chief hero in the other. But this difference is immaterial inasmuch
as the attributes of one deity are often transferred, even in ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
to another. The Avestic legend of Tishtrya is, therefore, rightly
understood by Zend scholars to be a reproduction of the Vedic
legend of Indra and Vṛitra.* Now, in the Tir Yasht, Tishtrya is
represented as eventually overcoming Apaosha with the help of the
Haoma sacrifice offered to Tishtrya by Ahura Mazda (Yt. VIII, 15-25).
The fight is carried on in the region of the waters, the sea Vouru-
Kasha, from which Tishtrya is described as rising up victorious after
defeating Apaosha (Yt. VIII, 32). Daêva Apaosha is again said to
have assumed the form of a dark horse, while Tishtrya is represented
as opposing him in the form of a bright horse, hoof against hoof (Yt.
VIII, 28), and eventually coming up victorious from out of the sea
Vouru-Kasha, like the sacrificial horse rising from the waters in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 163, 1). But the passage most important for our
purpose is the one in which Tishtrya informs Ahura Mazda as to what
should be done in order to enable Tishtrya to overcome his enemy
and to appear before the faithful at the appointed time. “If men would
worship me,” says Tishtrya to Ahura Mazda, “with a sacrifice in which
I were invoked by my own name, as they worship the other Yazatas
with sacrifices in which they are invoked by their own names, then I
should have come to the faithful at the appointed time; I should have
come in the appointed time of my beautiful immortal life, should it be
one night, or two nights, or fifty, or a hundred nights,” (Yt. VIII, 11).

* See Darmesteter’s Trans. of Zend-Avesta Part II, (Vol. XXIII S. B. E.

Series), p. 12. He remarks that Tishtrya’s legend is “a refacimento of the old
storm-myths.”
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As Tishtrya appears before man after his battle with Apaosha, the
phrase “appointed time” signifies the time during which the battle is
fought and at the termination of which Tishtrya comes to the faithful;
and the passage, therefore, means (1) that the “appointed time,”
when Tishtrya was to appear before man after fighting with Apaosha,
varied from one night to a hundred nights and (2) that Tishtrya
required to be strengthened during the period by Haoma sacrifices in
which he was to be invoked by his own name. We have seen above
that a hundred nightly Soma sacrifices were offered to Indra by the
ancient Vedic sacrificers to enable him to secure a victory over Vṛitra
and that Indra was the only deity to whom the libations were offered
in these sacrifices. The legend of Tishtrya and Apaosha is, therefore,
an exact reproduction of Indra’s fight with Vṛitra or Vala; and with his
correspondence before us, we should feel no hesitation in accepting
the view stated above regarding the origin of the Shata-râtra sacrifice.
Neither Darmesteter nor Spiegel explains why the appointed time for
the appearance of Tishtrya is described as “one night, or two nights,
or fifty or a hundred nights,” though both translate the original in the
same way. The legend also forms the subject of chapter VII of the
Bundahish, but there, too, we find no explanation as to why the
appointed time is described as varying from one to a hundred nights.
It is, however, suggested by some that the appointed time may refer
to the season of rains. But rains cannot be said to come after “one
night, two nights, or fifty, or a hundred nights,” and the latter
expression would therefore, be utterly inappropriate in their case; nor,
as stated above, does Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha represent only a
struggle for rain, since we know that it is a struggle for light as well.
We have also seen that the existence of night-sacrifices in the Vedic
literature, extending over one, two, three, or ten, or a hundred nights,
indicates the long darkness during which Indra fought with Vala; and
the coincidence between this fact and the “appointed time,” of
Tishtrya cannot be regarded as accidental. The legends
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are undoubted in identical character, and taking the one to illustrate

the other, the only conclusion deducible from them is that, a hundred
nights was regarded to be the maximum duration of the fight between
Indra and Vala, or Tishtrya and Apaosha, so far as the ancestors of
the Indo-Iranian people were concerned, and that the sea Vouru-
Kasha, or the ocean “encompassed with darkness,” as the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
has it (II, 23, 18), was the scene of this battle between the powers of
light and darkness. We also learn from them that the hero of the
battle, whether he was Indra or Tishtrya, stood in need of help,
derived from the performance of the sacrifices specially offered to him
during the period; and that as a matter of fact such sacrifices were
performed in ancient times. The word shata-kratu does not occur in
the Avesta, but in the Ashi Yasht (Yt. XVII, 56) “a ram of hundred-fold
energy” (maeshahe satokarahe) is spoken of; and considering the
fact that in the Bahram Yasht (Yt. XIV, 23) “a beautiful ram, with
horns bent round” is said to be one of the incarnations of Vere-
thraghna, and that Indra is also described as appearing in the form of
a ram in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (VIII, 2, 40), it is very probable that the phrase
sato-karahe maeshahe refers to Vere-thraghna in the Ashi Yasht, and
like the epithet shata-kratu, the adjective sato-karahe means not
“possessed of hundred powers,” but “the master of a hundred deeds
or sacrifices.” There is thus a very close correspondence between the
Vedic and the Avestic ideas on this subject, and this strengthens the
conclusion that the night sacrifices in the Vedic literature had their
origin in the existence of a long continuous night of varying durations
in the original home of the Vedic people. We can now also
satisfactorily explain why Tishtrya is described (Yt. VIII, 36, vide
Spiegel’s Trans.) as “bringing hither the circling years of men.” It is
the Avestic parallel of the Vedic story of the Dawn setting in motion
“the ages of men, or mânushâ yugâ,” discussed in the last chapter,
and stews that when Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha, or India’s war with
Vala, was over, the new year commenced with the long dawn,
followed by the months of sunshine varying from
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seven to eleven in number, according to the latitude of the place.*

In the light of what has been stated above, we can now better
understand the original nature and meaning of the Ati-râtra sacrifice.
It is a nightly sacrifice, performed during the night, even at present,
and the Mîmâmsakas have not succeeded in converting it into a day-
sacrifice. So far it is all right; but the question is why should the
sacrifice be called Ati-râtra? The prefix ati (corresponding with Latin
trans) ordinarily denotes “something beyond” “something on the other
side, or at the other end,” and not “something pervading, extending,
or spreading the whole extent of anything.” Even Sâyana in his
commentary on VII, 103, 7, the only place where the word Ati-râtra
occurs in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, explains it to mean “that which is the past or
beyond the night” (râtrim atîtya vartate iti ati-râtrah), and Rudradatta
in his commentary on the Âpasthamba Shrauta Sûtra (XIV, 1, 1),
gives the same explanation. The Ati-râtra therefore, denotes a trans
nocturnal sacrifice that is, performed at either end of the night. Now
according to the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 5),

* The passage about Tishtrya’s connection with the year is noticed by Mr.
Meherjibhai Nosherwanji Kuka, M.A., in his essay “On the order of Parsi
months,” published in the Cama Memorial Volume (p. 58), and of which he
was kind enough to send me a separate copy.
The passage is in the Tir Yasht, § 36: — “Tishtrîm stârem raevantem
kharenanghuantem yazamaide, yim yâre-chareṣho maṣhyehe Ahuracha
khratu-gûto aurunacha gairiṣhâcho sizdaracha ravascharâto uziyoirentem
hisposentem huyâiryâicha danghve uzjasentem duzyâiryâicha, kata Airyâo
danghâvo huyâiryâo bavâonti.” Spiegel translates it thus, “We praise the
star Tishtrya, the shining, the majestic, who brings here the circling years
of men.” Darmesteter takes yâre-chareṣho &c., with the words following,
viz., uziyoirentem hisposentem, and translates, “We praise Tishtrya &c.,
whose rising is watched by men, who live on the fruits of the year.”
According to Dastur Erachji Mleherjirana (see his Yasht bâ mâeni), the
meaning of the whole paragraph, in which this passage occurs, is: — “We
praise Tishtrya, &c, who maketh the year revolve in accordance with the
notions of the mountaineers and the nomads. He riseth and is visible
towards the regions where there is no correct calculation of the year.”
But whatever the difficulties of interpretation may be, one thing
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the Ati-râtra sacrifice is performed for the purpose of driving out the
Asuras from the darkness of night; and the Tândya Brâhmana (IV, 1,
4-5) tells us that Prajâpati, who first perceived the sacrifice, created
from it the twin of day and night (aho-râtre). It follows from this that
the Ati-râtra was performed at the close of such night as give rise-to
the ordinary days and nights, or, in other words, the regular
succession of days and nights followed its performance. This can
only be the case if we suppose that the Ati-râtra was performed at the
end of a long continuous night in regions where such night occurred.
With us in the temperate or the tropical zone, ordinary days and
nights regularly succeed each other throughout the year without any
break, and it is meaningless, if not absurd, to speak of the cycle of
day and night as produced from a particular night in the year. Again,
on the theory of a daily struggle between light and darkness the
Asuras must be turned out of darkness every night, and strictly
speaking the performance of the Ati-râtra is necessary on every one
of the 360 nights of the Sattra. But as a matter of fact the Ati-râtra is
performed only at the beginning and the end of the Sattra; and even
then the regular Sattra is said

________________________________________________________________

seems to be quite clear from this passage, viz., that Tishtrya was the star
by which the year was reckoned. In the Tir Yasht § 5, springs of water are
said to flow at the rising of Tishtrya, who in § 16 is described as “mingling
his shape with light,” or “moving in light,” § 46. All these incidents can be
satisfactorily explained if we suppose that, after Tishtrya’s fight with
Apaosha, lasting for 100 nights at the longest; the aerial waters, which
communicated motion to the sun and other heavenly bodies (see
Faravardin Yasht 53-58) and which lay still or stagnant during the time,
were set free to move again along the path made by Mazda, bringing on
with them the light of the sun and thus commencing the new year after the
long winter night in the Arctic region. The simultaneous character of the
motion of waters, the commencement of the new year, and the winning of
light after Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha, can be explained only in this way,
and not by making the legend refer to the rainy season (see the discussion
about “waters” in the next chapter). The Pairika Duz-yairya, or the Bad
Year, which Tishtrya is said to break asunder, is on this theory, the
wearisome dark Arctic night.
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to commence on the Chaturvimsha and close on the Mahavrata day,

and not on the concluding Atirâtra day. It seems, therefore, that the
performance of the Ati-râtra was not originally intended to drive away
the Asuras from only the first of 360 nights over which the Sattra now
extends. For in that case there is no reason why the Asuras were not
required to be expelled from everyone of the 360 nights. It follows,
therefore, that the Ati-râtra or the traps-nocturnal sacrifice refers to
some night not included in the regular nights of the Gavâm-ayanam.
It is true that the Ati-râtra is performed at the beginning and the end
of every Sattra and in one sense it is therefore, a trans-sattra or ati-
sattra sacrifice. But that does not account for the name Ati-râtra as
the Sattra is not held during night. We must, therefore hold that the
two Ati-râtras were originally performed not at the beginning and the
end of a Sattra but at the beginning and the end of a night which
occurred or intervened between the last and the first day of the
Sattra. When this night ended with an Ati-râtra the usual Sattra began
and as the sun was above the horizon during the period producing
the regular succession of days and nights no Ati-râtra was needed
during the Sattra, for as stated in the Tandya Brâhmana the object of
the Ati-râtra was gained. But the Sattra closed with the long night and
the Ati-râtra had therefore again to be performed at the end of the
Sattra to drive the Asuras from this night. I have shown before that
we have direct and reliable authority in the Taittirîya Samhitâ to hold
that the Gavâm-ayanam was once completed in ten months or 300
days and it was therefore appropriately closed with and introduced by
an Ati-râtra. The word Ati-râtra is thus rationally explained, for the
sacrifice was performed at the beginning and the close of the long
night and, was therefore, adequately called a trans-nocturnal
sacrifice. Between these two Ati-râtras came all the night-sacrifices
mentioned above, offered exclusively to Indra. The old Gavâm-
ayanam of ten or less than ten months, the Ati-râtra or the trans-
nocturnal, the Râtri-kratus and Râtri-sattras, or nightly Soma
sacrifices of two, three, &c., up to a hundred continuous nights’
duration,
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and lastly the Ati-râtra, to be again followed by the Gavâm-ayanam,

thus formed the complete yearly round of sacrifices performed by the
primeval ancestors of the. Vedic people; and each of these sacrifices
had originally the same place in the yearly round as is indicated by
the root-meaning of its name.* But when the year of ten months was
converted into one of twelve to suit the altered conditions of the new
home, the Gavâm-ayanam expanded into a performance of 360 days,
and the elastic nature of the greater portion of the performance, as
pointed out above, permitted the change to be easily carried out. But
though the annual Sattra expanded in this way, encroaching upon the
night-sacrifices of the long night, which were no longer needed, the
Ati-râtra was retained as an introductory sacrifice and was
incorporated in the ceremonies of the Sattra itself. Thus the two Ati-
râtra sacrifices, which were originally performed, as shown by the
etymology, at the two termini of the long night, came to be converted
into the introductory and concluding sacrifices of the annual Sattra;
and if the word Ati-râtra had not been retained, we could not have got
any clue to reveal to us the-story of its changing fortune. But the
night-sacrifices, the Râtri-kratus or Râtri-sattras, which were
performed during the long night between the two Ati-râtras, were no
longer needed and. their nature came to be soon misunderstood, until
at last the Mîmâmsakas finally made room for them in the class of
daily Soma sacrifices, partly under Ahînas and partly under Sattras,
by means of the equation that râtri (night) is equal to aho-râtre (day
and night) in the sacrificial literature. How this change was carried out
is a question beyond the scope of this book; but I may- here state
that, in my opinion, it was the authors of Brâhmanas,

* The time here assigned to the Râtri-sattras appears to have been known
to the Shrauta Sûtras, or in the Lâtyâyana Shrauta Sûtra VIII, 2, 16, we have
passage meaning that “After the year (annual sacrificial session) is over,
the Soma should be purchased during the Râtri-sattras,” evidently showing
that the Râtri-sattras came at the end of the yearly Sattras.
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or the Brahmavâdins who preceded them, that had to perform the

difficult task of adapting the ancient sacrificial calendar to the
changed conditions of their new home, somewhat after the manner of
Numa’s reform of the ancient Roman calendar. The sacrifice was the
main ritual of the Vedic religion, and naturally enough the priests
must have tried to preserve as much of the old sacrificial system as
they possibly could in adapting it to the new conditions. The task was
by no means an easy one, and those that find fault with the
Brâhmanas as full of fanciful speculations must bear in mind the fact
that an ancient and sacred system of sacrifices had to be adapted to
new conditions, by assigning plausible reasons for the same, at a
time when the true origin of the system was almost forgotten. The
Brâhmanas could not have indulged in free speculations about the
origin of the rites and ceremonies mentioned by them, had the latter
originated in their own time, or in days so near to them that the real
traditions about the origin of these ceremonies could be preserved
intact. But so long as these traditions were fresh, no explanation was
probably needed; and when they became dim, their place had to be
supplied by plausible reasons based on such traditions as were
known at the time. This throws quite a new light on the nature and
composition of the Brâhmanas: but as the discussion is not pertinent
to the subject in hand, we cannot enter into it more fully in this place.
We have now reviewed the leading features of the system of
Soma sacrifices as described in the Vedic literature, so far as our
purpose is concerned, and seen that by the aid of the Arctic theory,
some hard facts therein, which have been hitherto incomprehensible,
can be easily and naturally explained. A history of the whole
sacrificial system from the point of view indicated above is a work
quite outside the pale of this book; but so far as we have examined
the subject and especially the question about the isolated group of a
hundred nightly Soma sacrifices, I think, we have sufficient evidence
therein to warrant us in holding that these sacrifices
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are a relic of the ancient times when the ancestors of the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis
performed them with the object of helping Indra to fight with the
powers of darkness. It has been already shown in the first part of this
chapter that the Gavâm-ayanam or the “Cows’ walk” like the Roman
year, once lasted only for ten months; and a series of suitable night-
sacrifices is a natural supplement to such sessions. Both are relics of
ancient times, and taken along with the evidence regarding the
existence of a long dawn of thirty days and of the long day and night
discussed in previous chapters, they conclusively establish the
existence of an ancient home of the ancestors of the Vedic people in
the circum-polar region. The sacrificial sessions of the Navagvas and
the Dashagvas, the legend of Dîrghatamas growing old in the tenth
month, the tradition about the ancient year of five seasons, or the
yoking of seven or ten horses to the chariot of the sun, all go to
strengthen the same view; and the Avestic passages regarding the
duration of Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha, the Purânic tradition about
Indra’s being the master of a hundred sacrifices or the destroyer of a
hundred cities, the existence of a series of one hundred nightly Soma
sacrifices, which, though obsolete long since, could not have found
place in the sacrificial works as Râtri-sattras, unless they were
ancient sacrifices performed, as their name indicates, during night, —
these and many other minor facts noticed before, further corroborate,
if corroboration be needed, our theory regarding the original home of
the Aryans near the North Pole. It must, however, be stated here that
I do not wish to imply in any way that the numerous sacrificial details
found in the later Vedic literature were in vogue or were known in
these ancient times. On the contrary I am prepared to believe that in
all probability these ancient sacrifices were very simple in character. I
he ancient priests probably went on sacrificing from day today and
afterwards from night to night, without any idea that the system was
capable of giving rise to various rigid annual Sattras. The sacrifice
was the only ritual of their religion;
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and howsoever simple such sacrifices might have been in ancient

times, it was almost a matter of duty, at least with the priests, to
perform them every day. It was also a means, as remarked by me
elsewhere, to keep up the calendar in ancient times, as the yearly
round of sacrifices closely followed the course of the sun. It is from
this latter point of view that the ancient sacrificial system is important
for historical or antiquarian purposes, and I have examined it above in
the same light. This examination, it will be seen, has resulted in the
discovery of a number of facts which lead us directly to, and can be
satisfactorily explained only by the theory of the original Arctic home;
and when our conclusions are thus supported by the hymns of the
‫ي‬ig-Veda on the one hand, and the sacrificial literature on the other, I
think, we need have no doubt about their correctness.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER IX

VEDIC MYTHS — THE CAPTIVE WATERS

Direct evidence for the Arctic theory summed up — Different nature of the
mythological evidence — Schools of mythological interpretation — The
naturalistic or the Nairukta school — Its theories — The Dawn theory and
the myths explained by it — The Storm theory, Indra and Vritra — The
Vernal theory, the Ashvins’ exploits — Vritra’s legend usually explained by
the Storm theory — Simultaneous effects of Indra’s conquest over Vritra —
The release of waters, the release, of cows, the recovery of the dawn and
the production of the sun — Vedic authorities in support of their
simultaneous character — Passages relating to the place and time of the
conflict — The simultaneous nature left unexplained by the Dawn or the
Storm theory — Battle not fought in the atmosphere above, as implied by
the Stormy theory — Nor in the rainy season — Misinterpretation of words
like parvata, giri, adri, &c. — The Storm theory inadequate in every respect
— New explanation necessary — The real nature of waters explained —
They are aerial or celestial waters, and not the waters of rain — Vedic bards
knew of a region “below the three earths” — The contrary view of Wallis
refuted — The real meaning of rajas, Nir-riti, ardhau and samudram
explained — Cosmic circulation of aerial waters — Neither world, the home
of aerial waters — Avestic passages describing the circulation of waters
cited and explained — Sarasvati and Ardvi Sûra Anâhita are celestial rivers
— The source of all plants and rain — The real nature of Vritra’s fight —
Simultaneous release of waters and light is intelligible, if both have the
same source — Both stopped by Vritra’s encompassing the waters in the
lower world — The closing of the apertures in the mountains (parvatas) on
the horizon — The movement of the waters and the sun co-related —
Express passages from the Avesta to that effect — The sun stopping for a
long time in waters — Avestic passages in support thereof — Its effect on
disposal of corpses — Darkness synchronous with the cessation of the
flow of waters in winter — Its long duration — Cosmic circulation of waters
in other mythologies — Express texts showing that the fight with Vritra was
annual and fought in winter — Inexplicable except on the Arctic theory —
The exact date of Indra’s fight with Vritra preserved in the Rig-Veda — The
real meaning of chatvârimshyâm sharadi explained — Shambara found on
the 40th day of Sharad — Denotes the commencement of the long night —
Vedic passages showing Sharad to be the last season of sunshine —
Paleographical evidence for reckoning time by seasons-Similar reckoning
time by seasons — Similar reckoning in the Avesta — 100 autumnal forts
of Vritra
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and the killing of the watery demon with ice explained — The seven rivers
released by Indra — Cannot be terrestrial, nor the rivers of the Panjaub —
The interpretation of western scholars examined and rejected — The
connection between the seven rivers and the seven sons pointed out —
The origin of the phrase Hapta-hindu in the Avesta — Probably a
transference of an old mythological name to a place in the new home —
Vritra’s legend Arctic in origin — Captive waters represent the yearly
struggle between light and the darkness in the ancient Arctic home.

We have now examined most of the Vedic passages, which

directly show that the Polar or the Circum-Polar characteristics,
determined in the third chapter, were known by tradition to the Vedic
bards. We started with the tradition about the night of the gods, or a
day and a night of six months each, and found that it could be traced
back to the Indo-Iranian, if not to the Indo-Germanic, period. A close
examination of the dawn-hymns in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda next disclosed the
fact that Ushas, or the deity presiding over the dawn, is often
addressed in the plural number in the Vedic hymns, and that this
could be accounted for only on the supposition that the Vedic dawns
were a closely connected band of many dawns-a supposition, which
was found to be fully borne out by express passages in the Vedic
literature, stating, in unambiguous terms, that the Vedic dawns were
30 in number and that in ancient times a period of several days
elapsed between the first appearance of light on the horizon and the
rising of the sun. We have also found that the dawn is expressly
described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as moving round like a wheel, a
characteristic, which is the true only in the case of the Polar dawn.
These facts sufficiently prove the acquaintance of the Vedic bards
with the physical phenomena, witnessible only in the Arctic regions.
But to make the matter more certain, I have, in the last three
chapters, quoted and discussed Vedic passages, which go to prove
that the long Arctic nights and the corresponding long days of varying
duration, as well as a year of ten months or five seasons, were
equally known to the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. An examination of the
ancient sacrificial system and
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especially of the annual Sattras and night-sacrifices, further showed

that in old times yearly sacrificial sessions did not last for twelve
months; as at present, but were completed in nine or ten months; and
the hundred night-sacrifices were, at that time, really performed as
their name indicates, during the darkness of the long night. The
legends of Dîrghatamas and Aditi’s sons, and the tradition about the
sacrificial sessions of the Navagvas and the Dashagvas also pointed
to the same conclusion. Our case does not therefore, depend on an
isolated fact here and an isolated fact there. We have seen that the
half-year long day and night, the long dawn with its revolving
splendors, the long continuous night matched by the corresponding
long day and associated with a succession of ordinary days and
nights of varying lengths and the total annual period of sunshine of
less than twelve months are the principal peculiar characteristics of
the Polar or the Circum-Polar calendar; and when express passages
are found in the Vedas, the oldest record of early Aryan thoughts and
sentiments, showing that each and every one of these characteristics
was known to the Vedic bards, who themselves lived in. a region
where the year was made up of three hundred and sixty or three
hundred and sixty five days, one is irresistibly led to the conclusion
that the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda must have known these facts by
tradition and that their ancestors must have lived in regions where
such phenomena were possible. It is not to be expected that the
evidence on each and every one of these points will be equally
conclusive, especially as we are dealing with facts which existed
thousands of years ago. But if we bear in mind that the facts are
astronomically connected in such a way that if one of them is firmly
established all the others follow from it as a matter of course, the
cumulative effect of the evidence discussed in the previous chapters
cannot fail to be convincing. It is true that many of the passages,
quoted in support of the Arctic theory, are interpreted, in the way I
have done, for the first time; but I have already pointed out that this is
due to the fact that the real key to the interpretation of these
 219

passages was-discovered only during the last 30 or 40 years. Yâska

and Sâyana knew nothing definite about the circum-polar or the Arctic
regions and when a Vedic passage was found not to yield a sense
intelligible to them, they either contented themselves with barely
explaining the verbal texture of the passage, or distorted it to suit their
own ideas. Western scholars have corrected some of these mistakes,
but as the possibility of an Arctic home in pre-glacial times was not
admitted 30 or 40 years back, the most explicit references, whether in
the Avesta or the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, to a primeval home in the extreme north,
have been either altogether ignored, or, somehow or other explained
away, even by Western scholars. Many of the passages cited by me
fall under this class; but I trust that if my interpretations are examined
without any bias and in the, light of the latest scientific researches,
they will be found to be far more natural and simple than those in
vogue at present. In some cases no new interpretations were,
however, necessary. The passages have been correctly interpreted;
but in the absence of the true key to their meaning, their real import
was either altogether missed, or but imperfectly understood. In such
cases I have had to exhibit the passages in their true light or colors,
giving in each case, my reasons for doing the same. This has
sometimes rendered, it necessary to introduce certain topics not
directly relevant to the question in hand; but on the whole, I think, it
will be found that I have, as far as possible, tried to confine myself to
the discussion of the direct evidence bearing on the points in issue
and have examined it according to the strict method of historic or
scientific investigation. I did not start with any preconceived notion in
favor of the Arctic theory, nay, I, regarded it as highly improbable at
first; but the accumulating evidence in its support eventually forced
me to accept it, and in all probability, the evidence cited in the
previous chapters, will, I think, produce the same impression on the
reader’s mind.
But the evidence, which I am now going to cite in support of the
Arctic theory, is of a different character. If the
 220

ancestors of the Vedic bards ever lived near the North Pole the
cosmical or the meteorological conditions of the place could not have
failed to influence the mythology of these people; and if our theory is
true, a careful examination of the Vedic myths ought to disclose facts
which cannot be accounted for by any other theory. The probative
value of such evidence will manifestly be inferior to that of the direct
evidence previously cited, for myths and legends are variously
explained by different scholars. Thus Yâska mentions three or four
different schools of interpretation, each of which tries to explain the
nature and character of the Vedic deities in a different way. One of
these schools would have us believe that many of the deities were
real historical personages, who were subsequently apotheosized for
their supernatural virtues or exploits. Other theologians divide the
deities into Karma devatâs or those that have been raised to the
divine rank by their own deeds and Âjâna devatâs or those that were
divine by birth while the Nairuktas (or the etymologists) maintain
Vedic deities represent certain cosmical and physical phenomena
such as the appearance of the dawn or the breaking up of the storm-
clouds by the lightening. The Adhyâtmikâs, on the other hand, try to
explain certain Vedic passages in their own philosophical way; and
there are others who endeavor to explain Vedic myths in other
different ways. But this is not the place where the relative merits of
these different schools can be discussed or examined. I only wish to
point out that those, who explain the Vedic myths on the supposition
that they represent, directly or allegorically, ethical, historical, or
philosophical facts are not likely to accept any inference based upon
the theory which interprets the Vedic myths as referring to certain
cosmical and physical phenomena. It was for this reason that I
reserved the discussion of the mythological evidence for
consideration in a separate chapter, after all the evidence directly
bearing on the subject has been examined. The evidence, which
proves the existence of a long continuous dawn, or a long continuous
day or night, is not affected by the different theories regarding the
interpretation of
 221

the Vedic myths, and may therefore, be termed what the lawyers call
direct; but in the case of mythological evidence only those who
accept the Nairukta method of interpretation, will admit the validity of
any inference based upon the consideration of these myths. It is true
that the Nairukta school of interpretation dates from ancient times,
and that modern scholars have accepted the method almost without
reserve, though they might differ from the ancient Nairuktas, like
Yâska, in the details of the explanation suggested by them. But still
when a new theory is to be established, I thought it safer to separate
the mythological from the direct evidence bearing upon the points at
issue, even when the two lines of investigation seemed to converge
towards the same point.
Now it has been recorded by Yâska that the Nairuktas explain
most of the Vedic legends on the theory that they represent either the
daily triumph of light over darkness, or the conquest of the storm-god
over the dark clouds that imprison the fertilizing waters and the light
of the sun. Thus when the Ashvins are said to have rescued a quail
(Vartikâ) from the jaws of a wolf, Yâska interprets the legend to mean
the release and bringing out of the dawn or light from the darkness of
the night (Nir. V, 21). His explanation of the character of Vṛitra is
another instance in point. Speaking of the nature of the demon, he
thus refers (Nir. II, 16) to the opinions of the different schools, “Who
was Vṛitra? ‘A cloud,’ say the Nairuktas; ‘an Asura, son of Tvashtṛi,’
say the Aitihâsikas. The fall of rain arises from the mingling of the
waters and of light. This is figuratively depicted as a conflict. The
hymns and the Brâhmanas describe Vṛitra as a serpent. By the
expansion of his body, he blocked up the streams. When he was
destroyed the waters flowed forth.”*

* Nir. II, 16. Cf. Muir’s O. S. T. Vol. II, p. 175.

 222

The Storm and the Dawn theories thus formed the basis of the
Nairukta school of interpretation, and though Western scholars have
improved upon it, yet the credit of suggesting this method of
interpretation will always rest with the ancient Nairuktas, who, as
observed by Prof. Max Müller, had carefully thought out the true
character of the Vedic gods several centuries before the Christian
era. Thus the legend of Prajâpati loving his own daughter is explained
in the Aitareya Brâhmana as referring to the sun running after the
dawn or the heaven above (Ait. Br. III, 33); while Kumârila extends
this theory to the case of Indra and Ahilyâ, which according to him
represent the sun and the night. But though the Nairuktas fully
accepted the theory, which explained the Vedic myths as
representing cosmical and physical phenomena, yet as their
knowledge of the physical world was very limited in those days, they
were not able to explain every Vedic myth or legend by this method.
For example, out of ‘the various legends about the Ashvins Yâska
could explain only one by the Dawn theory, namely, that of the quail
being rescued from the jaws of the wolf. This defect has now been
partially removed by Western scholars, who, living in the more
northern regions are familiar with the decay in the power of the sun
during the cold season, or the eventual triumph of spring over winter
or the restoration of the decayed powers of the sun in summer. This
phenomena has, therefore, been used by them to explain the origin of
certain Vedic myths, which have been left unexplained either by the
Dawn or the Storm theory. Up to now, we have, thus, three theories
for explaining the Vedic myths according to the Nairukta school of
interpretation; and it is necessary to describe them briefly before we
proceed to show how they fail to account for all the incidents in the
myths and legends to which they are applied.
According to the Dawn theory, “the whole theogony and
philosophy of the ancient world is centered in the Dawn, the mother
of the bright gods, of the sun in his various aspects, of the morn, the
day, the spring; herself the brilliant image and
 223

visage of immortality.” Prof. Max Müller, in his Lectures on the

Science of Language, further remarks* that “the dawn, which to us is
a merely beautiful sight, was to the early gazers and thinkers the
problem of all the problems. It was the unknown land from whence
rose every day those bright emblems of divine powers, which, left in
the mind of man the first impression and intimation of another world,
of power above, of order and wisdom. What we simply call the sun-
rise, brought before their eyes every day the riddle of all riddles, the
riddle of existence. The days of their life sprang from that dark abyss,
which every morning seemed instinct with light and life.” And again “a
new life flashed up every morning before their eyes and the fresh
breezes of the dawn reached them like greetings wafted across the
golden threshold of the sky from the distant lands beyond the
mountains, beyond the clouds, beyond the dawn, beyond the
immortal sea which brought us hither.” The dawn seemed to them to
open golden gates for the sun to pass in triumph and while those
gates were open their eyes and their minds strove in their childish
way to pierce beyond the finite world. That silent aspect awakened in
the human mind the conception of the Infinite, the Immortal, the
Divine, and the names of dawn became naturally the names of higher
powers. “This is manifestly more poetic than real. But the learned
Professor explains many Vedic myths on the theory that they are all
Dawn-stories in different garbs. Thus if Saranyu, who had twins from
Vivasvat, ran off from him in the form of a mare, and he followed her
in the form of a horse, it is nothing but a story of the Dawn
disappearing at the approach of the sun and producing the pair of day
and night. The legend of Suryâ’s marriage with Soma, and of
Vṛishâkapâyî, whose oxen (the morning vapors) were swallowed by
Indra, or of Aditi giving birth to the Âdityas are again said to be the
stories of the Dawn under different aspects. Saramâ, crossing the
waters to find out the cows stolen by Panis, is similarly the Dawn

* See Lectures on the Science of Language, Vol. II, p. 545, ƒƒ.

 224

bringing with her the rays of the morning, and when Urvashi says that
she is gone away and Purûravas calls himself Vasishtha or the
brightest, it is the same Dawn flying away from the embrace of the
rising sun. In short, the Dawn is supposed to have been everything to
the ancient people, and a number of legends are explained in this
way, until at last the monotonous character of these stories led the
learned professor to ask to himself the question, “Is everything the
Dawn? Is everything the Sun?” — a question, which he answers by
informing us that so far as his researches were concerned they had
led him again and again to the Dawn and the Sun as the chief burden
of the myths of the Aryan race. The dawn here referred to is the daily
dawn as we see it in the tropical or the temperate zone, or, in other
words, it is the daily conquest of light over darkness that is here
represented as filling the minds of the ancient bards with such awe
and fear as to give rise to a variety of myths. It may be easily
perceived how this theory will be affected by the discovery that
Ushas, or the goddess of the dawn in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, does not
represent the evanescent dawn of the tropics, but is really the long
continuous dawn of the Polar or the Circum-Polar regions. If the
Arctic theory is once established many of these mythological
explanations will have to be entirely re-written. But the task cannot be
undertaken in a work which is devoted solely to the examination of
the evidence in support of that theory.
The Storm theory was originally put forward by the Indian
Nairuktas as a supplement to the Dawn theory, in order to account for
myths to which the latter was obviously inapplicable. The chief legend
explained on this theory is that of Indra and Vṛitra, and the
explanation has been accepted almost without reserve by all Western
scholars. The word Indra is said to be derived from the same root
which yielded indu, that is, the rain drop; and Vṛitra is one, who
covers or encompasses (vri, to cover) the waters of the rain-cloud.
The two names being thus explained, everything else was made to
harmonize with the Storm theory by
 225

distorting the phrases, if the same could not be naturally interpreted

in confirmity therewith. Thus when Indra strikes parvata (i.e. a
mountain) and delivers the rivers therefrom, the Nairuktas understood
parvata to be a storm cloud and the rivers to be the streams of rain.
Indra’s wielding the thunderbolt has been similarly interpreted to
mean that he was the god of the thunderstorm, and thunderstorm
implied rain as a matter of course. If the Maruts helped Indra in the
battle, it was easily explained by the Storm theory because a
thunderstorm or rain was always accompanied by stormy weather.
But a more difficult point in the legend, which required explanation,
was the hemming in or the captivating of the waters by Vṛitra or Ahi.
In the case of waters in the clouds it was easy to imagine that they
were kept captive in the cloud by the demon of drought. But the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda often speaks of sindhus or streams being released by the
slaughter of Vṛitra; and if the streams or rivers really represented, as
conceived by the advocates of this theory, the rivers of the Punjab, it
was rather difficult to understand how they could be described as
being hemmed in or kept captive by Vṛitra. But the ingenuity of Vedic
scholars was quite equal to the occasion, and it was suggested that,
as the rivers in India often entirely dried up in summer the god of the
rainy, season, who called them back to life, could be rightly described
as releasing them from the grasp of Vṛitra. The Indian Nairuktas do
not appear to have extended the theory any further. But in the hands
of German mythologians the Storm theory became almost a rival to
the Dawn theory; and stories, like that of Saranyu, have been
explained by them as referring to the movements of dark storm-
clouds hovering in the sky. “Clouds, storms, rains, lightning and
thunder,” observes Prof. Kuhn, “were the spectacles that above all
others impresses the imagination of the early Aryans and busied it
most in finding terrestrial objects to compare with their ever-varying
aspects, The beholders were at home on the earth, and the things on
the earth were comparatively familiar to them; even the coming and
going
 226

of the celestial luminaries might often be regarded by them with more

composure, because of their regularity; but they could never
surcease to feel the liveliest interest in those wonderful meteoric
changes, so lawless and mysterious in their visitations, which
wrought such immediate and palpable effects for good or ill upon the
lives and fortunes of the beholders.”* For this reason Prof. Kuhn
thinks that these meteorological phenomena are the principal ground-
work of all Indo-European mythologies and superstitions; and in
accordance with this creed Prof. Roth explains Saranyu as the dark
storm-cloud soaring in the space in the beginning of all things and
takes Vivasvat as representing the light of heavens.
The third theory, like the first, is solar in origin, and attempts to
explain certain Vedic myths on the supposition that they represent the
triumph of spring over snow and winter. Yâska and other Indian
Nairuktas lived in regions where the contrast between spring and
winter was not so marked as in the countries still further north; and it
was probably for this reason that the Vernal theory was not put
forward by them to explain the Vedic myths. Prof. Max Müller has
tried to explain most of the exploits of the Ashvins by this theory.† If
the Ashvins restored Chyavâna to youth, if they protected Atri from
the heat and darkness, if they rescued Vandana from a pit where he
was buried alive, or if they replaced the leg of Vishpalâ, which she
had lost in battle, or restored ‫ي‬ijrâshva his eye sight, it was simply the
Sun-god restored to his former glory after the decay of his powers in
winter. In short the ‘birth of the vernal Sun, his fight against the army
of winter, and his final victory at the beginning of the spring is, on this
theory, the true key to the explanation of many myths where the Sun-
god is represented

* See Max Müller’s Lectures on the Science of Language Vol. II, p. 566.
† See Contributions to the Science of Mythology, Vol. II, pp. 579-605.
 227

as dying, decaying or undergoing some other affliction. As contrasted

with the Dawn theory the physical phenomena, here referred to, are
annual. But both are solar theories, and as such may be contrasted
with the Storm theory which is meteorological in origin.
Besides these three theories, the Dawn, the Storm and the
Vernal, Mr. Nârâyana Aiyangâr of Bangalore has recently attempted
to explain a number of Vedic myths on the hypothesis that they refer
to Orion and Aldebaran. This may be called the Astral theory as
distinguished from others. But all these theories cannot be discussed
in this place; nor is it necessary to do so, so far as our purpose is
concerned. I wish only to show that in spite of the various theories
started to explain the Vedic myths, a number of incidents in several
important legends have yet remained unexplained; and mythologists
have either ignored them altogether, or pushed - them out of the way
as insignificant or immaterial. If everything could be explained by the
Dawn or the Storm theory, we may indeed hesitate to accept a new
theory for which there would then be very little scope; but when a
number of facts, which have yet remained unexplained, are
satisfactorily and appropriately accounted for only by the Arctic
theory, we shall be perfectly justified in citing these legends as
corroborative evidence in support of our new theory. It is from this
point of view that I mean to examine some of the important Vedic
myths in this and the following chapter, and shall now begin with the
legend of Indra and Vṛitra, or of captive waters, which is generally
believed to have been satisfactorily explained by the Storm theory.
The struggle between Indra and Vṛitra is represented in the
Vedas as being four-fold in character. First, it is a struggle between
Indra and Vṛitra, the latter of whom appears also under thee names of
Namuchi, Shushna, Shambara, Vala, Pipru, Kuyava and others. This
is Vritra-tûrya, or the fight or struggle with Vṛitra. Secondly, it is a fight
for the waters, which either in the form of sindhus (rivers) or as âpah
(simple floods), are often described as released or liberated
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by the slaughter of Vṛitra. This is ap-tûrya or the struggle for waters;

and Indra is called apsu-jit or conquering in the waters, while Vṛitra is
described as encompassing them (âpah pari-shayânam). Thirdly, it is
a struggle to regain the cows (go-ishti); and there are several
passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where the cows are said to have been
released by India after having overthrown Vṛitra. Fourthly, it is a fight
to regain the day-light or heaven called (div-ishti), or the striving for
day; and in many places the sun and the dawn; are, said to be
brought out by Indra after killing Vṛitra.* The following extracts from
Macdonell’s Vedic Mythology give the requisite authorities from the
‫ي‬ig-Veda for this four-fold character of the struggle between Indra
and Vṛitra. Speaking of the terrible conflict, he thus sums up the
principal incidents thereof as mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda: —
“Heaven and earth trembled with fear when India strikes Vṛitra
with his bolt (I, 80, 11; II, 11, 9-10; VI, 17, 9), even Tvashtṛi who
forged the bolt, trembles at Indra’s anger (I, 80, 14). Indra shatters
Vṛitra with bolt (I, 32, 5); and strikes his face with his pointed weapon
(I, 52, 15). He smote Vṛitra, who encompassed the waters (VI, 20, 2),
or the dragon that lay around (pari-shayânam) the waters (IV, 19, 2);
he overcame the dragon lying on the waters (V, 30, 6). He slew the
dragon hidden in the water and obstructing the waters and the sky (II,
11, 5), and smote Vṛitra, who enclosed the waters, like a tree, with
the bolt (II, 14, 2). Thus

* The exploits of Indra are very pithily summed up in the Nivids or short
Sûtras or sentences used in offering oblations to the gods. These will be
found collected in a separate chapter amongst the Pari-shiṣhtas or
supplements to the Rig-Veda Samhitâ text published in Bombay
(Tatvavivechaka Press). According to Dr. Haug these Nivids are the
originals of the Vedic Suktas or hymns. As regards the meaning of Div-iṣhṭi
see Oldenberg’s Vedic Hymns (I, 45, 7), S. B. E. Series, Vol. XLVI. p. 44.
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conquering in the waters (apsu-jit) is his exclusive attribute (VIII, 36,

1).”*
As regards the abode of Vṛitra, we have (§ 68, A): —
“Vṛitra has a hidden (ninya) abode, whence the waters, when
released by Indra, escape, overflowing the demon (I, 32, 10). Vṛitra
lies on the waters (I, 121, 11; II, 11, 9), or enveloped by the waters, at
the bottom (budhna) of the rajas or aerial space (I, 52, 6). He is also
described as lying on a summit (sânu), when Indra made the waters
to flow (I, 80, 5). Vṛitra has fortresses, which Indra shatters when he
slays him (X, 89, 7), and which are ninety-nine in number (VIII, 93, 2;
VII, 19, 5). He is called nadî-vrît, or encompasser of rivers (I, 52, 2),
and in one passage parvata or cloud is described as being within his
belly (I, 54, 10).”
There are again passages (V, 32, 5 & 6) where India is said to
have placed Shushna, who was anxious to fight, “in the darkness of
the pit,” and slaughtered him “in the darkness which was unrelieved
by the rays of the sun,” (asûrye tamasi). In 1, 54, 10, darkness is said
to have prevailed in Vṛitra’s hollow side, and in II, 23, 18, Bṛihaspati,
with Indra is said to have hurled down the ocean, which was
“encompassed in darkness,” and opened the stall of kine. Finally in I,
32, 10, Vṛitra’s body is said to have sunk in “long darkness,” being
encompassed with waters. This shows that the waters of the ocean,
which was encompassed by Vṛitra, were not lighted by the rays of the
sun. In other words, the ocean (arnah) which Vṛitra is said to have
encompassed was different from the “bright ocean” (shukram arnah)
which the sun is said to have ascended in V, 45, 10. Vṛitra’s ocean
(arnava) was enveloped in darkness (tamasâ parivritam, II, 23, 18),
while the ocean, which the sun ascended, was bright and shining
(shukram). Indra is again described as going to a very distant
(parâvat) region to kill Vṛitra or Namuchi, (I, 53, 7; VIII, 12, 17; VIII,
45, 25). If we combine all these statements

* See Macdonell’s Vedic Mythology, in Grundriss der Indo-Arischen

Philologie and Altertumskunde, § 22 (Indra), pp. 58-61.
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regarding the scene of the struggle between Indra and Vṛitra, we are
led to the conclusion that the fight took place in a dark, distant and
watery region. In VIII, 32, 26, India is said to have killed Arbuda with
ice (hima); and in X, 62, 2, the Angirases, who were the assistants of
Indra in his conquest of the cows, are said to have struck Vala at the
end of the year (parivatsare). There is another statement in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, which gives us the date of Indra’s fight with Shambara, but we
shall discuss it later on. It is stated above that the number of Vṛitra’s
forts destroyed by Indra is given as ninety-nine; but in other passages
it is said to be ninety or one hundred (I, 130, 7; IV, 30, 20,). These
fortresses or cities (purah) are described as made of stone or iron (IV,
30, 20; IV, 27, 1), and in some places they are said to be autumnal
(shâradîh, I, 130, 7; 131, 4; VI, 20, 10). The importance of these
facts, in the interpretation of the legend, will be discussed later on.
We have seen that the release of cows and the bringing up of
the dawn and the sun are the simultaneous effects of Indra’s
conquest of Vṛitra. The following extract from Macdonell’s Vedic
Mythology (p. 61) give the necessary authorities on the point:
“With the liberation of waters is connected the winning of light,
sun and dawn. Indra won light and the divine waters (III, 34, 8), the
god is invoked to slay Vṛitra and win the light, (VIII, 89, 4). When
Indra had slain the dragon Vṛitra with his metallic bolt releasing the
waters for man, he placed the sun visibly in the heavens (I, 51, 4; 52,
8). Indra, the dragon-slayer, set in motion the flood of waters of the
seat generated the sun and found the cows (II, 19, 3). He gained the
sun and the waters after slaying the demon (III, 33, 8-9) When Indra
slew the chief of the dragons and released the waters from the
mountain, he generated the sung the sky and the dawn (I, 32, 4; VI,
30, 5). The cows are also mentioned along with the sun and the
dawn, (I, 62, 5; II, 12, 7; VI, 17, 5), or with the sun alone (I, 7, 3; II, 19,
3; X, 138, 2), as being found, delivered or won by Indra.”
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Indra is described in other passages as having released the

streams pent up by the dragon (II, 11, 2), and he is said to have won
the cows and made the seven rivers flow (I, 32, 12; II, 12, 12). In II,
15, 6, the streams released by him have been described as flowing
upwards (udañcham). It may be further noticed that in all these
passages the clouds are not referred to under their ordinary name
abhra; but the words used are parvata, giri, adri, (which primarily
mean a mountain), or ûdhas (udder), utsa (spring) kabandha (cask)
or kosha (pail). All these words have been interpreted by the
Nairuktas as meaning a cloud, and this interpretation has been
accepted by Western scholars. The word go, which generally means
cow, is also interpreted in some cases to mean the waters released
by Indra. Thus when Indra is said to have released the cows, which
were fast within the stone (VI, 43, 3), or when he is said to have
moved the rock, which encompassed the cows, from its place (VI, 17,
5), it is understood that the reference is to a cloud-rock, which
imprisons the rain-waters. Maruts are the usual companions of Indra
in this, fight; but Vishnu, Agni, and Bṛihaspati are also spoken of as
assisting him in the rescue of the cows from the grip of Vala.
Bṛihaspati’s conquest of Vala who had taken shelter in a rock, is thus
taken to be a paraphrase of Indra’s conquest over Vṛitra. In X, 62, 2
and 3, the Angirases are also described as driving out the cows,
piercing Vala and causing the sun to mount the sky, — exploits,
which are usually attributed to Indra. There are other versions of the
same story to be found in ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but for the purpose in hand, we
need not go beyond what has been stated above.
Now whosoever reads this description of Indra’s fight with Vṛitra
cannot fail to be struck with the fact that there are four simultaneous
effects (Sâkam, in VI, 30, 5), said to have been produced by the
conquest of Indra over Vṛitra, namely, (1) the release of the cows, (2)
the release of the waters, (3) the production of the dawn and (4) the
production of the sun. Let us now see if the Storm theory satisfactorily
explains the simultaneous production of these results from the
destruction
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of Vṛitra. Vṛitra is a cloud, a storm-cloud, or a rain-cloud, hovering in

the sky, and by smiting it with his thunder-bolt Indra may well be
described as realizing the waters imprisoned therein. But where are
the cows which are said to be released along with the waters? The
Nairuktas interpret cows to mean waters; but in that cage, the release
of the waters and the release of the cows cannot be regarded as two
distinct effects. The recovery of the dawn and the sun, along with the
release of waters, is, however, still more difficult to explain by the
Storm theory, or, we might even say, that it cannot be explained at
all. Rain-clouds may temporarily obscure the sun, but the
phenomenon is not one which occurs regularly, and it is not possible
to speak of the production of the light of the sun as resulting from the
breaking up of the clouds, which may only occasionally obscure the
sun. The recovery of the dawn, as a prize of the conflict between
Indra and Vṛitra simultaneously with the release of waters, is,
similarly, quite inexplicable by the Storm theory. The rain-clouds
usually move in the heavens, and though we may occasionally find
them on the horizon, it is absurd to say that by striking the clouds
Indra brought out the dawn. I know of no attempt made by any
scholar to explain the four simultaneous effects of Indra’s fight with
Vṛitra by any other theory. The Storm-theory appears to have been
suggested by the Nairuktas, because the release of waters was
supposed to be the principal effect of the conquest, and waters were
naturally understood to mean the waters, which we see every day.
But in spite of the efforts of the Nairuktas and Western scholars, the
simultaneous winning of light and waters still remains unexplained.
Macdonell (Ved. Myth. p. 61) referring to this difficulty observes,
“There appears to be a confusion between the notion of the
restoration of the sun after the darkness of the thunderstorm, and the
recovery of the sun from the darkness of the night at dawn. The latter
trait in the Indra myth is most probably only an extension of the
former.” If this means anything, it is only a confession of the inability
of Vedic scholars to explain
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the four simultaneous effects of Indra’s conquest over Vṛitra by the

storm theory; and, strange to say, they seem to attribute their failure,
not to their own ignorance or inability, but to the alleged confusion of
ideas on the part of the Vedic bards.
These are not, however, the only points, in which the Storm-
theory fails to explain the legend of Indra and Vṛitra. It has been
pointed out above that Vṛitra was killed in distant regions, in which
ghastly darkness reigned, and which abounded in waters; while in X,
73, 7, Indra by killing Namuchi, alias Vṛitra, is said to have cleared the
gates of the Devayâna path, evidently meaning that Vṛitra was killed
at the gates of the path leading to the region of the gods. Even in the
Avesta, the fight between Apaosha and Tishtrya is said to have taken
place in the sea of Vouru-Kasha, and Tishtrya is described as moving
along the path made by Mazda after his fight with Apaosha. Vṛitra’s
abode is similarly described as “hidden” and “enveloped by water” at
the bottom of rajas (I, 52, 6). None of these conditions is satisfied by
making the storm-cloud, the scene of the battle between Indra and
Vṛitra; for a cloud cannot be said to be the ocean of waters, nor can it
be described as lying in a distant (parâvat) region, or at the threshold
of the Devayâna or the path of the gods. In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda parâvat is
usually contrasted with arâvat, and it means a distant region on the
other side, as contrasted with the region on this or the nearer side.
The Devayâna is similarly contrasted with the Pitṛiyâna, and means
the northern celestial hemisphere. The clouds over the head of the
observer cannot be said to be either in the distant region, or at the
gate of the Devayâna; nor can we speak of them as enveloped by
sun-less darkness. It is, therefore, highly improbable that the rain-
clouds could have been the scene of battle between Indra and Vṛitra.
It was the sea on the other side, the dark ocean as contrasted with
the bright ocean (shukram arnah) which the sun mounts in the
morning, where the battle was fought according to the passages
referred to above; and the description is appropriate only in the case
of the
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nether world, the celestial hemisphere that lies underneath, and not in
the case of clouds moving in the sky above. I do not mean to say that
Indra may not have been the god of rain or thunderstorm, but as
Vritrahan, or the killer of Vṛitra, it is impossible to identify him with the
god of rain, if the description of the fight found in the Vedic passages
is not to be ignored or set aside.
The third objection to the current interpretation of the Vṛitra
myth, is that it does not satisfactorily explain the passages, which
give the time of Indra’s fight with the demon. On the Storm theory, the
fight must be placed in the rainy season or Varshâ; but the forts of
Vṛitra, which Indra is said to have destroyed and thus acquired the
epithet purabhid or purandara, are described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as
autumnal or shâradîh i.e., belonging or pertaining to Sharad, the
season which follows Varshâ. The discrepancy may be accounted
for, by supposing that Varshâ and Sharad, were once included under
one season which was named not Varshâ but Sharad. But the
explanation is opposed to another passage in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X, 62, 2)
which says that Vala was killed at the end of the year (parivatsare),
unless we again suppose that the year commenced with Sharad in
those days. Nor can we explain how Arbuda is said to be killed with
hima (ice) by Indra. Again as previously stated, the dawn could not be
considered as a prize of the conflict, nor could the fight be said to
have been fought in darkness, if we choose the rainy season as the
time for the battle of India with Vṛitra. It will thus be seen that the
Storm theory does not satisfactorily explain the statements regarding
the time of the struggle between Indra and Vṛitra.
The fourth objection against the Storm theory, as applied to the
story of Vṛitra, is that many words like parâvat, giri, or adri, which do
not signify a cloud, either primarily on secondarily, have to be
interpreted as referring figuratively to the rain-cloud. This sounds
harsh in many a passage where Indra or Bṛihaspati is described as
piercing a mountain or breaking open a stone-cave and liberating the
waters or the
 235

cows confined therein. In the absence of any other theory, we had to

interpret these passages by the Storm theory, as the Nairuktas have
done, by assigning to any and every word, used to denote the prison-
house of waters or the cows, the meaning of a rain-cloud moving in
the sky. But though we could thus temporarily get over the difficulty,
the fact, that we had to strain the words used, or to assign unnatural
meanings to them, was always a drawback, which detracted from the
value of our interpretation. It was probably for this reason that Prof.
Oldenberg was led to suggest that Indra’s piercing the mountain and
liberating the waters therefrom should be understood to refer not to
the rain-cloud, but to the actual striking of the mountains with the
thunder-bolt and making the rivers flow forth from them. But, as
observed by Max Müller, “the rivers do not gush out of rocks even
when they have been struck by lighting”; and so Prof. Oldenberg’s
explanation, though it gets us out of one difficulty, lands us on
another, which, to say the least, is equally puzzling. If we, therefore,
cannot suggest a better explanation, we might as well accept the
device of the Nairuktas and interpret parvata or whatever other word
or words may be found used to denote the place of the confinement
of the waters, as meaning a cloud, and explain the legend of Vṛitra by
the Storm theory as best as we can.
It will be found from the foregoing discussion regarding the
Storm theory as applied to the legend of Indra and Vṛitra, that it
explains neither the simultaneous effects of Indra’s conquest over
Vṛitra, nor the statements regarding the seat of the battle between
them, nor those regarding the time when it took place, nor again does
it allow us to take the words, used in certain Vedic passages, in their
natural sense; and yet we find that the theory has been accepted as
the basis of the legend from the times of the Nairuktas up to the
present. Why should it be so? — is a question, which would naturally
occur to any one, who examines the subject. It is true that the Storm
theory fully explains the release of waters as a result of the fight; but
the release of waters
 236

is not the only consequence, which we have to account for. There are
four simultaneous effects of the war, the release of the waters, the
release of the cows, the recovery of the dawn and the production of
the sun. The Storm theory ex-plains the first two and the Dawn theory
the last two of these; but the whole set of four is explained by neither,
nor could the theories be so combined as to explain all the four
effects, unless, like Prof. Macdonell, we suppose that the Vedic bards
have confused the two entirely different ideas, viz., the restoration of
the sunlight after thunderstorm and the recovery of light from the
darkness of night. Of the two theories, the Storm and the Dawn, the
ancient Nairuktas, therefore, seem to have adopted that which
adequately accounted for the release of the waters and which suited
better with their notion of Indra as a thunder-god, on the principle that
half a loaf is better than none, and have ignored the remaining
incidents in the legend as inexplicable, unimportant, or immaterial.
The same theory has also been adopted by Western scholars, and it
is the only theory in the field at present. But it is so manifestly
inadequate that if a better theory could be found which will explain
most of, if not all, the incidents in the legend, no one would hesitate to
abandon the Storm theory in favor of the latter.
It is, in my opinion, a mistake to suppose that the struggle
between Indra and Vṛitra originally represented the conflict between
the thunder-god and the rain-cloud. It is really a struggle between the
powers of light and darkness and we find traces of it in the Aitareya
Brâhmana (IV, 15.), where Indra alone of all gods is described as
having under taken the task of driving out Asuras from the
darkness of the night. That Indra is the god of light is also evident
from many other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, where, without any
reference to the Vṛitra fight, Indra is said to have found the light (III,
34, 4; VIII, 15, 5; X, 43, 4) in the darkness (I, 100, 8; IV, 16, 4), or to
have produced the dawn as well as the sun (II, 12, 7; 21, 4; III, 31,
15), or opened the darkness with the dawn and the sun (I, 62, 5). It
was he, who made the sun to shine
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(VIII, 3, 6), and mount in the sky (I, 7, 1), or prepared a path for the
sun (X, 111, 3), or found the sun in “the darkness in which he
resided” (III, 39, 5). It is evident from these passages that Indra is the
winner of light and the sun and this character of his was well
understood by scholars, for Indra as apavaryan, or the recoverer (fr.
apa-vri) of light, is compared by Max Müller with Apollon in the Greek
mythology. But scholars have found it difficult to explain why this
character of Indra should be mentioned in conjunction with other
exploits, such as the conquest of Vṛitra and the liberation of the
waters. In fact that is the real difficulty in the explanation of the legend
either by the Storm or by the Dawn theory. Indra liberated the waters
and brought about the dawn by killing Vṛitra, — is undoubtedly the
burden of the whole story; but no explanation has yet been found by
which the simultaneous recovery of light and waters could
satisfactorily be accounted for. We have seen that by the Storm
theory we can account for they release of waters, but not the
recovery of the dawn; while if the legend is taken to represent a
struggle between light and darkness, as implied by the Dawn theory,
we can account for the recovery of the dawn and the sun, but not for
the release of waters. Under these circumstances it is necessary to
examine the nature and character of waters as described in the
Vedas, before we accept or reject either or both of the above-
mentioned theories.
It has been noticed above that the passages, where waters are
said to be released by Indra after killing Vṛitra do not refer expressly
to the rain-cloud. The words parvata, giri and the like are used to
denote the place where the waters were confined, and âpah or
sindhus, to denote the waters themselves. Now âpah, or waters
generally, are mentioned in a number of places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and
the word in many places denotes the celestial or aerial waters. Thus
we are told that they follow the path of the gods, and are to be found
beside the sun, who is with them (I, 23, 17). In VII, 49, 2, we have an
express statement that there are waters, which are celestial (divyâh
âpah), and also those that flow in earthly
 238

channels (khanitrimâh, thus clearly distinguishing between terrestrial

and celestial waters. In the same verse they are said to have the sea
or the ocean for the goal; and in VIII, 69, 12, the seven rivers are said
to flow into the jaws of Varuna as into a surging abyss. Varuna again
is described as the god, who, like Indra, makes the rivers flow (II, 28,
4); and we have seen that the sage Dîrghatamas is said to have been
borne on the waters wending to their goal (I, 158, 6). But it is
needless to cite more authorities on this point, for scholars are
agreed that both celestial and terrestrial waters are mentioned in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda. The nature, the character, or the movements of celestial
waters appear, however, to be very imperfectly understood; and this
is the sole reason why scholars have not yet been able to connect the
release of the waters with the recovery of the dawn in the Vṛitra
legend. It seems to have been supposed that when the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
speaks of the celestial waters (dîvyâh âpah) only the rain-waters are
intended. But this is a mistake; for, in passages which speak of the
creation of the world (X, 82, 6; 129, 3), the world is said to have once
consisted of nothing but undifferentiated waters. In short, the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, like the Hebrew Testament, expressly states that the world was
originally full of waters, and that there were the waters in the
firmament above and waters below. The Shatapatha Brâhmana (XI,
1, 6, 1), the Aitareya Upanishad (I, 1) and Manu (I, 9), all say that the
world was created from watery vapors. There can, there fore, be no
doubt that the idea of celestial waters was well-known to the
ancestors of the Vedic bards in early days; and as the celestial
waters were conceived to be the material out of which the universe
was created, it is probable that the Vedic bards understood by that
phrase what the modern scientist now understand by “ether” or “the
nebulous mass of matter” that fills all-the space in the universe. We
need not, however, go so far. It is enough for our purpose to know
that the celestial waters (divyâh âpah), or the watery vapors
(purisham), are mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and that the Vedic bards
considered the space or the region above, below
 239

and around them to be full of these celestial vapors which are said to
be coeval with the world in X, 30, 10.
It is, however, alleged by Wallis in his Cosmology of the Rig-
Veda (p. 115) that the Vedic bards were not acquainted with the
regions below the earth, and that every thing, which is described in
the Vedas as occurring in the atmosphere, including the movements
of the sun during night and day, must, be placed in the regions of the
sky, which were over the head of these bards. This view appears to
be adopted by Macdonell in his Vedic Mythology; and if it be correct,
we shall have to place all the waters in the upper heaven. But I do not
think that Wallis has correctly interpreted the passages quoted by
Prof. Zimmer in support of his theory that a rajas (region) exists below
the earth; and we cannot, therefore accept Wallis’ conclusions, which
are evidently based upon prepossessions derived most probably from
the Homeric controversy. Prof. Zimmer refers to three passages (VI,
9, 1; VII, 80, 1; V, 81, 4) to prove that a rajas beneath the earth was
known to the Vedic people. The first of these passages is the well-
known verse regarding the bright and the dark day. It says, “the bright
day and the dark day, both roll the two rajas by the well-known
paths.” Here the two rajas are evidently the upper and the lower
celestial hemisphere; but Wallis asks us to compare this verse with I,
185, 1, where day and night are said “to revolve like two wheels,” that
is, to circle round from east to west, the one rising as the other goes
down, and observes that “We are in no way obliged to consider that
the progress of either is continued below the earth.” I am unable to
understand how we can draw such an inference from these
passages. In VI, 9, 1, quoted by Zimmer, two rajas or atmospheres
are men tinned, and the bright and the dark day are said to roll along
both these rajas or regions. But if we hold with Wallis that the
progress of either begins in the east and stops in the west, without
going below the earth, the whole movement becomes confined to one
rajas or region and does not extend over the two. Zimmer’s
interpretation is, therefore, not only more
 240

probable, but the only one that explains the use of rajasî (in the dual),
or the two regions, in the verse. The next passage (VII, 80, 1) is also
misunderstood by Wallis. It describes the dawn as “unrolling the two
regions (rajasî), which border on each other (samante), revealing all
things. Now; the dawn always appears on the horizon and the two
rajas, which it unrolls and which are said to border on each other,
must meet on this horizon. They can therefore only represent the
lower and the upper celestial sphere. But Wallis would have us
believe that both these rajasî are above the earth, and that narrowing
down together towards east and west they meet on the horizon like
two arched curves over one’s head! The artificial character of this
explanation is self-evident, and I see no reason why we should adopt
it in preference to the simple and natural explanation of Zimmer,
unless we start with a preconceived notion that references to the
regions below the earth ought not to be and cannot be found in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda. The third passage pointed out by Zimmer is V, 81, 4, which
says “O Savitṛi! Thou goest round (parîyase) the night, on both sides
(ubhayatah). “Here Wallis proposes to translate parîyase by
“encompassest;” but parîyase ordinarily means “goest round,” and
there is no reason why the idea of motion usually implied by it should
be here abandoned. It will thus be seen that the conclusion of Wallis
is based upon the distortion of passages which Zimmer interprets in a
simpler and a more natural way: and that Zimmer’s view is more in
accordance with the natural meaning of these texts. But if an express
passage
be still needed to prove conclusively that the region below the earth
was known to the Vedic bards, we refer to VII, 104, 11, where the
bard prays for the destruction of his enemies and says, “Let him
(enemy) go down below the three earths (tisrah prîthivih adhah).”
Here the region below the three earths is expressly mentioned; and
since the enemy is to be condemned to it, it must be a region of
torment and pain like the Hades. In X, 152, 4, we read, “One who
injures ms, let him be sent to the: nether darkness (adharam tamah),”
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and, comparing this with the last passage, it is evident that the region
below the earth was conceived as dark. In III, 73, 21, we have, “Let
him, who hates us, fall downwards (adharah),” and in 11, 12, 4, the
brood of the Dasyu, whom India killed, is said to be “sent to the
unknown nether world (adharam guhâkah).” These passages directly
show that region below the earth was not only known to the Vedic
bards, but was conceived as filled with darkness, and made the
scene of India’s tight with Vṛitra. It may, however, be alleged that
“below the three earths” may simply mean underneath the surface of
the earth. But, in that case, it was not necessary to speak of all the
three earths, and since we are told that the region is below all the
three earths, it can refer only to the nether world. This is further
proved by the passage which describes what is above the three
earths. The expression, corresponding to tisrah prîthivih adhah or
“the region below the three earths,” will be tisrah prîthivih upari or the
region above the three earths,” and as a matter of fact this expression
is also found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Thus in I, 34, 8, we are told that “the
Ashvins, moving above the three earths (tisrah prîthivih upari), protect
the vault or the top of heaven (divo nâkam) through days and nights”;
and Ashvins are said to have come on their car from a distant region
(parâvat) in the preceding verse of the same hymn. The phrase divo
nâkam occurs several times in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and means the top or
the vault of the heaven. Thus in IV, 13, 5, the sun is said to guard
(pâti) the vault of the heaven (divo nâkam); and as regards the three-
fold division of the earth it is mentioned in several places in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda (I, 102, 8; IV, 53, 5; VII, 87, 5), and also in the Avesta (Yt. XIII,
3; Yasna, XI, 7). In IV, 53, 5, this three-fold division is further
extended to antariksha, rajas, rochana and dyu or heaven. This
shows what we are to understand by “three earths.” It is the one and
the same earth, regarded as three-fold; and since the Ashvins are
described as protecting the vault of heaven by moving “above the
three earths,” it is clear that in contrast with the vault above, a nether
region, as far below
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the three earths as the heaven is above them, must have been
conceived and denoted by the phrase “below the three earths,” and
that the latter expression did not merely mean an interterranean
ground. When we meet with two such phrases as the heaven “above
the three earths,” and the region “below the three earths,” in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, phrases, which cannot be mistaken or misunderstood, the
hypothesis that the Vedic bards were not acquainted with the nether
world at once falls to the ground.
Mr. Wallis seems to think that since rajas is said to be divided
three-fold, like the earth, and since the highest rajas is mentioned as
the seat of waters, there is no scope in the Vedic division of rajas for
a region beneath the earth; for the three rajas are exhausted by
taking them as the rajas of the earth (pârthivam), the rajas of the sky
(divo rajah) and the highest (paramam) rajas, the seat of waters. But
this objection is quite untenable, inasmuch as six different rajas are
also mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 164, 6). We can, therefore,
suppose that there were three rajas above the earth and three below
it, and so meet the apparent difficulty pointed out by Wallis. The three
rajas can in some places be also interpreted to mean the earthly
rajas, the one above the earth and the one below it, (X, 82, 4). In I,
35, 2, the Savitṛi is described as moving through the dark rajas
(krishnena rajasâ), and in the next verse we are told that he comes
from the distant (parâvat) region, which shows that the dark rajas and
the parâvat region are synonymous;, and that the sun ascends the
sky after passing through the dark rajas. Again the use of the word
“ascend” (ud-yan or ud-âcharat, I, 163, 1; VII, 55, 7), to describe the
rising of the sun in the morning from the ocean, shows,, by contrast,
that the ocean which the sun is said to enter at the time of setting (X,
114, 4) is really an ocean underneath the earth. In I, 117, 5, the sun is
described as sleeping in “the lap of Nir-riti,” and “dwelling in dark
ness”; while in 1, 164, 32 and 33, the sun is said to have traveled in
the interior of heaven and earth and finally gone into Nir-riti, or as
Prof. Max Müller renders it, “the exodus
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in the west.” Now, in X, 114, 2, there are three Nir-ritis mentioned,

evidently corresponding to the three earths and three heavens; and in
X, 161, 2, the lap of Nir-riti is identified with the region of death.
Pururavas is again said (X, 95, 14) to have gone to the distant region
(param parâvatam) and there made his bed on the lap of Nir-riti; while
the Maruts are described as mounting up to the firmament from the
bottomless Nir-riti in VII, 58, 1. All these passages taken together
show that Nir-riti, or the land of dissolution and death, commenced in
the west, that the sun lying in darkness traveled through the distant
region (parâvat) and eventually rose in the east from the lap of Nir-riti,
and that the whole of this movement was placed not in the upper
heaven, but on the other side of the vault through which the sun
traveled before he entered into Nir-riti. In other words, the Nir-ritis
extended below the earth from west to east; and since the region
below the three earths is expressly mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, the
three Nir-ritis must be understood to mean the three regions below-
the earth corresponding to the threefold division of the earth or of the
heaven above it. Zimmer is, therefore, correct in stating that the sun
moved through the rajas below the earth during night and that the
Vedic poets knew of this nether rajas.
There are other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda which fully support
the same view. Thus corresponding to the rajasî, or the two rajas, we
have another expression in the dual, namely, ubhau ardhau, which
literally denotes “the two halves,” and when applied to heaven, “the
two celestial hemispheres.” The expression ardhau occurs in II, 27,
15, and the two halves are there asked to be propitious to the
sacrificer. Wallis, however, interprets ubhau ardhau to mean “heaven
and earth.” But this is a mistake for there is a passage in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda where we have the phrases pare ardhe (in the farther half) and
upare ardhe (in the nearer half) of heaven (divah), showing that the
heaven alone (and not heaven and earth) was conceived as divided
into two halves (I, 164, 12). A few verses later on (I, 164, 17), the cow
with her calf (the
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dawn with the sun) is described as having appeared below the upper
and above the lower realm, i.e., between heaven and earth and a
question is then asked “To what half (ardham) has she departed?”
which again shows that the (ardham) here referred to is quite distinct
from heaven and earth. In the Atharva Veda, X, 8, 7 and 13, the “two
halves” are referred to, and the poet asks, “Prajâpati with one half
(ardham) engendered all creation; what sign is there to tell us of the
other half?” Here the other half cannot mean the earth; and Griffith
accordingly explains it as referring to the sun at night. Another
expression used to denote the upper and the lower world is
samudrau or the two oceans, (X, 136, 5). These two oceans are said
to be one on this side (avara) and one on the other (para) side in VII,
6, 7; and a yonder ocean (parâvati samudre) is mentioned in VIII, 12,
17. I have already quoted above the passages which speak of the
bright arnah or ocean (V, 45, 10), and of arnava or an ocean
pervaded with darkness (II, 23, 18). The two words parastât and
avastât are also employed to convey the same idea. They denote a
region on the nearer side and a region on the farther side. Thus in
VIII, 8, 14, parâvat region is contrasted with ambara or the heaven
above, and in III, 55, 6, the sun is described as sleeping in the
parâvat region. We have seen above that Savitṛi is said to come up
from the parâvat region, and that he moves through the dark region
before ascending the sky. The two words parâvat and arvâvat thus
separately denote the same regions that are jointly denoted by the
dual words rajasî, ardhau or samudrau; and when both the upper and
the lower hemispheres were intended the word ubhayatah was
employed. Thus in III, 53, 5, we read, “O Maghavan! O brother Indra!
go beyond (parâ) and come hither (â) you are wanted in both places,
(ubhayatra).” The passages where Savitṛi is described as going round
the night on both sides is already referred to above,
With these passages before us, we cannot reasonably hold that
the Vedic bards were ignorant of the lower celestial
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hemisphere, as supposed by Wallis, and some other scholars. Nor is

the hypothesis a priori probable, for I have shown elsewhere that the
Vedic bards knew enough of astronomy to calculate the movements
of the sun and the moon tolerably correct for all practical purposes;
and the people, who could do this, could not be supposed to be so
ignorant as to believe that the sky was nailed down to the earth at the
celestial horizon, and that when the sun was not seen during the
night, he must be taken to have disappeared somewhere in the upper
regions of the heaven. The passage from the Aitareya Brâhmana (III,
44) which is quoted by Wallis, and which tells us that the sun, having
reached the end of the day, turns round as it were, and makes night
where there was day before and day on the other side, and vice
versa, is very vague and does not prove that the sun was believed to
return by night through a region, which is somewhere in the upper
heaven. The words used in the original are avastât and parastât; and
Dr. Haug correctly translates parastât by “what is on the other side.”
Muir and others, however, interpret parastât to mean “upper,” thus
giving rise to the hypothesis that the sun returns during night by a
passage through the upper region of the heaven. But in the face of
the express passages in which regions below and above all the three
earths are unmistakably mentioned, we cannot accept a hypothesis
based upon a doubtful translation of a single word. It is a hypothesis
that has its origin either in the preconceived notion regarding the
primitive man, or in a desire to import into the Vedas the speculations
of the Homeric cosmography. The knowledge of the Vedic bards
regarding the nether world may not have been as exact as that of the
modern astronomers, and we, therefore, meet with such questions in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 35, 7) as “Where is Sûrya now (after sunset) and
which celestial region his rays now illumine?” But there is enough
explicit evidence to prove that the Vedic people knew of the existence
of a region below the earth, and if some of their notions about
 246

this underworld were not very distinct, that does not, in the least,
affect the value of this evidence.
If we, therefore, dismiss from our mind the idea that the lower
world was not known to the Vedic people, an assumption, which is
quite gratuitous, the movements and character of the celestial waters
become at once plain and intelligible. The ancient Aryans, like the old
Hebrews, believed that the subtle matter, which filled the whole space
in the universe, was nothing but watery vapors; and secondly that the
movements of the sun, the moon and other heavenly bodies were
caused by these vapors which kept on constantly circulating from the
nether to the upper and from the upper to the lower celestial
hemisphere. That is the real key to the explanation of many a Vedic
myth; and unless we grasp it thoroughly, we cannot rightly
understand some of the utterances of the Vedic poets. These waters
were sometimes conceived as rivers or streams, moving in the
heaven, and eventually falling into the mouth of Varuna or the nether
ocean (VII, 49, 2; VIII, 69, 12). The nether world was, so to say, the
seat or the home of these waters, called yahvatîh or the eternal (IX,
113, 8) and they formed the kingdom of Varuna and Yama, as well as
the hidden (ninya) abode of Vṛitra. This movement of waters is very
clearly expressed in the Parsi scriptures. In the Vendidad, XXI, 4-5
(15-23), the waters are described as follows, — “As the sea Vouru-
Kasha is the gathering place of waters, rise up, go up the aerial way
and go down on the earth; go down on the earth and go up the aerial
way. Rise up and roll along! thou in whose rising and growing Ahura
Mazda made the aerial way. Up! rise up and roll along! thou swift-
horsed sun, above Hara Berezaiti, and produce light for the world,
and mayest thou rise up there, if thou art to abide in Garo-nmânem,
along the path made by Mazda, along the way made by the gods, the
watery way they opened.” Here the aerial waters are said to start
from their gathering place, the sea Vouru-Kasha, go up into heaven
and come back again to the sea to be purified before starting on a
second round. Prof. Darmesteter in a note on this passage
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observes that “waters and light are believed to flow from the same
spring and in the same bed”, and quotes Bundahish, XX, 4, which
says, “just as the light comes in through Albûrz (Hara Berezaiti, the
mountain by which the earth is surrounded) and goes out through
Albûrz, the water also comes out through Albûrz and goes away
through Albûrz.” Now waters are described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as
following the path of the gods (VII, 47, 3), much in the same way as
the waters in the Avesta are said to follow the path made by Mazda
or the way made by the gods. Like the Avestic waters, the waters in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda have also the sea for their goal, and going by the aerial
way eventually fall into the mouth of Varuna. But the Avesta supplies
us with the key which establishes the connection of waters and light
in unambiguous terms, for, as remarked by Prof. Darmesteter, it
states clearly that both of them have the same source, and, in the
passage quoted above, the swift-horsed sun is accordingly asked to
go along the watery way in the skies above. In the Aban Yasht (V, 3),
the river Ardvi Sûra Anâhita is described as running powerfully from
the height Hukairya down to the sea Vouru-Kasha, like the river
Sarasvati, which is described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as tearing the peaks of
mountains, and is invoked to descend from the great mountain in the
sky to the sacrifice (V, 43, 11). Both are aerial rivers, but by coming
down upon the earth they are said to fill up all the terrestrial streams.
The terrestrial waters, nay, all things of a liquid nature on the earth,
e.g., the plant-sap, the blood, &c., were thus supposed to be
produced from the aerial waters above by the agency of clouds and
rain. The Parsi scriptures further tell us that between the earth and
the region of infinite light (the parame vyoman of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda), there
are three intermediate regions, the star region, which has the seeds
of waters and plants, the moon region, and the sun region, the last
being the highest (Yt. XII, 29-32). When the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, therefore,
speaks of the highest rajas as being the seat of waters, it is not to be
understood, as supposed by Wallis, that there are no nether
 248

waters, for it is the nether waters that come up from the lower world
and moving in the uppermost region of the heaven produce terrestrial
waters by giving rise to rain and clouds. Thus Ardvi Sûra Anâhita is
said to run through the starry region (cf. Yt. VII, 47), and has to be
worshipped with sacrifice in order that her waters may not all run up
into the region of the sun, thereby producing a drought on the surface
of the earth (Yt. V, 85 and 90). In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, the Sarasvatî is
similarly described as filling the earthly region and the wide
atmospheric space (VI, 61, 11) and is besought to come swelling with
streams, and along with the waters. But the most striking
resemblance between Ardvi Sûra Anâhita and Sarasvatî is that while
the latter is described as Vṛitra-slayer or Vritra-ghnî in ‫ي‬ig. VI, 61, 7,
Ardvi Sûra Anâhita is described in the Aban Yasht (V, 33 and 34) as
granting to Thrâetaona, the heir of the valiant Athwya clan (Vedic
Trita Âptya) who offered up a sacrifice to her, a boon that he would
be able to overcome Azi Dahâk, the three-mouthed; three-headed
and six-eyed monster. This is virtually the same story which is found
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda X, 8, 8, where Trîta Âptya, knowing his paternal
weapons and urged by Indra, is said to have fought against and slew
the three-headed son of Tvashtṛi and released the cows. This clearly
establishes the connection between waters, as represented by Ardvi
Sûra Anâhita or Sarasvati, and the slaughter of Vṛitra. Many Vedic
scholars have tried to identify Sarasvati with the river of that name in
the Punjab; but as the latter is an insignificant stream, the
identification has not been generally accepted. The above
comparison now shows that the mighty Sarasvati, like Ardvi Sûra
Anâhita, is an aerial stream, which rises up from the nether store-
house of ‘waters, travels over the sky and again falls back into the
lower ocean. A portion of these waters is brought down upon the
earth in the form of rain by the sacrifices offered to the river, and
along with it come the seeds of all the plants growing upon the
surface of the earth. Thus in the Vendidad, V, 19, (56), the tree of all
the seeds is described as growing
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in the middle of the sea Vouru-Kasha, and the seeds are then said to
be brought up by the aerial rivers and sent down by them to the earth
by means of rain, an idea similar to that found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, I, 23,
20, where the sacrificer informs us that Soma has told him that all
medicines (medicinal herbs) are contained in the waters. We have
thus a complete account of the cosmic circulation of the aerial waters
and the production of the terrestrial waters and plants there from. The
nether world or the lower celestial hemisphere is the home of these
waters, and it is expressly said to be bounded on all sides by a
mountainous range like that of Hara Berezaiti. When the aerial waters
are allowed to come up through this mountain, they travel over the
upper hemisphere and again fall into the sea Vouru-Kasha, or the
lower ocean, producing, during their course, rains which fertilize the
earth and make the plants grow upon its surface. But instead of
descending down in the form of rain, these aerial waters were, it was
apprehended, apt to turn away into the region of the sun and deprive
us of rain. It was, therefore, necessary to worship them with sacrifices
and invoke their blessings.
It is impossible to grasp the real meaning of the Vṛitra legend,
without first realizing the true nature and importance of the
movements of the aerial waters as conceived by the ancestors of the
Indo-Iranian people. As observed by Dramesteter, celestial waters
and light were believed to flow from the same spring or source, and
they both ran a parallel course. It was these aerial waters that made
the heavenly bodies move in the sky, just as a boat or any other
object is carried down by the current of a stream or river. If the waters
therefore, ceased to flow, the consequences were serious; for the
sun, the moon, the stars, would then all cease to rise, and world
would be plunged in darkness. We can now fully understand the
magnitude of the mischief worked by Vṛitra by stopping the flow of
these waters. In his hidden home, at the bottom of rajas, that is, in the
lower hemisphere, he encompassed the waters in such a way as to
stop their flow upwards through the mountain, and Indra’s victory over
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Vṛitra meant that he released these waters from the clutches of Vṛitra
and made them flow up again. When the waters were thus released,
they naturally brought with them, the dawn, the sun and the cows, i.e.
either days or the rays of the morning; and the victory was thus
naturally described as four-fold in character. Now we can also
understand the part played by parvatas, or mountains, in the legend.
It was the mountain Albûrz, or Hara Berezaiti; and as Vṛitra, by
stretching his body across, closed all the apertures in his
mountainous range, through which the sun and the waters came up,
Indra had to uncover or open these passages by killing Vṛitra. Thus
the Bundahish (V, 5) mentions 180 apertures in the east and 180 in
the west through Albûrz; and the sun is said to come and go through
them every day, and all the movements of the moon, the
constellations and the planets are also said to be closely connected
with these apertures. The same idea is also expressed in the later
Sanskrit literature when the sun is said to rise above the mountain in
the east and set below the mountain in the west. The mountain on
which Indra is said to have found Shambara (II, 12, 11), and the rock
of Vala wherein the cows were said to have been imprisoned by the
demon (IV, 3, 11; I, 71, 2) and which was burst open by Angirases,
also represent the same mountainous range, which separated the
upper from the lower celestial hemisphere, or the bright from the dark
ocean. This explanation of the Vṛitra legend may sound strange to
many scholars, but it should be borne in mind that the co-relation
between the flow of water and the rising of the dawn and the sun,
here described, is not speculative. If the Vedic works do not express
it in unambiguous terms, the deficiency is fully made up by the Parsi
scriptures. Thus in Khorshed Yasht (VI, 2 and 3,) we are told that
“When the sun rises up, then the earth becomes clean, the running
waters become clean.... Should the sun not rise up, then the Daevas
would destroy all the things that are in the seven Karshvares.” The
passages in the Farvardin Yasht are still more explicit. This Yasht is
devoted to the praise of the Fravashis, which correspond
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to the Pitṛis of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. These ancient fathers are often

described, even in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, as taking part, along with the gods,
in the production of the cosmical phenomena. Thus the Pitṛis are said
to have adorned the sky with stars, and placed darkness in the night
and light in the day (X, 68, 11), or to have found the hidden light and
generated the dawn (VII, 76, 4; X, 107, 1). The Fravashis in the Parsi
scriptures are said to have achieved the same or similar exploits.
They are described (Yt. XIII, 53 and 54) as having “shown the
beautiful paths to the waters, which had stood, before for a long time
in the same place, without flowing”; and the waters are then said to
have commenced to flow “along the path made by Mazda, along the
way made by the gods, the watery way appointed to them.”
Immediately after (Yt. XIII, 57), the Fravashis are said to have
similarly showed “the paths to the stars, the moon, the sun and the
endless lights, that had stood before, for a long time, in the same
place, without moving forward, through the oppression of the Daevas
and the assaults of the Daevas.” Here we have the co-relation
between the flowing of waters and the moving forward of the sun
distinctly enunciated. It was the Fravashis, who caused to move
onwards the waters and the sun, both of which “had stood still for a
long time in the same place.” Prof. Darmesteter adds a note saying
that it was “in winter” that this cessation of motion occurred, (Cf.
Vend. V, 10-12; VIII, 4-10 cited and discussed (infra). The Fravashis
are further described (Yt. XIII, 78) as “destroying the malice of the
fiend Angra Mainyu (the Avestic representative of Vṛitra), so that the
waters did not stop flowing, nor did the plants stop growing.” In Yasna
LXV (Sp. LXIV), 6, the Fravashis, who had “borne the waters up
stream from the nearest ones,” are invoked to come to the
worshipper; and a little further on the waters are asked to “rest still
within their places while the Zaota (Sans. Hotâ) shall offer,” evidently
meaning that it is the sacrifice offered by the invoking priest that
eventually secures the release or the flow of waters. There are other
references to the flowing of waters (Yt. X, 61)
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in the Parsi scriptures, but those cited above are sufficient to prove
our point. The main difficulty in the rational explanation of the Vṛitra
legend was to connect the flow of waters with the rising of the dawn,
and the passages from the Farvardin Yasht quoted above furnish us
with a clue by which this connection can be satisfactorily established.
There are two passages in the Vendidad, which give us the
period during which these aerial waters ceased to flow, and it is
necessary to quote them here, inasmuch as they throw further light
on the circulation of aerial waters. It has been stated above that
according to Prof. Darmesteter these waters ceased to flow during
winter, but the point is made perfectly clear in Fargards V and VIII of
the Vendidad, where Ahura Mazda declares how the corpse of a
person dying during winter is to be dealt with, until it is finally
disposed of according to the usual rites at the end of the season.
Thus in Fargard V, 10 (34), Ahura Mazda is asked, “If the summer is
passed and the winter has come, what shall the worshipper of Mazda
do?” To which Ahura Mazda answers, “In every house, in every
borough they shall raise three Katas for the dead, large enough not to
strike the skull, or the feet or the hands of the man; ...and they shall
let the lifeless body lie there for two nights, three nights or a month
long, until the birds begin to fly, the plants to grow, the floods to flow,
and the wind to dry up the waters from off the earth. And as soon as
the birds begin to fly, and the plants to grow, and the floods to flow,
and the wind to dry up the waters from off the earth, then the
worshipper of Mazda shall lay down the dead (on the Dakhma), his
eyes towards the sun.” I have referred to this passage previously, but
as the theory of the circulation of aerial waters was not then
explained, the discussion of the passage had to be postponed. We
now clearly see what is meant by the phrases like “floods to flow” and
“plants to grow.” They are the same phrases which are used in the
Farvardîn Yasht and are there connected with the shoving forward of
the sun and the moon, that had stood still, or without moving, in the
same place for a long time. In other
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words, the waters, as well as the sun, ceased to move during winter;
and the worshipper of Mazda is ordered not to dispose of the corpse
until the floods began to flow and the sun to move, be it for two
nights, three nights, or a month long. The: Mazda-worshippers
believed that the corpse was cleansed by its exposure to the sun, and
dead bodies could not, therefore, be disposed of during night. The
passage from the Vendidad, above referred to, therefore, clearly
indicates that the season of winter was once marked by long
darkness extending over two nights, three nights, or a month; and
that during the period, the floods ceased to flow and the plants to
grow. It was during such a winter that the difficulty of disposing the
corpse arose; and Ahura Mazda is asked what the faithful should do
in such cases. The question has no meaning otherwise, for, if in the
ancient home of the Mazdayasnians the sun shone every day during
winter, as he does with us in the tropical regions, there would have
been no difficulty in the disposal of the corpse by exposing it to the
sun the next morning; and it would be absurd to ask the faithful to
keep the uncleanly dead body in his house for two nights, three
nights, or a month long, until the winter passed away. The passage
from Fargard V quoted, above makes. no mention of darkness,
though it can be easily inferred from the statement that the body is, at
last, to be taken out and laid down on the Dakhma with its eyes
towards the sun, evidently meaning that this ceremony was
impossible to be performed during the time the dead body was, kept
up in the house. But Fargard VIII, 4 (11), where the same subject is
again taken up, mentions darkness distinctly. Thus Ahura Mazda is
asked “If in the house of the worshipper of Mazda a dog or a man
happens to die, and it is raining, or snowing, or blowing, or the
darkness is coming on, when the flocks and the men lose their way,
what shall the worshipper of Mazda do?” To this Ahura Mazda gives
the same reply as in Fargard V. The faithful is directed, VIII, 9 (21), to
dig a grave in the house, and there “let the lifeless, body lie for two
nights, three nights, or a months, long, until the birds
 254

begin to fly, the plants to grow, the floods to flow, and the wind to dry
up the waters from off the earth.” Here in the question asked to Ahura
Mazda darkness is distinctly mentioned along with snowing and
blowing; and in the Farvardin Yasht we have seen that the flowing of
waters and the moving of the sun are described as taking place at the
same time. The passage from Tir Yasht, where the appointed time for
the appearance of Tishtrya after conquering Apaosha in the watery
regions is described as one night, two nights, fifty, or one hundred
nights has already been referred to in the last chapter. From all these
passages taken together lit inevitably follows that it was during winter
that the water ceased to flow, and the sun to move, and that the
period of stagnation lasted from one night to a hundred nights. It was
a period of long darkness, when the sun was not seen above the
horizon; and if a man died during the period, his corpse had to be
kept in the house until the waters again commenced to flow, and the
sun appeared on the horizon along with them. I have pointed out
previously how the Hindu belief that it is inauspicious to die in the
Dakshinâyana must be traced to this primeval practice of keeping the
dead body undisposed of during the long Arctic night. The word Kâta
which is used for “grave” in the Parsi scriptures occurs once in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, I, 106, 6, where the sage Kutsa, lying in Kâta is described
as invoking the Vṛitra-slaying Indra for his protection; and I think that
we have here, at least, an indirect reference to the practice of
keeping dead bodies in a Kâta, until Vṛitra was killed, and the waters
and the sun made free to run their usual course. We are, however,
concerned here only with the circulation of the celestial waters; and
from the Avestic passages quoted above, it is clear that the aerial
waters ceased to flow during winter for several days or rather nights,
and that, since light sprang from the same source as waters, the sun
also ceased to move during the period and stood still in the watery
regions, until the Fravashis, who helped the gods in their struggle for
waters or in their conflict with powers of darkness, made the waters
and the sun move onwards
 255

to take their usual course in the upper celestial hemisphere. We can

now understand why Indra is described as moving by his might the
stream upwards (udañcha) in II, 15, 6, and how the rivers are said to
be set free to move on (sartave) by killing Vṛitra (I, 32, 12), or how in
I, 80, 5, Indra is said to have made the lights of heaven shine forth
without obstruction and set the waters (apah) free to flow (sarmâya).
There are many other passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where the flowing of
waters and the appearance of the sun or the dawn are spoken of as
taking place simultaneously, as may be seen from the quotations
from Macdonell’s Vedic Mythology given above, All these passages
become intelligible only when interpreted on the theory of the cosmic
circulation of aerial waters through the upper and the lower celestial
hemispheres. But as the theory was little understood or studied in this
connection, the Vedic scholars, ancient and modern, have hitherto
failed to interpret the Vṛitra legend in a rational and intelligible way,
especially the four simultaneous effects of the conquest of Indra over
Vṛitra mentioned therein.
The cosmic circulation of aerial waters described above, is not
peculiar to the Indo-Iranian mythology. Dr. Warren, in his Paradise
Found, states that a similar circulation of aerial waters is mentioned in
the works of Homer. Homer describes the sun as returning to the
flowing of the ocean, or sinking into it, and again rising from it and
mounting the sky. All rivers and every sea and all fountains and even
deep wells are again said to arise from the deep flowing ocean which
was believed to encircle the earth.* Helios or the sun is further
described as sailing from west to east in a golden boat or cup,
evidently meaning that the underworld was supposed to be full of
waters. But Homeric scholars seem to have raised unnecessary,
difficulties in the proper interpretation of these passages by assuming
that Homer conceived the earth

* See Dr. Warren’s Paradise Found, 10th Edition (1893) Part V, Chap. V, pp.
250-260.
 256

to be flat and that as the Hades was a region of complete darkness,

the sun could not be said to go there even after his setting. Dr.
Warren has, however, shown that the assumption is entirely
groundless, and that Homer’s earth was really a sphere and that the
underworld was full of aerial waters. We have seen above, how some
Vedic scholars have raised similar difficulties in the interpretation of
the Vṛitra myth by supposing that the lower celestial hemisphere was
unknown to the Vedic bards. This is probably a reflection of the
Homeric controversy, but as pointed out by Dr. Warren,* these
baseless assumptions are clue mainly to a prejudice with which many
scholars approach the question of the interpretation of ancient myths.
It is assumed that the early man could not possibly have known
anything about the world, beyond what the rudest savages know at
present; and plain and explicit statements are sometimes put aside,
distorted, or ignored by scholars, who, had they not been blinded by
prejudice, would certainly have interpreted them in a different way. It
is impossible to do justice to the subject in this place, and I would
refer to reader for further details to Dr. Warren’s instructive work on
the subject. Dr. Warren also states that Euripides, like Homer, held
the view that there was one fountain of all the world’s water, and that
the same conception is expressed by Hesiod in his Theogony, where
all rivers as sons, and all fountains and brooks as daughters, are
traced back to Okeanos. Then we have the constant descending
movement of all waters until they reach the world-surrounding Ocean-
river at the equator, beyond which is the underworld, similar to the
movements of aerial waters described in the Avesta. Aristotle in his
Meteors, is said also to have mentioned “a river in the air constantly
flowing betwixt the heaven and the earth and made by the ascending
and the descending vapors.Ӡ It is again pointed by Grill that the
ancient Germans had a similar world-river, and the descending
Ukko’s stream and the ascending Anima’s stream in the

* Paradise Found, p. 333ƒ.

† Paradise Found, p. 51, and 256, notes.
 257

Finnish mythology are similarly believed to be the traces of a like

cosmic water-circulation. We read of a golden boat also in the Lettish
mythology; and Prof. Max Müller, referring to it, says, “What the
golden boat is that sinks into the sea and is mourned for by the
daughter of the sky, however, doubtful it may be elsewhere, is not to
be mistaken in the mythology of the Lets. It is the setting sun, which
in the Veda has to be saved by the Ashvins; it is the golden beat in
which Hêlios and Hêracles sail from west to east. Sometimes it is the
Sun-daughter herself that is drowned like Chyavâna in the Veda, and
as Chyavâna and similar heroes had to be saved in the Veda by the
Ashvins, the Lets also call upon the Godsons to row in a boat and
save the Sun-daughter.”* In connection with this, it may be here
observed that the Ashvins are described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as saving
their protégés in boats (I, 116, 3; I, 182, 6), and that though Ashvins’
boats are not described as golden, their chariot is said to be
hiranayayî or golden in VIII, 5, 29; while the boats of Pûshan, in which
he crosses the aerial ocean (samudra) are actually said to be golden
in VI, 58, 3. In I, 46, 7, the Ashvins are again spoken of as having
both a chariot and a boat, as a sort of double equipment; and their
chariot is said to be samâna yojana, or traversing, without distinction,
both the heaven and the watery regions in I, 30, 18. The word
samâna is meaningless unless there is some difficulty in traversing
over one part of the celestial sphere as distinguished from the other.
The Vedic gods used these boats especially, in crossing the lower
world, the home and seat of aerial waters; and when they appeared
above the horizon, they are described as traversing the upper sphere
by means of their chariots. But sometimes the waters are said to
carry them even across the sky above, just as the chariot is described
as going over the lower world. For instance in the legend of
Dîrghatamas discussed previously, he is said to be borne on waters
for ten

* See Max Müller’s Contributions to the Science of Mythology, Vol. II, p.

433.
 258

months and then growing old was about to die or reach the ocean, to
which the waters were speeding. In other words, this means that the
sun, who was borne on waters for ten months, was about to go into
the lower watery regions as explained in the chapter VI. But to
proceed with the subject in hand, the idea of the cosmic circulation of
aerial waters, is not confined to the Indian, the Iranian or the Greek
mythology. In the Egyptian mythology, Nut, the goddess of the sky, is
sometimes “represented by a figure in which the band of stars is
accompanied by a band of water”; and Sir Norman Lockyer tells us
that “not only the Sun-gods, but the stars, were also supposed to
travel in boats across the firmament from one horizon to the other.”*
The Jewish idea of the firmament in the midst of waters, the waters
above being after wards separated from the waters below the
firmament, is already referred to above. There is, therefore, nothing
strange or surprising if we find in the Vedas and in the Avesta more
or less clear references to the circulation of aerial waters through the
upper and the lower celestial hemispheres of the universe. It is an
idea which is found in the ancient mythology of every other nation,
and nothing but false prejudice can deter us from interpreting the
simultaneous movements or the liberation of waters and light,
described in the Vedic hymns, on the theory of the cosmic circulation
of aerial waters.
But even after accepting the theory of the cosmic circulation of
celestial waters and the simultaneous release of waters and dawn, it
may be asked how the Arctic theory comes in, or is in any way
required, to explain the Vṛitra legend. We may admit that the waters
imprisoned by Vṛitra by shutting up the passages through the rocky
walls that surround them, may be taken to mean the celestial waters
in the world below the three earths; but still, the struggle between
Indra and Vṛitra may, for aught we know, represent the daily fight
between light and darkness, and it may be

* See Lockyer’s Dawn of Astronomy, p. 35.

 259

urged, that there is no necessity whatever, for bringing in the Arctic

theory to explain the legend. A little reflection will, however, show that
all the incidents in the legend cannot be explained on the theory of a
daily struggle between light and darkness. In X, 62, 2, the Angirases,
who are the assistants of Indra in his conquest of cows, are said to
have defeated Vala at the end of the year (parivatsare). This shows
that the struggle was annual and did not take place every day. Then
we have the passage (VIII, 32, 26), where Arbuda, the watery demon,
is said to have been killed by Indra with ice (hima), and not with a
thunderbolt as usual. In addition to the fact that the struggle was an
yearly one, we must, therefore, hold that the conflict took place during
winter, the season of ice and snow; and this is corroborated by the
statement in the Avesta, that it was during winter that the waters, and
with them the sun, ceased to move onwards. Vṛitra’s forts are again
described as autumnal or shâradîh showing that the fight must have
commenced at the end of sharad (autumn) and continued during
winter. We have further seen that there are a hundred night-
sacrifices, and the duration of Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha is
described as varying from one to a hundred nights in the Tir Yasht.
All these incidents can be explained only by the Arctic theory, or by
the theory of the long autumnal night, and not on the hypothesis of a
daily struggle between light and darkness.
We have come to the conclusion that Indra’s fight with Vṛitra
must have commenced in Sharad, and lasted till the end of Shishira
in the watery regions of the nether world. Fortunately for us this
conclusion is remarkably borne out by an important passage
preserved in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, which gives us, what may be called, the
very date of the commencement of Indra’s conflict with Vṛitra, though
the true bearing of the passage has yet remained unexplained owing
to the absence of the real key to its meaning. In II, 12, 11, we read,
“Indra found Shambara dwelling on the mountains (in)
chatvârimshyâm
 260

sharadi.”* Now chatvârimshyâm is an ordinal numeral in the feminine

gender and in the locative case, and similarly sharadi is the locative
of sharad (autumn), which also is a word of feminine gender in
Sanskrit. The phrase chatvârimshyâm sharadi is, therefore, capable
of two interpretations or constructions, though the words are simple in
themselves. Chatvârimshyâm literally means “in the fortieth,” and
sharadi “in autumn.” If we now take chatvârimshyâm (in the fortieth)
as an adjective qualifying sharadi (in autumn), the meaning of the
phrase would be “in the fortieth autumn”); while if the two words are
taken separately the meaning would be “on the fortieth, in autumn.”
Sâyana and Western scholars have adopted the first construction,
and understand the passage to mean, “Indra found Shambara
dwelling on the mountains in the fortieth autumn, that is, in the fortieth
year”; for the words indicating seasons, like Vasant (spring), Sharad
(autumn), or Hemanta (winter), are understood to denote a year,
especially when used with a numeral adjective meaning more than
one. This construction is grammatically correct, for chatvârimshyâm
and sharadi being both in the feminine gender and in the locative
case, the two words can be taken together, and understood to mean
“in the fortieth autumn or year.” But what are we to understand by the
statement, that Shambara was found in the fortieth year by Indra?
Are we to suppose that India was engaged in searching out the
demon for 40 years, and it was only at the end of this long period that
the enemy was, at last, found dwelling on the mountains? If so,
Indra’s conflict with Shambara cannot be daily or yearly, but must be
supposed to have taken place only once in 40 years, an inference,
which is directly opposed to the statement (X, 62, 2) that “Vala was
killed at the end of the year (parivatsare).” Some scholars try to get
out of the difficulty by suggesting that the passage

 े ु किषय ं चािरँया
* Rig. II, 12, 11, — यः शरं पवतष ं ं शरिवत । ओजायमान ं यो
अिहं जघान दान ं ु शयानस
ं . ज. इ. ॥
 261

may be taken as referring to a famine or drought that occurred after

40 years, or that it may represent a forty years’ war between the
Aryans protected by Indra, and Shambara, the chief of the aboriginal
races dwelling on the mountains! But both these explanations are too
far-fetched and imaginary to deserve any serious attention or
refutation. The story of Shambara is mentioned in a number of places
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and everywhere it represents Indra’s conflict with
Vṛitra.* It is, therefore, preposterous to hold that a forty years’ war
with the aborigines is referred to in this single passage, especially
when the passage is capable of being interpreted differently without
straining the words used. It is the most ordinary Sanskrit idiom to use
the locative case in mentioning the month, the day, the season or the
year, when a particular incident is said to have taken place. Thus,
even now, we say, “Kârttike, shukla-pakshe, trayodashyâm,” meaning
“in the month of Kârttika, in the bright half, on the thirteenth (tithi or
day).” The feminine ordinal numerals, like chaturthî, ekâdashi,
trayodashi, are always used, without any noun, to denote the tithi or
the day of the month, or the fortnight, as the case may be. Thus in the
Taittirîya Brâhmana (I, 1, 9, 10), we have the expression “yadi
samvatsare na âdadhyât dvâdashyâm purastât âdadhyât,” meaning
that, “if the sacrificial fire is not consecrated at the end of the year
(samvatsare), it should be consecrated on the twelfth (dvâdashyâm)
afterwards.” Here dvâdashyâm is a feminine ordinal in the locative
case used by itself, and means “on the twelfth tithi or day” after the
end of the year mentioned in the preceding sentence.
Chatvârimshyâm, in the Vedic passage under discussion, may be
similarly taken to denote the fortieth tithi or day, and sharadi the
season at the time, the two words being taken as independent
locatives. The passage would then mean “Indra found Shambara
dwelling on the mountains on the fortieth (scil. tithi) in autumn.”

* See the Nivids, quoted supra (p. 246). Shambra-hatya or the fight with
Shambara, and go-iṣhṭi or the struggle for cows are declared to be, the one
and the same in these nivids.
 262

Now Sharad is the fourth season of the year, and the fortieth
day of Sharad would mean seven months and ten days, or 220 days,
after the first day of Vasanta or the spring, which commenced the
year in old times. In short, the passage means that Indra’s fight with
Shambera, or the annual conflict between light and darkness,
commenced on the tenth day of the eighth month of the year, or on
the 10th of October, if we take the year to have then commenced with
March, the first month in the old Roman calendar. In I, 165, 6, Vishnu,
like a rounded wheel, is said to have set in swift motion his ninety
racing steeds together with the four, and the reference is evidently to
a year of four seasons of ninety days each. If we accept this division,
each season would be of three months’ duration, and Sharad being
the third (cf, X, 90, 6), the fortieth day of Sharad would still mean the
10th day of the eighth month of the year. The passage thus gives the
very date of Indra’s annual fight with Vṛitra; and if it had been
correctly understood, much useless speculation about the nature of
Vṛitra’s legend would have been avoided. We have seen previously
that the seven Âdityas, or monthly Sun-gods, the sons of Aditi, were
presented by her to the gods in a former yuga, and that she cast
away the eighth, Mârtânda, because he was born in an undeveloped
state. In other words, the Sun-god of the eighth month is here said to
have died soon after he was born, evidently meaning, that the Sun
went below the horizon in the beginning of the eighth month; and by
fixing the date of the commencement of Indra’s fight with Vṛitra as the
fortieth day in Sharad, or the 10th day of the eighth month, we arrive
at the same conclusion. The legend of Aditi and the date of the
commencement of Indra’s fight with Shambara, as given in II, 12, 11,
thus corroborate each other in a remarkable way; and as the current
interpretation of the passage does not yield any intelligible sense,
there is no course left for us but to accept the only other possible
interpretation.
According to this interpretation Sharad becomes the last
season of sunshine, and it may be here remarked that the
etymological
 263

meaning of the word further supports the same view. For Sharad is
derived from shri, to wither or waste away (Unâdi 127), and the word
thus primarily signifies the “season of decay or withering”; and the
decay here referred to is evidently the-decay of the power of the sun,
and not the withering of grass, as suggested by Sâyana in his
commentary on III, 32, 9. Thus we find in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, II, 1,
2, 5, that “There are three lusters or powers of the sun; one in
Vasanta, that is, in the morning; one in Grîshma or the mid. day; and
one in Sharad or the evening.”* We cannot suppose that the words,
morning, mid-day and evening, are here used in their primary sense.
The three stages of the day represented by them are predicated of
the yearly sun, and Sharad is said to be the evening, i.e., the time of
decline in his yearly course. It follows, therefore, that after Sharad
there was no period of sunshine in ancient times; and a Vedic
passage,† quoted by Shabara in his commentary on Jaimini Sutras
VI, 7, 40, says, “The sun is all the seasons; when it is morning (uditi),
it is Vasanta: when the milking time (sangava) it is Grîshma; when
mid-day (madhyan-dina), it is Varshâ; when evening (aparâhna), it is
Sharad; when it sets (astam eti), it is the dual season of Hemanta and
Shishira.” If this passage has any meaning, it shows that the powers
of the sun declined in Sharad, and the end of Sharad (autumn)
therefore, represented his annual succumbing to the powers of the
darkness; or, in short, to dual season of Hemanta and Shishira
represented the long night when the sun went below the horizon. It
may also be mentioned that the word himyâ (lit. wintry) is used in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda for night (I, 34, 1), implying

* Taitt. Sam. II, 1, 2, 5. Also compare Taitt. Sam. II, 1, 4, 2.

† Shabara or Jaimini VI, 7, 40. I have not been able to trace the passage;
but it clearly states that the last two seasons formed the night of the yearly
sun.
 264

that the wintry season was the season of special darkness.

But it may be urged that we have no authority for holding that,
in ancient days, time was reckoned simply by seasons and days; and
chatvârimshyâm sharadi cannot, therefore, be interpreted to mean
“On the 40th (day) in Sharad.” The objection is not, however, well-
founded; for in ancient inscriptions we find many instances where
dates of events are recorded only by reference to seasons. Thus in
the book on the Inscriptions from the Cave-Temples of Western India,
by Dr. Burgess and Pandit Bhagwânlâl Indrâji, published by the
Government of Bombay in 1881, the date of inscription No. 14 is
given as follows: — “Of king (rano) Vâsithîputa, the illustrious lord
(sâmi-siri) [Pulumâyi] in the year seventh (7), of Grîshma the fifth (5)
fortnight, and first (1) day.” Upon this Dr. Burgess remarks that “the
mention of the 5th fortnight of Grîshma shows that the year was not
divided into six seasons (ritu) but into three, namely, Grîshma,
Varshâ and Hemanta.” But what is important for our purpose in this
inscription is the method of giving the date by seasons, fortnights and
days, without any reference to the month. This inscription is followed
in the same book by others, one of which (No. 20) is thus dated: —
“In the twenty-fourth year (24) of the king Vâsithîputa, the illustrious
Pulumâyi, in the third (3) fortnight of the winter (Hemanta) months, on
the second (2) day”; and another is said to be inscribed “On the tenth
day, in the sixth fortnight of Grîshma, in the eighth year of king
Mâdhariputta, the lord Sîrisena.” Dr. Bhândârkar, in his Early History
of the Deecan, has ascertained that Mâdhariputta reigned in the
Mahârâshtṛa from about A.D. 190 to 197, and Pulumâyi was on the
throne of the Mahârâshtṛa
 265

about 60 years earlier, that is, from A.D. 130 to 154. All the
inscriptions noted above, therefore, belong to the 2nd century of the
Christian era, that is, a long time before the date of Ârya Bhatta or
Varâhamihira, whose works seem so have established, if not
introduced, the present system of measuring time by seasons,
months, fortnights and days. It is, therefore, clear that eighteen
hundred years ago, dates or events were recorded and ascertained
by mentioning only the season, the fortnight and the day of the
fortnight, without any reference to the month of the year; and we
might very well suppose that several centuries before this period
these dates were given by a still more simple method, namely, by
mentioning only the season and the day of that season. And, as a
matter of fact, we do find this method of measuring time, viz., by
seasons and days, adopted in the Avesta to mark the particular days
of the year. Thus in the Âfrigân Gâhanbâr (I, 7-12), as written in some
manuscripts mentioned by Westergaard in his notes ort the Âfrigân,
there is a statement of the different rewards which a Mazdayasnian
receives in the next life for what he gives as present in this to the
Ratu (religious head); and we have therein such expressions as “On
the 45th (day) of Maidhyô-Zaremya, i.e., on (the day) Dae of (the
month) Ardibehest;” or “On the 60th (day) of Maidhyôshma, i.e., on
(the day) Dae of (the month) Tîr;” and so on. Here each date is given
in two different ways: first by mentioning the Gâhanbâr or the season
(the year being divided into six Gâhanbârs), and the day of that
season; and secondly, by mentioning the month and the day of that
month. Strictly speaking there is no necessity to adopt this double
method of marking the days
 266

of the year, for either of them is enough to accurately define the day
required. It is, therefore, highly probable, as remarked by Mr. Ervad
Jamshedji Dadabhai Nadershah, that the method of counting by
seasons and days is the older of the two, and the phrases containing
the names of the months and days are later interpolations, made at a
time when the older method was superseded by the latter.* But even
supposing that the double phrases were used originally, we can, so
far as our present purpose is concerned, safely infer from these
passages that the method of marking the days of the year by
mentioning the season and the day thereof was in vogue at the time
when the Âfrigân was written: and if the method is so old, it fully
warrants us in interpreting chatvârimshyâm sharadi to mean “On the
40th (day) in Sharad (autumn).” There can be little doubt that the
Vedic bards have recorded in this passage the exact date of the
commencement of Indra’s fight with Shambara, but in the absence of
the true key to its meaning the passage has been so long
unfortunately misunderstood and misinterpreted both by Eastern and
Western scholars. The grammatical possibility of connecting
chatvârimshyâm, as an adjective, with sharadi helped on this
misconception; and though Vedic scholars were unable to explain
why Shambara, according to their interpretation, should be described
as having been found in the 4oth year, yet they seemed to have
accepted the interpretation, because no other meaning appeared
possible to them. The alternative construction proposed by me above
is very simple. Instead-of taking chatvârimshyâm as an adjective
qualifying sharadi I take the two words as independent locatives, but
the change in the meaning caused thereby is very striking and
important and so long as the Arctic: theory was unknown, the
attention of scholars was not likely to be drawn to this alternative
construction.† But now we can very well understand why Indra

* See his essay on “The Zoroastrian months and years with their divisions
in the Avestic age” in the Cama Memorial Volume, pp. 251-254.
† A similar phrase is found also in the Atharva Veda (XII, 3, 34 and 41).
 267

is said to have found Shambara on the 40th (day) of Sharad and why
the forts, which gave shelter to the demon, are described as
shâradîh, as well as why Arbuda or the watery demon is said to be
killed by ice (hima). I have stated before that the forts (purah) of
Shambara must be understood to mean “days,” and the adjective
shâradîh only serves to strengthen the same view. The
disappearance of the sun below the horizon in the beginning of the
8th month in autumn, followed by a long twilight, a continuous dark
night of about 100 days, and a long dawn of 30 days in the Arctic
regions, is the basis of the legend, and every incident therein can be
naturally and intelligibly explained only on this theory.
There is one more incident in the Vṛitra legend which requires
to be considered before we close its examination. We have seen that
water and light are described as having been simultaneously
liberated by Indra after slaughtering Vṛitra. These waters are
sometimes spoken of as streams or rivers (II, 15, 3; II, 2), which flow
upwards or udañcha (II, 15, 6) and are said to be seven in number (I,
32, 12; II, 12, 12). The theory of the cosmic circulation of aerial
waters explains why

________________________________________________________________

The hymn describes the preparation of Brahraudana, or the porridge given

as a fee to the Brâhmans, and in the 34th verse it is stated that “The
treasurer shall fetch it in sixty autumns (ṣhaṣhtyâm sharatsu nidhipâ
abhîhhât).” But, as remarked by Prof. Bloomfield (vide his translation of
A.V. with notes in S. B. E. Series, Vol. XLII, p. 651), the meaning of the
phrase “sixty autumns” is obscure; and the only other alternative possible
is to take ṣhaṣhtyâm as the locative of ṣhaṣhṭî (feminine form, in long î of
ṣhaṣhṭa) meaning “the 60th”; and interpret the original phrase to mean “On
the 60th (tithi) in autumns.” “The word ṣhaṣhṭa cannot be used in classical
Sanskrit as an ordinal numeral according to Pânini (V. 2, 58); but the rule
does not seem to hold strictly in Vedic Sanskrit (See Whitney’s Grammar,
§487). Even in the post-Vedic literature we meet with such ordinal forms as
ṣhaṣhṭa aṣhita, &c. Thus the colophon of the 60th chapter of the Sabhâ and
the Udyogaparvan of the Mahâbhârata (Roy’s Cal. Ed.) reads thus: — Iti ...
ṣhaṣhṭaḥ adhyâyaḥ showing that ṣhaṣhṭa was used at the time as an
ordinal numeral (See Pet Lex. s.v. ṣhaṣhṭa). The Brahmaudana is according
to this interpretation to be cooked on the both day in autumn i.e. at the end
of Shared every year.
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these waters are described as flowing upwards simultaneously with

the dawn, for as the sun was believed to be carried in the sky by
aerial currents, the light of the sun appeared above the horizon when
the aerial rivers began to flow up from the nether world where they
had been blocked before by Vṛitra. The waters or the rivers were,
therefore, aptly described as flowing upwards and bringing the light of
the sun with them. But we have still to answer the question why the
rivers or waters are described as seven in number, and it is alleged
that the Storm theory supplies us with a satisfactory reply to this
question. Thus it has been suggested by Western scholars that the
seven rivers, here referred to, are the seven rivers of the Panjaub
which are flooded during the rainy season by waters released by
Indra from the clutches of the demon who confines them in the storm-
cloud. The rivers of Punjaub may therefore, it is urged be well
described as being set free to flow (sartave) by Indra himself, and in
support of this explanation we are referred to the ‫ي‬ig-Veda X, 75, and
to the phrase hapta hindu occurring in Fargard I of the Vendidad,
where it is said to denote the Punjaub or India. But the hypothesis,
howsoever tempting it may seem at the first sight, is quite inadequate
to explain the seven-fold division of waters in a satisfactory way. It
has been pointed out above that the simultaneous release of waters
and light can be accounted for only on the theory of the cosmic
circulation of aerial waters; and if this is correct, we cannot identify
the seven rivers, set free to flow upwards (udañcha) by Indra, with
any terrestrial rivers whether in the Panjaub or elsewhere. The
Panjaub is, again, as its name indicates, a land of five and not of
seven rivers; and it is so described in the Vâjasaneyî Samhitâ.* The
term pañchanada is, therefore, more appropriate in the case of the
Panjaub, than sapta sindhavah or the Hapta-hindu of the Avesta. But
we might get over the difficulty by supposing that Kubhâ and
Sarasvatî, or

* See Vâj Sam, XXXIV, 11,

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any other two tributaries of the Indus were included in the, group by
the Vedic bards, when they spoke of seven rivers. In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X,
75), about fifteen different rivers are mentioned, including the Gangâ,
the Yamunâ, the Kubhâ, the Krumu, the Gomatî, the Rasâ, and the
five rivers of the Panjaub; but nowhere do we find what specific rivers
were included in the group of seven rivers. This has given rise to a
difference of opinion amongst scholars. Thus Sâyana includes the
Ganges and the Jamuna in the group, which, according to Prof. Max
Müller, is made up by adding the Indus and the Sarasvatî to the five
rivers of the Panjaub. On the other hand, Lassen and Ludwig hold
that the Kubhâ must be included in the group at the cost of the
Sarasvatî. This shows that we are not on a safe ground in supposing
that the expression “seven rivers” once meant what is, by nature, “the
land of five rivers.” The expression sapta sindhavah occurs in about a
dozen places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and in five of these it distinctly denotes
the seven rivers set free by Indra along with the release of cows or
the recovery of dawn (I, 32, 12; II, 12, 3 and 12; IV, 28, 1, &c.); and
for reasons given above, we cannot suppose that they represent any
terrestrial rivers in these passages. In the remaining cases, there is
not a single instance where the expression may be said to decisively
denote only the terrestrial rivers, nay, it is more likely that celestial
rivers are referred to everywhere by the expression of sapta
sindhavah. I do not mean to say that sapta sindhavah, sapta
pravatah, or sapta sravatah can in no case denote any terrestrial,
rivers. For there are three groups of seven rivers mentioned in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, — the celestial, the terrestrial and the infernal. Thus in X,
64, 8, “thrice three wandering rivers” are mentioned; while the waters
are said “to flow forward triply, seven and seven” in X, 75, 1. It is,
therefore, clear that like the Ganges in the Purânas, the Vedic bards
conceived a group of seven rivers in the heaven, another on the
earth, and a third in the nether world, somewhat after the manner of
the eleven gods in the heaven, eleven on the earth, and eleven in the
waters (I, 139, 11; I, 34, 11; X, 65, 9). If so, we cannot say that
 270

a seven-fold division of the terrestrial rivers was not known to the

Vedic bards. But, for reasons given above, we cannot hold that this
seven-fold division was suggested by the rivers of the Panjaub; and
then extended to the upper and the lower celestial hemisphere. The
Panjaub, as remarked above, is a land of five rivers and not seven;
and though we might raise the number to seven by adding to the
group any two insignificant tributaries according to our fancy, yet the
artificial character of the device is too apparent to justify us in holding,
that the expression sapta sindhavah was originally suggested by the
rivers of the Panjaub. We must again bear in mind that the seven-fold
division of waters does not stand by itself in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; but is only
a particular case of a general principle of division adopted therein.
Thus we have seven earthly abodes (I, 22, 16), seven mountains
(VIII, 96, 2), seven rays or horses of the sun (I, 164, 3), seven hotris
(VIII, 60, 16), seven regions (dishah) and seven Âdityas (IX, 114, 3),
seven dhîtis or devotions (IX, 8, 4), seven sisters or maryâdâh (X, 5,
5-6), and possibly seven and seven gods (X, 55, 3), in the, ‫ي‬ig-Veda;
while in the later Sanskrit literature we have the seven heavens,
seven earths, seven mountains, seven oceans and seven nether
worlds. This seven-fold division is also found in other Aryan
mythologies, as, for instance, in the Avesta, where the earth is said to
be divided into seven Karshavares (Yt. X, 16 and 64), and in the
Greek mythology, which speaks of the seven layers of heaven over
one another. It follows, therefore, that the seven-fold division must be
traced back almost to the Indo-European period; and if so, we cannot
maintain that the seven-fold division of waters, which is only a
particular case of the general principle, was suggested by the rivers
of the Panjaub, for, in that case, we shall have to make the Panjaub
the home of the Aryans before they separated. But if the rivers set
free to flow up by Indra are not terrestrial and if the expression sapta
sindhavah was not originally suggested by the rivers of the Panjaub,
it may be asked how we account for the number of rivers and the
origin of the phrase Hapta-hindu occurring in the Avesta.
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The true key to the solution of the question will be found in the
simultaneous release of waters and light effected by Indra after
conquering Vṛitra. In II, 12, 12, Indra, who caused the seven rivers to
flow, is described as sapta-rashmih, or seven-rayed, suggesting that
seven rays and seven rivers must have, in some way, been
connected. We have also seen that the waters and the sun are said
to move at the same time in the Parsi scriptures. If so, what can be
more natural than to suppose that the seven suns required seven
horses or seven aerial rivers to carry them over the sky, much in the
same way as Dîrghatamas is said to have been borne upon waters in
I, 158, 6? Again according to the legend of Aditi, there were seven
suns or month-gods located in seven different regions and producing
seven months of sun-shine of different temperatures. But how could
the seven suns move in seven different parts of heaven except by the
agency of seven different aerial rivers coming up from the nether
world, each with its own sun? In short, when the close connection
between waters and light is once established, it is not difficult to
perceive why the waters and the light are each said to be seven-fold.
The seven celestial rivers are expressly mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
(IX, 54, 2), and the flowing forth of the rivers and the appearance of
the dawn on the horizon are described as simultaneous in many
passages, some of which have been already referred to above.
Neither the Storm theory nor the geography of the Panjaub,
satisfactorily accounts for the simultaneous happening of these
events; and so long as this difficulty is not solved, except by the Arctic
theory and the cosmic circulation of aerial waters, we cannot accept
the hypothesis of Western scholars referred to above, howsoever
eloquently expounded it may be. As regards the origin of the phrase
Hapta-hindu, which is believed to denote India in the Avesta, I think,
we can explain it by supposing that the expression sapta sindhavah
was an old one, carried by the Aryans with them to their new home,
and there applied to new places or countries, just as the British
colonists now carry the old names of their mother country to their new
 272

places of settlement. Hapta-hindu is not the only expression which

occurs in the Avesta in the enumeration of the Aryan countries. We
have, Vârena, Haêtumant, Rangha and Harahvaiti in the list, which
are the Zend equivalents of Varuna, Setumat, Rasâ and Sarasvatî.*
But it is never argued from it that the Vedic deity, Varuna, was so
named from the country called Varena by the worshippers of Mazda;
and the same may be said of Rasâ and Sarasvatî. Rasâ and
Sarasvatî sometimes denote the terrestrial rivers even in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda. But there is ample evidence to show that they were originally
the aerial rivers. It is, therefore, more natural to hold that all these
were ancient mythological names brought with them by the Aryan
settlers to their new home and there applied to new places or objects.
There are places in Burma which are named Ayodhya, Mithila, &c.,
and this is explained on the ground that they were so named by the
Indian settlers in Burma after the well-known places in their native
land. There is no reason why the same theory should not be applied
in the case of Hapta-hindu, especially when we see that the rivers set
free by Indra by slaughtering Vṛitra cannot but be celestial.
It will be seen from the foregoing discussion that the true nature
and movements of waters released by Indra from the grasp of Vṛitra
has been misunderstood from the days of the most ancient Nairuktas,
or, we might say, even from the days of the Brâhmanas. There are
passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where Pûshan is said to cross the upper
celestial hemisphere in boats; but the Ashvins and Sûrya are
generally described as traversing the heaven in their chariots. This
led the ancient Nairuktas to believe that the upper celestial
hemisphere was not a seat of aerial waters, and that when Indra was
described as

* Darmesteter, in his introduction to Fargard I of the Vendidad, observes

that “names, originally belonging to mythical lands, are often, in later
times, attached to real ones.” If this is true of Varena, Rangha, (Rasâ), and
other names, there is no reason why Hapta-hindu should not be similarly
explained, especially when it is now clear that the phrase sapta sindhavaḥ
denotes celestial rivers in the Vedas.
 273

releasing waters by slaughtering Vṛitra, the waters referred to could

not but be the waters imprisoned in the rain-clouds, the seven rivers
set free to flow by killing Vṛitra were similarly understood to be the
rivers of India, like the Ganges, the Jamuna, &c., while the piercing of
the mountains was explained away by distorting or straining the
meaning of such words as, parvata, giri, &c., as stated above. It was
at this stage that the subject was taken in hand by Western scholars
who, taking their cue from the Hapta-hindu of the Avesta eloquently
advanced the theory that the seven rivers, set free by Indra, were the
rivers of the Panjaub. This explanation, when first started, was
regarded as an important historical discovery; and so it would have
been, if it had been a real fact. But, as pointed out above, the
Panjaub is, by nature, a land of five rivers and not seven; and it is so
described in the Vâjasaneyî Samhitâ. It is also evident that as the
seven rivers set free to flow by Indra, were released simultaneously
with the dawn, they could not be the rivers of the Panjaub. We do not
mean to say that the Panjaub was not an Aryan settlement at the time
when the Vedic hymns were sung, for the rivers of the Panjaub are
expressly mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. But the rivers of the Panjaub
were not the seven rivers mentioned in the Vedas; and if so, a new
explanation of the Vṛitra legend becomes necessary, and such an
explanation is furnished only by the theory of the cosmic circulation of
aerial waters or rivers through the lower and the upper world, carrying
along with them the sun, the moon and the other heavenly bodies.
We can now very well explain how Vṛitra, by stretching his body
across, closed the passages in the mountainous ranges (parvatas),
which, on the analogy of mountains usually seen on the horizon, were
believed to lie between the upper and the lower world; and how the
waters, and with them the sun and the dawn, were prevented from
coming up from the nether world for a long time in the Arctic home of
the ancestors of the Vedic bards. Another point elucidated by the
present theory is the four-fold character of the effects of Indra’s
conquest over Vṛitra a point which has been entirely
 274

neglected by ancient and modern Nairuktas, not because it was

unknown but because they were unable to give any satisfactory
explanation of the same, except on the hypothesis that different
effects have been confounded with one other by the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda. But the theory of the cosmic circulation of aerial waters, a
theory which is also found in the mythology of many other nations,
now clears up the whole mystery. If Indra is described as the leader
or the releaser of waters (apâm netâ, or apâm srashtâ), the waters do
not mean the waters in the clouds, but the waters or the watery
vapors: which fill the universe, and formed the material out of which
the latter was created. In other words, the conquest over waters was
something grander, something far more marvelous and cosmic in
character than the mere breaking up of the clouds in the rainy
season; and under these circumstances it was naturally considered to
be the greatest of Indra’s exploits, when, invigorated by a hundred
nightly Soma sacrifices, he slew with ice the watery demon of
darkness, shattered his hundred autumnal forts, released the waters
or the seven rivers upstream to go along their aerial way and brought
cut the sun and the dawn, or the cows, from their place of
confinement inside the rocky caves, where they had stood still since
the date of the war, which, according to a Vedic passage, hitherto
misread and misunderstood, commenced in higher latitudes every
year on the 40th day of Sharad or autumn and lasted till the end of
winter. It is not contended that Indra had never been the god of rain.
There are a few passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (IV, 26, 2; VIII, 6, 1),
where he is expressly mentioned as sending down rain, or is
compared to a rain-god. But as Vṛitra-han or the killer of Vṛitra and
the releaser of waters and the dawn, it is impossible to identify him
with the god of rain. The story; of the release of captive waters is an
ancient story for Vṛitra appears as Orthros in the Greek mythology,
and Vṛitra-han, as Verethraghna, is the god of victory in the Parsi
scriptures. Now this Vṛitra-han may not have been originally the same
as Indra, for the word Indra does not occur in European
 275

Aryan languages, and it has, therefore, been suggested by some

comparative mythologians that the conquest of waters, which was
originally the exploit of some other Aryan deity, was probably
ascribed to Indra in the Vedic mythology, when Indra became the
principal deity in the Vedic pantheon. The fact that Tishtrya, and not
Verethraghna, is said to be the releaser of waters and light in the
Avesta, lends some support to this theory. But whichever view we
adopt, it does not affect the conclusion we have come to above
regarding the true explanation of the Vṛitra legend. Clouds and rain
cannot constitute the physical basis of the legend, which is evidently
based on the simple phenomenon of bringing light to the people who
had anxiously waited for it during the darkness of the long night in the
Arctic regions; and it is a pity that any misconception regarding Vedic
cosmography, or the nature of waters and their cosmic movements
should have, for sometime at least, stood in the way of the true
interpretation of this important legend. Indra may have become a
storm-god afterwards; or the conquest over Vṛitra, originally achieved
by some other deity, may have come to be ascribed to Indra, the rain-
god in later times. But whether the exploits of Vritra-han were
subsequently ascribed to Indra, or whether Indra, as the releaser of
captive waters, was afterwards mistaken for the god of rain, like
Tishtrya in the Avesta, one fact stands out boldly amidst all details,
viz., that captive waters were the aerial waters in the nether world,
and that their captivity represented the annual struggle between light
and darkness in the original home of the Aryans in the Arctic region;
and if this fact was not hitherto discovered, it was because our
knowledge of the ancient man was too meager to enable us to
perceive it properly.

————— ™ —————
 276

CHAPTER X

VEDIC MYTHS — THE MATUTINAL DEITIES

Vernal theory and the legends of the Ashvins — The part played by the
Ashvins in the struggle for waters and light — Intelligible only on the Arctic
theory — Their exploits and legends — Saving or rejuvenating, rescuing
from the ocean, or restoring the eye-sight or light, to Chyavâna, Rebha,
Bhujyu, Atri, Vandana &c. — All explained at present as referring to the
rescue of the daily dawn or the vernal restoration of the powers of the
winter sun — But the theory fails to explain references to blindness or
darkness in several legends — Nor does it account for the duration of the
distress of the Ashvins’ protégés — Nor for the character of the place of
distress from which the protégés were saved — Bottomless and dark
ocean really means the nether world — A bowl with bottom up and mouth
downwards indicates the inverted hemisphere of the Hades — Legend of
Rijrâshva — The slaughter of a hundred sheep represents the conversion
of a hundred days into so many nights — The story of Saptavadhri or the
seven eunuchs, praying for safe delivery after ten months of gestation —
Remains unexplained up to the present — The interior of heaven and earth
is conceived in the Veda as the womb in which the sun moves when above
the horizon — Ten months’ gestation thus represents the ten months when
the Sun is above the horizon — Prayer for safe delivery indicates the perils
of the long night — Riddle or paradox of a child becoming invisible as soon
as born — The story of the hidden Agni refers to the same phenomenon —
Probable origin of the Purânic story of Kumâra or Kârttikeya — Superiority
of the Arctic over the vernal theory in explaining the legends of the Ashvins
— The legend of Indra’s stealing Sûrya’s wheel — The meaning of dasha-
prapitve discussed — Indicates darkness on the completion of ten months
— Vishnu’s three strides — Different opinions about their nature quoted –
Vishnu’s strides represent the yearly course of the sun-And his third
invisible-step represents the nether world — Vishnu’s opprobrious name,
Shipivishta — Represents the dark or the diseased sun during the long
Arctic night — The three abodes of Savitri, Agni and the Ashvins compared
to Vishnu’s third step — The legend of Trita A’ptya — Trita, or the third,
represents the third part of the year — The Indo-Germanic origin of the
legend — The Âpas — Their character and nature described — Seven-fold
and ten-fold division of things in the Vedic literature — Various instances
of seven-fold and ten-fold division collected — This two-fold division
probably due to the seven and ten months’ period of
 277

sunshine in the Arctic region — The Dâsharâjna fight — Represents

struggle with the ten-fold division of darkness — Brihaspati and his lost
wife in the Rig-Veda — The ten non-sacrificing kings and Râvana compared
— Mythical element in the Râmâyana probably derived from the Vedic
mythology — Hanumân and Vrishâkapi — Was Râmâyana copied from
Homer — Both may have a common source — Conclusion.

The inadequacy of the Storm theory to explain the legend of

Indra and Vṛitra has been fully set forth in the last chapter; and we
have seen how a number of points therein, hitherto unintelligible, can
be explained by the Arctic theory, combined with the true conception
of the circulation of aerial waters in the upper and the nether world.
We shall now take up the legends that are usually explained on the
Vernal theory, and show how, like the Storm theory, it fails to account
satisfactorily for the different features of these legends. Such legends
are to be found amongst the achievements of the Ashvins, the
physicians of the gods. These achievements are summed up, as it
were, in certain hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 112; 116; 117; 118), each
of which briefly refers to the important exploits of these twin gods. As
in the case of Vṛitra, the character of the Ashvins and their exploits
are explained by different schools of interpreters in different ways.
Thus Yâska (Nir. XII, 1) informs us that the two Ashvins are regarded
by some as representing Heaven and Earth, by others as Day and
Night, or as Sun and Moon; while the Aitihâsikas take them to be two
ancient kings, the performers of holy acts. But as before, we propose
to examine the legends connected with the Ashvins only according to
the naturalistic or the Nairukta school of interpretation. Even in this
school there are, however, a number of different views held regarding
the nature and the character of these two gods. Some believe that
the natural basis of the Ashvins must be the morning star, that being
the only morning-light visible before fire, dawn and sun; while others
think that the two stars in the constellation of Gemini were the original
representatives of the twin gods. The achievements of these gods
are, however, generally explained as referring to the restoration of the
powers of the sun
VRITRA TRIUMPHANT
(WATERS AND THE SUN CONFINED)

1. Varuna’s tree 2. Waters

 VRITRA SLAIN
(WATERS AND THE SUN SET FREE TO MOVE)

3. Vṛitra as a Serpent 4. The Sun

 278

decayed-in winter; and an elaborate discussion of the Ashvins’s

exploits on this theory will be found in the Contributions to the
Science of Mythology (Vol. II, pp. 583-605) by Prof, Max Müller,
published a few years ago. It is beyond the scope of this work to
examine each one of the different legends connected with the
Ashvins, as Prof. Max Müller has done. We are concerned only with
those points in the legends which the Vernal or the Dawn theory fails
to explain and which can be well accounted for only by the Arctic
theory; and these we now proceed to notice.
Now, in the first place, we must refer to the part played by the
Ashvins in the great struggle or fight for waters and light, which has
been discussed in the previous chapter. The Ashvins are distinctly
mentioned in the sacrificial literature as one of the deities connected
with the Dawn (Ait. Br. II, 15); and we have seen that a long laudatory
song recited by the Hotṛi before sunrise is specially devoted to them.
The daughter of Sûrya is also described as having ascended their car
(I, 116, 17; 119, 5), and the Aitareya Brâhmana (IV, 7-9), describes a
race run by the gods for obtaining the Âshvina-shastra as a prize; and
the Ashvins, driving in a carriage drawn by donkeys, are said to have
won it in close competition with Agni, Ushas and Indra, who are
represented as making way for the Ashvins, on the understanding
that after winning the race the Ashvins would assign to them a share
in the prize. The kindling of the sacrificial fire, the break of dawn, and
rise of the sun are again spoken of as occurring simultaneously with
the appearance of the Ashvins (I, 157, 1; VII, 72, 4); while in X, 61, 4,
the time of their appearance is said to be the early dawn when
“darkness still stands amongst the ruddy cows.” Their connection with
the dawn and their appearance in the interval between dawn and
sunrise are thus taken to be clearly established; and whatever theory
we may adopt to explain the character of the Ashvins on a physical
basis, we cannot lose sight of the fact that they are matutinal deities,
bringing on the dawn or the light of the morning along with them. The
two epithets which are peculiar
 279

to Indra, viz. Vritrahan and Shata-kratû are applied to them

(Vrtrahantamâ, VIII, 8, 22; Shata-kratû I, 112, 23) and in I, 182, 2,
they are expressly said to possess strongly the qualities of Indra
(Indra-tamâ), and of the Maruts (Marut-tamâ) the associates of Indra
in his struggle with Vṛitra. Nay, they are said to have protected Indra
in his achievements against Namuchi in X, 131, 4. This leaves no
doubt about their share in the Vṛitra-fight; and equally clear is their
connection with the waters of the ocean. In I, 46, 2, they are called
sindhu-mâtarâ, or having the ocean for their mother and their car is
described as turning up from the ocean in IV, 43, 5; while in I, 112,
13, the Ashvins in their car are said to go round the sun in the distant
region (parâvati). We also read that the Ashvins moved the most
sweet sindhu, or ocean, evidently meaning that they made the waters
of the ocean flow forward (I, 112, 9) and they are said to have made
Rasâ, a celestial river, swell full with water-floods, urging to victory
the car without the horse (I, 112, 12). They are also the protectors of
the great Atithigva and Divodâsa against Shambara; and Kutsa, the
favorite of Indra, is also said Co have been helped by them (I, 112,
14, and 23). In Verse 18 of the same hymn, the Ashvins are
addressed as Angirases, and said to have triumphed in their hearts
and went onwards to liberate the flood of milk; while in VIII, 26, 17,
we read that they abide in the sea of heaven (divo arnave). Taking all
these facts together, we can easily see that the Ashvins were the
helpers of Indra in his struggle for waters and light; and we now know
what that struggle means. It is the struggle between the powers of
light and darkness, and the Ashvins, in their character as divine,
physicians, were naturally the first to help the gods in this distress or
affliction. It is true that Indra was the principal actor or hero in this
fight; but the Ashvins appear to have stood by him, rendering help
whenever necessary, and leading the van in the march of the
matutinal deities after the conquest. This character of the Ashvins is
hardly explained by the Vernal theory; nor can it be accounted for on
the theory of a daily struggle
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between light and darkness, for we have seen that the dawn, during
which the Âshvina-shastra is recited, is not the evanescent dawn of
the tropics. The Arctic theory alone can satisfactorily interpret the
facts stated above; and when they are interpreted in this way, it is
easy to perceive how the Ashvins are described as having
rejuvenated, cured, or rescued a number of decrepit, blind, lame or
distressed protégés of theirs in the various legends ascribed to them.
The important achievements of the Ashvins have been summed
up by Macdonell in his Vedic Mythology (§ 21) as follows: —
“The sage Chyavâna, grown old and deserted, they released
from his decrepit body; prolonged his life, restored him to youth,
rendered him desirable to his wife and made him the husband of
maidens (I, 116, 10 &c.). They also renewed the youth of the aged
Kali, and befriended him when he had taken a wife (X, 39, 8; I, 112,
15). They brought, on a car, to the youthful Vimada wives or a wife
named Kamadyû (X, 65, 12,) who seems to have been the beautiful
spouse of Purumitra (I, 117, 20). They restored Vishnâpû like a lost
animal, to the sight of their worshipper Vishvaka, son of Kṛishna (I,
116, 23; X, 65, 12). But the story most often referred to is that of the
rescue of Bhujyu, son of Tugra, who was abandoned in the midst of
ocean (samudre), or in the water-clouds (udameghe), and who,
tossed about in darkness, invoked the aid of the youthful heroes. In
the ocean which is without support (anârambhane) they took him
home in a hundred-oared (shatâritrâm) ship (I, 116, 5). They rescued
him with animated water-tight ships, which traversed the air
(antariksha), with four ships, with an animated winged boat with three
flying cars having a hundred feet and six horses. In one passage
Bhujyu is described as clinging to a log in the midst of water (arnaso
madhye I, 182, 7). The sage Rebha stabbed, bound, hidden by the
malignant, overwhelmed in waters for ten nights and nine days,
abandoned as dead, was by the Ashvins revived and drawn out as
Soma juice is raised with a ladle (I, 116, 24; I, 112, 5). They delivered
Vandana
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from his calamity and restored him to the light of the sun. In I, 117, 5,
they are also said to have dug up for Vandana some bright buried
gold of new splendor ‘like one asleep in the lap of Nir-ṛiti’ or like ‘the
sun dwelling in darkness.’ They succoured the sage Atri Sapta-
Vadhri, who was plunged in a burning pit by the wiles of a demon,
and delivered him from darkness (I, 116, 8; VI, 50, 10). They rescued
from the jaws of a wolf a quail (vartikâ) who invoked their aid (I, 112,
8). To ‫ي‬ijrâshva, who had been blinded by his cruel father for killing
one hundred and one sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour,
they restored his eyesight at the prayer of the she-wolf (I, 116, 16;
117, 17); and cured Parâvṛij of blindness and lameness (I, 112, 8).
When Vishpalâ’s leg had been cut off in the battle like the wing of a
bird, the Ashvins gave her an iron one instead (I, 116, 15). They
befriended Ghoshâ when she was growing old in her father’s house
by giving her a husband (I, 117, 7; X, 39, 3). To the wife of a eunuch
(Vadhrimatî) they gave a son called Hiranya-hasta (I, 116, 13; VI, 62,
7). The cow of Shayu which had left off bearing they caused to give
milk (I, 116, 22); and to Pedu they gave a strong swift dragon-slaying
steed impelled by Indra which won him unbounded spoils (I, 116, 6).”
Besides these there are many other exploits mentioned in I,
112, 116-119; and the Ashvins are described as having saved,
helped, or cured a number of other persons. But the above summary
is sufficient for our purpose. It will be seen from it that the Ashvins
bear the general character of helping the lame, the blind, the
distressed, or the afflicted; and in some places a reference to the
decayed powers of the sun is discernible on the face of the legends.
Taking their clue from this indication, many scholars, and among
them Prof. Max Müller, have interpreted all the above legends as
referring to the sun in winter and the restoration of his power in spring
or summer. Thug, Prof. Max Müller tells us that Chyavâna is nothing
but the falling sun (chyu, to fall), of which it might well be said that he
had sunk in the fiery or dark abyss from which the Ashhvins are
themselves said to come up in III, 39, 3.
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The Vedic ‫ي‬ishis are again said to have betrayed the secret of the
myth of Vandana by comparing the treasure dug for him by the
Ashvins to the sun “dwelling in darkness.” Kali is similarly taken to
represent the waning moon, and Vishpalâ’s iron leg, we are told, is
the first quarter or pâda of the new moon, called “iron” on account of
his darkness as compared with the golden color of the full moon. The
blindness of ‫ي‬ijrâshva is explained on this theory as meaning the
blindness of night or winter; and the blind and the lame Parâvṛij is
taken to be the sun after sunset or near the winter solstice. The
setting sun thrown out of a boat into waters is similarly understood to
be the basis of the legend Bhujyu or Rebha. Vadhrimati, the wife of
the eunuch, to whom Hiranya-hasta or the gold-hand is said to be
restored, is, we are further told, nothing but the dawn under a
different name. She is called the wife of the eunuch because she was
separated from thee sun during the night. The cow of Shayu (derived
from shî, to lie down) is again said to be the light of the morning sun,
who may well be described as sleeping in the darkness from which
he was brought forth by the Ashvins for the sake of Vandana. In
short, each and every legend is said to be a story of the sun or the
moon in distress. The Ashvins were the saviors of the morning-light,
or of the annual sun in his exile and distress at the time of winter
solstice; and when the sun becomes bright and brisk in the morning
every day, or vigorous and triumphant in the spring, the miracle, we
are told, was naturally attributed to the physicians of the gods.
This explanation of the different legends connected with the
Ashvins is no doubt an advance on that of Yâska, who has explained
only one of these legends, viz., that of the quail, on the Dawn theory.
But still I do not think that all the facts and incidents in these legends
are explained by the Vernal theory as it is at present understood.
Thus we cannot explain why the protégés of the Ashvins are
described as being delivered from darkness on the theory that every
affliction or distress mentioned in the legend refers to mere decrease
of the power of the sun in winter. Darkness is distinctly referred to
when
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the treasure dug up for Vandana is compared to the “sun dwelling in

darkness” (I, 117, 5), or when Bhujyu is said to have been plunged in
waters and sunk in bottomless darkness (anârambhane tamasi), or
when Atri is said to have been delivered from darkness (tamas) in VI,
50, 10. The powers of the sun are no doubt decayed in winter, and
one can easily understand why the sun in winter should be called
lame, old, or distressed. But blindness naturally means darkness or
(tamas) (I, 117, 17); and when express references to darkness
(tamas) are found in several passages, we cannot legitimately hold
that the story of curing the blind refers to the restoration of the
decayed powers of the winter sun. The darkness referred to is
obviously the real darkness of the night; and on the theory of the daily
struggle between light and darkness we shall have to suppose that
these wonders were achieved every day. But as a matter of fact they
are not said to be performed every day, and Vedic scholars have,
therefore, tried to explain the legends on the theory of the yearly exile
of the sun in winter. But we now see that in the latter case references
to blindness or darkness remain unintelligible; and as the darkness is
often said to be of several days’ duration, we are obliged to infer that
the legends refer to the long yearly darkness, or, in other words, they
have for their physical basis the disappearance of the sun below the
horizon during the long night of the Arctic region.
The Vernal theory cannot again explain the different periods of
time during which the distress experienced by the Ashvins’ protégés
is said to have lasted. Thus Rebha, who was overwhelmed in waters,
is said to have remained there for ten nights and nine days (I, 116,
24) while Bhujyu, another worshipper of theirs, is described as having
been saved from being drowned in the bottomless sea or darkness,
where he: lay for three days and three nights (I, 116, 4). In VIII, 5, 8,
the Ashvins are again described as having been in the parâvat or
distant region for three days and three nights. Prof. Max Müller,
agreeing with Benfey, takes this period, whether of ten or three days,
as representing the time when
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the sun at the winter solstice seems bound and to stand still (hence
called solstice), till he jumps up and turns back. But ten days is too
long a period for the sun to stand still at the winter solstice, and even
Prof. Max Müller seems to have felt the difficulty, for immediately after
the above explanation he remarks that “whether this time lasted for
ten or twelve nights would have been difficult to settle even for more
experienced astronomers than the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis.” But even supposing
that the period of ten days may be thus accounted for, the
explanation entirely fails in the case of the legend of Dîrghatamas
who is said to have grown old in the tenth yuga and rescued by the
Ashvins from the torment to which he was subjected by his enemies. I
have shown previously that yuga here means a month; and if this is
correct we shall have to suppose that Dîrghatamas, representing the
annual course of the sun, stood still at the winter solstice for two
months! The whole difficulty, however, vanishes when we explain the
legends on the Arctic theory, for the sun may then be supposed to be
below the horizon for any period varying from one to a hundred nights
or even for six months.
The third point, left unexplained by the Vernal theory is the
place of distress or suffering from which the protégés are said to have
been rescued by the Ashvins. Bhujyu was saved not on land, but in
the watery region (apsu) without support (anârambhane) and
unillumined (tamasi) by the rays of the sun (I, 182, 6). If we compare
this description with that of the ocean said to have been
encompassed by Vṛitra or of the dark ocean which Bṛihaspati is said
to have hurled down in II, 23, 18, we can at once recognize then as
identical. Both represent the nether world which we have seen is the
home of aerial waters, and which has to be crossed in boats by the
drowned sun in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda or by Hêlios in the Greek mythology. It
cannot, therefore, be the place where the sun goes in winter; and
unless we adopt the Arctic theory, we cannot explain how the
protégés of the Ashvins are said to have been saved from being
drowned in a
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dark and bottomless ocean. In VIII, 40, 5, Indra is said to have

uncovered the seven-bottomed ocean having a side opening (jimha-
bâram), evidently referring to the fight for waters in the nether world.
The same expression (jimha-bâram) is used again in I, 116, 9, where
the Ashvins are described as having lifted up a well “with bottom up
and opening in the side or downwards,” and in and in I, 85, 11, a well
lying obliquely (jimha) is said to have been pushed up by the Ashvins
for satisfying the thirst of Gotama. These words and phrases are not
properly explained by the commentators, most of whom take them as,
referring to the clouds. But it seems to me that these phrases more
appropriately describe the antepodal region, where every thing is
believed to be upside down in relation to the things of this world. Dr.
Warren tells us that the Greeks and the Egyptians conceived their
Hades, or things therein, as turned upside down, and he has even
tried to show that the Vedic conception of the nether world
corresponds exactly with that of the Greeks and the Egyptians. The
same idea is also found underlying the Hades conception of many
other races, and I think Dr. Warren has correctly represented the
ancient idea of the antepodal under-world. It was conceived by the
ancients as an inverted tub or hemisphere of darkness, full of waters,
and the Ashvins had to make an opening in its side and push the
waters up so that after ascending the sky they may eventually come
down in the form of rain to satisfy the thirst of Gotama. The same feat
is attributed to the Maruts in I, 85, 10 and 11 and there too we must
interpret it in the same way. The epithets uchchâ-budhna (with the
bottom up) and jimha-bâra (with, its mouth downwards or sidewards),
as applied to a well (avata), completely show that something
extraordinary, or the reverse of what we usually see, is here intended;
and we cannot take them as referring to the clouds, for the well is
said to be pushed up (ûrdhvam nunudre) in order to make the waters
flow from it hitherward.

* See Paradise Found, pp. 481-82.

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It may also be observed that in I, 24, 7, the king Varuna of hallowed

might is said to sustain “erect the Tree’s stem in the bottomless
(abudhna) region,” and its rays which ire hidden from us have, we are
told, “their bottom up and flow downwards (nîchînâh).” This
description of the region of Varuna exactly corresponds with the
conception of the Hades in which every thing is turned upside down.
Being regarded as an inverted hemisphere, it is rightly described,
from the point of view of persons in this world, as a support. less
region with bottom up and mouth downwards; and it was this
bottomless darkness (I, 182, 6), or the bottomless and supportless
ocean, in which Bhujyu was plunged, and which he crossed without
distress by means of the boats graciously provided by the Ashvins. In
the Atharva Veda X, 8, 9, a bowl with mouth inclined or downwards
(tiryag-bilah), and bottom upwards (ûrdhva-budhnah) is said to hold
within it every form of glory; and there seven ‫ي‬ishis, who have been
this Mighty One’s protectors, are described as sitting together. The
verse occurs also in the Bṛih. Arn. Up. II, 3, 3, with the variant arvâg-
bilah (with its mouth downwards) for tiryag-bilah (with its mouth
inclined) of the Atharva Veda. Yâska (Nir. XII, 38) quotes the verse
and gives two interpretations of the same, in one of which the seven
‫ي‬ishis are taken to represent the seven rays of the sun, and the bowl
the vault above; while in the second the bowl is said to represent the
human head with its concave cup-like palate in the mouth. But it
seems to me more probable that the description refers to the nether
world rather than to the vault above or to the concave human palate.
The glory referred to is the same as the Hvarenô of the Parsi
scriptures. In the Zamyâd Yasht, this Hvareno or Glory is said to have
thrice departed from Yima and was restored to him once by Mithra,
once by Thraêtaona who smote Azi Dahâka, and finally by Keresâspa
and Atar, who defeated Azi Dahâka.

* See Atharva Veda, X, 8, 9.

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The fight took place in the sea Vouru-Kasha in the bottom of the deep
river, and we have seen that this must be taken to mean the world-
surrounding Okeanos. The Hvarenô (Sans. swar) or Glory is properly
the light, and one who possessed it reigned supreme and one who
lost it fell down. Thus “when Yima lost his Glory he perished and Azi
Dahâka reigned; as when light disappears, the fiend rules supreme.”*
It may also be noticed that amongst the persons to whom the glory
belonged in ancient days are mentioned the seven Amesha Spentas,
all of-one thought, one speech and one deed. We have thus a very
close resemblance between the glory said to have been placed in a
bowl with bottom up and guarded by the seven ‫ي‬ishis in the Vedas
and the Hvareno or the glory mentioned in the Avesta, which once
belonged to the seven Amesha Spentas and which thrice went away
from Yima and had to be restored to him by fighting with Azi Dahâka,
the Avestic representative of the Ahi Vtitra, in the sea Vouru-Kasha;
and this strengthens our view that the bowl with the bottom up and
the mouth downwards is the inverted hemisphere of the nether world,
the seat of darkness and the home of aerial waters. It was this region
wherein Bhujyu was plunged and had to be saved by the intervention
of the Ashvins.
Now if Bhujyu was plunged in this bottomless darkness and
ocean for three nights and three days (I, 116, 4) or Rebha was there
for ten nights and nine days (I, 116, 24), it is clear that the period
represents a continuous darkness of so many days and nights as
stated above; and I think, the story of ‫ي‬ijrâshva, or the Red-horse,
also refers to the same incident, viz. the continuous darkness of the
Arctic region. ‫ي‬ijrâshva, that is, the Red-horse, is said to have
slaughtered 100 or 101 sheep and gave them to the Vṛiki, or the she-
wolf and his own father being angry on that account is said to have
deprived him of his sight. But the Ashvins at the prayer of the she-
wolf restored to ‫ي‬ijrâshva his eye-sight

* See S. B. E. Series, Vol. IV, Introd., p. lxiii.

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and thus cured him of his blindness. Prof. Max Müller thinks that the
sheep may here mean the stars, which may be said to have been
slaughtered by the rising sun. But we have seen that the 350 sheep
of Helios are taken to represent 350 nights, while the corresponding
350 days are said to be represented by his 350 oxen. In short, the
Greek legend refers to a year of 350 days and a continuous night of
ten days; and the period of 10 nights mentioned in the legend of
Rebha well accords with this conception of the ancient Aryan year,
inferred from the story of Helios. This resemblance between the two
stories naturally leads us to inquire if any clue cannot be found to the
interpretation of the legend of ‫ي‬ijrâshva in the story of Helios; and
when we examine the subject from this point of view, it is not difficult
to discover the similarity between the slaughter of sheep by ‫ي‬ijrâshva
and the consuming of the oxen of Helios by the companion of
Odysseus. The wolf, as observed by Prof. Max Müller, is generally
understood in the Vedic literature to be a representative of darkness
and mischief rather than of light and therefore the slaughter of 100
sheep for him naturally means the conversion of hundred days into
nights, producing thereby a continuous darkness for a hundred
nights, of 24 hours each. ‫ي‬ijrâshva or the Red-sun may well be
spoken of as becoming blind during these hundred continuous nights
and eventually cured of his blindness by the Ashvins, the harbingers
of light and dawn. The only objection that may be urged against this
interpretation is that hundred days should have been described as
oxen or cows and not as sheep. But I think that such nice distinctions
cannot be looked for in every myth and that if hundred days were
really converted into so many nights we can well speak of them as
“sheep.” The slaughter of 100 or 101 sheep can thus be easily and
naturally explained on the theory of long continuous darkness, the
maximum length of which, as stated in the previous chapter, was one
hundred days, or a hundred periods of 34 hours. In short, the legends
of the Ashvins furnish us with evidence of three, ten, or a hundred
continuous nights in ancient times and the incidents which
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lead us to this inference, are, at best, but feebly explained by the

Vernal or the Dawn theory as at present understood.
But the most important of the Ashvins’ legends, for our purpose
is the story of Atri Saptavadhri. He is described as having been
thrown into a burning abyss and extricated from this perilous position
by the Ashvins, who are also said to have delivered him from
darkness (tamasah) in VI, 50, 10. In I, 117, 24, the Ashvins are
represented as giving a son called Hiranya-hasta, or the Gold-hand,
to Vadhrimati or the wife of a eunuch; while in V, 78, a hymn, whose
seer is Saptavadhri himself, the latter is represented as being shut up
in a wooden case, from which he was delivered by the Ashvins. Upon
this Prof. Max Müller observes, “If this tree or this wooden case is
mean for the night, then, by being kept shut up in it he (Saptavadhri)
was separated from his wife, he was to her like a Vadhri (eunuch)
and in the morning only when delivered by the Ashvins he became
once more the husband of the dawn.” But the learned Professor is at
a loss to explain why Atri, in his character of the nocturnal sun,
should be called not only a Vadhri but Saptavadhri, or a seven-
eunuch. Vadhri, as a feminine word, denotes a leather strap and as
pointed out by Prof. Max Müller, Sâyana is of opinion that the word
can be used also in the masculine gender (X, 102, 12). The word
Saptavadhri may, therefore, denote the sun caught in a net of seven
leather straps. But the different incidents in the legend clearly point
out that a seven-eunuch and not a person caught in seven leather
straps is meant by the epithet Saptavadhri as applied to Atri in this
legend.
It is stated above that a whole hymn (78) of nine verses in the
5th Mandala of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda is ascribed to Atri Saptavadhri. The
deities addressed in this hymn are the Ashvins whom the poet
invokes for assistance in his miserable plight. The first six verses of
the hymn are simple and intelligible. In the first three, the Ashvins are
invoked to come to the sacrifice like two swans; and in the forth, Atri,
thrown into a pit, is said to have called on then, like a wailing
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woman, for assistance. The 5th and the 6th verses narrate the story
of Saptavadhri, shut up in a tree or a wooden case, whose sides are
asked to tear asunder like the side of her who bringeth forth a child.
After these six verses come the last three (the hymn containing only
nine verses), which describe the delivery of a child, that was in the
womb for 10 months; and Vedic scholars have not as yet been able
to explain what rational connection these three verses could possibly
have with the preceding six verses of the hymn. According to Sâyana,
these three verses constitute what is called the Garbhasrâvinî-
upanishad or the liturgy of child-birth; while Ludwig tries to explain the
concluding stanzas as referring to the delivery of a child, a subject
suggested by the simile of a wailing woman in the 4th verse, or by the
comparison of the side of the tree with the side of a parturient
woman. It seems, however, extraordinary, if not worse, that a subject,
not relevant except as a simile or by way of comparison, should be
described at such length at the close of the hymn. We must,
therefore, try to find some other explanation, or hold with Sâyana that
an irrelevant matter, viz., the liturgy of child-birth, is here inserted with
no other object but to make up the number of verses in the hymn.
These verses may be literally translated as follows: —
“7. Just as the wind shakes a pool of lotuses on all sides, so
may your embryo (garbha) move (in your womb), and come out after
being developed for ten months (dasha-mâsyah).”
“8. Just as the wind, just as the forest, just as the sea moves,
so O ten-monthed (embryo)! come out with the outer cover (jarâyu).”
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“9. May the child (kumâra), lying in the mother’s (womb) for ten
months, cone out alive and unhurt, alive for the living mother.”
These three verses, as observed above, immediately follow the
verses where the wooden case is said to be shut and opened for
Saptavadhri, and naturally they must be taken to refer to, or rather as
forming a part of the same legend. But neither the Vernal nor the
Dawn theory supplies us with any clue whatsoever to the right
interpretation of these verses. The words used present no difficulty. A
child full-grown in the womb for ten months is evidently intended, and
its safe delivery is prayed for. But what could this child be? The wife
of the eunuch Vadhrimati is already said to have got a child Hiranya-
hasta through the favor of the Ashvins. We cannot, therefore,
suppose that she prayed for the safe delivery of a child, nor can
Saptavadhri be said to have prayed for the safe delivery of his wife,
who never bore a child to him. The verses, or rather their connection
with the story of Saptavadhri told in the first six verses of the hymn,
have, therefore, remained unexplained up-to the present day, the
only explanations hitherto offered being, as observed above, either
utterly unsatisfactory or rather no explanations at all.
The whole mystery is, however, cleared up by the light thrown
upon the legend by the Arctic theory. The dawn is sometimes spoken
of in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as producing the sun (I, 113, 1; VII, 78, 3). But this
dawn cannot be said to have borne the child for ten months; nor can
we suppose that the word dasha-mâsyah (of ten months), which is
found in the 7th and the 8th and the phrase dasha mâsân found in
the 9th verse of the hymn were used without any specific meaning or
intention. We must, therefore, look for some other explanation, and
this is supplied by the fact that the sun is said to be pre-eminently the
son of Dyâvâ pṛithivi, or simply of Dyu in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Thus in X, 37,
1, the sun is called divas-putra or the son of Dyu, and in I, 164, 33,
we read, “Dyu is the father, who begot us, our origin is there; this
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great Earth is our parent mother. The father laid the daughter’s
embryo (garbham) within the womb of the two wide bowls (uttânayoh
chamvoh).” In the proceeding verse, we have, “He (the sun) yet
enveloped in his mother’s womb, having various off-springs, has
gone into the (region of) Nir-ṛiti”; and further that “he, who had made
him, does not know of him; surely is he hidden from those who saw
him.” In I, 160, 1, we similarly find that “These Heaven and Earth,
bestowers of prosperity and all, the wide sustainers of the regions,
the two bowls of noble birth, the holy ones; between these two
goddesses, the rafulgent sun-god travels by fixed decrees.” These
passages clearly show (1) that the sun was conceived as a child of
the two bowls, Heaven and Earth, (2) that the sun moved like an
embryo in the womb, i.e., the interior of heaven and earth, and (3)
that after moving in this way in this womb of the mother for some
time, and producing various off-springs, the sun sank into the land of
desolation (Nir-riti), and became hidden to those that saw him before.
Once the annual course of the sun was conceived in this way, it did
not require any great stretch of imagination to represent the dropping
of the sun into Nir-riti as an exit from the womb of his mother. But
what are we to understand by the phrase that “he moved in the womb
for ten months”? The Arctic theory explains this point satisfactorily.
We have seen that Dîrghatamas was borne on waters for ten months,
and the Dashagvas are said to have completed their sacrificial
session during the same period. The sun can, therefore, be very well
described, while above the horizon for ten months, as moving in the
womb of his mother, or between heaven and earth for ten months.
After this period, the sun was lost, or went out of the womb into the
land of desolation, there to be shut up as in a wooden case for two
months. The sage Atri, therefore, rightly invokes the Ashvins for his
deliverance from the box and also for the safe delivery of the child i.e.
himself, from of his mother after ten months. In the Atharva Veda XI,
5, 1,
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the sun as a Brahmachârin, is said to move between heaven and

earth, and in the 12th verse of the same hymn we are told that
“Shouting forth, thundering, red, white he carries a great penis
(brîhach-chhepas) along the earth.” If the sun moving between
heaven and earth is called brîhach-chhepas he may well be called
Vadri (eunuch), when sunk into the land of Nir-riti. But Prof. Max
Müller asks us, why he should be called Saptavadhri or a seven-
eunuch? The explanation is simple enough. The heaven, the earth
and the lower regions are all conceived as divided seven-fold in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, and when the ocean or the waters are described as seven-
fold (sapta-budhnam arnavam, VIII, 40, 5; sapta âpah, X, 104, 8), or
when we have seven Dânus or demons, mentioned in X, 120, 6, or
when Indra is called sapta-han or the seven-slayer (X, 49, 8), or Vṛitra
is said to have seven forts (I, 63, 7) or when the cowstead (vraja),
which the two Ashvins are said to have opened in X, 40, 8, is
described as saptâsya the sun who is brîhach-chhepas and seven
rayed or seven-horsed (V, 45, 9) while moving between heaven and
earth, may very well be described as Saptavadhri or seven-eunuch
when sunk into the land of Nir-riti or the nether world of bottomless
darkness from which he is eventually released by the Ashvins. The
last three verses of V, 78, can thus be logically connected with the
story of Saptavadhri mentioned in the immediately preceding verses,
if the period of ten months, during which the child moves in the
mother’s womb, is taken to represent the period of ten months’
sunshine followed by the long night of two months, the existence of
which we have established by independent Vedic evidence. The point
has long remained unexplained, and it is only by the Arctic theory that
it can be now satisfactorily accounted for.
In connection with this subject it is necessary to refer to a riddle
or a paradox, which arises out of it. The sun was supposed to move
in the womb of his mother for ten months and then to drop into the
nether world. In other words, as soon as he came out of the womb,
he was invisible; while in ordinary cases a child becomes visible as
soon as it is brought
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into the world after ten months of gestation. Here, was art idea, or
rather an apparent contradiction between two ideas, which the Vedic
poets were not slow to seize upon and evolve a riddle out of it. Thus
we have seen above (I, 164, 32) that the sun is described as being
invisible to one who made him evidently meaning his mother. In V, 2,
1, we again meet with the same riddle; for it says, “Young mother
carries in secret the boy confined; she does not yield him to the
father. People do not see before them his fading face, laid down with
the Arâti.”* In I, 72, 2, we further read, “All the clever immortals did
not find the calf though sojourning round about us. The attentive
(gods) wearing themselves, following his foot-steps, stood at the
highest beautiful standing place of Agni”; and the same idea is
expressed in I, 95, 4, which says, “Who amongst you has understood
this secret? The calf has by itself given birth to its mother. The germ
of many, the great seer moving by his own strength comes forward
from the lap of the active one (apasâm).” It is the story of the hidden
Agni who is described in X, 124, 1, as having long (jyok) resided in
the long darkness (dirgham tamah), and who eventually comes out as
the child of waters (apâm napât, I, 143, 1). The epithet apâm napât
as applied to Agni is usually explained as referring to the lightening
produced from the clouds, but-this explanation does not account for
the fact of his long residence in darkness. The puzzle or the riddle is,
however, satisfactorily solved by the Arctic theory, combined with the
cosmic circulation of aerial waters. The sun, who moves in the interior
of heaven and earth for ten months, as in the womb of his mother,
naturally suggested to the Vedic poets the parallel idea of the period
of ten months’ gestation; but the wonder was that while a child is
visible to all as soon as

* See Oldenberg’s Vedic Hymns, S. B. E. Series, Vol. XLVI, pp. 366-68.

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it is born, the sun became invisible just at the time when he came out
of the womb. Where did he go? Was he locked up in a wooden chest
or bound down with leather straps in the region of waters? Why did
the mother not present him to the father after he was safely
delivered? Was he safely delivered? These questions naturally arise
out of the story, and the Vedic poets appear to take delight in
reverting again and again to the same paradox in different places.
And what applies to Sûrya or the sun applies to Agni as well; for there
are many passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where Agni is identified with the
sun. Thus Agni is said to be the light of heaven in the bright sky,
waking at dawn, the head of heaven (III, 2, 14), and he is described
as having been born on the other side of the air in X, 187, 5. In the
Aitareya Brâhmana (VIII, 28), we are further told that the sun, when
setting, enters into Agni and is reproduced from the latter; and the
same identification appears to be alluded to in the passages from the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, where Agni is said to unite with the light of the sun or to
shine in heaven (VIII, 44, 29). The story of concealing the child after
ten months of gestation whether applied to Agni or to Sûrya is thus
only a different version of the story of the disappearance of the sun
from the upper hemisphere after ten months of sunshine. But what
became of the child (Kumâra) which disappeared in this way? Was
he lost for ever or again restored to his parents? How did the father or
even the mother obtain the child so lost? Some one must bring the
child to them, and this task seems to have been entrusted to the
‫ي‬ibhus or the Ashvins in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. Thus in I, 110, 8, the ‫ي‬ibhus
are said to have united the mother with the calf, and in I, 116, 13, the
Ashvins are described as giving to Vadhrimati a child called Hiranya-
hasta. The story of restoring Vishnâpu to Vishvaka (I, 117, 7) and of
giving milk to Shayu’s cow probably refer to the same phenomenon of
bringing back the morning sun to the parents; and from this it is but a
small step to the story of Kumâra (lit., a child), one of the names of
Kârttikeya in the Purânas. It was this Kumâra, or the once hidden
(guha), or dropped
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(skanda) Chili, rising along with the seven rivers or mothers (VIII, 96,
1) in the morning, that led the army of gods or light and walked
victoriously along the Devayâna path. He was the leader of days, or
the army of gods; and as Maruts were the allies of Indra in his conflict
with Vṛitra, Kumara or the Child, meaning the morning sun, may, by a
turn of the mythological kaleidoscope, be very well called a son of
Rudra, the later representative of the Maruts; or said to be born of
Agni, who dwelt in waters; or described as the son of seven or six
Kṛittikâs. As the morning sun has to pierce his way up through the
apertures of Albûrz, temporarily closed by Vṛitra, this Kumâra can
again be well termed Krauñcha-dârana, or the piercer of the
Krauñcha mountain, an epithet applied to him in the Purânas.* But we
are not here concerned with the growth which Kumâra, or the child of
the morning, attained in later mythology. We took up the legends of
the Ashvins with a view to see if there were any incidents in them
which became intelligible only on the Arctic theory, and the foregoing
examination of the legends shows that we have not searched in vain.
The expression dasha-mâsya in the legend of Sapta-vadhri and
dashame yuge in that of Dîrghatamas directly indicate a period of ten
months’ sunshine, and we ‘have seen that three, ten, or a hundred
continuous nights are also referred to directly or metaphorically in
some of these legends. We have again such expressions as “the sun
sleeping in darkness or in the lap of Nir-ṛiti,” which show that actual
and not metaphorical darkness was intended. In short, the sun, sunk
in the nether world of waters and darkness, and not merely a winter
sun, is the burden of all these legends, and the achievements of the
Ashvins refer to the rescue of the sun from the dark pit

* For a further development of the idea see Mr. Nârâyan Aiyangâr’s Essays
on Indo-Aryan Mythology, Part I, pp. 57-80. In the light of the Arctic theory
we may have to modify some of Mr. Aiyangâr’s views. Thus out of the
seven rivers or mothers, which bring on the light of the sun, one may be
regarded as his real mother and the other six as stepmothers.
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of the nether world or from the bottomless ocean or darkness. The

Vernal and Arctic theories are both solar in character; and in either
case the legends are interpreted on the supposition that they
represent some solar phenomenon. But the Arctic theory does not
stop with the decay of the sun’s power in winter, but goes a step
further in making the long darkness of the circum-polar region, the
natural basis of many important Vedic legends; and the fore-going
discussion of the myths of the Ashvins clearly shows that a wider
basis, like the one supplied by the Arctic theory, was not only
desirable but necessary for a proper explanation of these legends —
a fact, which, in its turn, further corroborates and establishes the new
theory.

The Sûrya’s Wheel

We have already discussed the legends of the seven Âdityas

with their still-born brother, and shown that it represents seven
months of sunshine in the ancient Aryan home. But this is not the
only period of sunshine in the Arctic region, where, according too
latitude, the sun is above the horizon from 6 to 12 months. The
sacrificial session of the Navagvas and the Dashagvas thus lasted for
nine or ten months, and amongst the Ashvins’ legends, that of
Saptavadhri is just shown to have been based on the phenomenon of
ten months’ sunshine. Is there any legend of Sûrya in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
which refers to this phenomenon? — is the question we have now to
consider. The statement that ten horses are yoked to the carriage of
the sun has been shown to point out to a period of ten months’
sunshine; but the legend of Indra’s stealing the wheel of the sun is
still more explicit. To understand it properly we must however, first
see in what relation Indra generally stands to Sûrya. It has been
shown in the last chapter, that Indra is the chief hero in the fight
between the powers of light and darkness. It is he, who causes the
sun to rise with the dawn, or makes the sun to shine (VIII, 3, 6; VIII,
98, 2) and mount the sky (I, 7, 3). The sun, it is further stated, (III, 39,
5), was dwelling in darkness, where Indra, accompanied by
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the Dashagvas found him and brought him up for man. It is Indra
again who makes a path for the sun (X, 111, 3), and fights with the
demons of darkness in order to gain back the light of the morning. In
short, Indra is everywhere described as a friend and helper of Sûrya,
and yet the ‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions a legend in which Indra is said to
have taken away or stolen the wheel of Sûrya and thus vanquished
him (I, 175, 4; IV, 30, 4; V, 31, 11; X, 43, 5). It has been supposed
that the legend may refer either to the obscuration of the sun by a
storm-cloud, or to his diurnal setting; but the former is too uncertain
an event to be made the basis of a legend like the present, nor can a
cloud be said to be brought on by Indra, while we have no authority to
assume, as presupposed in the latter case, that the legend refers to
the daily setting of the sun. We must, therefore, examine the legend a
little more closely, and see if we can explain it in a more intelligible
way. Now Sûrya’s chariot is described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as having but
one wheel (I, 164, 2), though the wheel is said to be sevenfold; and in
the later mythology it is distinctly stated that the chariot of the sun is
eka-chakra or a monocycle. If this wheel is taken away, the progress
of the sun must cease, bringing everything to a dead lock. It seems,
however, that the wheel of the sun means the sun himself in the
present legend. Thus in I, 175, 4, and IV, 30, 4, the phrase used is
sûryam chakram, evidently meaning that the solar orb itself is
conceived as a wheel. When this wheel is said to be stolen, we must,
therefore, suppose that the sun himself was taken away, and not that
one of the two wheels of his carriage was stolen, leaving the carriage
to run on one wheel as best as it could. What did Indra do with this
solar wheel, or the sun himself, which he stale in this way? We are
told that he used solar rays as his weapon to kill or burn the demons
(VIII, 12, 9). It is, therefore, clear that the stealing of the solar wheel
and the conquest over the demons are contemporaneous events.
Indra’s fight with the demons is mainly for the purpose of regaining
light, and it may be asked how Indra can be described to have used
the solar orb as a weapon of attack
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for the purpose of regaining Sûrya that was lost in darkness? For it
amounts to saying that the solar orb was used as a weapon in
recovering the sun himself, which was believed to be lost in darkness.
But the difficulty is only apparent and is due to the modern notions of
light or darkness. Sûrya and darkness, according to the modern
notions, cannot be supposed to exist in the same place; but the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda distinctly speaks of “the sun dwelling in darkness” in two places
at least (III, 39, 5; I, 117, 5); and this can be explained only on the
supposition that the Vedic bards believed that the sun was deprived
of his luster when he sank below the horizon, or that his luster was
temporarily obscured during his struggle with the demons of
darkness. It is impossible to explain the expression tamasi
kshiyantam (dwelling in darkness) on any other theory; and if this
explanation is accepted, it is not difficult to understand how the solar
orb could be said to be utilized by Indra in vanquishing the demons
and regaining the morning light. In other words, Indra helps the sun in
destroying the obstruction which marred or clouded his luster, and
when this obstruction is removed the sun regains his light and rises
up from the nether ocean. Indra is, therefore, correctly described in
IV, 17, 14 as having stopped the wheel of the sun, and, turning it
round, flung it into the concealing darkness at the bottom of rajas or
in the nether world of darkness. But the passage important for our
purpose is VI, 31, 3. It reads as follows: —

Tvam Kutsena abhi Shushnam Indra

Ashushaim yudhya Kuyavam gavishtau
Dasha prapitve adha Sûryasya
mushâyas chakram avive rapâmsi

The first half of the verse presents no difficulty. It means “O

Indra! in the striving for the cows, do you, with Kutsa, fight against
Shushna, the Ashusha and the Kuyava.”* Here Ashusha, and Kuyava
are used as adjectives to Shushna

ु े
* See Rig. VI, 31, 3, — तव ं कनािभ ु ु कयव
ु ं य
शिमाशष ु ं गिवौ । दश परिप े

अध सय ु
ू  मषायबमिववरपािस
े ं ॥
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and mean “the voracious Shushna, the bane of the crops.” The
second hemistich, however, is not so simple. The last phrase avive-
rapâmsi is split in the Pada text as aviveh and rapâmsi, which means
“destroy calamities or mischiefs (rapâmsi). But Prof. Oldenberg
proposes to divide the phrase as aviveh and apâmsi, in conformity
with IV, 19, 10, and translates, “Thou hast manifested thy manly
works (apâmsi).”* It is not, however, necessary for our present
purpose to examine the relative merits of these two interpretations;
and we may, therefore, adopt the older of the two, which translates
the phrase as meaning, “Thou hast destroyed calamities or mischiefs
(rapâmsi).” Omitting the first two words, viz., dasha and prapitve, the
second hemistich may, therefore, be rendered, “Thou hast stolen the
wheel of Sûrya and hast destroyed calamities.” We have now to
ascertain the meaning of dash prapitve. Sâyana takes dasha as
equivalent to adashah (lit., bittest, from damsh, to bite), and prapitve
to mean “in the battle” — and translates, “Thou bittest him in the
battle.” But this is evidently a forced meaning and one that does not
harmonize with other passages, where the same legend is described.
Thus in IV, 16, 12, we are told that Shushna was killed at ahnah
prapitve, and the last phrase evidently denotes the time when
Shushna was defeated, while in V, 31, 7, Indra is described as having
checked the wiles of Shushna by reaching prapitvam. By the side of
the expression dasha prapitve, we thus have two more passages in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, referring to the same legend, and in one of which
Shushna is said to be killed at the prapitva of the day (ahnah
prapitve), while in the other, the wiles of the demon are said to be
checked by Indra on reaching prapitvam. The three expressions,
dasha prapitve, ahnah prapitve and prapitvam yan, must, therefore,
be taken to be synonymous and whatever meaning we assign to
prapitve, it must be applicable to all the three cases. The word
prapitve is used several times in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but scholars are not
agreed as to its meaning.

* See Oldenberg’s Vedic Hymns, S. B. E. Series, Vol. XLVI, p. 69.

 301

Thus Grassmann gives two meanings of prapitva. The first denoting

“advance,” and the second “the beginning of the day.” According to
him ahnah prapitve means “in the morning” (IV, 16, 12). But he would
render prapitvam yan simply by “advancing.” In VI, 31, 3, he would
also take prapitve as meaning “in the morning.” The word prapitve
also occurs in I, 189, 7, and there Prof. Oldenberg translates it by “at
the time of advancing day,” and quotes Geldner in support thereof.
Sâyana in VIII, 4, 3, translates âpitve by “friendship” and prapitve by
“having acquired,” (cf. Nir. III, 20). Under these circumstances it is I
think, safer to ascertain the meaning of prapitve direct from these
Vedic passages where it occurs in contrast with other words. Thus in
VII, 41, 4 (Vâj. Sam. XXXIV, 37) and VIII, 1, 29, we find prapitve very
distinctly contrasted with madhye (the middle) and uditâ (the
beginning) of the day; and in both these places prapitve can mean
nothing but “the decline or the end of the day.”* Mahîdhara, on Vâj.
Sam. XXXIV, 37, explains prapitve as equivalent to prapatane or
astamaye, meaning “the decline fall, or end of the day.” Adopting this
meaning, the phrase ahnah prapitve ni barhîh, in IV, 16, 12, would
then mean that Shushna was killed “when the day had declined.”
Now if Shushna was killed when the day had declined the phrase
dasha prapitve ought to be, by analogy, interpreted in the same way.
But it is difficult to do so, so long as dasha is separated from prapitve,
as is done in the Pada text. I propose therefore, that dasha-prapitve
be taken as one word, and interpreted to mean “at the decline of the
ten,” meaning that Shushna was killed at the end or completion of ten
(months). In I, 141, 2, the phrase dasha-pramatim is taken as a
compound word in the Pada text, but Oldenberg, following the
Petersberg

े
* Rig. VII, 41, 4, — उतदान भगवः सयामोत परिप उत म े अाम । उतोिदता मघवन
ू  वय ं दवाना
सय े ु
ं समतौ सयाम ॥ Rig. VIII, 1, 29, — मम तवा सरू उिदत े मम मिन े
े  े वसवा सतोमासो अत ॥ These two passages clearly
िदवः । मम परिपिपशवर
prove that prapitve, used with reference to the day, denotes decline or the
termination thereof.
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Lexicon, splits it into dasha and pramatim. I propose to deal exactly in

the reverse way with the phrase dasha prapitve in the passage under
consideration and translate the verse thus “O Indra! in the striving for
cows do thou, with Kutsa, fight against Shushna, the Ashusha and
Kuyava ... On the decline (or the completion) of the ten (scil. months),
thou stolest the wheel of Sûrya and didst destroy calamities (or,
according to Oldenberg, manifest manly works).” The passage thus
becomes intelligible, and we are not required to invent a new
meaning for dasha and make Indra bite his enemy on the battle-field.
If we compare the phrase dasha-prapitve with ahnah-prapitve
occurring in IV, 16, 12, and bear in mind the fact that both are used in
connection with the legendary fight with Shushna we are naturally led
to suppose that dasha-prapitve denotes, in all probability, the time of
the contest, as anhah-prapitve does in the other passage, and that
dasha-prapitve must be taken as equivalent to dashânam prapitve
and translated to mean “On the completion of the ten,” which can be
done by taking dasha-prapitve as a compound word. The
grammatical construction being thus determined, the only question
that remains is to decide whether dasha (ten) means ten days or ten
months. A comparison with ahnah prapitve may suggest “days,” but
the fight with Shushna cannot be regarded to have been fought every
ten days. It is either annual or daily; and we are thus led to interpret
dasha in the compound dasha-prapitve (or dashânâm when the
compound is dissolved) as equivalent to ten months in the same way
as the numeral dvâdashasya is interpreted to mean “of the twelfth
month,” or dvâdashasya mâsasya in VII, 103, 9, The passage thus
denotes the exact time when the wheel of the sun, or the solar orb,
was stolen by Indra and utilized as a weapon of attack to demolish
the demons of darkness. This was done at the end of ten months, or
at the end of the Roman year, or at the close of the sacrificial session
of the Dashagvas who with India are said to have found the sun
dwelling in darkness. The construction of the passage proposed
above is not only natural and simple, but
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the sense it gives is in harmony with the meaning of similar other

passages relating to the fight of Shushna, and is far more rational
than the current meaning which makes Indra bite his enemy in a
rustic and unprecedented manner. It is the Pada text that is
responsible for the present unnatural meaning; for if it had not split up
the phrase dasha and prapitve its correct meaning might not have
become so obscure as at present. But the Pada text is not infallible;
and even Yâska and Sâyana have adopted amendments in certain
cases (cf. I, 105, 18; X, 29, 1; and Nir V, 21; VI, 28), and the same
thing has been done rather more freely by Western scholars. We are
not therefore, following an untrodden path in giving up the Pada text,
especially when the verse is more naturally and intelligently
interpreted by taking dasha-prapitve as one compound word. When
the verse is so interpreted we get a complete account of the annual
course of the sun in the home of the Aryans in ancient days. It was
Indra, who caused the sun to rise after his long fight with Vṛitra; and
when the sun had shone for ten months, Indra stole the solar orb and
took the sun with him into darkness to fight with the demons. That is
the meaning of the whole legend; and when it can be so naturally
explained only by the Arctic theory, the necessity of the latter
becomes at once established.

Vishnu’s Three Strides

There are a few more Vedic legends which indicate or suggest

the Arctic conditions of climate or calendar, and I propose to briefly
examine them in this chapter. One of these legends relates to Vishnu
and his three long strides, which are distinctly mentioned in several
places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 22, 17, 18; I, 154, 2). Yâska (Nir. XII, 19)
quotes the opinion of two older writers regarding the character of
these three steps. One of these, viz. Shâkapûni holds that the three
steps must be placed on the earth, in the atmosphere and in the sky;
while Aurnavâbha thinks that the three steps must be located, one on
the hill where the sun rises (samârohana), another on the meridian
sky (Vishnu-pada), and the third on the hill
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of setting (gaya-shiras). Prof. Max Müller thinks that this three-fold

stepping of Vishnu is emblematic of the rising, the culminating and
the setting of the sun; and Muir quotes a passage from the
Râmâyana (IV, 40, 64), which mentions udaya parvata, or the
mountain of sun-rise, and says that on the top of it is the peak
Saumanasa, the place where Vishnu’s first step was planted. We are
then told that his second step was placed on the summit of Meru; and
that “when the sun had circled round Jambudvîpa by the north, he is
mostly visible on that lofty peak.” It seems, therefore, that according
to the Râmâyana the third step of Vishnu was round Jambudvîpa,
and was planted after sunset, whatever that may mean. In the
Purânic literature, Vishnu’s three steps appear as the three steps of
Vâmana, the fifth incarnation of Vishnu. Bali, the powerful enemy of
the gods, was celebrating a sacrifice, when, assuming the form of a
dwarf, Vishnu approached him, and begged for three paces of
ground. No sooner the request was granted than Vishnu assumed a
miraculous form and occupied the whole earth by the first step and
the atmosphere and everything above it with the second. Bali, who
was the lord of the universe before, was surprised at the
metamorphosis of the dwarf; but had to make good his own word by
offering his head for the third step of Vâmana. The offer was
accepted and Bali was pressed down under the third step into the
nether world, and the empire of the earth and heavens above was
again restored to Indra from whom it had been snatched away by
Bali. Amongst these various interpretations one thing stands out very
clear, viz., that Vishnu represents the sun in one form or another. But
Vedic scholars are not agreed as to whether Vishnu’s strides
represent the daily or the yearly course of the sun. We must,
therefore, carefully examine the Vedic passages relating to Vishnu,
and see if any indication is found therein to decide which of these two
views is more probable or correct. Now in I, 155, 6, Vishnu is
described as setting in motion, like a revolving wheel, his ninety
steeds with their four names, evidently referring to 360 days, divided
into four groups or
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seasons of 90 days each. This is good evidence to hold that the

yearly course of the sun must be taken as the basis of the exploits of
Vishnu. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda further tells us that Vishnu was the intimate
friend of Indra (yujyah sakhâ, I, 22, 19), and that he assisted Indra in
his fight with Vṛitra. Thus in IV, 18, 11, we are told that “Indra about to
kill Vṛitra said ‘O friend Vishnu! stride vastly,’ (also cf. VIII, 12, 27)”;
and in 1, 156, 4, Vishnu is said to have opened the cows’ stable with
the assistance of his friend, while both Indra and Vishnu are
described as having together vanquished Shambara, conquered the
host of Varchins and produced the sun, dawn and the fire in VII, 99, 4
and 5. It is evident from these passages that Vishnu was the
associate of Indra in his fight with Vṛitra (cf. VIII, 100, 12); and if so,
one of the three steps must be placed in regions where this fight was
fought, that is, in the nether world. We can now understand why, in I,
155, 5, it is said that two of the three steps of Vishnu are visible to
man, but the third is beyond the reach of birds or mortals (also cf. VII,
99, 1). When the third step of Vishnu is located in the nether world, it
can well be said to be invisible, or beyond the reach of mortals. We
have seen that the abode of Vṛitra is said to be hidden and filled with
darkness and waters. If Vishnu helped Indra in his fight with Vṛitra, his
third step must be taken to correspond with the home of Vṛitra; in
other words, Vishnu’s strides represent the annual course of the sun
divided into three parts. During two of these the sun was above the
horizon, and hence two of Vishnu’s three strides were said to be
visible. But when in the third or the last part of the year the sun went
below the horizon producing continuous darkness, Vishnu’s third step
was said to be invisible. It was then that he helped Indra to demolish
Vṛitra and bring back the dawn, the sun and the sacrifice. It has been
shown in the last chapter that Indra’s fight with Shambara
commenced on the fortieth day of Sharad or in the eighth month after
the beginning of the year with Vasanta. These eight months of
sunshine and four of darkness may very well be represented by two
visible and one invisible step of Vishnu, and the Purânic story
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of Vishnu sleeping for four months in the year further supports the
same view. It may also be noticed that Vishnu is said to sleep on his
serpent-bed in the midst of the ocean; and the ocean and the serpent
here alluded to are evidently the waters (âpah) and Ahi or Vṛitra
mentioned in the Vṛitra legend. It is said that the sleep of Vishnu
represents the rainy season of four months; but this is a later
misrepresentation of the kind we have noticed in the last chapter in
regard to waters When the exploits of Indra were transferred from the
last season of the year, viz., Hemanta to Varshâ or the rainy season,
the period, during which Vishnu lay dormant, must have been
naturally misunderstood in the same way and identified with the rainy
season. But originally Vishnu’s sleep and his third step must have
been identical; and as the third step is said to be invisible, we cannot
suppose that it was planted in the rainy season, which is visible
enough. The long darkness of the winter night in the Arctic region can
alone adequately represent the third step of Vishnu or the period of
his sleep; and the legend about the Phrygian god, who, according to
Plutarch, was believed to sleep during winter and resume his activity
during summer, has been interpreted by Prof. Rhys in the same way.
The Irish couvade of the Ultonian heroes also points out to the same
conclusion.*
But apart from the sleep of Vishnu which is Purânic, we have a
Vedic legend which has the same meaning. In the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (VII, 100,
6), Vishnu is represented as having a bad name, viz., shipivishta.
Thus the poet says, “O Vishnu! what was there to be blamed in thee
when thou declaredest ‘I am shipivishta’?” Yâska records (Nir. V, 7-9)
an old tradition that according to Aupamanyava, Vishnu has two
names Shipivishta and Vishnu, of which the former has a bad sense
(kutsitârthîyam); and then quotes the aforesaid verse which he
explains in two ways. The first of these two interpretations accords
with that of Aupamanyava; and shipivishta is there

* See Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 632. The passage is quoted in full in Chap.
XII, infra.
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explained by Yâska, to mean shepah iva nirveshtitah, or “enveloped

like the private parts,” or “with rays obscured” (apratipanna-rashmih).
Yâska, however, suggests an alternative interpretation and observes
that shipivishta may be taken as a laudatory appellation, meaning
“one whose rays (shipayah) are displayed (âvishtâh).” It is inferred by
some scholars from this passage that the meaning of the word
shipivishta had already become uncertain in the days of Yâska; but I
do not think it probable, for even in later literature shipivishta is an
opprobrious appellation meaning either “one whose hair has fallen
off,” or “one who is afflicted with an incurable skin disease.” The exact
nature of the affliction may be uncertain; but there can be no doubt
that shipivishta has a bad meaning even in later Sanskrit literature.
But in days when the origin of this phrase, as applied to Vishnu, was
forgotten, theologians and scholars naturally tried to divest the phrase
of its opprobrious import by proposing alternative meanings; and
Yâska was probably the first Nairukta to formulate a good meaning
for shipivishta by suggesting that shipi may be taken to mean “rays.”
That is why the passage from the Mahâbhârata (Shânti-Parvan,
Chap. 342, vv. 69-71), quoted by Muir, tells us that Yâska was the
first to apply the epithet to Vishnu; and it is unreasonable to infer from
it, as Muir has done, that the writer of the Mahâbhârata “was not a
particularly good Vedic scholar.” In the Taittirîya Samhitâ, we are told
that Vishnu was worshipped as Shipivishta (II, 2, 12, 4 and 5), and
that shipi means cattle or pashavah (II, 5, 5, 2; Tân. Br. XVIII, 16, 26).
Shipivishta is thus explained as a laudatory appellation by taking shipi
equal to “cattle,” “sacrifice” or “rays.” But these etymological devices
have failed to invest the word with a good sense in Sanskrit literature;
and this fact by itself is sufficient to show that the word shipivishta
originally was, and has always been, a term of reproach indicating
some bodily affliction, though the nature of it was not exactly known.
The theological scholars, it is true, have tried to explain the word in a
different sense; but this is due to their unwillingness to give
opprobrious names
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to their gods, rather than to any uncertainty about the real meaning of
the word. It was thus that the word shipivishta, which is originally a
bad name (kutsitârthiyam) according to Aupamanyava, was
converted into a. mysterious (guhya) name for the deity. But this
transition of meaning is confined only to the theological literature, and
did not pass over into the non-theological works, for the obvious
reason that in., ordinary language the bad meaning of the word was
sufficiently familiar to the people. There can, therefore, be little doubt
that, in VII, 100, 5 and 6, shipivishta is used in a bad sense as, stated
by Aupamanyava. These verses have been translated by Muir as
follows: — “I, a devoted worshipper, who know the sacred rites, today
celebrate this thy name shipivishta, I, who am weak, laud thee who
art-strong and dwellest beyond this lower world (kshayantam asya
rajasah parâke). What, Vishnu, hast thou to blame, that thou
declaredest, ‘I am Shipivishta. Do not conceal from us this form
(varpas) since thou didst assume another shape in the battle.” The
phrase “dwelling in the lower world” (rajasah parâke), or “beyond this
world,” furnishes us with a clue to the real meaning of the passage. It
was in the nether world that Vishnu bore this bad name. And what
was the bad name after all? Shipivishta, or “enveloped like shepa,”
meaning that his rays were obscured, or that he was temporarily
concealed in a dark cover. The poet, therefore, asks Vishnu not to be
ashamed of the epithet, because, says he, the form indicated by the
bad name is only temporarily assumed, as a dark armor, for the
purpose of fighting with the Asuras, and as it was no longer needed,
Vishnu is invoked to reveal his true form (varpas) to the worshipper.
That is the real meaning of the verses quoted above, and in spite of
the attempt of Yâska and other scholars to convert the bad name of
Vishnu into a good one by the help of etymological speculations, it is
plain that shipivishta was a bad name, and that it signified the dark
outer appearance of Vishnu in his fight with the demons in the nether
world. If the sun is called brihach-chhepas when moving in regions
above the horizon, he can be very well described
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as shipivishta or enveloped like shepa, “when moving in the nether

world” and there is hardly anything therein of which the deity or his
worshippers should be ashamed. Later Purânic tradition represents
Vishnu as sleeping during this period; but whether we take it as sleep
or disease it means one and the same thing. It is the story of Vishnu
going down to the nether world, dark or diseased, to plant his third
step on the head of the Asuras, or in a dark armor to help Indra in his
struggle for waters and light, a struggle, which, we have seen, lasted
for a long time and resulted in the flowing of waters, the recovery of
the dawn and the coming out of the sun in a bright armor after a long
and continuous darkness.
A comparison with the abodes of other Vedic deities, who are
said to traverse the whole universe like Vishnu confirms the same
view. One of these deities is Savitri, who in V, 81, 3, is described as
measuring the world (rajâmsi) and in I, 35, 6, we are told “There are
three heavens (dyâvah) of Savitri, two of them are near and the third,
bearing the brave, is in the world of Yama.” This means that two of
Savitṛi’s three abodes are in the upper heaven and one in the nether
world or the kingdom of Yama. The second deity that traverses or
measures the universe is Agni (VI, 7, 7). He has three stations, one in
samudra or ocean, one in heaven (divi) and one in the waters or apsu
(I, 95, 3). His light is spoken of as three-fold (III, 26, 7), he has three
heads (I, 146, 1) and three seats, powers or tongues (III, 20, 2; VIII,
39, 8). Now although these three stations do not seem to be always
conceived alike, yet one of them at any rate can be clearly identified
with the third step of Vishnu; for in X, 1, 3, we are told that the third
station of Agni is known only to Vishnu, while in V, 3, 3, Agni, with the
upama (last or highest) step of Vishnu, is said to guard the sacred
cows. This description agrees well with I, 154, 5 and 6, where swift
moving cows and a spring of honey are said to exist in the place
where the highest step of Vishnu is planted. It has been shown above
that Agni sometimes represents the sun
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in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and that his hiding in the waters and coming out of
them as apâm napât or the child of waters is only a different version
of the sun sinking below the horizon for a long time and then
emerging out of the nether ocean at the end of the long Arctic night.
Vishnu is also the same sun under a different name, and the third
step of Vishnu and the third or the hidden abode of Agni can,
therefore, be easily recognized as identical in character. The third
deity that traverses the universe is the Ashvins to whom the epithet
parijman or “going round” is applied several times in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I,
46, 14; I, 117, 6). The Ashvins are said to have three stations (VIII, 8,
23), and their chariot, which is said to go over both the worlds alike (I,
30, 18), has three wheels one of which is represented as deposited in
a cave or a secret place, like the third step of Vishnu, which is beyond
the ken of mortals (cf. X, 85, 14-16). This co-incidence between the
third stations of the three different world-traversing gods cannot be
treated as accidental; and if so, the combined effect of all the
passages stated above will be clearly seen to point out to the
conclusion that the third or the hidden place, dwelling or abode in
each case must be sought for in the nether world, the world of the
Pitṛis, of Yama, of waters and darkness.

Trita Âptya

It has been stated above that the year divided into three parts
of 4 months each represents the three steps of Vishnu; and that the
first two parts were said to be visible as contrasted with the third
which was hidden, because in the ancient home of the Aryan people
the sun was above the horizon only for about 8 months. If we
personify these three parts of the year, we get a legend of three
brothers, the first two of whom may be described as arranging to
throw the third into a pit of darkness. This is exactly the story of Trita
Âptya in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda or of Thrâetaona in the Avesta. Thus Sâyana,
in his commentary on I, 105, quotes a passage from the Taittirîya
Brâhmana (III, 2, 8, 10-11) and also a story of the Shâtyâyanins
giving the
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legend of three brothers called Ekata, Dvita and Trita, or the first, the
second and the third, the former two of whom threw the last or Trita
into a well from which he was taken out by Bṛihaspati. But in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda Ekata is not mentioned anywhere; while Dvita, which
grammatically means the second, is met with in two places (V, 18, 2;
VIII, 47, 16). Dvita is the seer of the 18th hymn in the fifth Mandala,
and in the second verse of the hymn he is said to receive maimed
offerings; while in VIII, 47, 16, the dawn is asked to bear away the evil
dream to Dvita and Trita. Grammatical analogy points out that Trita
must mean the third, and in VI, 44, 23, the word triteshu is used as a
numeral adjective to rochaneshu meaning “in the third region.” As a
Vedic deity Trita is called Âptya, meaning “born of or residing in
waters” (Sây. on VIII, 47, 15); and he is referred to in several places,
being associated with the Maruts and Indra in slaying the demon or
the powers of darkness like Vṛitra. Thus in X, 8, 8, Trita, urged by
Indra, is said to have fought against and slain the three-headed (tri-
shiras) son of Tvashtṛi and released the cows; while in X, 99, 6, we
read that Indra subdued the loud-roaring six-eyed demon and Trita
strengthened by the same draught, slew the boar (varâha) with his
iron-pointed bolt. But the most important incident in the story of Trita
is mentioned in 1, 105. In this hymn Trita is described as having fallen
into a kûpa or well, which is also called vavra or a pit in X, 8, 7. Trita
then invoked the gods for help and Bṛihaspati hearing his prayers
released him from his distress (I, 105, 17). Some of the verses in the
hymn are very suggestive; for instance in verse 9, Trita tells us about
his “kinship with the seven rays in the heaven. Trita Âptya knows it
and he speaks for kinship.” The ruddy Vṛika, or the wolf of darkness,
is again described in verse 18 as having perceived Trita going by the
way. These references show that Trita was related to the powers of
light, but had the misfortune of being thrown into darkness. In IX, 102,
2, Trita’s abode is said to be hidden or secret, a description similar to
that of the third step of Vishnu. The same story is
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found in the Avesta. There Thrâetaona, who bears the patronymic

epithet Âthwya (Sans. Âptya), is described as slaying the fiendish
serpent Azi Dahâka, who is said to be three-mouthed and six-eyed
(Yt. XIX, 36.39; V, 33-34). But what is still more remarkable in the
Avestic legend is that Thrâetaona in his expedition against the demon
is said to have been accompanied by his two brothers who sought to
slay him on the way.* The Avestic legend thus fully corroborates the
story of the Shâtyâyanins quoted by Sâyana and when the two
accounts agree so well we cannot lightly set aside the story in the
Brâhmana, or hold that it was woven out of stray references in the
‫ي‬ig-Veda. But in the absence of the Arctic theory, or the theory of
long darkness extending over nearly four months or a third part of the
year, European Scholars have been at a loss to understand why the
deity should have been named “the Third”; and various ingenious
theories have been started to explain how Trita, which ordinarily
means the third, came to denote the deity that was thrown into a pit
or well in a distant land. Thus Prof. Max Müller thinks that the name
of the deity was originally Tṛita (तृत) and not Trita (िञत) and he derives
the former from root trî (तृ) to cross. Tṛita (तृत) which, by-the-by, is not
a regular grammatical form though found in the Âtharva Veda VI, 113,
I and 3, would thus mean “the sun crossing the ocean,” being in this
respect comparable to tarani which means “the sun” in the later
Sanskrit literature. In short, according to Prof. Max Müller, Tṛita (तृत)
means the “set sun”; and the story of Trita (िञत) is, therefore, only a
different version of the daily struggle between light and darkness. But
Prof. Max Müller’s theory requires us to assume that this
misconception or the corruption of Tṛita (तृत) into Trita (िञत) took place
before the Aryan separation, inasmuch as in Old Irish we have the
word triath which means the sea, and which is phonetically

* See Spiegel, Die Arische Periode, p. 271, quoted by Macdonell in his

Vedic Mythology, § 23. Also compare S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXIII, p. 222,
note 2.
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equivalent to Greek triton, Sanskrit trita and Zend thrita. Prof. Max
Müller himself admits the validity of this objection, and points out that
the Old Norse Thridi, a name of Odin, as the mate of Har and
Jasnhar, can be accounted for only or, the supposition that trita (तृत)
was changed by a misapprehension into trita (िञत) long before the
Aryan separation. This shows to what straits scholars are reduced in
explaining certain myths in the absence of the true key to their
meaning. We assume, without the slightest authority, that a
misapprehension must have taken place before the Aryan separation,
because we cannot explain why a deity was called “the Third,” and
why triath in Old Irish was used to denote the sea. But the whole
legend can be now very easily and naturally explained by the Arctic
theory. The personified third part of the year, called Trita or the Third,
is naturally described as going into darkness, or a well or pit, or into
the waters of the nether world, for the sun went below the horizon
during that period in the home of the ancestors of the Vedic people.
The connection of Trita with darkness and waters, or his part in the
Vṛitra fight, or the use of the word triath to denote the sea in Old Irish
now becomes perfectly plain and intelligible. The nether world is the
home of aerial waters and Bṛihaspati, who is said to have released
the cows from their place of confinement in a cave in the nether
world, is naturally spoken of as rescuing Trita, when he was sunk in
the well of waters. Speaking of the abode of Trita, Prof. Max Müller
observes that the hiding place of Trita, the vavra, is really the same
anârambhanam tamas, the endless darkness, from which light and
some of its legendary representatives, such as Atri, Vandana and
others emerged every day.” I subscribe to every word of this
sentence except the last two. It shows how the learned Professor
saw, but narrowly missed grasping the truth having nothing else to
guide him except the Dawn and the Vernal theory. He had perceived
that Trita’s hiding place was in the endless darkness and that the sun
rose out of the same dark region; and from this to the Arctic theory
was but a small step. But
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whatever the reason may be, the Professor did not venture to go
further, and the result is that an otherwise correct conception of the
mythological incidents in Trita’s legend is marred by two ominous
words viz., “every day,” at the end of the sentence quoted above.
Strike off the last two words, put a full point after “emerged,” and in
the light of the Arctic theory we have a correct explanation or the
legend of Trita as well as of the origin of the name, Trita or the Third.

APAH

The nature and movement of aerial or celestial waters have

been discussed at length in the last chapter and practically there is
very little that remains to be said on this point. We have also seen
how the nether world or the world of waters was conceived like an
inverted hemisphere or tub, so that anyone going there was said to
go to the region of endless darkness or bottomless waters. A
mountainous range was again believed to extend over the borders of
this ocean, forming a stony wall as it were between the upper and the
lower world; and when the waters were to be freed to flow upwards, it
was necessary to pierce through the mountainous range and clear
the apertures which were closed by Vṛitra by stretching his body
across them. In one place the well or avata, which Brahmanaspati
opened, is said to be closed at its mouth with stones (ashmâsyam, II,
24, 4), and in X, 67, 3, the stony barriers (ashmanmayâni nahanâ) of
the prison wherein the cows were confined are expressly mentioned.
A mountain, parvata; is also said to exist in the belly of Vṛitra (1, 54,
10), and Shambara is described as dwelling on the mountains. We
have seen how the word parvata occurring in this connection has
been misunderstood ever since the days of the Nairuktas, who,
though they did a yeoman’s service to the cause of Vedic
interpretation, seem to have sometimes carried their etymological
method too far. The connection of the nether world of waters with
mountains and darkness may thus be taken as established, and the
legends of Vṛitra, Bhujyu, Saptavadhri, Tṛita, &c., further show that
the nether
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waters formed not only the home of the evil spirits and the scene of
fights with them, but that it was the place which Sûrya, Agni, Vishnu,
the Ashvins and Trita had all to visit during a portion of the year. It
was the place where Vishnu slept, or hid himself, when afflicted with
a kind of skin-disease, and where the sacrificial horse, which
represented the sun, was harnessed by Trita and first bestrode by
Indra (I, 163, 2). It was the place from which the seven aerial rivers
rose up with the seven suns to illumine the ancient home of the Aryan
race for seven months, and into which they again dropped with the
sun after that period. It was the same waters that formed the source
of earthly waters by producing rain by their circulation through the
upper regions of heaven. These waters were believed to stretch from
west to east underneath the three earths, thus forming at once the
place of desolation and the place of the birth of the sun and other
matutinal deities mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. It was the place where
Vṛitra concealed the cows in a stony stable and where Varuna and
Yama reigned supreme and the fathers (Pitṛis) lived in comfort and
delight. As regards the division of this watery region, we might say
that the Vedic bards conceived the nether world as divided in the
same way as the earth and the heaven. Thus there were three, seven
or ten lower worlds to match with the threefold or ten-fold division of
the heaven and the earth. It will thus be seen that a right conception
of the nether waters and their movement is quite necessary for
understanding the real meaning of many a Vedic and we might even
say, the Purânic legends, for the latter are generally based either
upon the Vedic legends or some one or other incident mentioned in
them. If this universal and comprehensive character of the waters be
not properly understood many legends will appear dark, confused or
mysterious; and I have therefore, summed up in this place the leading
characteristics of the goddesses of water as conceived by the Vedic
poets and discussed in the foregoing pages. In the post-Vedic
literature many of these characteristics are predicated of the
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sea of salt water on the surface of the earth, much in the same way
as the Greek Okeanos, which has been shown to be phonetically
identical with the Sanskrit word âshayâna or enveloping, came to
denote the ocean or the sea in European languages. Thus Bhartṛihari
in his Vairâgya-Shataka (v. 76) says: “Oh! how extensive, grand and
patient is the body of the ocean! For here sleeps Keshava (Vishnu)
here the clan of his enemies (Vṛitra and other demons of darkness);
here lie also the host of mountains (the parvata of the Vedas) in
search of shelter; and here too (lies) the Mare’s fire (submarine fire)
with all the Samvartakas (clouds).” This is intended to be a summary
of the Purânic legends regarding the ocean, but it can be easily seen
that every one of them is based upon the Vedic conception of the
nature and movements of aerial waters, which formed the very
material out of which the world was believed to be created. After this
it is needless to explain why Apah occupied such an important place
in the Vedic pantheon.

Seven-fold Nine-fold and Ten-fold

It is stated above that the nether waters are divided after the
manner of the heaven and the earth, either into three, seven or ten
divisions. We have also seen that the ancient sacrificers completed
their sacrificial session in seven, nine or ten months; and that the
Navagvas and the Dashagvas are, therefore, sometimes mentioned
together, sometimes separately and sometimes along with the seven
sages or vipras. I have also briefly referred to the seven-fold division,
which generally obtains not only in the Vedic, but also in other Aryan
mythologies. But the subject deserves a fuller consideration, and I
propose here to collect certain facts bearing upon it, which seem to
have hitherto attracted but little attention. All that Yâska and Sâyana
tell us about the seven-fold division is that there are seven horses of
the sun and seven tongues or flames of Agni, because the rays of the
sun are seven in number; and the late Mr. S. P. Pandit goes so far as
to assert that the seven rays here referred
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to may be the prismatic colors with which we are familiar in the

Science of optics, or the seven colors of the rainbow. All this appears
to be very satisfactory at the first sight, but our complacency is
disturbed as soon as we are told that along with the seven rays and
horses of the sun, the ‫ي‬ig-Veda speaks of ten horses or ten rays of
the same luminary. Yâska and Sâyana get over the difficulty either by
ignoring or by explaining away, in a tortuous manner, all references to
the ten-fold division of this kind. But the places where it is mentioned
are too many to allow us to lightly set aside the ten-fold division,
which occurs along with the seven-fold one in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; and we
must find out why this double division is recorded in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda But
before inquiring into it, we shall collect all the facts and see how far
this double division extends in the Vedic literature..
We begin with the sun. He is described as seven-horsed
(saptâshva) in V, 45, 9, and his chariot is described as seven
wheeled, or yoked with seven horses, or one seven-named horse in I,
164, 3. The seven bay steeds (haritah) are also mentioned as
drawing the carriage of the sun in I, 50, 8. But in IX, 63, 9, the sun is
said to have yoked ten horses to his carriage; and the wheel of the
year-god is said to be carried by ten horses in I, 164, 14. In the
Atharva Veda XI, 4, 22, the sun’s carriage is, however, said to be
eight-wheeled (ashtâ-chakra).
Indra is called sapta-rashmi in II, 12, 12, and his chariot, is also
said to be seven-rayed in VI, 44, 24. But in V, 33, 8, ten white horses
are said to bear him; while in VIII, 24, 23, Indra is said to be “the tenth
new” (dashamam navam). In the Taittirîya Âranyaka III, 11, 1, Indra’s
self is said to be going about ten-fold (Indrasya âtmânam dashadhâ
charantam); and corresponding to it, it may be here noticed, we have
in. the Bahrâm Yasht, in the Avesta, ten incarnations of Vere-
thraghna (Sans. Vṛitrahan) specifically mentioned. Amongst the
protégés of Indra we again have one called Dasha-dyu, or one
shining ten-fold (I, 33, 14; VI, 26, 4); while Dashoni, a being with ten
arms or helpers, and Dasha-mâya, or a
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ten-wiled person, are mentioned amongst those whom Indra forced to

submit to Dyotana in VI, 20, 8. Dashonya and Dashashipra are also
mentioned to have been by the side of Indra when he drank Soma
with Syûmarashmi in VIII, 52, 2.
The chariot of Soma and Pûshan is described as five-rayed and
seven-wheeled in II, 40, 3. But Soma is said to have ten rays
(rashmayah) in IX, 97, 23.
Agni is described as sapta-rashmi or seven-rayed in I, 146, 1,
and his rays are expressly said to be seven in II, 5, 2. His horses are
similarly described as seven-tongued in III, 6, 2. But in I, 141, 2, Agni
is said to be dasha-pramati, and his ten secret dwellings are
mentioned in X, 51, 3. The adjective navamam or the ninth is also
applied to the youngest (navishthâya) Agni in V, 27, 3, much in the
same way as dashamam is applied to the new (nava) Indra in VIII,
24, 23.
Seven dhîtis, prayers or devotions of sacrificial priests, are
mentioned in IX, 8, 4. But in I, 144, 5, their number is said to be ten.
Foods are said to be seven in III, 4, 7. But in I, 122, 13, the food
is described as divided ten-fold. In the Shatapatha Brâhmana I, 8, 1,
34, havih, or sacrificial oblation, is, however described as made in ten
ways.
Seven vipras (III, 7, 7), or seven sacrificers (hotârah), are
mentioned in several places (III, 10, 4; IV, 2, 15; X, 63, 7). But in III,
39, 5, the number of the Dashagvas is expressly stated to be ten. Ten
sacrificers (hotârah) are also mentioned in the Taittirîya Brâhmana II,
2, 1, 1, and II, 2, 4, 1.
Bṛihaspati, the first-born sacrificer, is described as seven-
mouthed or saptâsya in IV, 50, 4, and the same verse occurs in the
Atharva Veda (XX, 88, 4). But in the Atharva Veda IV, 6, I the first
Brâhmana Bṛihaspati is said to be dashâsya, or ten-mouthed, and
dasha-shirsha or ten-headed. Seven heads of the Brâhmana are not
expressly mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but in X, 67, 1, “our-father,”
meaning the father of the Angirases, is said to have acquired seven-
headed (sapta-shîrshnî) devotion or intelligence (dhî).
Seven divisions of the earth are mentioned in I, 22, 16.
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But the earths are said to be ten (dashâvani) in X, 94, 7, (also

cf. I, 52, 11).
The cows’ stable which the Ashvins opened is said to be
saptâsya or seven-mouthed in X, 40, 8. But a ten-fold cows’ stable
(dashavraja) is mentioned in VIII, 8, 20; 49, 10; 50, 9.
In X, 93, 4, Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna Rudra, Maruts, Pûshan and
Bhaga are mentioned as seven kings. But ten god-like
(hiranyasandrisha) kings are referred to in VIII, 5, 38, and ten non-
sacrificing (avajyavah) kings are mentioned in VII, 83, 7. The Atharva
Veda, XI, 8, 10, further tells us that there were only ten ancient gods.
These references will make it clear that if the horses of the sun
are mentioned as seven in one place, they are said to be ten in
another; and so there are seven devotions and ten devotions; seven
earths and ten earths; seven cowpens and ten cowpens, and so on.
This double division may not be equally explicit in all cases; but, on
the whole, there can be no doubt that the several objects mentioned
in the above passages are conceived as divided in a double manner,
once as seven-fold and once as ten-fold. To this double division may
be added the three-fold division of the heaven, the earth and the
nether world or Nir-ṛiti; and the eleven-fold division of gods in the
heaven, the earth and waters mentioned previously. In the Atharva
Veda XI, 7, 14, nine earths, nine oceans and nine skies are also
mentioned, and the same division again occurs in the Atharvashiras
Upanishad, 6. Now it is, evident that the theory started by Yâska
cannot explain all these different methods of division. We: might say
that the three-fold division was suggested by the heaven, the earth
and the lower world. But how are we to account far all kinds of
division from seven to eleven? So far as I am aware there is no
attempt made to explain the principle of division underlying these
different classifications. But now the analogy of the seven priests, the
Navagvas and the Dashagvas, suggests to us the probable reason of
the different methods of division noticed above. The fact that the
horses of the sun are once said to be seven and once ten, seems
naturally to
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refer to seven months’ and ten months’ period of sunshine previously

described; and if so, this helps us in understanding the real meaning
of the different divisions. The seven-fold, nine-fold or ten-fold division
of things is thus merely a different phase of the division of sacrificers
into the seven Hotris, the Navagvas and the Dashagvas. Both seem
to be the effects of the same cause. The mother-land of the Aryan
race in, ancient times, lying between the North Pole and the Arctic
circle, was probably divided into different zones according to the
number of months for which the sun was seen above the horizon in
each; and the facts, that the Navagvas and the Dashagvas are said
to be the chief or the most prominent of the Angirases, that saptâshva
was the principal designation of Sûrya, and that the sons of Aditi who
were presented to the gods were only seven in number, further show
that in the ancient Arctic home a year of seven, nine, or ten months’
sunshine must have been more prevalent than a year of 8 or 11
months. It may, however, be noticed that just as the Angirases are
said to be virûpas, Aryaman is described in X, 64, 5, as having a
great chariot, and amidst his births of various forms (vishu-rûpeshu)
he is said to be a seven-fold sacrificer (sapta-hotri), showing that
though-the seven-fold character of Aryaman was the chief or the
principal one, yet there were various other forms of the deity. In X, 27,
15, seven, eight, nine and ten Vîras or warriors are said to rise from
below, behind, in the front, or on the back, or, in other words, all
round. This verse is differently interpreted by different scholars; but it
seems to me to refer to the seven-fold, eight-fold, or nine-fold division
of the sacrificers, or the Angirases, who are actually described in III,
53, 7, as “the Vîras or warriors of the Asura.” It is, therefore, quite
probable that the same Vîras are referred to in X, 27, 15. In VIII, 4, 1,
Indra is said to be worshipped by people in the front (east), behind
(west), up (north), and down (south), meaning that his worshippers
were to be found everywhere; and if the adjectives “below, behind &c”
in X, 27, 15, be similarly interpreted the verse would mean that the
seven-fold, eight-fold, nine-fold,
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or ten-fold division of sacrificers was to be met with in places all

round. In other words, the different places in the Arctic region had
each a group of sacrificers of its own, corresponding to the months of
sunshine in the place. On no other theory can we account for the
different divisions satisfactorily as on the Arctic theory, and in the
absence of a better explanation we may, I think, accept the one
stated above.

The Ten Kings and Râvana

It has been noticed above that ten gold-like kings (VIII, 3, 38),
and ten non-sacrificing kings (VII, 83, 7), are mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda. But there is an important incident connected with the ten non-
sacrificing kings which deserves more than a passing notice in this
place. Sudâs, the son of Divodâsa Atithigva, is described as engaged
in a fight with the ten non-worshipping (ayajyavah) kings, and is said
to have received help from Indra and Varuna (VII, 33, 3-5; 83, 6-8).
It is known as the Dasharâjña fight, and Vasishtha, as the priest of
Sudâs, is said to have secured the assistance of Indra for him. On
this slender basis some scholars have erected a stately edifice of the
fight of the Aryan races with the ten non-Aryan or non-worshipping
kings. But it seems to me that the Dasharâjña fight can be more
simply and naturally explained by taking it to be a different version of
Indra’s fight with the seven Dânus or demons (X, 120, 6). In X, 49, 8,
Indra is called the seven-slayer (sapta-han) with reference either to
the seven Dânus or demons (X, 120, 6) or to the seven cities of Vṛitra
(I, 174, 2), in the seven-bottomed ocean (VIII, 40, 5). Now if Indra is
sapta-han on the seven-fold, division, he may be easily conceived as
dasha-han, or the ten-slayer, on the ten-fold method of division. The
word dasha-han does not occur in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, but the fight with the
ten kings (ayajyavah dasha râjânah) practically amounts to the same
thing. It has been stated above that amongst Indra’s enemies we
have persons like Dasha-mâya and Dashoni, who are obviously
connected in some way with the number ten. The ten gold-like kings
mentioned above again seem to represent the ten monthly sun-gods,
and the fact that they are said to
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be given to the sacrificers further strengthens this view. One of

Indra’s protégés is, we further know, described as Dasha-dyu, or
shining ten-fold. If all these facts are put together, we are naturally led
to the conclusion that like the seven Dânus or demons, the powers of
darkness were sometime conceived as ten-fold, and Indra’s helping
Sudâs in his fight with the ten non-worshipping kings is nothing more
than the old story of the annual fight between light and darkness as
conceived by the inhabitants of a place where a summer of ten
months was followed by a long winter night of two months, or, in other
words which formed the land of the Dashagvas.
But our interest in this remarkable fight does not come to an
end with this explanation. For when we remember the fact that the
word king was not confined to the warrior class in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and
that in one place (I, 139, 7) it seems to be actually applied to the
Angirases, the expressions “ten golden kings” and “ten sacrificers” or
“ten-fold Angirases,” or “the ten Dashagvas sacrificing for ten months”
become synonymous phrases. Now Bṛihaspati was the chief of the
Angirases, and as such may naturally be considered to be the
representative of them all; and we have seen that he is represented
once as seven-mouthed and seven headed, and once as ten-
mouthed and ten-headed (‫ي‬ig. IV, 50, 4; A.V. IV, 6, 1). This
Bṛihaspati is connected with the story of Saramâ and Panis, and is
said to have helped Indra in recovering the cows, or is sometimes
described as having performed the feat himself (I, 83, 4; X, 108, 6-
11). Bṛihaspati is also represented in X, 109, as having lost his wife,
who was restored to him by the gods. This is obviously the story of
the restoration of the dawn to man, as represented by the chief
sacrificer Bṛihaspati. In the Taittirîya Âranyaka I, 12, 3-4, Indra is
described as the lover of Ahalyâ (Ahalyâyai jârah), and the myth has
been explained as referring to the dawn and the sun, by an old
orthodox scholar like Kumârila. Ahalyâ in the later literature is the wife
of the ‫ي‬ishi Gotama (lit. rich in cows); but it is not difficult to perceive
that the story of Ahalyâ (which Prof. Max. Müller derives from ahan, a
day), was originally
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a dawn-story, or a different version of the legend of Brahma-jâyâ

narrated in X, 109.
These facts are very suggestive and call to mind some of the
incidents in the story of the Râmâyana. It is quite outside the scope of
this book to fully enter into the question of the historical basis of this
well-known Indian epic. We are concerned with Vedic myths and
Vedic mythology, and if we refer to the Râmâyana we do so simply to
point out such resemblances as are too striking to be left unnoticed.
The main story in the Râmâyana is narrated in such detail that, on the
face of it, it bears the stamp of a historic origin. But even then we
have to explain why Râma’s adversary was conceived as a ten-
headed monster or an unnatural being, and why Râma’s father was
called Dasharatha or ten-carred. A ten-headed monster cannot
ordinarily be regarded as a historical fact, and it seems not unlikely
that some of the incidents of Vedic myths may have been skillfully
interwoven with the main story of the epic by its author. We have
seen above that some of the Indra’s enemies are described as
Dashoni or Dashamâya, and that in the Dâsharâjña fight there were
ten non-sacrificing or demoniac kings opposed to Sudâs. These ten
non-sacrificing kings may well be conceived as a single king with ten
heads and spoken of as a ten-headed monster, much in the same
way as Bṛihaspati, the chief of the ten Angirases, is said to be ten-
headed or ten-mouthed. The fact that the brother of this ten-headed
monster slept continuously for six months in a year also indicates his
Arctic origin. Prof. Rhys, in his Hibbert Lectures, quotes Plutarch to
the effect that the Paphlagonians regarded their gods as shut up in a
prison during winter and let loose in summer, and interprets the
legend as indicating the temporary ascendancy of the powers of
darkness over those of light during the continuous night of the Arctic
region. If we adopt this view, we can easily explain how all the gods
were said to be thrown into prison by ‫ي‬âvana until they were released
by Râma. Another fact in the Râmâyana which is supposed to require
explanation is the conception of the monkey-god Hanûmân. The
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‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions a monkey (kapi), who, as Vṛishâkapi, has been

elsewhere shown to represent the sun at the autumnal equinox, or
according to the Arctic theory discussed in this book, at the time of
going down below the horizon into the long darkness of the nether
world. It is Dr. Pischel, who first threw out the hint that this Vṛishâkapi
may probably be the ancestor of the Purânic Hanûmân; and the fact
that Hanûmân was born at a time when the sun we said to be
eclipsed goes to corroborate the view to a certain extent. Mr. Nârâyan
Aiyangâr, in his Essays on Indo-Aryan mythology, further points out
that Sîtâ, the wife of Râma, may be traced to the ‫ي‬ig-Vedic Sîtâ,
meaning “a ploughed furrow” which is invoked to bestow wealth upon
the worshipper in IV, 57, 6 and 7; and so far as the birth of Sîtâ from
the earth and her final disappearance into it are concerned the
explanation appears very probable. It seems, therefore, very likely
that the mythical element in the Râmâyana was derived from the
story of the restoration of the dawn or Brahmajâya to man as
represented by the first sacrificer Bṛihspati, or the fight of Indra with
Vṛitra for the recovery of light. Whether we can go further than this
cannot be decided without further research. Prof. Max Müller, in his
Lectures on the Science of Language, has shown that many names
in the Iliad can be traced back to the Vedas. For instance he derives
Helen from Saramâ, Paris from Panis, and Briesis from Brisaya. But
even then all the personages mentioned in the Iliad cannot be
explained in this way. One thing, however, seems certain, that the
story of the restoration of the Dawn-wife to her husband was an
ancient inheritance both with the Greeks and the Indians; and we
need not, therefore, be surprised if we discover a few striking
coincidences between the Iliad on the one hand and the Râmâyana
on the other; for a common mythical element appears to have been
interwoven with the main story, of course with a different local
coloring, in each case. The question whether the Râmâyana was
copied from Homer is, therefore, entirely meaningless. The fact
seems to be that both Homer and Vâlmîki have utilized a common
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mythological stock, and any resemblances between their work only

go to prove the theory of their common origin, It has been pointed out
by Prof. Weber that in the Buddhistic Dasharatha Jâtaka, Sîtâ is
represented as the sister and not as the wife of Râma, and the
learned Professor tells us that this must be an ancient version of the
story, for a marriage with one’s sister must be considered to be as
primeval as Adam himself. The late Mr. Telang was of opinion that
the Buddhists must have deliberately misrepresented the story of the
Brahmanical epic, and such a perversion is not improbable. But on
the theory that certain features of the Vedic dawn-myths were
probably interwoven with the main historic story of the epic, we may
explain the Buddhistic account by supposing that it was the out-come
of an unsuccessful attempt made in pre-Buddhistic time to identify
Râma with Sûrya in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, the latter of whom is described
both as the brother and the lover of the Dawn (VII, 75, 5; VI, 55, 4
and 5; X, 3, 3) I have already stated that the subject is too vast to be
treated here at any length. My object was to point out a few
resemblances between the story of the Râmâyana and the Vedic
myths as they occurred to me. But the question, howsoever
interesting, is not relevant to the subject in hand, and I must give up
the temptation of going into it more fully in this place. The question of
ten incarnations is also similarly connected with the ten golden kings,
or the ten gods mentioned in the Atharva Veda, or the ten
incarnations of Verethreghna in the Avesta. The ten incarnations in
the Avesta (Yt. XIV) are a wind, a bull, a horse, a camel, a boar, a
youth, a raven, a ram, a buck and a man; and four of them, viz., a
horse, a boar, a youth and a man, seem to correspond with Kalki,
Varâha, Vâmana and Râma amongst the ten Avatâras mentioned in
the Purânic literature. This shows that the conception of the ten
Avatâras was, at any rate, Indo-Iranian in origin, and it is no doubt
interesting to follow it up and trace its development on the Indian soil.
The Matsya, the Kûrma, the Varaha, the Nârasimha, the Vâmana
and, as we have now seen, the Râma Avatâra can be more or less
 326

traced to the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. But it would require much patient research to

thoroughly investigate these matters, and I cannot do more than to
throw out such hints as have occurred to me, and ask the reader to
take them for what they are worth. If the Arctic theory is established, it
will throw a good deal of new light not only on the Vedic but also on
the Purânic mythology, and it will then be necessary to revise, in
some cases entirely recast, the current explanations of both. But the
work as stated previously cannot be undertaken in a book which is
mainly devoted to the examination of evidence in support of the new
theory.
We have now discussed most of the Vedic legends likely to
throw any light on the main point of our inquiry. There are many other
incidents, which can be better explained on the Arctic theory than at
present. For instance, we can now well understand why Mitra and
Varuna were originally conceived as two correlated deities; for
according to our theory they would represent half-year-long light and
darkness in the Paradise of the Aryan race, and Varuna can then be
very well described as “embracing the nights” (kshapah pari
shasvaje, VIII, 41, 3). But we cannot go into all these points in this
place. What I have said is, I think, sufficient to convince any one that
there are a number of incidents in the Vedic myths, which are
inexplicable on the theory of a diurnal struggle between light and
darkness, or the conquest of spring over winter, or of the storm-god
over clouds. Thus we have not been able as yet to explain why Vṛitra
was killed once a year, why the waters and the light were described
as being released simultaneously by killing Vṛitra, or why Indra’s fight
with Shambara was said to have commenced on the 40th day of
Sharad, or why the fight was said to be conducted in the parâvat
regions, why Dîrghatamas was described as having grown old in the
10th yuga, why Mârtânda was cast away as a dead son, why Trita, or
the Third, was said to have fallen into a pit, or again why Vishnu’s
third stride was said to be invisible. We now find that not only all
these but many more incidents in the Vedic myths are satisfactorily
accounted
 327

for, and the legends in their turn directly lead us to the Arctic theory.
The legends of Indra and Vṛitra, of Saptavadhri, of Aditi and her
seven flourishing and one still-born son, of Sûrya’s wheel and of
Dîrghatamas, are again found to contain express passages which
indicate seven or ten months’ period of sunshine at the place, where
these legends originated; and unless we are prepared to say that all
these may be accidental coincidences, we cannot, I think, legitimately
withhold our assent to a theory which explains so many facts, and
incidents, hitherto ignored, neglected or misunderstood, in an easy,
natural and intelligible manner. I do not mean to say that the Arctic
theory would entirely dispense with the necessity of the Dawn, the
storm or the Vernal theory. All that I contend for is that the Arctic
theory explains a number of legendary or traditional facts hitherto
hopelessly given up as inexplicable and that in the interpretation of
Vedic myths it furnishes us with a weapon far more powerful and
effective than either the Dawn, the Storm or the Vernal theory. In
short, from a mythological point of view alone, there is ample ground
to recommend it to our acceptance side by side with, and, in some
cases, even in substitution of the old theories. In addition to this it has
been already shown in previous chapters that the new theory rests on
direct and independent statements of facts, contained in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda, about the duration and nature of the Dawn, days and nights,
seasons, months and the year in the home of the ancient fathers of
the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis; and that the Avestic and Roman traditions fully
corroborate our conclusion. We have further seen that the theory is
perfectly consistent with the latest results of geological and
archaeological researches. Shall we then still withhold our assent to
the only theory which explains so many facts, legends and incidents,
in a natural and intelligent way and which throws such a flood of light
on the ancient history of the Aryan race, simply because it seems to
be rather uncouth at the first sight? The rules of logic and scientific
research will not justify us in doing so, and I fully rely on them for the
eventual success or failure of the theory I have endeavored to prove
in these pages.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER XI

THE AVESTIC EVIDENCE

Nature of Avestic evidence stated — Different views of scholars regarding
its character — Necessity of re-examining the subject — An abstract of the
first Fargard of the Vendidad — Sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda with
their modern equivalents &c. — Airyana Vaêjo, the first created land
represents the Paradise of the Iranians — Different views regarding its
position — Darmesteter, Spiegel and others locate it in the east; Haug and
Bunsen in the far north — Darmesteter’s argument examined — Airyana
Vaêjo cannot be determined from the position of Vanguhi — Identification
of Rangha with the Caspian Sea or the westernmost river doubtful —
Rangha is probably the same as Rasâ in the Rig-Veda X, 75, 6 —
Unsoundness of Darmesteter’s reasoning — The position of the Airyana
Vaêjo must be determined from its special characteristics found in the
Avesta — The passage where ten months winter is said to be such a
characteristic cited — Ten months winter first introduced into the happy
land by Angra Mainyu — Indicates that before the fiend’s invasion there
must have been ten months summer and two months winter in the land —
Sudden change in the Polar climate fully confirmed by latest geological
researches — Two months winter necessarily synchronous with long
Arctic night — The tradition about seven months summer and five months
winter also refers to the original climate in the Airyana Vaêjo — Mentioned
in the Bundahish — Not inconsistent with the tradition of ten months
summer recorded in the original passage — Both possible in the Arctic
regions — Similar statements in the Rig-Veda — Coincidence between
seven months summer, the legend of Aditi, and the date of Indra’s fight
with Shambara, pointed out — Summary of the second Fargard — Yima’s
Vara in the Airyana Vaêjo — Annual sunrise and a year-long day therein —
Shows that the Airyana Vaêjo must be located near the North Pole and not
to the east of Iran — The account too graphic to be imaginary or mythical
— Represents the advent of the Glacial epoch in the land — It is the oldest
human testimony to the advent of the Ice-age, destroying the Arctic home
— Special importance of the Avestic evidence pointed out — Fully
corroborated by scientific evidence — Migration from Airyana Vaêjo
rendered necessary by glaciation — Sixteen lands in the first Fargard
therefore represent successive stages of migration to Central Asia —
Establishes the historical character of the first Fargard — The legend of
deluge in the Shatapatha Brâhmana — Probably refers to the same event
as the Avestic legends — Other Vedic passages indicating the northern
origin of Indian
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Aryas — Conclusion to be drawn from the Vedic and Avestic evidence

combined.

In dealing with the Vedic evidence, both direct and

circumstantial, we have by way of comparison quoted or referred to
some Avestic legends or myths in the foregoing chapters. But the
Avesta contains some important passages directly bearing upon the
question of the original Aryan home in the far north, and migrations
therefrom to the regions watered by the Oxus, the Jaxartes or the
Indus; and it is necessary to discuss these passages in a separate
chapter, because they not only confirm and supplement the
conclusions we have previously arrived at by the examination of the
Vedic evidence but constitute, what may be called, independent
evidence pointing out to the same result. As regards the antiquity of
the Avesta, it is superfluous to adduce any proofs in this place; for it
is admitted by scholars that the Vedas and the Avesta are but two
branches of the same parent stream, though the latter may not be as
well preserved as the former. To use a Vedic phrase, the sacred
books of the Brâhmans and the Parsis are the twin books of the
Aryan race; and they can, therefore, be safely taken to supplement
each other whenever it is necessary and possible to do so. This
character of the two books is well exhibited with regard to the subject
in hand. We have seen that while there are a number of passages in
the Vedic literature, which speak of long dawns, continuous darkness,
or a sacrificial session of ten months, we have no text or legend
which directly refers to the home in the far north or to the cause or
causes which forced the ancient Aryans to abandon their primeval
home and migrate southwards. But fortunately for us, the Avesta,
though not generally as well preserved as the Vedas, contains a
passage which supplies the omission in a remarkable way; and we
mean to discuss this passage at some length in this chapter. The
Avestic legends and traditions quoted in the foregoing chapters show
that a day and a night of six months each were known to the
ancestors of the Iranians, and that the appointed time for the
 330

appearance of Tishtrya before the worshipper, after his fight with

Apaosha, varied from one to a hundred nights, thus indicating that a
long darkness extending over a hundred nights was also known to
the forefathers of the worshippers of Mazda. The stoppage of the flow
of waters and of the movement of the sun in winter, as described in
the Farvardîn Yasht, have also been referred to; and it is shown that
the custom of keeping a dead body in the house for two nights, three
nights or a month long in winter, until the floods begin to flow, must
be ascribed to the absence of sunlight during the period when the
floods as well as light were shut up in the nether world by the demons
of darkness. All these traditions have their counterparts in the Vedic
literature. But the Avestic tradition regarding the original home in the
far north and its destruction by snow and ice stands by itself, though
in the light of the Vedic evidence discussed in the previous chapters,
we can now clearly show that it has historical basis and that it
preserves for us a distinct reminiscence, howsoever fragmentary, of
the ancient Aryan home. This tradition is contained in the first two
Fargards or chapters of the Vendidad, or the law book of the Mazda-
yasnians. They have no connection with the subsequent chapters of
the book and appear to be incorporated into it simply as a relic of old
historical or traditional literature. These two Fargards have not failed
to attract the attention of Zend scholars ever since the discovery of
the Avesta by Anquetil; and many attempts have been made not only
to identify the places mentioned therein, but to draw historical
conclusions therefrom. Thus Heeren, Rhode, Lassen, Pictel, Bunsen,
Haug and others have recognized in these accounts of the Vendidad,
a half historical half mythical reminiscence of the primeval home and
the countries known to the followers of the Avesta, when these
Fargards were composed. Professor Spiegel at first took the same
view as Rhode, but has latterly retracted his opinion. On the other
hand, Kiepert, Breal, Darmesteter and others have shown that no
historical conclusion can be drawn from the description contained in
the first two chapters of the
 331

Vendidad; and this view seems to be now mainly accepted. But it

must be borne in mind that this view was formulated at a time when
the Vedic evidence in support of the Arctic theory, set forth in the
previous chapters, was entirely unknown, and when the existence of
an Arctic home in ancient times was not regarded as probable even
on geological grounds, man being believed to be post-Glacial and the
Arctic regions always unsuited for human habitation. The recent
discoveries in Geology and Archaeology have, however, thrown-a
flood of new light on the subject; and if the interpretation of the Vedic
traditions noticed in the previous chapters is correct, it will, I think, be
readily admitted that a reconsideration of the Avestic tradition from
the new standpoint is a necessity and that we should not be deterred
from undertaking the task by the recent verdict of Zend scholars
against the views of Bunsen and Haug regarding the historical
character of the first two Fargards of the Vendidad.
The first Fargard of the Vendidad is devoted to the enumeration
of sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda, the Supreme God of the
Iranians. As soon as each land was created Angra Mainyu, the evil
spirit of the Avesta, created different evils and plagues to invade the
land and. made it unfit for human habitation. There were thus sixteen
creations of Ahura Mazda, and sixteen counter-creations of Angra
Mainyu; and the first Fargard of the Vendidad contains a description
of all these creations, and counter-creations, stating in detail how
each good land was created by Ahura Mazda and how Angra Mainyu
rendered it unfit for human residence by creating some evil or plague
therein. The Fargard is too long to be quoted here in full; and I,
therefore, borrow Muir’s abstract of the same prepared from the
versions of Spiegel and Haug, inserting in some places Darmesteter’s
renderings with the aid of his translation of the Vendidad in the
Sacred Books of the East Series. The paragraphs are marked first
according
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to Darmesteter, and then according to Spiegel by figures within

brackets.
1, 2 (1-4): — “Ahura Mazda spake to the holy Zarathustra: ‘I
formed into an agreeable region that which before was nowhere
habitable. Had I not done this, all living things would have poured
forth after Airyana Vaêjo.’”
3, 4, (5-9): — “I, Ahura Mazda, created as the first best region,
Airyana Vaêjo, of the good creation (or, according to Darmesteter, by
the good river Dâitya). Then Angra Mainyu, the destroyer, formed in
opposition to it, a great serpent and winter [or snow], the creation of
the Daêvas. There are these ten months of winter, and two of
summer.”
5, (13, 14): — “I, Ahura Mazda, created as the second best
region, Gaû (plains), in which Sughdha is situated. Thereupon in
opposition to it, Angra Mainyu, the death-dealing, created a wasp
which is death to cattle and fields.”
6, (17, 18): — “I, etc., created as the third best region, Môuru,
the mighty, the holy.”
[Here, and in most of the following cases the counter-creations
of Angra Mainyu are omitted.]
7, (21, 22): — “I, etc., created as the fourth best region, the
fortunate Bâkhdhi, with the lofty banner.”
8, (25, 26): — “I, etc., created as the fifth best region, Nisaya
[situated between Môuru and Bâkhdhi].”
9, (29, 30): — “I, etc., created as the sixth best region, Haroyu,
abounding in the houses [or water].”
10, (33-36): — “I, etc., created as the seventh best region,
Vaêkereta where Dujak is situated (or, according to Darmesteter, of
evil shadows). In opposition to it, Angra Mainyu,
 333

the destroyer, created the Pairika Khnathaiti, who clung to

Keresâspa.”
11, (37, 38): — “I, etc., created as the eighth best region, Urva,
full of pastures.”
12, (41, 42): — “I, etc., created as the ninth best region.
Khnenta (a river) in Vehrkâna.”
13, (45, 46): — “I, etc., created as the tenth best region, the
fortunate Harahvaiti.”
14, (49, 50): — “I, etc., created as the eleventh best region,
Haêtumant, the rich and shining.”
16, (59, 60): — “I, etc., created as the twelfth best region,
Ragha, with three fortresses [or races].”
17, (63, 64): — “I, etc., created as the thirteenth best region,
Chakhra, the strong.”
18, (67, 68): — “I, etc., created as the fourteenth best region,
Varena, with four corners; to which was born Thraêtaona, who slew
Azi Dahâka.”
19, (72, 73): — “I, etc., created as the fifteenth best country,
Hapta Hendu [from the eastern to the western Hendu]. In opposition,
Angra Mainyu created untimely evils, and pernicious heat [or fever].”
20, (76, 77): — “I, etc., created as the sixteenth and best, the
people who live without a head on the floods of Rangha (or according
to Haug ‘on the seashore’).”
21, (81): — “There are besides, other countries, fortunate,
renowned, lofty, prosperous and splendid.”
Spiegel, Haug and other scholars have tried to identify the
sixteen lands mentioned in this description, and the following tabular
statement sums up the results of the investigations of these scholars
in this direction. The letters S, H, and D, stand for Spiegel, Haug and
Darmesteter.
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Angra
Zend Name Old Greek Modern Mainyu’s
Persian evils therein

1 Airyana Vaêjo Iran Vêjo … … Severe winter

and snow
2 Sughda Suguda Sogdiana Samarkand Cattle wasp
and fly
3 Môuru Margu Margiana Merv Sinful Lust
4 Bâkhdi Bâkhtri Bactria Balhk Devouring
ants
or beast
5 Nisâya … Nisæa … Unbelief
6 Harôyu (Sans. Haraiva Areia Heart (the Mosquito,
Sharayu) basin of Poverty
Hari river)
7 Vaêreketa … … Cabul (S) Pairikâs
Segeston (H) (Paris)
8 Urva … … Cabul (H) Evil
Land around defilement
Ispahan (D) Pride, or
Tyranny.
9 Khnenta, in Varkâna Hyrcania Gurjân (S) Unnatural sin
Verkhâna Kandahar (H)
10 Harahvaiti Harauvati Arakhosia Harût Burial of the
(Sans. dead
Sarasvatî)
11 Haêtumant … Etumandros Helmend Wizards,
(Sans. Locusts
Setumat)
12 Ragha Raga Ragai Rai Unbelief,
Hereticism
13 Chakra … … A Town in Cremation of
(Sans. Chakra) Khorasan (?) the dead
14 Varena (Sans. … … Ghilan (H)? Despotic
Varuṇa) foreign rule
15 Hapta Hendu Hindavas Indoi Panjaub Excessive
(Sans. Sapta heat
Sindhu)
16 Rangha (Sans. … … Caspian Sea Winter,
Rasâ) (H). Arvast- earthquake
ân-i-Rûm or
Mesopotamia
(D)
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The old Persian and Greek names in the above table are taken
from the inscriptions of the Achæmenian kings and the works of
Greek writers after the overthrow of the Achæmenian dynasty by
Alexander the Great. They show that at least 10 out of 16 lands can
be still identified with certainty; and if so, we can safely say that the
account in the first Fargard is real and not mythical. But with regard to
the land mentioned first in the list, there has been a difference of
opinion amongst Zend scholars. The Airyana Vaêjo is the first created
happy land, and the name signifies that it was the birth-land (Vaêjo =
seed, sans. bîja) of the Aryans (Iranians), or the Paradise of the
Iranian race. Was this a mythical region or a real country representing
the original home of the Aryans, and if it was a real country where
was it situated? This is the first question which we have to answer
from the evidence contained in the first two Fargards of the Vendidad;
and secondly, we have to decide whether the sixteen lands
mentioned above were the successive countries occupied by the
ancestors of the Iranian race in their migrations from the original
home in the north. The Fargard says nothing about migration. It
simply mentions that so many lands were created by Ahura Mazda
and that in opposition thereto Angra Mainyu, the evil Spirit of the
Avesta, created so many different evils and plagues which rendered
the lands unfit for human residence. It is inferred from this that the
Fargard does not contain an account of successive migrations, but
merely gives us a description of the countries known to the ancestors
of the Iranians at the time when the Fargards were composed. In
other words, the chapter is geographical and not historical, containing
nothing but a specification of the countries known to the Iranians at a
particular time; and it is argued that it would be converting geography
into history to take the different countries to represent the successive
stages of migrations from the primeval home, when not a word about
migration is found in the original text. Professor Darmesteter further
observes that as the enumeration of the sixteen lands begins with
Airyana Vaêjo by the river Vanguhi Dâitya and
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ends with Rangha, which corresponds with the Vedic Rasa, a

mythical river that divides the gods from the fiends, and that as the
Vanguhi and the Rangha were originally the celestial rivers that came
down from heaven (like the two heavenly Gânges) to surround the
earth, the one in the east and the other in the west, (Bundahish, XX),
the Airyana Vaêjo and the Rangha must be taken to denote the
eastern and the western boundaries of the countries known to the
ancient Iranians at the time when the Fargard was composed.
Spiegel also takes the same view, and places Airyana Vaêjo “in the
farthest east of the Iranian plateau, in the region where the Oxus and
Jaxartes take their rise,” and Darmesteter seems to quote with
approval the identification of the Rangha or the sixteenth land, in the
commentary on the Vedidad, with Arvastân-i-Rûm or Roman
Mesopotamia. The whole Fargard is thus taken to be a geographical
description of the ancient Iran, and Professor Darmesteter at the end
of his introduction to the Fargard observes “It follows hence no
historical conclusion can be drawn from this description: it was
necessary that it should begin with the Vanguhi and end with the
Rangha. To look to it for an account of geographical migrations is
converting cosmology into history.” Bunsen and Haug, on the other
hand, maintain that the Airyana Vaêjo represents the original home of
the Iranians in the far north, and the countries mentioned in the
Fargard must, therefore, be taken to represent the lands through
which the Aryans passed after leaving their ancient home. The first
question which we have, therefore, to decide is whether the Airyana
Vaêjo was merely the easternmost boundary of the ancient Iran, or
whether it was the primeval abode of the Iranians in the far north. In
the former case we may take the Fargard to be merely a chapter on
ancient geography; while if it is found impossible to locate the Airyana
Vaêjo except in the far north, the countries from Samarkand and
Sughdha to Hapta Hendu or the Panjaub mentioned in the Fargard
would naturally represent the route taken by the ancient Iranians in
their migrations from the ancient home. Everything thus
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depends upon the view that we take of the situation of the Airyana
Vaêjo; and we shall, therefore, first see if there is anything in the
Avestic description of the land which will enable us to determine its
position with certainty.
It may be observed at the outset that the river Vanguhi is not
mentioned in their Fargard along with the Airyana Vaêjo. The original
verse speaks only of the “good dâîtya of Airyana Vaêjo,” but it is
doubtful if “dâîtya” denotes a river in this place. The Zend phrase
Airyanem Vaêjô vanghuyâô dâityayô, which Darmesteter translates
as “the Airyana Vaêjo, by the good (vanghuhi) river Dâitya,” is
understood by Spiegel to mean “the Airyana Vaêjo of the good
creation,” while Haug takes it as equivalent to “the Airyana Vaêjo of
good capability.” It is, therefore, doubtful if the Dâitya river is
mentioned along with the Airyana Vaêjo in this passage.* But even
supposing that Darmesteter’s rendering is correct, he gives us no
authority for identifying Dâitya with Vanguhi. The Bundahish (XX, 7
and 13) mentions Vêh (Vanguhi) and Dâitîk (Dâitya) as two distinct
rivers, though both seem to be located in the Airân-vêj (Airyana
Vaêjo). We cannot again lose sight of the fact that it is not the
Vanguhi (Vêh) alone that flows through the Airyana Vaêjo, but that
the Rangha (Arag) has the same source and flows through the same
land, viz., the Airyana Vaêjo. Thus in the very beginning of Chapter
XX of the Bundahish, we read that the Arag and the Vêh are the chief
of the eighteen rivers, and that they “flow forth from the north, part
from Albûrz and part from the Albûrz of Auhar-mazd; one towards the
west, that is the Arag; and one towards the east, that is the Vêh
river.” The Bundahish (VII, 15) further informs us that the Vêh river
flows out from the same source as the drag river, and Dr. West in a
footnote observes that both these rivers flow out

* See Dr. West’s dote on Bundahish XX, 13. The original passage mentions
the Dâîtîk river coming out from Aîrân vêj; but Dr. Nest observes that this
may not be a river though the phrase (in the Avesta) has, no doubt, led to
locating the river Dâîtîk in Aîrân vêj.
 338

from “the north side of the Arêdvîvsûr (Ardvi Sûra Anâhita) fountain of
the sea, which is said to be on the lofty Hûgar (Hukairya), a portion of
Albûrz.” Even according to Bundahish, the Vanguhi is, therefore, the
eastern and the Rangha the western river, in the northern part of
Albûrz; or, in other words, they represent two rivers in a country,
situated in the north, one flowing towards the east, and one to the
west, in that region. It would, therefore, be, to say the least, unsafe to
infer from this that the Airyana Vaêjo represents the eastern-most
country, because the name Vêh or Vanguhi was in later times
attached to the easternmost river in Iran. For by parity of reasoning,
we can as well place the Airyana Vaêjo in the far west, in as much as
the name Arag or Rangha was given, as stated by Darmesteter
himself, in later times to the westernmost river.
It is again a question why Rangha should be identified with the
Caspian Sea, or some western river in Iran. The Fargard does not
say anything about the situation of Rangha. It simply states that the
fifteenth land created by Ahura Mazda was Hapta Hendu and the
sixteenth was on the floods of Rangha. Now if Hapta Hendu, is
identified with Sapta Sindhu, or the Panjaub, why take a big and a
sudden jump from the Panjaub to the Caspian Sea, to find out the
Rangha river. Rangha is Sanskrit Rasâ, and in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X, 75,
6) a terrestrial river, by name Rasâ, is mentioned along with the
Kubhâ, the Krumu and the Gomati, which are all known to be the
affluents of the Indus. Is it not, therefore, more likely that Rangha may
be the Vedic Rasâ, a tributary of the Indus? If the context is any guide
to the determination of the sense of ambiguous words, the mention of
Hapta Hendu, as the fifteenth land, shows that Rash the sixteenth
must be sought for somewhere near it, and the point is pretty well
settled when we find Rasa actually mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda along
with some other tributaries of the Indus, The identification of Rangha
with the westernmost river is, therefore, at best doubtful, and the
same may be said of Vanguhi, which by-the-by is not mentioned in
the Fargard at all. But
 339

Darmesteter’s reasoning does not stop here. On the strength of this

doubtful identification he would have us believe that the ancient land
of the Airyana Vaêjo was situated in the same region where the river
named Vanguhi, or Vêh, in later times was said to flow. But the
reasoning is obviously erroneous. The names of the two rivers
Vanguhi and Rangha in the primeval home may have been
subsequently transferred to the real rivers in the new settlement; but
we cannot infer therefrom that the country through which these new
rivers flowed was the original site of the Airyana Vaêjo. It is a well-
known fact that persons migrating from their motherland to new
countries often name the places they come across after the names of
places familiar to them in their motherland. But on that account no
one has ventured to place England in America or Australia; and it is
strange how such a mistake should have been committed by Zend
scholars in the present case. For even if a province or country in
Central Asia had been named Airyana Vaêjo, we could not have
located the original home in that Province; just as the abode of
Varuna cannot be placed in the land named Varena, which is the
Zend equivalent of Varuna. The whole of Darmesteter’s reasoning
must, therefore, be rejected as unsound and illogical, and but for the
preconceived notion that the original home of the Iranians cannot be
placed in the far north, I think no scholar would have cared to put
forward such guesses. There are express passages in the Avesta,
which describe in unmistakable terms the climatic characteristics of
the Airyana Vaêjo, and so far as I am aware, no valid reason has yet
been assigned why we should treat this description as mythical and
have recourse to guess-work for determining the position of the
primeval home. Thus at the beginning of the first Fargard, we are told
that the Airyana Vaêjo was the first good and happy creation of Ahura
Mazda, but Angra Mainyu converted it into a land of ten months
winter and two months summer, evidently meaning that at the time
when the Fargard was composed it was an icebound land. The winter
of ten months’ duration, therefore, naturally points to a position
 340

in the far north, at a great distance beyond the Jaxartes; and it would
be unreasonable to ignore this description which is characteristic only
of the Arctic regions, and, relying on doubtful guesses, hold that the
Airyana Vaêjo was the easternmost boundary of the ancient Iran. As
the passage, where the ten months’ winter is described as the
present principal climatic characteristic of the Airyana Vaêjo, is very
important for our purpose, I give below the translations of the, same
by Darmesteter, Spiegel and Haug: —

VENDIDAD, FARGARD I.

Darmesteter Spiegel Haug and Bunsen

3. The first of the good 5. The first and best of3. As the first best of
lands and countries, regions and places regions and countries I,
which I, Ahura Mazda, have I created, I who who am, Ahura Mazda,
created, was the am Ahura Mazda; created Airyana Vaêjo
Airyana Vaêjo, by the of good capability;
good river Dâitya. 6. The Airyana Vaêjo of thereupon in
Thereupon came the good creation. opposition, to him
Angra Mainyu, who is Angra Mainyus, the
all death, and he 7. Then Angra death-dealing, created a
counter-created by his Mainyus, who is full of mighty serpent and
witchcraft the serpent death, created an snow, the work, of the
in the river and winter, a opposition to the Daêvas.
work of the Daêvas. same;

8. A great serpent and

Winter, which the
Daêvas have created.

4. There are ten winter 9. Ten winter months4. Ten months of winter
months there, two are there, two months
are there, two summer
summer months;* and months. of summer.
those are cold for the [Seven months of
waters, cold for the 10. And these are cold summer are there; five
as to the water, cold as months of winter there
earth, cold for the trees.
Winter falls there, withto the earth, cold as to were; the latter are cold
the trees.
the worst of its plagues. as to water, cold as to
earth, cold as to trees,
* N.B. — Darmesteter 11. After this to the there (is) — midwinter,
states in a note middle of the earth the heart of winter;
then to the heart of the there all around falls
earth. deep

12. Comes the winter;

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Darmesteter Spiegel Haug and Bunsen

that after summer then comes the most snow; there is the direst
months the Vendidad evil. of plagues.] †
Sâdah adds, “It is
known that [in the † N.B. — According to
ordinary course of Haug the whole of the
nature] there are passage within brackets
seven months of is a later addition.
summer and five of
winter.”

It will be seen from the above translations that they all agree in
the main points, viz., (1) that the Airyana Vaêjo was the first good
land created by Ahura Mazda, (2) that severe winter and snow were
first introduced into it by Angra Mainyu, and (3) that after the invasion
of Angra Mainyu there were ten winter months and two summer
months in that land. The only difference between the three versions is
that while Darmesteter and Spiegel regard the last sentence “And
these are cold for the waters, etc.,” as a part of the original text Haug
regards it as a subsequent addition. All the translators again agree in
holding that the statement “Seven months of summer are there and
five months of winter” is a later insertion. But we shall take up this
question afterwards. For the present we are concerned with the
statement that “Ten months of winter are there, two months of
summer,” and it will be seen that there is no difference on this point in
the three renderings given above. Another important fact mentioned
in the passage is that the prolonged duration of winter was the result
of Angra Mainyu’s counter-action, meaning thereby that before the
invasion of Angra Mainyu different climatic conditions prevailed in that
region. This view is further strengthened by the consideration that the
Iranians could never have placed their Paradise in a land of severe
winter and snow. Bunsen has, therefore, rightly observed that the
Airyana Vaêjo was originally a perfect country and had a very mild
climate, until the hostile deity created a powerful serpent and snow,
so that only two months of summer remained while winter prevailed
during ten. In short, the
 342

passage in question speaks of a sudden change in the climate of the

original home, a change that converted the paradise into a kind of
ice-bound land with long and severe winters. If we, therefore, want to
know what the land was like before the invasion of Angra Mainyu, we
must reverse the climatic conditions that obtained after the invasion,
and suppose that this cradle of the Iranian race was situated in the
extreme north where long cool summers of ten months and short mild
winters of two months originally prevailed. It was Angra Mainyu who
altered this genial climate by means of glaciation, and rendered it
unbearable to man. The description of the two summer months after
the invasion, viz., that “These were cold as to the water, cold as to
the earth, cold as to the trees,” shows that after glaciation even the
summer climate was. unsuited for human habitation.
We have stated above that the passage in question indicates a
sudden change in the climate of the Airyana Vaêjo, converting ten
months summer and two months winter into ten months severe winter
and two months cold summer. Thirty or forty years ago such a
statement or proposition would have been regarded not only bold, but
impossible or almost insane, for the geological knowledge of the time
was not, sufficiently advanced to establish the existence of a mild
climate round about the North pole in ancient times. It was probably
this difficulty which stared Zend scholars in the face when they
declined to place the Airyana Vaêjo in the far north, in spite of the
plain description clearly indicating its northernmost position. Happily
the recent discoveries in Geology and Archaeology have not only
removed this difficulty by establishing, on scientific grounds, the
existence of a warm and genial climate near the North Pole in inter-
glacial times, but have proved that the Polar regions were invaded, at
least twice, by glaciation which destroyed their genial climate. Thus it
is now a settled scientific fact that the Arctic regions were once
characterized by warm and short winters, and genial and long
summers, a sort of perpetual spring, and that this condition of things
was totally upset or reversed
 343

by the advent of the Glacial period which made winters long and
severe and summers short and cold. The description of the climatic
changes introduced by Angra Mainyu into the Airyana Vaêjo is,
therefore, just what a modern geologist would ascribe to the Glacial
epoch; and when the description is so remarkably and unexpectedly
corroborated by the latest scientific researches, I fail to see on what
ground we can lightly set it aside as mythical or imaginary.. If some
Zend scholars have done so in the past, it was because geological
knowledge was not then sufficiently advanced to establish the
probability of the description contained in the Avesta. But with new
materials before us which go to confirm the Avestic description of the
Airyana Vaêjo in every detail, we shall be acting unwisely if we
decline to revise the conclusions of Zend scholars arrived at some
years ago on insufficient materials. When we look at the question
from this point of view, we have to place the site of the Airyana Vaêjo
in the Arctic regions, where alone we can have a winter of ten months
at the present day. We can escape from such a conclusion only by
denying the possibility that the passage in question contains any
traditional account of the ancient home of the Iranians; and this
course seems to have been adopted by some Zend scholars of the
day. But with the Vedic evidence, set forth and discussed in the
previous chapters, before us, we need not have any of those
apprehensions which have hitherto led many Zend scholars to err on
the side of caution and moderation. We have seen that there are
strong grounds for holding that the ancient Indo-European year was a
year of ten months followed by a long night of two months, in other
words, it was a year of ten summer months and two winter months,
that is, exactly of the same kind as the one which prevailed in the
Airyana Vaêjo before the happy land was invaded by the evil spirit.
The word for summer in Zend is hama, the same as Sanskrit samâ,
which means “a year” in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. The period of ten summer
months mentioned in the Avesta would, therefore, mean a year of ten
months’ sunshine, or of ten mânushâ yugâ, followed by a long wintry
night of
 344

two months as described in the previous chapters. It may be urged

that the Vendidad does not say that the two winter months were all
dark, and we have, therefore, no authority for converting two winter
months into two months of continuous darkness. A little reflection will,
however, show that the objection is utterly untenable. In order to have
a winter of ten months at the present day, we must place the Airyana
Vaêjo in the Arctic regions; and once we do so, a long night of one,
two or three months follows as a matter of course. This long night will
now fall in the middle of the winter of ten months; but before the last
Glacial epoch, or the invasion of Angra Mainyu, when there was a
summer of ten months in the Arctic regions, the duration of the long
night and that of the winter of two months must have been co-
extensive. That is an important difference in the description of the
paradise of the Aryans, as it is at present and as it was before the last
Glacial epoch. The long night characterized these regions before the
Glacial period as it does at present. But when the winters were short
they corresponded with, and were confined only to, the long night;
while at the present day, since the winter in the Arctic regions lasts
for ten months, the long night falls in the middle of such winter. The
description of the Airyana Vaêjo in the Vendidad, therefore, naturally
leads us to infer that ten months sunshine or summer followed by two
months dark winter represented the climatic conditions of the place
before the invasion of Angra Mainyu, who converted summer into
winter and vice versa, by introducing ice and snow into the land. We
have already referred to the maximum period of a hundred nights
during which Tishtrya fought with Apaosha, and to the custom of
keeping the dead bodies in the house for two nights, three nights or a
month long in winter, until waters and light, which stood still in winter,
again began to flow or come up, showing that the period was one of
continuous darkness. These passages taken in conjunction with the
aforesaid description of the Airyana Vaêjo clearly establish the fact
that the paradise of the Iranians was situated in the extreme north or
almost near the
 345

North Pole, and that it was characterized by long delightful summers,

and short and warm but dark winters, until it was rendered unfit for
human habitation by the invasion of Angra Mainyu, or the advent of
the Glacial epoch, which brought in severe winter and snow causing
the land to be covered with an icecap several hundreds of feet in
thickness.
There is one more point which deserves to be noticed in this
connection. We have seen that to the description of the Airyana
Vaêjo quoted above, the old Zend commentators have added what is
believed to be an inconsistent statement, viz., that “There are seven
months of summer and five of winter therein.” Dr. Haug thinks that the
paragraph “The latter are cold as to water etc” is also a later addition,
and must, therefore, be taken with the five months of winter.” But both
Spiegel and Darmesteter, as well as the commentator, are of opinion
that the phrases “And these are cold as to the water etc.” form a part
of the original text, and must, therefore, be taken to refer to the two
summer months; and this view seems to be more reasonable, for a
later insertion, if any, is more likely to be a short one than otherwise.
The only addition to the original text thus seems to be the statement,
“It is known that there are seven months of summer and five of
winter,” and this must be taken as referring to the climatic conditions
which obtained in the Airyana Vaêjo before the invasion of Angra
Mainyu, for the latter reduced the duration of summer only to two
months, which again were cold to the water, the earth and the trees.
It has been shown above that as the Airyana Vaêjo was originally a
happy land, we must suppose that the first climatic conditions therein
were exactly the reverse of those which were introduced into it by
Angra Mainyu; or, in other words, a summer of ten months and a
winter of two months must be said to have originally prevailed in this
happy land. But the Zend commentators have stated that there were
seven months of summer and five of winter therein; and this tradition
appears to have been equally old, for we read in the Bundahish
(XXV, 10-14) that “on the day Aûharmazd (first day) of Âvân the
winter acquires strength
 346

and enters into the world, ... and on the auspicious day Âtarô of the
month Dîn (the ninth day of the tenth month) the winter arrives, with
much cold, at Aîrân-vêj, and until the end, in the auspicious month
Spendarmad, winter advances through the whole world; on this
account they kindle a fire everywhere on the day Âtarô of the month
Dîn, and it forms an indication that the winter has come.” Here the
five months of winter in the Airyana Vaêjo are expressly mentioned to
be Âvân, Âtarô, Dîn, Vohûman and Spendarmad; and we are told that
Rapîtvîn Gâh is not celebrated during this period as Rapîtvîn goes
under-ground during winter and comes up from below the ground in
summer. The seven months of summer are similarly described in the
same book as extending “from the auspicious day Aûharmazd (first)
of the month Farvardîn to the auspicious day Anirân (last) of the
month Mitrô” (XXV, 7). It seems from this account that the tradition of
seven months summer and five months winter in the Airyana Vaêjo
was an old tradition, and the Bundahish, in recording it, gives us the
climatic conditions in the ancient home and not, as supposed by
some, those which the writer saw in his own day. For in the twentieth
paragraph of the same chapter twelve months and four seasons are
enumerated, and the season of winter is there said to comprise only
the last three months of the year, viz., Dîn, Vohûman and
Spendarmad. I have shown elsewhere that the order of months in the
ancient Iranian calendar was different from the one given in the
Bundahish. But whatever the order may be, the fact of the prevalence
of seven months summer and five months winter in the Airyana Vaêjo
seems to have been traditionally preserved in these passages; and
the old Zend commentators on the Vendidad appear to have
incorporated it into the original text, by way of, what may be called, a
marginal note, in their anxiety to preserve an old tradition. We have
thus two different statements regarding the climatic conditions of the
Airyana Vaêjo before it was invaded by Angra Mainyu: one, that
these were ten months of summer and two of winter, the reverse of
the conditions introduced by Angra Mainyu; and
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the other, traditionally preserved by the commentators, viz., that there

were seven summer months and five winter months therein. It is
supposed that the two statements are contradictory; and
contradictory they undoubtedly are so long as, we do not possess the
true key to their interpretation. They are inconsistent, if we make the
Airyana Vaêjo the easternmost boundary of the ancient Iran; but if the
paradise is placed in, the circumpolar regions in the far north the
inconsistency at once disappears, for then we can have seven
months summer and ten months summer at the same time in the
different parts of the original home of the Iranians. We have seen in
the discussion of the Vedic evidence that the legend of Aditi indicates
seven months summer or sun-shine, and the legend of the
Dashagvas a sacrificial session, or a period of sun-shine of ten
months. It has also been pointed out that between the North Pole and
the Arctic circle the sun is above the horizon for any period longer
than seven and less than twelve months, according to the latitude of
the place. There is, therefore, nothing strange, extraordinary or
inconsistent, if we get two statements in the Avesta regarding the
duration of summer in the primeval home; and we need not assume
that the commentators have added the statement of seven months
summer simply because the description of two months summer and
ten months winter did not appear to them suitable to the first land of
blessing. It is not possible that they could have misunderstood the
original text in such a way as to suppose that the climatic conditions
introduced by Angra Mainyu were the conditions which obtained
originally in the Airyana Vaêjo. We must, therefore, reject the
explanation which tries to account for this later insertion on the
ground that it was made by persons who regarded the description in
the original as unsuited to the first created happy land. If the original
text is properly read and interpreted, it gives us a summer of ten
months in the Airyana Vaêjo before Angra Mainyu’s invasion, and the
statement regarding the summer of seven months refers to the same
place and time. We have the same thing in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda where the
sun is once represented as having.
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seven rays and once as having ten rays, meaning seven months and
ten months of sun-shine, both of which are possible only in the Arctic
regions. The two Avestic traditions stated above must, therefore, be
taken to represent the Arctic climatic conditions prevailing in the
ancient home in the far north; and the correctness of the explanation
is proved by the discussion in the foregoing chapters. With regard to
the custom of kindling a fire on the ninth day of Din or the tenth
month, noticed in the Bundahish, it seems to me that instead of taking
it to be an indication that winter “has come,” it is better to trace its
origin to the commencement of winter at that time in some part of the
original home; for if a fire is to fee kindled there is greater propriety in
kindling it to commemorate the commencement of winter rather than
the expiry of two out of five winter months. If the custom is so
interpreted, it will imply that a year of nine months and ten days was
once prevalent in some part of the Aryan home, a conclusion well in
keeping with the ancient Roman year of ten months. But apart from
this suggestion, there is a striking coincidence between the Vedic and
the Avestic tradition in this respect. According to the Bundahish (XXV,
20), the year is divided into four seasons of three months each,
Farvardîn, Ardavahisht and Horvadad constituting the season of the
spring; Tîr, Amerôdad and Shatvaîrô the summer; Mitrô, Âvân and
Âtarô the autumn; and Din, Vohûman and Spendarmad, the winter.
The fortieth day of Sharad or autumn would, therefore, represent the
tenth day (Abân) of Avân; and the Vedic statement discussed in the
ninth chapter, that Indra’s fight with Shambara commenced “on the
fortieth day of Sharad” agrees well (only with a difference of ten days)
with the statement in the Bundahish that the winter in the Airyana
Vaêjo commenced with the month of Âvân the second month in
autumn. We have thus a very close resemblance between the Vedic
and the Avestic tradition about the end of summer in the original
Arctic home; and the corresponding Roman and Greek traditions
have been previously noticed. In short, a year of seven or ten months
sun-shine can be traced
 349

back to the Indo-European period; and since its double character can
be explained only by placing the original home in the circumpolar
regions, we are inevitably led to the conclusion that the Airyana Vaêjo
must also be placed in the same region. The Avestic account is by
itself plain and intelligible, and the apparent inconsistencies would
have been explained in a natural way long ago, if Zend scholars; had
not created unnecessary difficulties by transferring the site of this
Paradise to the east of the ancient Iran. Under these circumstances it
is needless to say which of the two theories regarding the position of
the Airyana Vaêjo is correct; for no one would accept a hypothesis
which only enhances the confusion, in preference to one which
explains everything in a natural and satisfactory manner.
‘We have so far discussed the passage in the first Fargard
which describes the climate of the Airyana Vaêjo. The passage, even
when taken by itself, is quite intelligible on, the Arctic theory; but in
ascertaining the original climate of the Airyana Vaêjo we supposed
that it was the reverse of the one introduced by the invasion of Angra
Mainyu. The second Fargard of the Vendidad, which is similar in
character to the first, contains, however, a passage, which does away
with the necessity of such assumption, by giving us a graphic
description of the actual advent of ice and snow which ruined the
ancient Iranian Paradise. This Fargard is really a supplement to the
first and contains a more detailed account of the Airyana Vaêjo and a
description of the paradisiacal life enjoyed there before Angra Mainyu
afflicted it with the plague of winter and snow. This is evident from the
fact that the coming of the severe winter is foretold in this Fargard
and Yima is warned to prepare against it; while in the first Fargard the
happy land is described as actually ruined by Angra Mainyu’s
invasion. Darmesteter divides this Fargard into two parts the first
comprising the first twenty (or according to Spiegel forty-one)
paragraphs, and the second the remaining portion of the Fargard. In
the first part Ahura Mazda is said to have asked king Yima the ruler of
the Airyana Vaêjo, who is called
 350

Sruto Airyênê vaêjahê, “famous in Airyana Vaêjo,” to receive the law

from Mazda; but Yima refused to become the bearer of the law and
he was, therefore, directed by Ahura Mazda to keep his people happy
and make them increase. Yima is accordingly represented as making
his men thrive and in. crease by keeping away death and disease
from them, and by thrice enlarging the boundaries of the country
which had become too narrow for its inhabitants. Whether this fact
represents a gradual expansion of the oldest Aryan settlements in the
Arctic home we need not stop to inquire. The second part of the
Fargard opens with a meeting of the celestial gods called by Ahura
Mazda, and “the fair Yima, the good shepherd of high renown in the
Airyana Vaêjo,” is said to have attended this meeting with all his
excellent mortals. It was at this meeting that Yima was distinctly
warned by Ahura Mazda that fatal winters were going to fall on the
happy land and destroy everything therein. To provide against this
calamity the Holy One advised Yima to make a Vara or enclosure,
and remove there the seeds of every kind of animals and plants for
preservation. Yima made the Vara accordingly, and the Fargard
informs us that in this Vara the sun, the moon and the stars “rose but
once a year,” and that “a year seemed only as a day” to the
inhabitants thereof. The Fargard then closes with the description of
the happy life led by the inhabitants of this Vara of which
Zarathushtra and his son Urvatadnara are said to be the masters or
overseers.
Yima’s Vara here described is something like Noah’s ark. But
there is this difference between the two that while the Biblical deluge
is of water and rain, the Avestic deluge is of snow and ice; and the
latter not only does not conflict with geological evidence but is, on the
contrary, fully and unexpectedly confirmed by it. Secondly, the
description that “a year seemed only as a day” to the inhabitants of
this Vara, and that the sun and stars “rose only once a year therein,”
serves, in an unmistakable manner, to fix the geographical position of
this Vara in the region round about the North Pole; for nowhere on
the surface of the earth can we have a year
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long day-and-night except at the Pole. Once the position of Yima’s

Vara is thus fixed the position of the Airyana Vaêjo is at once
determined; for Yima’s Vara, as stated in the Mainyô-i-khard, must
obviously be located in the Airyana Vaêjo. Here is, therefore, another
argument for locating the Airyana Vaêjo in the extreme north and not
to the west of the ancient Iran, as Spiegel, Darmesteter and others
have done. For whether Yima’s Vara be real or mythical, we cannot
suppose that the knowledge of a year-long day and of the single
rising of the sun during the whole year was acquired simply by a
stretch of imagination, and that it is a mere accident that it tallies so
well with the description of the Polar day and night. The authors of
the Fargard may not have themselves witnessed these phenomena,
but there can be no doubt that they knew these facts by tradition; and
if so, we must suppose that their remote ancestors must have
acquired this knowledge by personal experience in their home near
the North Pole. Those that locate the Airyana Vaêjo in the extreme
east of the Iranian highland try to account for ten months winter
therein by assuming that a tradition of a decrease in the earth’s
temperature was still in the mind of the author of this Fargard, or that
the altitude of the table-land, where the Oxus and the Jaxartes take
their rise, was far higher in ancient times than at present, thereby
producing a cold climate. Both these explanations are however
artificial and unsatisfactory. It is true that a high altitude produces a
cold climate; but in the present instance the climate of the Airyana
Vaêjo was mild and genial before the invasion of Angra Mainyu, and
we must, therefore, suppose that the Iranian table-land was not
elevated at first, until Angra Mainyu upheaved it and produced a cold
climate. But the present altitude of the plateau is not so great as to
produce a winter of ten months, and this requires us again to assume
the submergence of this land after the invasion of Angra Mainyu.
Unfortunately there is no geological evidence forth-coming to support
the upheaval and submergence of this land in the order mentioned
above. But even if such evidence were forthcoming,
 352

the explanation would still fail to account why the inhabitants of

Yima’s Vara in the Airyana Vaêjo regarded a year as a single day, a
description, which is true only at the North, Pole. All attempts to
locate the primitive Airyana Vaêjo in a region other than the
circumpolar country must, therefore, be abandoned. The names of
mythical rivers and countries may have been transferred in later times
to real terrestrial rivers and provinces; but if we were to settle the
position of the primitive rivers or countries by a reference to these
new names, we can as well locate the Airyana Vaêjo between the
Himalaya and the Vindhya mountains in India, for in later Sanskrit
literature the land lying between these two mountains is called the
Âryâvarta or the abode of the Aryans. The mistake committed by
Darmesteter and Spiegel is of the same kind. Instead of determining
the position of the Airyana Vaêjo from the fact that a winter of ten
months is said to have been introduced therein by Angra Mainyu, and
that a year seemed only as a day to the inhabitants thereof, they
have tried to guess it from the uncertain data furnished by the names
of rivers in Iran, though they were aware of the fact that these names
were originally the names of mythical rivers and were attached to the
real rivers in Iran only in later times, when a branch of the Aryan race
went over to and, settled in that country. Naturally enough this
introduced greater confusion into the account of the Airyana Vaêjo
instead of elucidating it, and scholars tried to get out of it by
supposing that the whole account is either mythical, or is, at best, a
confused reminiscence of the ancient Iranian home. The recent
scientific discoveries have, however, proved the correctness of the
Avestic traditions, and in the light thrown upon the subject by the new
materials there is no course left but to reject the erroneous
speculations of those Zend scholars that make the Airyana Vaêjo the
eastern boundary of ancient Iran.
But the most important part of the second Fargard is the
warning conveyed by Ahura Mazda to Yima that fatal winters were
going to fall on the land ruled over by the latter, and the description of
glaciation by which the happy land was to
 353

be ruined. The warning is in the form of a prophecy, but any one who
reads the two Fargards carefully can see that the passage really
gives us a description of the Glacial epoch witnessed by the
ancestors of the Iranians. We give below the translation of the
passage both by Darmesteter and Spiegel.

VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.

Darmesteter Spiegel
22. And Ahura Mazda spake unto 46. Then spake Ahura Mazda to
Yima, saying, “O fair Yima, son of Yima: “Yima the fair, the son of
Vîvanghat! Upon the material world Vivanhâo,
the fatal winters are going to fall, 47. Upon the corporeal world will the
that shall bring the fierce, foul frost; evil of winter come:
upon the material world the fatal 48. Wherefore a vehement,
winters are going to fall, that shall destroying frost will arise.
make snowflakes fall thick, even an 49. Upon the corporeal world will the
aredvî deep on the highest tops of evil of winter come:
mountains. 50. Wherefore snow will fall in great
abundance,
51. On the summits of the
mountains, on the breadth of the
heights.
23. And all the three sorts of beasts 52. From three (places), O Yima, let
shall perish, those that live in the the cattle depart.
wilderness, and those that live on 53. If they are in the most fearful
the tops of the mountains, and those places,
that live in the bosom of the dale, 54. If they are on the tops of the
under the shelter of stables. mountains,
55. If they are in the depths of the
valleys,
56. To secure dwelling places.
24. Before that winter, those fields 57. Before this winter the fields
would bear plenty of grass for cattle: would bear plenty of country
now with floods that stream, with produced pasture; grass for cattle
snows now with.
58. Before flow waters, behind
floods that stream, with snows is the
melting of the snow.
 354

Darmesteter Spiegel

that melt, it will seem a happy land 59. Clouds, O Yima, will come over
in the world, the land wherein the inhabitated regions,
footprints even of sheep may still be 60. Which now behold the feet of the
seen. greater and smaller cattle:

25. Therefore make thee a Vara, long 61. Therefore make thou a circle of
as a riding-ground, on every side of the length of a race-ground to all
the square, and thither bring the four corners.
seeds of sheep and oxen, of men, of 62. Thither bring thou the seed of
dogs, of birds, and of red blazing the cattle, of the beasts of burden,
fires. and of men, of dogs, of birds, and of
the red burning fires.

Can anything, we ask, be more clear and distinct than the

above description of the advent of the Glacial epoch in the happy
land over which Yima ruled, and where a year was equivalent to a
single day? There is no reference to Angra Mainyu in this passage
which describes in the form of a prophecy the evils of glaciation, must
in the same manner as a modern geologist would describe the
progress of the ice-cap during the Glacial period. Ahura Mazda tells
Yima that fierce and foul frost will fall on the material world, and even
the tops of the highest mountains will be covered with or rather buried
in snow which will destroy all living beings whether on the tops of the
mountains or in the valleys below. The snow, it is said, would fall
aredvî deep, which Spiegel translates by the phrase “in great
abundance,” while Darmesteter, quoting from the commentary,
explains in a footnote that “even where it (the snow) is least, it will be
one Vîtasti two fingers, that is, fourteen fingers deep.” A cubit of
snow, at the lowest, covering the highest tops of the mountains and
the lowest depths of the valleys alike cannot but destroy all animal
life; and I do not think that the beginning of the Ice-age can be more
vividly described. With this express passage before us ascribing the
ruin of the happy land to the invasion of
 355

ice and winter, we should have no difficulty whatsoever in rightly

interpreting the meaning of the invasion of Angra Mainyu described in
the beginning of the first Fargard. It is no longer a matter of inference
that the original genial climate of the Airyana Vaêjo was rendered
inclement by the invasion of winter and snow, afterwards introduced
into the land. The above passage says so in distinct terms, and the
description is so graphic that we cannot regard it as mythical or
imaginary. Add to it the fact that the recent geological discoveries
have established the existence of at least two Glacial periods, the last
of which closed and the post-Glacial period commenced, according to
American geologists, not later than about 8000 B.C. When the
Avestic traditions regarding the destruction of the primeval Arctic
home by glaciation is thus found to be in complete harmony with the
latest geological researches, there is no reason, except prejudice,
why we should not regard the Avestic account as a correct
reminiscence of an old real historical fact. The author of the Fargards
in question cannot be supposed to have given us by imagination such
a graphic account of a phenomenon, which is brought to light or
discovered by the scientists only during the last forty or fifty years.
Darmesteter in his translation of the Fargards observes in a foot-note
that the account of glaciation is the result of a mythical
misunderstanding by which winter war thought to be the counter-
creation of Irân Vêj. This passed off very well twenty years ago, but
the phenomenon of glaciation in the Ice-age is now better
understood, and we cannot accept guesses and conjectures of
scholars regarding the meaning of a passage in the Avesta which
describes the glaciation of the Iranian paradise. It only proves how
the ancient records, howsoever express and distinct they may be, are
apt to be misunderstood and misinterpreted owing to our imperfect
knowledge of the climatic or other conditions or surroundings
amongst which the ancestors of our race lived in remote ages. But for
such a misunderstanding, it was not difficult to perceive that the
Airyana Vaêjo, or the original home of the Aryan race, was situated
near the North Pole, and that the
 356

ancestors of our race abandoned it not out of “irresistible impulse,” or

“overcrowding,” but simply because it was ruined by the invasion of
snow and ice brought on by the Glacial epoch. In short, the Avestic
tradition, as recorded in this Fargard, is the oldest documentary
evidence of the great climatic convulsion, which took place several
hundreds of years ago, and the scientific evidence of which was
discovered only during the last forty or fifty years. It is, therefore, a
matter of regret that the importance of this tradition should have been
so long misunderstood or overlooked.
It will be seen from the foregoing discussion that the traditional
evidence preserved in the first two Fargards of the Vendidad is
especially important for our purpose. The Dawn-hymns in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda supply us with the evidence of a long continuous dawn of thirty
days in the ancient home, and there are passages in the Vedas which
speak of a long continuous night of six months or of shorter duration,
and a year of seven or ten months. It can also be shown that several
Vedic myths and deities bear an unmistakable stamp of their Arctic
origin. But, as stated before, in the whole Vedic literature there is no
passage which will enable us to determine the time when the Polar
regions were inhabited, or to ascertain the reason why they were
abandoned. For that purpose we drew upon geology which has
recently established the fact that the climate of the circumpolar
regions, which is now so cold as to render the land unsuited for
human habitation, was mild and genial before the last Glacial-period.
It followed, therefore, that if the Vedic evidence pointed to an Arctic
home, the forefathers of the Aryan race must have lived therein not
after but before the last Glacial epoch. But the traditions preserved in
the Avesta dispense with the necessity of relying on geology for this
purpose. We have now direct traditional evidence to show (1) that the
Airyana Vaêjo had originally a good climate, but Angra Mainyu
converted it into a winter of ten and a summer of two months, (2) that
the Airyana Vaêjo was so situated that the inhabitants of Yima’s Vara
therein regarded the year only as a day, and saw the: sun rise only
once a year,
 357

and (3) that the happy land was rendered uninhabitable by the advent
of a Glacial epoch which destroyed all life therein. It is true, that but
for recent geological discoveries these statements, howsoever plain
and distinct, would have remained unintelligible, or regarded as
improbable by scholars, who would have always tried, as
Darmesteter has already done, to put some artificial or unnatural
construction upon these passages to render the same
comprehensible to them. We cannot, therefore, deny that we are
indebted to these scientific discoveries for enabling us to determine
the true meaning of the Avestic traditions, and to clear the mist of
misinterpretation that has gathered round them. But nevertheless, the
value of this traditional testimony is not thereby impaired in any way.
It is the oldest traditional record, preserved by human memory, of the
great catastrophe which overtook the northern portion of Europe and
Asia in ancient times, and obliged the Aryan inhabitants of the Arctic
regions to migrate southwards. It has been preserved during
thousands of years simply as an ancient record or tradition, though its
meaning was not intelligible, until at last we now see that the
accuracy of the account is fully and unexpectedly borne out by the
latest scientific researches. There are very few instances where
science has proved the accuracy of the ancient semi-religious
records in this way. When the position of the Airyana Vaêjo and the
cause of its ruin are thus definitely settled both by traditional and
scientific evidence, it naturally follows that the sixteen lands
mentioned in the first Fargard of the Vendidad must be taken to mark
the gradual diffusion of the Iranians from their ancient home to the
country of the Rasâ and the seven rivers; or, in other words, the
Fargard must be regarded as historical and not geographical as
maintained by Spiegel and Darmesteter. It is true that the first
Fargard does not say anything about migration. But when the site of
the Airyana Vaêjo is placed in the extreme north, and when we are
told in the second Fargard that the land was ruined by ice, no specific
mention of migration is needed, and the fact that the sixteen lands
are mentioned in a certain specific order
 358

is naturally understood, in that case, to mark the successive stages of

migration of the Indo-Iranian people. It is not contended that every
word in these two Fargards may be historically correct. No one would
expect such a rigid accuracy in the reminiscences of old times
traditionally preserved. It is also true that the Airyana Vaêjo has
grown into a sort of mythical land in the later Parsi literature,
somewhat like Mount Meru, the seat of Hindu gods, in the Purânas.
But for all that we cannot deny that in the account of the Airyana
Vaêjo in the first two Fargards of the Vendidad we have a real
historical reminiscence of the Arctic cradle of the Iranian or the Aryan
races, and that the Fargard gives us a description of the countries
through which the Indo-Iranians had to pass before they settled in the
Hapta Hendu or on the floods of Rangha, at the beginning of the
post-Glacial period.
This story of the destruction of the original home by ice may
well be compared with the story of deluge found in the Indian
literature. The oldest of these accounts is contained in the
Shatapatha Brâhmana (I, 8, 1, 1-10), and the same story is found,
with modifications and additions, in the Mahâbhârata (Vana-Parvan,
Ch. 187), arid in the Mâtsya, the Bhâgavata and other Purânas. All
these passages are collected and discussed by Muir in the first
Volume of his Original Sanskrit Texts (3rd Ed. pp. 181-220); and it is
unnecessary to examine them at any length in this place. We are
concerned only with the Vedic version of the story and this appears in
the above-mentioned passage in the Shatapatha Brâhmana. A fish is
there represented as having fallen into the hands of Manu along with
water brought for washing in the morning. The fish asked Manu to
save him, and in return promised to rescue Manu from a flood
(aughah) that would sweep away (nirvodhâ) all creatures. The
Brâhmana does not say when and where this conversation took
place, nor describes the nature of the calamity more fully than that it
was a flood. Manu preserved the fish first in a jar, then in a trench,
and lastly, by carrying him to the ocean. The fish then warns Manu
that in such and such a year (not definitely specified)
 359

the destructive flood will come, and advises him to construct a ship
(nâvam) and embark in it when the flood would arise. Manu
constructs the ship accordingly, and when the flood rises, embarks in
it, fastens its cable (pâsham) to the fish’s horn and passes over (ati-
dudrâva) to “this northern mountain” (etam uttaram girim) by which
phrase the commentator understands the Himavat or the Himâlaya
mountain to the north of India. The fish then asks Manu to fasten the
ship to a tree so that it may gradually descend, without going astray,
along with the subsiding water; and Manu acts accordingly. We are
told that it is on this account that the northern mountain has received
the appellation of Manor-avasarpanam or “Manu’s descent.” Manu
was the only person thus saved from the deluge; and desirous of
offspring he sacrificed with the pâka-yajña, and threw butter, milk,
and curds as oblations into the waters. Thence in a year rose a
woman named Idâ, and Manu living with her begot the off spring,
which is called Manu’s off-spring (prajâtih). This is the substance of
the story as found in the Shatapatha Brâhmana, and the same
incident is apparently referred to in the Atharva Veda Samhitâ (XIX,
39, 7-8), which says that the kushtha plant was born on the very spot
on the summit of the Himavat, the seat of the “Gliding down of the
ship” (nâva-prabhramshanam), the golden ship with golden tackle
that moved through the heaven. In the Mahâbhârata version of the
legend this peak of the Himâlaya is said to be known as Nau-
bandhanam, but no further details regarding the place or time are
given. The Mâtsya Purâna, however, mentions Malaya, or the
Malabar, as the scene of Manu’s austerity, and in the Bhâgavata,
Satyavrata, king of Dravida, is said to be the hero of the story. Muir
has compared these accounts, and pointed out the differences
between the oldest and the later versions of the story, showing how it
was amplified or enlarged in later times. We are, however, concerned
with the oldest account; and so far as it goes, it gives us no clue for
determining the place whence Manu embarked in the ship. The
deluge again appears to be one of water, and not of ice and snow as
described
 360

in the Avesta. Nevertheless it seems that the Indian story of deluge

refers to the same catastrophe as is described in the Avesta and not
to any local deluge of water or rain. For though the Shatapatha
Brâhmana mentions only a flood (aughah), the word prâleya, which
Pâninî (VII, 3, 2) derives from pralaya (a deluge), signifies “snow,”
“frost,” or “ice” in the later Sanskrit literature. This indicates that the
connection off ice with the deluge was not originally unknown to the
Indians, though in later times it seems to have been entirely
overlooked. Geology informs us that every Glacial epoch is
characterized by extensive inundation of the land with waters brought
down by great rivers flowing from the glaciated districts, and carrying
an amount of sand or mud along with them. The word aughah, or a
flood, in the Shatapatha Brâhmana may, therefore, be taken to refer
to such sweeping floods flowing from the glaciated districts, and we
may suppose Manu to have been carried along one of these in a ship
guided by the fish to the sides of the Himâlaya mountain. In short, it is
not necessary to hold that the account in the Shatapatha Brâhmana
refers to the water-deluge pure and simple, whatever the later
Purânas may say; and if so, we can regard the Brahmanic account of
deluge as but a different version of the Avestic deluge of ice. It was
once suggested that the idea of deluge may have been introduced
into India from an exclusively Semitic source; but this theory is long
ago abandoned by scholars, as the story of the deluge is found in
such an ancient book as the Shatapatha Brâhmana, the date of which
has now been ascertained to be not later than 2500 B.C., from the
fact that it expressly assigns to the Kṛittikâs, or the Pleiades, a
position in the due east. It is evident, therefore, that the story of the
deluge is Aryan in origin, and in that case the Avestic and the Vedic
account of the deluge must be traced to the same source. It may also
be remarked that Yima, who is said to have constructed the Vara in
the Avesta, is there described as the son of Vîvanghat; and Manu,
the hero in the Indian story, though he receives no epithet in the
account of the deluge in the Shatapatha Brâhmana, is very
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often described in the Vedic literature as the son of Vivasvat

(Vaivasvata), the Iranian Vîvanghat (Shat. Brâh. XIII, 4, 3, 3; ‫ي‬ig. VIII,
52, 1). Yama is also expressly called Vaivasvata in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (X,
14, 1). This shows that in spite of the fact that Yima is the hero in one
account and Manu in the other, and that one is said to be the deluge
of ice and the other of water, we may regard the two accounts as
referring to the same geological phenomenon.* The Avestic account
is, however, more specific than that in the Shatapatha Brâhmana,
and as it is corroborated, almost in every detail, by the scientific
evidence regarding the advent of the Glacial epoch in early times, it
follows that the tradition preserved in the two Fargards of the
Vendidad is older than that in the Shatapatha

* The story of the deluge is found also in other Aryan mythologies. The
following extract from Grote’s History of Greece (Vol. I, Chap. 5) gives the
Greek version of the story and some of the incidents therein bear striking
resemblance to the incidents in the story of Manu: —
“The enormous iniquity with which earth was contaminated — as
Apollodôrus says, by the then existing brazen race, or as others say, by the
fifty monstrous sons of Lykaôn — provoked Zeus to send a general deluge.
An unremitting and terrible rain laid the whole of Greece under water,
except the highest mountain-tops, whereon a few stragglers found refuge.
Deukaliôn was saved in a chest or ark, which he had been forewarned by
his father Promêtheus to construct. After floating for nine days on the
water, he at length landed on the summit of Mount Parnasses, Zeus having
sent Hermês to him, promising to grant whatever he asked, he prayed that
men and companions might be sent to him in his solitude; accordingly
Zeus directed both him and Pyrrha (his wife) to cast stones over their
heads: those cast by Pyrrha became women, those by Deukaliôn men. And
thus the ‘stony race of men’ (if we may be allowed to translate an
etymology which the Greek language presents exactly, and which has not
been disdained by Hesiod, by Pindar, by Epicharmas, and by Virgil) came
to tenant the soil of Greece. Deukaliôn on landing; from the ark sacrificed a
grateful offering to Zeus Phyxios, or Khe God of escape; he also erected
altars in Thessaly to the twelve great gods of Olympus.”
In commenting upon the above story Grote remarks that the reality of
this deluge was firmly believed throughout the historical ages of Greece,
and even Aristotle, in his meteorological work, admits and reasons upon it
as an unquestionable fact.
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Brâhmana. Dr. Haug has arrived at a similar conclusion on linguistic

grounds. Speaking about the passage in the Vendidad he says “the
original document is certainly of high antiquity and is undoubtedly one
of the oldest of the pieces which compose the existing Vendidad.”
The mention of Hapta Hendu, a name not preserved even in the later
Vedic literature, is said also to point to the same conclusion.
We may here refer to certain passages cited by Muir in his
Original Sanskrit Texts (3rd Ed. Vol. II. pp. 322-329) to show that the
reminiscences of the northern home have been preserved in the
Indian literature. He first refers to the expression shatam himâh, or “a
hundred winters,” occurring in several places in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (I, 64,
14; II, 33, 2; V, 54, 15; VI, 48, 8), and remarks that though the
expression sharadah shatam, or “a hundred autumns,” also occurs in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (II, 27, 10; VII, 66, 16), yet shatam himâh may be
regarded as a relic of the period when the recollection of the colder
regions from which the Vedic Aryans migrated had not yet been
entirely forgotten. The second passage quoted by him is from the
Aitareya Brâhmana (VIII, 14) which says “wherefore in this northern
region all the people who dwell beyond the Himavat, (called) the
Uttara Kurus and the Uttara Madras are consecrated to the glorious
rule (Vairâjyam).” The Uttara Kurus are again described in the same
Brâhmana (VIII, 23) as the land of gods which no mortal may
conquer, showing that the country had come to be regarded as the
domain of mythology. The Uttara Kurus are also mentioned in the
Râmâyana (IV, 43, 38) as the abode of those who performed the
meritorious works, and in the Mahâbhârata (Sabhâ-Parvan, Ch. 28)
Arjuna is told “Here are the Uttara Kurus whom no one attempts to
combat.” That the Uttara Kurus were not a fabulous land is shown by
the fact that a mountain, a people and a city called Ottorocorra is
mentioned by Ptolemy, and Lassen thinks that Megasthenes had the
Uttara Kurus in view when he referred to the Hyperboreans. Muir
concludes this section with a passage from the Sânkhyâyana or the
Kaushitakî Brâhmana (VII, 6) where Pathyâ Svasti, or
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the goddess of speech, is said to know the northern region (udîchîm

disham), and we are told that “Hence in the northern region speech is
better known and better spoken, and it is to the north that men go to
learn speech.” Muir thinks that some faint reminiscence of an early
connection with the north may be traced in these passages. But none
of them are conclusive, nor have we any indication therein of the
original home being in the Arctic regions, as we have in the case of
the Vedic passages discussed previously which speak of the long,
continuous dawn and night, or a year of ten months. We may,
however, take the passages cited by Muir as corroborative evidence
and they have been referred to here in the same light. It is upon the
Vedic passages and legends examined in the previous chapters and
the Avestic evidence discussed above that we mainly rely for
establishing the existence of the primeval Aryan home in the Arctic
regions; and when both these are taken together we get direct
traditional testimony for holding that the original home of the Aryan
races was situated near the North Pole and not in Central Asia, that it
was destroyed by the advent of the Glacial epoch, and that the Indo-
Iranians, who were compelled to leave the country, migrated
southwards, and passing through several provinces of Central Asia
eventually settled in the valleys of the Oxus, the Indus, the Kubhâ,
and the Rasâ, from which region we see them again migrating, the
Indians to the east and the Persians to the west at the early dawn of
the later traditional history.

————— ™ —————
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CHAPTER XII

COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY
The value of Comparative Mythology as corroborative evidence — Its use
in the present case — The ancient calendars of the European Aryan races
— The plurality of Dawns in the Lettish, the Greek and the Celtic mythology
— The ancient Roman year of ten months and Numa’s reform thereof —
Plutarch’s view — Improbability of Lignana’s theory pointed out — The
ancient Celtic year — Closed with the last day of October and marked the
commencement of winter and darkness — The winter feast celebrated on
the day — The mid-summer feast of Lugnassad on the first of August —
The commencement of summer on the first of May — The date of the battle
of Moytura — Similar duration of the Old Norse year — Comparison with
the ancient Greek calendar — All indicate six months’ light and six months’
darkness — Corroboration derived from comparative philology — Two
divisions of the year in primeval times — The Maid of Nine Forms in the
Celtic mythology — The Nine paces of Thor in the Norse legend —
Compared with the Vedic Navagvas and Vifra Navaza in the Avesta —
Balder’s home in the heavens — Indicates the long Arctic day — The
Slavonic story of Ivan and his two brothers — Continuous night in Ivan’s
home — Comparison with the Vedic legend of Trita — The Slavonic winter
demon — The story of Dawn and Gloaming in the Finnish mythology —
Indicates a long day of four weeks — Celtic and Teutonic legends
representing the Sun-god’s annual struggle with darkness — Baldur and
Hodur, Cuchulainn and Fomori — Temporary sickness and indisposition of
gods and heroes — Prof. Rhys’ views thereon — The affliction indicates
winter darkness — Celtic and Teutonic myths indicating long continuous
day and night — All point to a primeval home in the Arctic region — Recent
ethnological researches in favor of European home referred to — Indicate
northern Germany or Scandinavia — The necessity of going still farther
North — Prof. Rhys suggests Finland or White Sea — Not inconsistent with
the theory which seeks to make the North Pole the home of the whole
human race — Prof. Rhys’ method and conclusion — Primeval Arctic home
established alike by the traditions of the eastern and western Aryas — Its
relation with the general theory about the cradle of the human race at the
North Pole explained.

We propose in this chapter to examine whether and how far the

conclusions we have deduced from the Vedic and the Avestic
evidence are corroborated by the myths and traditions of the
European branches of the Aryan race. It is true that
 365

the evidence, collected in the foregoing chapters, is so general in

character that it will have to be taken into account, even if the
traditions of other races are found to conflict with it in any way. In
other words, it has nothing specially Asiatic in it and without further
corroboration we can, therefore, safely say that the original home of
the Indo-Iranians, before the last Glacial epoch, must also be the
home of the other Aryan people in those remote times. But still we
may usefully examine the traditions of other Aryan races, and see if
the latter have preserved any reminiscences of the original home,
either in their ancient calendar or in their other ancient myths or
legends. Of course the evidence cannot be expected to be as reliable
as that found in the Veda or the Avesta, but still it has its own value
for corroborative purposes. The History of comparative mythology
and philology shows that when Vedic literature and language became
accessible to European scholars, quite a new light was thrown
thereby on the Greek and the Roman mythology; and it is not unlikely
that the discovery of the Vedic and the Avestic evidence, in favor of
the Arctic home may similarly serve to elucidate some points in the
legendary literature of the Aryan races in Europe. But the subject is
so vast that it cannot be treated in a single chapter of this book, nor
do I possess the necessary means to undertake the task. I shall,
therefore, content myself with a statement of such facts as plainly
indicate the reminiscence of an ancient Arctic home in the traditional
literature of the Greek, Roman, Celtic, Teutonic and Slavonic
branches of the Aryan race; and I may here state that I am greatly
indebted for this purpose to that learned and masterly work, The
Hibbert lectures, by Prof. Rhys. On the origin and growth of religion
as illustrated by Celtic Heathendom.
Following the order adopted in the discussion of the Vedic
evidence, we shall first take up the question of the ancient calendar,
and see if the traditions preserved by the western Aryan races about
the ancient year point out to any Arctic characteristics, such as the
long dawn; the long day, the long night, or an annual period of
sunshine of less than
 366

twelve months’ duration. We have seen that the Dawn is very often
spoken of in the plural in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and that a group of thirty
Dawn-Sisters is actually described as moving round and round with
one mind and in the same enclosure without being separated from
each other, a phenomenon which is peculiar only to the Arctic
regions. This Vedic account of the Dawn does not stand by itself.
Thus in the Lettish mythology, the Dawn is called diewo dukte, or the
sky-daughter or the god-daughter, much in the same way as the
Ushas is called divo duhitâ in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; “and the poets of the
Lets speak likewise of many beautiful sky-daughters, or
goddaughters diewo dukruzeles.”* Prof. Max Müller; further informs
us that in the Greek mythology we can “easily find among the wives
of Hêrakles, significant names, such as Auge (sun-light), Xanthis
(yellow), Chrysêis (golden), Iole (violet), Aglaia (resplendent), and
Eône, which cannot be separated from Eos, dawn.”† The same story
appears again in the Celtic mythology where Cuchulainn, the Sun-
hero, is described as having a wife, who is variously named as Emer,
Ethne Ingubai. Upon this Prof. Rhys observes that “it may be that the
myth pictured the dawn not as one but as many to all of whom the
Sun-god made love in the course of the three hundred and more days
of the year.”‡ It has been shown previously that the description of the
Vedic dawns, as a closely united band, precludes us from regarding
them as three hundred and more dawns of the year; and that the only
inference we can draw from a closely united group of dawns is that it
represents the long and continuous Arctic dawn divided into a
number of parts of twenty-four hours each for convenience. The
description of the dawn in the Lettish mythology does not seem to be
so full as that in the Vedas and by itself it may not be sufficient to
indicate the Polar dawn; but considering the fact that the dawn is
described as sky-daughter

* Max Müller’s Contributions to the Science of Mythology, p. 432.

† Id. p. 722.
‡ Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures p. 458.
 367

and spoken of in the plural by the poets of the Lets and the poets of
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda alike, we may safely extend to the Lettish mythology the
conclusion we have drawn from the more detailed description of the
Dawn in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, and the same may be said of the Celtic and
the Greek stories of the dawn given above.
In treating of the Gavâm-ayanam and the corresponding legend
of the Dashagvas, a reference has already been made to the Greek
legend of Hêlios, who is described as having 350 oxen and as many
sheep, obviously representing a year of 350 days and nights, and to
the Roman tradition about December being the tenth and the last
month of the year as denoted by its etymology. Prof. Lignana in his
essay on The Navagvas and the Dashagvas of the Rig-Veda,
published in the proceedings of the seventh International Congress of
the Orientalists, 1886, however, remarks that the passage of Plutarch
in the life of Numa, where this tradition is mentioned, does not
support the view that the Romans originally counted not more than
ten months. It is true that Plutarch mentions an alternative story of
Numa’s altering the order of months “making March the third which
was the first, January first which was the eleventh of Romulus, and
February the second which was the twelfth and last.” But immediately
afterwards Plutarch says, “Many, however, assert that two months of
January and February were added by Numa, whereas before they
had reckoned ten months in the year”; and in the next paragraph
gives his own opinion, “That the Roman year contained at first ten
months only and not twelve, we have a proof in the name of the last;
for they still call it December, or the tenth month; and that March was
first is also evident, because the fifth from it was called Quintilis, the
sixth Sextilis, and so the rest in their order.”* I have referred to this
passage previously and shown that Plutarch’s reasoning about the
order of the months as indicated by their numerical names cannot be
lightly set aside. If January and

* Vide Langhorne’s Translation of Plutarch’s Lives, published by Ward,

Lock and Co., London, pp. 53, 54.
 368

February were the last two months in the ancient calendar of the
Romans, we should have to assume that the numerical order from
Quintilis to December was abruptly given up after December which
does not seem probable. It is, therefore, more reasonable to hold that
Numa actually added two months to the old year, and that the story of
the transposition of the two months of January and February from the
end to the beginning of the year was a later suggestion put forward
by those who knew not how to account for a year of ten months, or
304 days only. But besides Plutarch, we have also the testimony of
Macrobius, who, as stated before, tells us that Romulus had a year of
ten months only. There can, therefore, be little doubt about the
existence of a tradition of the ancient Roman year of ten months and
we now see that it is thoroughly intelligible by comparison with the
annual sacrificial sattras of ten months mentioned in the Vedic
literature. The names of the Roman months from Quintilis to
December further show that the months of the year had no special
names in ancient times, but were named simply in their numerical
order, a fact which accounts for the absence of common names for
the months of the year in different Aryan languages.
The evidence regarding the ancient year of Celts, Teutons and
Greeks is not however so definite, though it may be clearly shown
that in each case the year was marked by a certain period of cold and
darkness, indicating the Arctic, origin of the ancient calendar.
Speaking of the ancient Celtic year Prof. Rhys observes, “Now as the
Celts were in the habit formerly of counting winters, and of giving
precedence in their reckoning to night and winter over day and
summer, I should argue that the last day of the year in the Irish story
of Diarmait’s death meant the eve of November of All-Halloween, the
night before the Irish Samhain, and known in Welsh as Nos Galan-
gaeaf, or the Night of the winter Calends. But there is no occasion to
rest on this alone, for we have the evidence of Cormac’s Glossary
that the month before the be ginning of winter was the last month, so
that the first day of
 369

the first month of winter was also the first day of the year.”* Various
superstitious customs are then alluded to, showing that the eve of
November was considered to be the proper time for prophecy or the
appearance of goblins; and the Professor then closes the discussion
regarding the above-mentioned last day of the Celtic year with the
remark that “It had been fixed upon as the time of all others, when the
Sun-god whose power had been gradually falling off since the great
feast associated with him on the first of August, succumbed to his
enemies, the powers of darkness and winter. It was their first hour of
triumph after an interval of subjection, and the popular imagination
pictured them stalking aboard with more than ordinary insolence and
aggressiveness; and if it comes to giving individuality and form to the
deformity of darkness, to describe it as a sow, black or grisly, with
neither ears nor tail, is not perhaps very readily surpassed as an
instance of imaginative aptitude.Ӡ The shows that the ancient Celtic
year closed with the season of autumn and the beginning of winter
which corresponded with the last day of October, or the eve of
November, and was marked by festivals which indicated the victory of
darkness over light. As regards the middle of the year or summer in
the Celtic traditions, the same authority further informs us that “The
Lammas fairs and meetings forming the Lugnassad in ancient Ireland
marked the victorious close of the sun’s contest with the powers of
darkness and death, when the warmth and light of that luminary’s
rays, after routing the colds and blights, were fast bringing the crops
to maturity. This, more mythologically expressed, was represented as
the final crushing of Fomori and Fir Bolg, the death of their king and
the nullifying of their malignant spells, and as the triumphant return of
Lug with peace and plenty to marry the maiden Erinn and to enjoy a
well-earned banquet, at which the fairy host of dead ancestors was
probably not forgotten. Marriages were solemnized

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 514

† Ibid pp. 516-17.
 370

on the auspicious occasion; and no prince, who failed to be present

on the last day of the fair, durst look forward to prosperity during the
coming year. The Lugnassad was the great event of the summer half
of the year, which extended form the calends of May to the calends of
winter. The Celtic year was more thermometric than astronomical,
and the Lugnassad was so to say its summer solstice, whereas the
longest day was, so far as I have been able to discover, of no special
account.”* The great feast of the Lugnassad thus marked the middle
of the year or summer, and it was held at the beginning of August.
Therefore, “the First of May must, according to Celtic ideas, have
been the right season for the birth of the summer sun-god”;† and this
is confirmed by the story of Gwin and Gwythur, who fought for the
same damsel, and between whom peace was made on the condition
that they were to fight for the damsel “on the Calends of May every
year thenceforth till the Day of Doom, and he who should prove
victorious on the Day of Doom was to take the Damsel to wife.”‡ This
is interpreted by Prof. Rhys to mean that “the Sun-god would recover
his bride at the beginning of summer after his antagonist had gained
possession of her at the beginning of winter;Ӥ and he compares the
legend to the story of Persephone, daughter of Zeus carried away by
Pluto, who was, however, able to retain her at his side only for six
months in the year. We might also cite in this connection the legend
of Demeter or Mother Earth, who is said to rejoice for six months in
the presence of Proserpine, the green herb, her daughter, and for six
months regret her absence in dark abodes beneath the earth. The
ancient Celtic year thus seems to nave been divided into two halves,
one representing the six summer months and the other, which
commenced on the eve of November, the six months of winter
darkness. But what is still more remarkable is that just as the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 418-19.

† Ibid p. 546.
‡ Ibid pp. 562.
§ Ibid p. 460.
 371

gives us the exact date of the commencement of the battle between

Indra and Shambara, so Celtic myths record the exact date of the first
battle of Moytura and also of the fight between Labraid of the Swift
Hand on the Sword, king of an, Irish Hades, whom Cuchulainn goes
to assist, and his enemies called the Men of Fidga. They were fought
on the eve of November, “when the Celtic year began with the
ascendancy of the powers of darkness.”* Prof. Rhys further points out
that the ancient Norse year was similar in character. The great feast
of the Norsemen occupied three days called the Winter Nights and
began on the Saturday falling on or between the 11th and the 18th of
October; and according to Dr. Vigfusson this feast marked the
beginning of the ancient year of the Norsemen. The old Norse year
thus appears to have been shorter by a few days than the Celtic one;
but Prof. Rhys accounts for this difference on the ground “that winter,
and therefore the year commences earlier in Scandinavia than in the
continental centre from which the Celts dispersed themselves.Ӡ
As regards the ancient Greek calendar, Prof. Rhys has shown
that the old year ended with the festival of Apaturia and the new one
began with the Chalceia, an ancient feast in honor of Hephæstus and
Athene, the exact date being the ènu kai nea of the month of
Pyanepsion, that is, approximately the last day of October. Prof. Rhys
then compares the Celtic feast of the Lugnassad with the Greek
festival named Panathenæa, and the feast on the Calends of May
with the Athenian Thargelia, and concludes his comparison of the
Celtic and the Greek calendar by observing that “a year which was
common to Celts with Greeks is not unlikely to have once been
common to them with some or all other branches of the Aryan
family.”‡
This shows that the ancient Aryan races of Europe knew of six
months’ day and six months’ night, and their calendars

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 562.

† Ibid p. 676.
‡ Ibid p. 521.
 372

were the modifications of this Arctic division of the year. Comparative

philology, according to Dr. Schrader, leads us to the same
conclusion. Speaking of the ancient division of the year he says: —
“Nearly everywhere in the chronology of the individual peoples a
division of the year into two parts can be traced. This finds linguistic
expression in the circumstance that the terms for summer, spring,
and winter have parallel suffix formations. As in the primeval period
jhi-m and sem existed side by side, so in Zend zima and hama
correspond to each other, in Armenian amarn and jmern, in Teutonic
sum-ar and wint-ar, in Celtic gam and sam, in Indian vasanta and
hemanta. There is absolutely no instance, in which one and the same
language shows identity of suffixes in the names of the three seasons
of the year. In Slavonic, also, the year is divided into two principal
divisions, summer (leto) and winter (zima); and finally evident traces
of old state of things are not wanting in Greek and Latin.”* Dr.
Schrader further remarks that the separate conceptions of winter and
summer were combined in one whole even in primitive times; but
there is no word for a year common to all or most of the Aryan
languages, and it is not unlikely that the names of summer or winter
were used to denote the return of the seasons more frequently than
the conception of winter and summer combined into one whole. As
the length of summer, or the period of sunshine, as contrasted with
the period of darkness, varied from six to twelve months in the Arctic
regions the conception of a year of twelve months was perhaps less
suited for practical reckoning in the primeval home than the
conception of so many months’ summer or so many months’ winter
taken singly, and this explains why in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda we have the
expression “mânus hâ yugâ and kshapah” to denote the whole year.
In discussing the legend of the Navagvas and the Dashagvas

* Schrader’s Prehistoric Antiquities of Aryan Peoples, translated by

Jevons, Part IV, ch. VI, p. 302.
 373

we have shown that the numerals incorporated in their names must

be interpreted as referring to the number of months during which they
completed their annual sacrifices, and that Prof. Lignana’s view that
they refer to the months of pregnancy is not only improbable but
opposed to the express Vedic texts which tell us that the Navagvas
and the Dashagvas completed their sacrifices in ten months. Let us
now see if there are corresponding personages in other Aryan
mythologies. Prof. Lignana has pointed out the resemblance between
the Navagvas and the Novemsides of the Romans. The comparison
is no doubt happy, but there is nothing in the cult of the Novemsides
which gives us a clue to the original meaning of the word. We know
nothing beyond the fact that Novemsides (also spelt Novemsiles)
were, certain Latin gods, who according to the double etymology
(novam, nine or novus, new) were taken for nine Muses, or for gods
newly introduced, as after the conquest of a place in contrast with the
old gods of the country. But the Celtic tradition of the Maid of Nine
Forms is much more explicit, inasmuch as it is distinctly connected
with the sun-hero Cuchulainn. The story is thus narrated by Rhys:
Conchobar had a passing fair daughter called Fedelm of the nine
forms, for she had so many fair aspects, each of which was more
beautiful, as we are told, than the others; and when “Cuchulainn had,
at the news of the approach of the enemy from the west, advanced
with his father to the frontier of the realm, he suddenly hastened away
in the evening to a place of secret meeting, where he knew Fedelm to
have a bath got ready for him, in order to prepare him for the morrow
and his first encounter with the invading army.”* This reminds us of
the assistance rendered by the Navagvas and the Dashagvas to
Indra by means of Sonia sacrifices performed by them and which
sacrifices are said to have invigorated Indra and prepared him for his
fight with the powers of darkness, represented by Vṛitra, Vala,
Shambara and other demons. The Maid of Nine Forms is

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, pp. 630-1.

 374

therefore a Celtic paraphrase of the Nine-going sacrifices in the ‫ي‬ig-

Veda. Prof. Rhys considers Fedelm to be a sort of Athene with nine
forms of beauty, and refers to the story of Athene weaving a peplos
for her favorite Hêrakles, or causing springs of warm water to gush
forth from the ground, to supply him at the end of the day with a
refreshing bath.* But this comparison does not explain why there
should be nine forms of beauty in either case. The mystery is,
however, cleared up, if we suppose these legends to refer to the nine
months of sunshine at the end of which the setting sun-god is
refreshed or invigorated for his struggle with the demons of darkness
by the acts of or services of the Nine-going sacrificers or the Maid of
Nine Forms. In the Norse literature we are told that Thor, the son of
Earth, slays the World-dragon, walks nine paces and dies of the
venom of the Serpent.Ӡ If the slaying of the dragon be understood,
as remarked by Prof. Rhys, to mean the conquest of the Sun-hero
over the powers of darkness and the death of Thor be taken to
represent the sinking of the summer-sun below the horizon, we have
here a clear statement that Thor, the Sun-hero, walked nine paces
during the time that intervened between the end of winter and the end
of summer. These nine paces could not be nine days or nine years;
and there is therefore no alternative but to hold that the legend refers
to the nine months’ life of the Sun-god before he succumbed to the
powers of darkness. The Avestic story of Vafra, or, according to
Spiegel, Vifra Navâza (Yt. V, 61) belongs, I think, to the same class.
He is said to have been flung up in the air, in the shape of a bird by
Thraêtaona and was flying for three days and three nights towards
his own house, but could not turn down. At the end of the third night
when the beneficent dawn came dawning up, lie prayed unto Ardvi
Sûra Anâhita to help him, promising to offer Haomas and meat by the
drink of the river Rangha. Ardvi Sûra Anâhita listening to his prayer is.

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, pp. 378-9.

† Id. p. 616.
 375

then said to have brought him to his house safe and unhurt. Vifra
Navâza in this legend is very likely Vipra Navagva of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda.
We have seen that the Navagvas and seven vipras are mentioned
together in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda (VI, 22, 2) and that the Ashvins, who are
called vipra-vâhasâ in (V, 74, 7), are said to have resided for three
nights in the distant region. It is not unlikely, therefore, that the story
of the Navagvas, who go to help Indra in the world of darkness after
completing their sacrificial session of nine months, may have been
combined with the story of the Ashvins in the Avestic legend of Vifra
Navâza, Sanskrit Vipra being changed into Avestic Vifra and
Navagva into Navâza.
The above legends from the Greek, Celtic and Norse literatures
show that a long winter-darkness was not unknown to the ancestors
of the Aryan races in Europe, who have preserved distinct
reminiscences of a year of ten or six months’ sun-shine, and that the
Navagvas and the Dashagvas of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda have again their
parallels in the mythology of other Aryan races, though the
resemblance may not be as obvious in the one as in the other case.
A year of six months’ or ten months’ sunshine necessarily implies a
long continuous day and a long continuous night, and distinct
references to these Arctic characteristics of day and night are found
in Norse and Slavonic legends. Thus the Norse Sun-god Balder is
said to have dwelt in a place in heaven called Breidablik or
Broadgleam, the most blessed of all lands, where nought unclean or
accursed could abide. Upon this Prof. Rhys observes, “It is
remarkable that Balder had a dwelling place in the heavens, and this
seems to refer to the Arctic summer when the sun prolongs his stay
above the horizon. The pendant to the picture would naturally be his
staying as long in the nether world.” This corresponds exactly with the
Vedic description of the sun’s unyoking his carriage and making a
halt in the mid of the heaven, discussed in the sixth chapter. The
story of three brothers in the Slavonic literature also points out to

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 536.

 376

the same conclusion. We are told that “Once there was an old couple
who had three sons. Two of them had their wits about them, but the
third, Ivan, was a simpleton. Now in the land in which Ivan lived, there
was never any day but always night. This was a snake’s doing. Well,
Ivan undertook to kill that snake. Then came a third snake with twelve
heads, Ivan killed it and destroyed the heads and immediately there
was light throughout the whole land.”* This reminds one of the story
of Trita in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda previously described. Trita’s abode is said to
be in the distant region, and we have interpreted it to mean the nether
world of darkness, an interpretation which amongst others is fully
borne out by the story of Ivan and his two brothers. But the dark
power takes a distinctive Russian appearance in the awful figure of
Koshchei, the deathless, — a fleshless skeleton who squeezes
heroes to death in his bony arms. He carries off a princess; after
seven years the hero reaches his under-ground palace and is hidden;
but is discovered by Koshchei who typifies winter in this case. All
these legends clearly indicate a dark winter of some months’
duration, or the long winter-night of the Arctic regions. There are
other stories in which the Sun-hero is said to have been detained in a
place of darkness; but it is not necessary to refer to them in this
place. For comparison I shall only refer briefly to a legend in the
Finnish mythology, which, though not Aryan in origin, may yet serve
to throw some light on the subject under consideration. In the
mythology of the Finns, the Dawn is called Koi and “Koi, the Dawn
(masc.), and Ammarik, the Gloaming (fem.), are said to have been
entrusted by Vanna-issa, the Old Father, with lighting and
extinguishing every morning and evening the torch of the day. As a
reward for their faithful services Vanna-issa would allow them to get
married. But they preferred to remain bride and bride-groom, and
Vanna-issa had nothing more to say. He allowed them, however, to
meet at midnight during four weeks in summer. At that time Ammarik
hands the

* Poor’s Comparative Mythology, p. 390

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dying torch to Koi, who revives it with his breath.”* If this legend has
any meaning it signifies the cessation of extinguishing the torch of the
day during four weeks in summer. Koi and Ammarik both leave their
places and arrange to meet at midnight but without extinguishing the
torch. This means a long day of four weeks, and as it must have a
long night of four weeks to match it the story points out to a period of
eleven months’ sun-shine, and an Arctic night of four weeks.
From the legends mentioned, or referred to, or described
above, it may be easily seen that many traces of the Arctic calendar
are still discernible in the mythology of the western Aryan races like
Celts, Teutons, Lets, Slavs, Greeks and Romans. Long dawns or a
number of dawns, long days, long nights, dark winters, are all alluded
to more or less explicitly in these myths, though none of these
legends refers directly to the position of the primeval home and the
cause of its destruction. But this omission or defect is removed by the
evidence contained in the Veda and the Avesta; and when the
European legends are viewed in the light of the Indo-Iranian traditions
they clearly point to the existence of a primeval home near the North
Pole. There are a number of other legends in the Celtic and Teutonic
literatures which describe the victory of sun-hero over the demons of
darkness every year, similar in character to the victory of Indra over
Vṛitra, or to the achievements of the Ashvins, the physicians of the
gods. Thus in the Norse mythology, Hodur, the blind god of winter, is
represented as killing Balder or Baldur, or the god of summer, and
Vali the son of Odin and Rind is said to have avenged his brother’s
death afterwards. The encounters of Cuchulainn, the Celtic Sun-god,
with his enemies, the Fomori or the Fir Bolg, the Irish representatives
of the powers of darkness, are of the same character. It may also be
remarked that according to Prof. Rhys the world of waters and the
world of darkness and the dead are identical in Celtic myths, in the
same way as the world of water, the abode of Vṛitra and the

* Max Müller’s Contributions to the Science of Mythology, pp. 267-8

 378

world of darkness are shown to be in the Vedic mythology. The

strange custom of couvade, by which the whole population of Ireland
is described as being laid up in confinement or indisposed so as to be
unable to defend their country against the invasion of Ailill and Medle
with their Fig Bolg, excepting Cuchulainn and his father, again
indicates, according to Prof. Rhys, a sort of decline in the power of
gods like that witnessed in the case of the winter-sun; in other words,
it was an indisposition or inactivity of the same sort which amounts in
the Norse Edda to nothing less than actual death of the Anses at the
hands of the powers of evil. This temporary affliction or the
indisposition of the gods forms the subject of many other legends. But
we have no space to narrate all of them, and shall, therefore, only
quote here the conclusion, which Prof. Rhys has been forced to
adopt, regarding the meaning of these myths after a critical
examination of the different Celtic and Teutonic legends. Speaking of
Gods, Demons and Heroes, in the last lecture of his learned work, he
thus sums up his views regarding the myths describing the
encounters between Gods or Sun-heroes and the powers of
darkness: —
“All that we have thus far found with regard to the contest of the
gods and their allies against the powers of evil and theirs, would
seem to indicate that they were originally regarded as yearly
struggles. This appears to be the meaning of the fore-knowledge as
to the final battle of Moytura, and as to the exact date of the
engagement on the Plain of Fidga in which Cuchulainn assists
Labraid of the Swift Hand on the sword, a kind of Celtic Zeus, or
Mars-Jupiter, as the ruler of an Elysium in the other world. It was for a
similar reason that the northern Sibyl could predict that, after the
Anses had been slain by Swart, aided by the evil brood, Balder would
come to reign, when all would be healed, and the Anses would meet
again in the Field of Ida. Nor can the case have been materially
different with the Greek gods, as proved by the allusion to the
prophecy about the issue of the war with the giants. And this was not
all; for we are told that the
 379

Cretans represented Zeus as born and bred and also buried in their
island, a view sometimes formally regarded as confirming the
character ascribed to them for lying; but that deserves no serious
consideration, and the Cretans in their mysteries are supposed to
have represented the god going through the stages of his history
every year. A little beyond the limits of the Greek world a similar idea
assumed a still more remarkable form, namely, among the Phrygians,
who are said by Plutarch to have believed their god (like the Purânic
Vishnu) to sleep during the winter and resume his activity during
summer. The same author also states that the Paphlagonians were of
opinion that the gods were shut up in a prison during winter and let
loose in summer. Of these peoples, the Phrygians at least appear to
have been Aryan, and related by no means distantly to the Greek; but
nothing could resemble the Irish couvade of the Ultonion heroes more
closely than the notion of the Phrygian god hibernating. This, in its
turn, is not to be severed from the drastic account of the Zeus of the
Greek Olympus reduced by Typho to a sinewless mass and thrown
for a time into a cave in a state of utter helplessness. Thus we seem
to be directed to the north as the original home of the Aryan nations;
and there are other indications to the same effect, such as Woden’s
gold ring Draupnir, which I have taken to be symbolic of the ancient
eight-day week: he places it on Balder’s pile, and with him it
disappears for a while into the nether world, which would seem to
mean the cessation for a time of the vicissitude of day and night, as
happens in midwinter within the Arctic Circle. This might be claimed
as exclusively Icelandic, but not if one can show traces, as I have
attempted, of the same myth in Ireland. Further, a sort of complement
to it is supplied by the fact that Cuchulainn, the Sun-hero, is made to
fight several days and nights without having any sleep, which though
fixed at the wrong season of the year in the epic tale in its present
form, may probably be regarded as originally referring to the sun
remaining above the horizon continuously for several days in
summer. Traces of the same idea betray themselves in
 380

Balder’s son Forseti or the Judge, who according to a passage in old

Norse literature, sits long hours at his court settling all causes in his
palace of Glitnir in the skies. These points are mentioned as part of a
hypothesis I have been forced to form for the interpretation of certain
features of Aryan mythology; and that hypothesis, to say the least of
it, will not now be considered so wild as it would have been a few
years ago; for the recent researches of the students of language and
ethnology have profoundly modified their views, and a few words
must, at this point, be devoted to the change that has come over the
scene.”*
Prof. Rhys then goes on to briefly describe how the views of
mythologists and philologists regarding the primeval home of the
Aryan race have been modified by the recent discoveries in Geology,
Archeology and Craniology, and how the site of that home has been
shifted from the plains of Central Asia to the northern parts of
Germany or even to Scandinavia not only on ethnological but also on
philological grounds. As we have discussed the subject previously,
we omit this portion of Prof. Rhys’ remarks and quote the concluding
paragraph which runs as follows: —
“Thus the voice of recent research is raised very decidedly in
favor of Europe, though there is no complete unanimity as to the
exact portion of Europe, to regard as the early home of the Aryans;
but the competition tends to lie between North Germany and
Scandinavia, especially the south of Sweden. This last would
probably do well enough as the country in which the Aryans may
have consolidated and organized themselves before beginning to
send forth their excess of population to conquer the other lands now
possessed by nations speaking Aryan languages. Nor can one forget
that all the great states of modern Europe, except that of the sick
man, trace their history back to the conquest of the Norsemen who
set out from the Scandinavian land, which Jordanis proudly calls
officina gentium and vagina nationum. But I

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, pp. 631-3.

 381

doubt whether the teachings of evolution may not force us to trace

them still further towards the North: in any case, the mythological
indications to which your attention has been called, point, if I am not
mistaken, to some spot within the Arctic Circle, such, for example, as
the region where Norse legend placed the Land of Immortality,
somewhere in the north of Finland and the neighborhood of the White
Sea. There would, perhaps, be no difficulty in the way of supposing
them to have thence in due time descended into Scandinavia,
settling, among other places, at Upsala, which has all the appearance
of being a most ancient site, lying as it does on a plain dotted with
innumerable burial mounds of unknown antiquity. This, you will bear
in mind, has to do only with the origin of the early Aryans, and not
with that of the human race generally; but it would be no fatal
objection to the view here suggested, if it should be urged that the
mythology of nations beside the Aryans, such as that of the
Paphlagonians, in case of their not being Aryan, point likewise to the
north; for it is not contended that the Aryans may be the only people
of northern origin. Indeed, I may add that a theory was, not long ago,
propounded by a distinguished French savant, to the effect that the
entire human race originated on the shores of the Polar Sea at a time
when the rest of the northern hemisphere was too hot to be inhabited
by man. M. de Saporta, for that is the learned writer’s name, explains
himself in clear and forcible terms; but how far his hypothesis may
satisfy the other students of this fascinating subject I cannot say. It
may, however, be observed in passing that it need not disconcert
even the most orthodox of men, for it supposes all the races of
mankind traceable to a single non-simian origin, and the Bible leaves
it an open question where exactly and when the Garden of Eden
flourished.”*
I have very little to add to the views expressed in the above
passages; in fact Prof. Rhys has left us little to be done so far as
Celtic and Teutonic myths are concerned. The way

* Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, pp. 636-7.

 382

in which he proceeds to analyze the legends and show that they all
point to a primeval home in the Arctic regions is at once interesting
and instructive. He first clears the ground by ascribing the different
prophecies occurring in the legends not to any fore-knowledge on the
part of the poet, but to the simple fact that the events spoken of were
of annual occurrence, and as they were known to recur regularly it
was not difficult to adopt the language of prophecy and predict the
happening of these events in future. He then collects a number of
facts which go to prove that gods and heroes were afflicted with some
disability of distress at certain intervals of time, which rendered them
incapable to carry on the annual struggle with the powers of evil and
darkness. The only physical phenomena corresponding to such
distress of the solar hero, or the sun, are his daily setting, the decay
of his powers in winter and his disappearing below the horizon for
some months in the Polar regions. As the struggle between the Sun-
god and his enemies is, as stated above, determined to be annual,
the daily setting of the sun does not come within the range of the
possible explanations of the temporary distress of the sun-god. Out of
the two remaining physical phenomena, the decay of sun’s power in
winter would have answered the purpose, had there been no legends
or myths which indicated the cessation of the vicissitude of day and
night for some time. I have pointed out before how Prof. Max Müller,
who has followed the same method of interpretation in his discussion
of the achievements of the Ashvins, has failed to grasp the real
meaning of the Ashvins’ legends by disregarding the statements
which distinctly speak of the protégés of the Ashvins as dwelling or
laboring in darkness. Prof. Rhys is more cautious in this respect, and
is anxious to account for all the incidents in the legends if they could
possibly be accounted for on any theory. The result is that he has
been gradually led, or we might even say forced, to adopt the theory
of the ancient Arctic home of the Aryan people inasmuch as all the
different incidents in the legends under consideration can be
accounted for only by this theory. In short, Prof. Rhys has
 383

this book in regard to the Vedic and Avestic traditions. This has
considerably lightened our labor in regard to the examination of Celtic
and Teutonic myths from our point of view, and our thanks are due to
Prof. Rhys for the same. But we feel sure that if the Vedic evidence
and facts stated and discussed in the foregoing chapters had been
known to the learned Professor before he wrote his work, he would
have expressed himself still more confidently regarding the inference
to be drawn from the traces of Arctic origin discernible in Teutonic
myths; but even as it is, the value of his testimony stands very high in
the decision of the question before us. It is the testimony of an expert
given after a critical and careful examination of all Celtic and Teutonic
Myths, and after comparing them with similar Greek traditions; and
when this testimony falls in so completely with the conclusions we
have drawn from an independent consideration of the Vedic and
Avestic myths, our results may, so to say, be regarded as doubly
proved. It has already been shown that the results of comparative
philology also support, or, at any rate, are not inconsistent with our
conclusions. The theory of the Asiatic home may be said to have
been now abandoned on linguistic or etymological grounds, but it has
not yet been proved that the Neolithic Aryan races of Europe were
autochthonus in the countries where their remains are now found.
Therefore the question of the original home of the Aryan people is still
an open question, and we are free to draw any conclusion regarding
the ancient home from a legitimate consideration of the traditional
evidence before us. Prof. Rhys has well described the situation by
observing that the teachings of evolution may force us to look for the
original home still farther north in the Arctic regions. In fact we have
to go to a latitude which will give us seven months’ sunshine, or a
hundred nights’ continuous darkness, or thirty days’ continuous dawn.
The question whether the home of other nations, beside the Aryan,
can be traced to the North Pole, has been ably discussed by Dr.
Warren in his
 384

Paradise Found, or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole.
It is an important question from an anthropological point of view; but
its very comprehensiveness precludes us from collecting evidence
from the traditional literatures of the different human races living on
the surface of this earth. It is true that we sometimes derive help from
the discussion of the broader questions at first; but for all practical
purposes it is always desirable to split up the inquiry into different
sections, and when each section has been thoroughly investigated to
combine the results of the different investigators and see what
conclusions are common to all. Our inquiry of the original Aryan home
is, therefore, not only not inconsistent with the general theory about
the, cradle of the human race at the North Pole, but a necessary
complement to it; and it matters little whether it is undertaken as an
independent inquiry as we have done, or as a part of the general
investigation. Anyhow ours is a limited task, namely, to prove that the
original home of the Aryan people was situated in the Arctic regions
before the last Glacial epoch and that the oldest ancestors of the
Aryan race had to abandon it owing to its destruction by ice and snow
of the Glacial period. The Vedic and the Avestic passages, quoted in
the previous chapters, directly point to such a home in primeval
times, and we now see that the testimony of scholars, like Prof. Rhys,
who have independently examined the Celtic, Teutonic and other
mythologies of the European branches of the Aryan race, fully bears
out the conclusion we have deduced from the Indo-Iranian traditions.
We have also seen that our view is supported by the latest scientific
researches, and is not inconsistent with the results of comparative
philology. We may, therefore, take it as established that the original
home of the Aryan people was in the far north, in regions round about
the North Pole, and that we have correctly interpreted the Vedic and
the Avestic traditions which had long remained misinterpreted or
misunderstood.

————— ™ —————
 385

CHAPTER XIII

THE BEARING OF OUR RESULTS ON

THE HISTORY OF PRIMITIVE ARYAN
CULTURE AND RELIGION
Proofs of the theory of the Arctic home summed up — They clearly indicate
a Polar home, but the exact spot in the Arctic regions, that is, north of
Europe or Asia, still undeterminable — An Arctic home possible only in
inter-Glacial times according to geology — Ancient Vedic chronology and
calendar examined — The interval between the commencement of the Post-
Glacial era and the Orion period cannot, according to it, be so great as
80,000 years — Supported by the moderate estimate of the American
geologists — Purânic chronology of yugas, manvantaras and kalpas —
Rangâchârya’s and Aiyer’s views thereon — Later Purânic system evolved
out of an original cycle of four yugas of 10,000 years, since the last deluge
— The theory of “divine years” unknown to Manu and Vyâsa — Adopted by
later writers who could not believe that they lived in the Krita age — The
original tradition of 10,000 years since the last deluge fully in accord with
Vedic chronology — And also with the American estimate of 8,000 B.C. for
the beginning of the Post-Glacial period — All prove the existence of a
Polar Aryan home before 8,000 B.C. — Trustworthiness of the ancient
traditions and the method of preserving them — The theory of the Polar
origin of the whole human race not inconsistent with the theory of the
Arctic Aryan home — Current views regarding primitive Aryan culture and
religion examined — Primitive Aryan man and his civilization cannot now
be treated as Post-Glacial — Certain destruction of the primeval civilization
and culture by the Ice Age — Short-comings or defects in the civilization of
the Neolithic Aryan races in Europe must, therefore, be ascribed to a
postdiluvian relapse into barbarism — Life and calendar in the inter-Glacial
Arctic home – Devayâna and Pitriyâna and the deities worshipped during
the period — The ancient sacrifices of the Aryan race — The degree of
civilization reached by the undivided Aryans in their Arctic home — The
results of Comparative Philology stated — The civilization disclosed by
them must be taken to be the minimum or the lowest, that can be
predicated of the undivided Aryans — The culture of the undivided Aryans
higher than the culture of the Stone or the Metal age — Use of metal coins
among them highly probable — Beginnings of the Aryan language, or the
differentiation of human races according to color or language still
untraceable — The origin of Aryan man and religion lost in geological
 386

antiquity — Theological views regarding the origin and character of the

Vedas summarized — Differently supported by writers on the different
schools of philosophy — Patanjali’s and Vyâsa’s view that the Vedas were
lost in the last deluge and repromulgated in substance, if not in form, at the
beginning of the new age — The four periods into which the Post-Glacial
era may be divided on astronomical grounds — Compared with the
characteristics of the four yugas given in the Aitareya Brâhmana —
Theological and historical views regarding the origin &c. of the Vedas
stated in parallel columns and compared — Vedic texts, showing that the
subject matter of the hymns is ancient though the language may be new,
cited — Vedic deities and their exploits all said to be ancient —
Improbability of Dr. Muir’s suggested reconciliation — Vedas, or rather
Vedic religion, shown to be inter-Glacial in substance though post-Glacial
in form — Concluding remarks.

We have now completed our investigation of the question of the

original home of the ancestors of the Vedic Aryans from different
stand-points of view. Our arguments, it will be seen, are not based on
the history of culture, or on facts disclosed by linguistic paleontology.
The evidence, cited in the foregoing chapters, mainly consists of
direct passages from the Vedas and the Avesta, proving
unmistakably that the poets of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda were acquainted with the
climatic conditions witnessible only in the Arctic regions. and that the
principal Vedic deities, such as the revolving Dawn, the Waters
captivated by Vṛitra, the Ashvins the rescuers of the afflicted gods
and Sûrya, Indra the deity of a hundred sacrifices, Vishnu the vast-
strider, Varuna the lord of night and the ocean, the Âditya brothers or
the seven monthly sun-gods, Tṛita or the Third, and others, are
clothed with attributes which clearly betray their Arctic origin. In other
words, all the differential, mentioned in the third chapter as
characteristic of the Polar and Circum-Polar regions, are met with in
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda in such a way as to leave no doubt regarding the
conclusion to be drawn from them. A day or a night of six months,
and a long continuous dawn of several days’ duration with its
revolving splendors, not to mention the unusually long Arctic day and
night or a year of less than twelve months’ sunshine, were all known
to the Vedic bards, and have been described
 387

by them not mythologically or metaphorically but directly in plain and

simple words, which, though misinterpreted so long, can, in the light
thrown upon the question by recent scientific researches, be now
rightly read and understood. In fact the task, which I set to myself,
was to find out such passages, and show how in the absence of the
true key to their meaning, they have been subjected to forced
construction, or ignored and neglected, by Vedic scholars both Indian
and foreign, ancient and modern. I do not mean, however, to
underrate, on that account, the value or the importance of the labors
of Indian Nairuktas like Yâska, or commentators like Sâyana. Without
their aid we should have, it is readily admitted, been able to do little in
the field of the Vedic interpretation; and I am fully aware of the
service they have rendered to this cause. There is no question that
they have done their best in elucidating the meaning of our sacred
books; and their claims on the grateful remembrance of their services
by future generations of scholars will ever remain unchallenged. But if
the Vedas are really the oldest records of our race, who can deny that
in the light of the advancing knowledge regarding primitive humanity,
we may still discover in these ancient records facts and statements
which may have escaped the attention of older scholars owing to the
imperfect nature, in their days, of those sciences which are calculated
to throw further light on the habits and environments of the oldest
ancestors of our race? There is, therefore, nothing strange if some of
the passages in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda and the Avesta disclose to us ideas
which the ancient commentators could not and did not perceive in
them; and I would request the reader to bear this in mind in
comparing the interpretations and explanations proposed by me in
the foregoing chapters with the current interpretations of these
passages by eastern or western Vedic scholars.
But our conclusions do not rest merely on the interpretation of
passages which, if rightly construed, disclose climatic characteristics
peculiar to the Arctic regions; though this evidence is, by itself,
sufficient to prove our hypothesis. We have
 388

seen that in the sacrificial literature of the Vedic people as well as in

their mythology there are many indications which point to the same
conclusion; and these are fully corroborated by the ancient traditions
and legends in the Avesta and also by the mythologies of the
European branches of the Aryan race. A sacrificial session of ten
months held by the Dashagvas, or an annual sattra of the same
duration, compared with the oldest Roman year ending in December
or the tenth month, are the principal instances on the point; and they
have been fully discussed in the foregoing chapters. I have also
shown that the knowledge of the half-year-long day or night is not
confined to the traditions of the eastern Aryas, but is common also to
the European branches of the Aryan race. The tradition preserved in
the Vendidad about the ancient Iranian Paradise in the far north, so
that a year was equal to a day to the inhabitants thereof, and its
destruction by snow and ice burying the land under a thick ice-cap,
again affords the most striking and cogent proof of the theory we
have endeavored to prove in these pages. Thus if the traditions of the
western Aryas point out, according to Prof. Rhys, to Finland or the
White Sea as the original home of the Aryan people, the Vedic and
the Avestic traditions carry us still farther to the north; for a
continuous dawn of thirty days is possible only within a few degrees
of the North Pole. But though the latitude of the original home can be
thus ascertained more or less definitely, yet there is unfortunately
nothing in these traditions which will enable us to determine the
longitude of the place, or, in other words, whether the original home
of the Aryan race was to the north of Europe or Asia. But considering
the fact that the traditions of the original Polar home are better
preserved in the sacred books of the Brahmins and the Parsis, it is
not unlikely that the primeval home was located to the north of Siberia
rather than to the north of Russia or Scandinavia. It is, however,
useless to speculate on the point without further proof. The Vedic and
the Avestic evidence clearly establish the existence of a primeval
Polar home, the climate of which was mild and temperate
 389

in ancient times, before it was invaded by the Glacial epoch; and with
this result we must rest content, until we get sufficient new materials
to ascertain the exact position of the Aryan home within the Arctic
regions.
We commenced the book with a summary of the results of the
latest geological and archeological researches regarding the history
of primitive humanity and the invasion of northern Europe and Asia by
a series of glacial epochs in the Quarternary era. This discussion was
prefixed to the book with the object of clearing up certain
misapprehensions regarding the early history of our planet based on
knowledge derived from older geological works, when man was
believed to be postglacial; and it will now be seen that our theory of
the primeval Arctic home of the Aryan races is in perfect accord with
the latest and most approved geological facts and opinions. A
primeval Arctic home would have been regarded an impossibility, had
not science cleared the ground by establishing that the antiquity of
man goes back to the Tertiary era, that the climate of the Polar
regions was mild and temperate in inter-glacial times, and that it was
rendered cold and inclement by the advent of the Glacial epoch. We
can now also understand why attempts to prove the existence of an
Arctic home by discovering references to severe winter and cold in
the Vedas did not succeed in the past. The winter in the primeval
home was originally, that is, in inter-glacial times, neither severe nor
inclement, and if such expressions as “a hundred winters” (shatam
himâh) are found in the Vedic literature, they cannot be taken for
reminiscences of severe cold winters in the original home; for the
expression came into use probably because the year in the original
home closed with a winter characterized by the long Arctic night. It
was the advent of the Ice Age that destroyed the mild climate of the
original home and converted it into an ice-bound land unfit for the
habitation of man. This is well expressed in the Avesta which
describes the Airyana Vaêjo as a happy land subsequently converted
by the invasion of Angra Mainyu into a land of severe winter and
snow. This correspondence between
 390

the Avestic description of the original home and the result of the latest
geological researches, at once enables us to, fix the age of the Arctic
home, for it is now a well-settled scientific fact that a mild climate in
the Polar regions was possible only in the inter-Glacial and not in the
post-Glacial times.
But according to some geologists 20,000 or even 80,000 years
have passed since the close of the last Glacial epoch; and as the
oldest date assigned to the Vedic hymns does not go beyond 4500
B.C., it may be contended that the traditions of the Ice Age, or of the
inter-Glacial home, cannot be supposed to have been accurately
preserved by oral transmission for thousands of years that elapsed
between the commencement of the post-Glacial era and the oldest
date of the Vedic hymns. It is, therefore, necessary to examine the
point a little more closely in this place. In my Orion or Researches
into the antiquity of the Vedas, I have shown that while the Taittirîya
Samhitâ and the Brâhmanas begin the Nakshatras with the Kṛittikâs
or the Pleiades, showing that the vernal equinox then coincided with
the aforesaid asterism (2500 B.C.), the Vedic literature contains
traces of Mṛiga or Orion being once the first of the Nakshatras and
the hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, or at least many of them, which are
undoubtedly older than the Taittirîya Samhitâ, contain reference to
this period, that is, about 4500 B.C. approximately It is also pointed
out that there are faint traces of the same equinox being once in the
constellation of Punarvasû, presided over by Aditi, which was
possible in about 6,000 B.C. I have in my later researches tried to
push back this limit by searching for the older zodiacal positions of
the vernal equinox in the Vedic literature, but I have not found any
evidence of the same. My attention was, however, directed more and
more to passages containing traces of an Arctic calendar and an
Arctic home, and I have been gradually led to infer therefrom that at
about 5000 or 6000 B.C., the Vedic Aryas had settled on the plains of
Central Asia, and that at the time the raditions about the existence of
the Arctic hone and its destruction
 391

by snow and ice, as well as about the Arctic origin of the Vedic
deities, were definitely known to the bards of these races. In short,
researches in Vedic chronology and calendar do not warrant us in
placing the advent of the last Glacial epoch, which destroyed the
ancient Aryan home, at a time several thousands of years previous to
the Orion period; and from what has been stated in the first two
chapters of the book, it will be seen that this estimate well agrees with
the conclusions of American geologists, who, from an examination of
the erosion of valleys and similar other well-ascertained facts, assign
to the close of the last Glacial epoch a date not older than about 8000
B.C. We might even go further and say that ancient Vedic chronology
and calendar furnish an independent corroboration of the moderate
view of the American geologists; and when two independent lines of
research unexpectedly lead us to the same result, we may very well
reject, at least in the present state of our knowledge, the extravagant
speculations of Croll and his followers, and, for all practical purposes,
adopt the view that the last Glacial epoch closed and the post-Glacial
period commenced at about 8000 B.C. From this to the Orion period
is an interval of about 3000 years, and it is not at all improbable that
the traditions of the ancient home should have been remembered and
incorporated into hymns whose origin can be clearly traced to that
period. In short, the Vedic traditions, far from being contradictory to
the scientific evidence, only serve to check the extravagant estimates
regarding the age of the last Glacial epoch; and if the sober view of
American geologists be adopted, both geology and the traditions
recorded in the ancient books of the Aryan race will be found alike to
point out to a period not much older than 8000 B.C. for the
commencement of the post-Glacial era and the compulsory migration
of the Aryan races from their Arctic home.
And not only Vedic but also Purânic chronology, properly
understood, leads us to the same conclusion. According to the
Purânas the earth and the whole universe are occasionally subjected
to destruction at long intervals of time, the earth by
 392

a small and the universe by a grand deluge. Thus we are told that
when the god Brahmâ is awake during his day the creation exists; but
when at the end of the day he goes to sleep, the world is destroyed
by a deluge, and is re-created when he awakes from his sleep and
resumes his activity the next morning. Brahmâ’s evening and morning
are thus synonymous with the destruction and the re-creation of the
earth. A day and a night of Brahmâ are each equal to a period of time
called a Kalpa, and a Kalpa is taken for a unit in measuring higher
periods of time. Two Kalpas constitute a nycthemeron (day and night)
of Brahmâ, and 360 × 2 = 720 Kalpas make his year, while a hundred
such years constitute his life-time, at the end of which a grand deluge
overtakes the whole universe including Brahmâ. Now according to
the Code of Manu and the Mahâbhârata the four yugas of Kṛita,
Tretâ, Dvâpara and Kali form a yuga of gods, and a thousand such
yugas make a Kalpa or a day of Brahmâ of 12,000,000 years, at the
end of which a deluge destroys the world. The Purânas, however,
have adopted a different method of computation. The four yugas of
Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara and Kali are there said to constitute a Mahâ-
yuga; 71 such Mahâ-yugas constitute a Manvantara, and 14
Manvantaras make a Kalpa, which, according to this method of
counting, contains 4,320,000,000 years. The difference between the
durations of a Kalpa according to these two methods is due to the
fact that the years making up the four yugas of Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara
and Kali are considered to be divine in the latter, while they are
obviously human in Manu and the Mahâbhârata. For further details
the reader is referred to the late Mr. S. B. Dixit’s History of Indian
Astronomy in Marâthi, Prof. Rangâchârya’s essay on Yugas, and Mr.
Aiyer’s Chronology of Ancient India, a book, in which the question of
yugas and especially that of the beginning of the Kali yuga, is
subjected to a searching and exhaustive examination. The Hindu
writers on astronomy seem to have adopted the same system, except
Âryabhatta, who holds that 72, and not 71, Mahâyugas make a
Manvantara, and that a Mâhayuga is divided
 393

into four equal parts which are termed Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara and Kali.
According to this chronological system, we are, at present, in the
5003rd year (elapsed) of the Kali yuga of the 28th Mahâ-yuga of the
7th (Vaivasvata) Manvantara of the current Kalpa; or, 1,972,949,003
years have, in other words, elapsed since the deluge which occurred
at the beginning of the present or the Shveta-vârâha Kalpa. This
estimate is, as observed by Prof. Rangâchârya, quite beyond the limit
admitted by modern geology; and it is not unlikely that Hindu
astronomers, who held the view that the sun, the moon, and all the
planets were in a line at the beginning of the Kalpa, arrived at this
figure by mathematically calculating the period during which the sun,
the moon and all the planets made an integral number of complete
revolutions round the earth. We need not, however, go into these
details, which howsoever interesting are not relevant to the subject in
hand. A cycle of the four yugas, viz., Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara and Kali,
is, it will be seen, the basis of this chronological system, and we have
therefore to examine more critically what this collection of four yugas,
otherwise termed a Mahâ-yuga, really signifies and whether the
period of time originally denoted by it was the same as it is said to be
at present.
Prof. Rangâchârya and especially Mr. Aiyer have ably treated
this subject in their essays, and I agree in the main with them in their
conclusions. I use the words “in the main” deliberately, for though my
researches have independently led me to reject the hypothesis of
“divine years,” yet there are certain points which cannot, in my
opinion, be definitely settled without further research. I have shown
previously that the word yuga is used in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda to denote “a
period of time,” and that in the phrase mânushâ yugâ it cannot but be
taken to denote “a month.” Yuga is, however, evidently used to
denote a longer period of time in such expressions as Devânâm
prathame yuge in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, X, 72, 3; while in the Atharva Veda
VIII, 2, 21, which says “We allot to thee a hundred, ten thousand
years, two, three, (or) four yugas,” a yuga evidently means a period of
not less than 10,000
 394

years;* and Mr. Aiyer is right in pointing out that the omission of the
word “one” in the above verse is not accidental. According to this
view a yuga may be taken to have, at the longest, denoted a period of
10,000 years in the days of the Atharva Veda Samhitâ. Now it is
found that Manu and the Mahâbhârata both assign 1000, 2000, 3000
and 4000 years to the four yugas of Kali, Dvâpara, Tretâ and Kṛita
respectively. In other words, the durations of Dvâpara, Tretâ and Kṛita
are obtained by doubling, trebling and quadrupling the duration of
Kali; and taking into consideration that Kṛita (which Mr. Aiyer
compares with Latin quatuor) means “four” in Sanskrit literature, the
names of the yugas may perhaps be derived from this fact. We are,
however, concerned with the duration of the four yugas, and adding
up the numbers given above, we obtain 10,000 years for a cycle of
four yugas, or a Mahâ-yuga according to the terminology explained
above. Manu and Vyâsa, however, add to this 10,000 another period
of 2,000 years, said to represent the Sandhyâ or the Sandhyâmsha
periods intervening between the different yugas. Thus the Kṛita age
does not pass suddenly into Tretâ, but has a period of 400 years
interposed at each of its ends, while the Tretâ is protected from the
contact of the preceding and the succeeding yuga by two periods of
300 years each, the Dvâpara of 200 and the Kali of 100 years. The
word Sandhyâ denotes the time of the dawn in ordinary literature; and
Mr. Aiyer points out that as the period of the dawn and the gloaming,
or the morning and the evening twilight, is each found to extend over
three out of thirty ghatis of a day, so one-tenth of the period of each
yuga is assigned to its Sandhyâ or the period of transition into
another yuga: and that these supplementary periods were
subsequent amendments. The period of 10,000 years for a cycle of
the four yugas is thus increased to 12,000, if the Sandhyâ periods are
included in it, making Kṛita comprise 4800, Tretâ 3600, Dvâpara 2400
and Kali 1200 years. Now at

* Atharva Veda, VIII, 2, 21.

 395

the time of the Mahabharata or the Code of Manu, the Kali yuga had
already set in; and if the yuga contained no more than 1000, or,
including the Sandhyâs, 1200 ordinary years, it would have
terminated about the beginning of the Christian era.* The writers of
the Purânas, many of which appear to have been written during the
first few centuries of the Christian, era, were naturally unwilling to
believe that the Kali yuga had passed away, and that they lived in the
Kṛita yuga of a new Mahâ-yuga; for the Kṛita yuga meant according to
them a golden age, while the times in which they lived showed signs
of degeneration on all sides. An attempt was, therefore, made to
extend the duration of the Kali yuga by converting 1000 (or 1200)
ordinary human years thereof into as many divine years, a single
divine year, or a year of the gods, being equal to 360 human years. A
Vedic authority for such an interpretation was found in the text from
the Taittirîya Brâhmana, which, we have quoted and discussed
previously, viz., “That which is a year is a day of the gods.” Manu and
Vyâsa simply assign 1000 years to the Kali yuga. But as Manu,
immediately after recording the duration of the yugas and their
Sandhyâs, observes “that this period of 12,000 years is called the
yuga of the gods,” the device of converting the ordinary years of the
different yugas into as many divine years was, thereby, at once
rendered plausible; and as people were unwilling to believe that they
could be in a yuga other

* Compare Manu, I, 69-71. In the Mahâbhârata the subject is treated in two

places, once in the Shânti-Parvan, Chap. 231, and once in the Vana-Parvan,
Chap. 188, V. 21-28, (Cal. Ed.). Cf. Muir O. S. T., Vol. I, 45-48.
 396

than the Kali, this solution of the difficulty was universally adopted,
and a Kali of 1200 ordinary years was at once changed, by this
ingenious artifice, into a magnificent cycle of as many divine, or 360 ×
1200 = 432,000 ordinary years. The same device converted, at one
stroke, the 12,000 ordinary years of a Mahâ-yuga, into as many
divine, or 360 × 12,000 = 4,320,000 ordinary years, affecting in a
similar way the higher cycles of time like Manvantaras and Kalpas.
How the beginning of the Kali yuga was thrown back, by astronomical
calculations, to 3102 B.C., when this hypothesis of “divine years” was
adopted is a separate question by itself; but not being pertinent to the
subject in hand we need not go into it in this place. Suffice it to say
that where chronology is invested with semi-religious character,
artifices or devices, like the one noticed above, are not unlikely to be
used to suit the exigencies of the time; and those who have to
investigate the subject from a historical and antiquarian point of view
must be prepared to undertake the task of carefully sifting the data
furnished by such chronology, as Prof. Rangâchârya and Mr. Aiyer
have done in their essays referred to above.
From a consideration of the facts stated above it will be seen
that so far as the Code of Manu and the Mahâbhârata are concerned,
they preserve for us a reminiscence of a cycle of 10,000 years
comprising the four yugas, the Kṛita, the Tretâ, the Dvâpara and the
Kali; and that the Kali yuga of one thousand years had been already
set in. In other words, Manu and Vyâsa obviously speak only of a
period of 10,000, or, including the Sandhyâs, of 12,000 ordinary or
human (not divine) years, from the beginning of the Kṛita to the end of
the Kali yuga; and it is remarkable that in the Atharva Veda we should
find a period of 10,000 years apparently assigned to one yuga. It is
not, therefore, unlikely that the Atharva Veda takes the Kṛita, the
Tretâ, the Dvâpara and the Kali together, and uses the word yuga to
denote the combined duration of all these in the passage referred to
above. Now considering the fact that the Kṛita age is said to
commence after a pralaya or the deluge, Manu and Vyâsa must be
understood
 397

to have preserved herein an old tradition that about 10,000 years

before their time (supposing them to have lived at the beginning of
the Kali age of 1200 years), the new order of things commenced with
the Kṛita age; or, in other words, the deluge which destroyed the old
order of things occurred about 10,000 years before their time. The
tradition has been very much distorted owing to devices adopted in
later times to make the traditional chronology suit the circumstances
of the day. But still it is not difficult to ascertain the original character
of the tradition; and when we do so, we are led to conclude that the
beginning of the new order of things, or, to put it more scientifically,
the commencement of the current post-Glacial era was, according to
this tradition, not assigned to a period older than 10,000 years before
the Christian era. We have shown that researches in Vedic
chronology do not allow us to carry back the date of the post-Glacial
era beyond this estimate, for traditions of the Arctic home appear to
have been well understood by the bards of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda in the Orion
period. It is, therefore, almost certain that the invasion of the Arctic
Aryan home by the last Glacial epoch did not take place at a time
older than 10,000 B.C. The American geologists, we have seen, have
arrived at the same conclusion on independent scientific grounds;
and when the Vedic and the Purânic chronology indicate nearly the
same time, — a difference of one or two thousand years, in such
cases, does not matter much, — we may safely reject the
extravagant estimates of 20,000 or 80,000 years and adopt, for all
practical purposes, the view that the last Glacial epoch closed and
the post-Glacial period commenced at about 8,000, or, at best, about
10,000 B.C.
We have now to consider how the tradition about the existence
of the original home at the North Pole and its destruction by snow and
ice of the Glacial epoch, and other cognate reminiscences were
preserved until they were incorporated into the law-book of the
Mazdayasnians and the hymns of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. That a real tradition
is preserved in these books is undoubted, for we have seen that an
examination of the traditions
 398

preserved by the European branches of the Aryan rage have led Prof.
Rhys to the same conclusion; and those who know the history of the
preservation of our sacred books will see nothing improbable herein.
In these days of writing and printing, we have no need to depend
upon memory, and consequently we fail to realize what memory, kept
under the strictest discipline, is capable of achieving. The whole of
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, nay, the Veda and its nine supplementary books, have
been preserved by the Brahmins of India, letter for letter and accent
for accent, for the last 3000 or 4000 years at least; and priests who
have done so in recent times may well be credited with having
faithfully preserved the traditions of the ancient home, until they were
incorporated into the sacred books. These achievements of
disciplined memory may appear marvelous to us at present; but, as
stated above, they were looked upon as ordinary feats when memory
was trusted better than books, and trained and cultivated with such
special care as to be a faithful instrument for transmitting along many
generations whatever men were most anxious to have remembered.
It has been a fashion to cry down the class of priests who make it
their sole profession to cultivate their memory by keeping it under
strict discipline and transmit by its means our sacred writings without
the loss of a single accent from generation to generation. They have
been described, even by scholars like Yâska, as the carriers of
burden, and compared by others to parrots who repeat words without
understanding their meaning. But the service, which this class has
rendered to the cause of ancient history and religion by preserving
the oldest traditions of the race, is invaluable; and looking to the fact
that a specially disciplined memory was needed for such
preservation, we cannot but gratefully remember the services of
those whose hereditary devotion to the task, we might say, the
sacred religious task, rendered it possible for so many traditions to be
preserved for thousands of years. Pandits might analyze and explain
the Vedic hymns more or less elaborately or correctly; but for that
reason, we cannot forget that the very basis of their
 399

labors would have been lost long ago, had the institution of priests
who made disciplined memory their exclusive business in life not
been in existence. If the institution has outlived its necessity, — which
is doubtful, for the art of writing or printing can hardly be trusted to the
same extent as disciplined memory in such matters, — we must
remember that religious institutions are the hardest to die in any
country in the world.
We may, therefore, safely assert that Vedic and Avestic
traditions, which have been faithfully preserved by disciplined
memory, and whose trustworthiness is proved by Comparative
Mythology, as well as by the latest researches in Geology and
Archaeology, fully establish the existence of an Arctic home of the
Aryan people in inter-glacial times; and that after the destruction of
this home by the last Glacial epoch the Aryan people had to migrate
southwards and settle at first in the northern parts of Europe or on the
plains of Central Asia at the beginning of the post-Glacial period, that
is about 8000 B.C. The antiquity of the Aryan race is thus carried
back to inter-glacial times, and its oldest home to regions round about
the North Pole, where alone a long dawn of thirty days is possible.
Whether other human races, beside the Aryan, lived with them in the
circumpolar country is a question which does not fall within the
purview of this book. Dr. Warren, in his Paradise Found, has cited
Egyptian, Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Chinese and even
Japanese traditions indicating the existence of an Arctic home of
these races in ancient times; and from a consideration of all these he
arrives at the conclusion that the cradle of the whole human race
must be placed in the circum-polar regions, a conclusion in which he
is also supported by other scholars. But, as observed by Prof. Rhys, it
is no fatal objection to the view we have endeavored to prove in these
pages, that the mythologies of nations, beside the Aryan, also point to
the North Pole as their original home; for it is not contended that the
Aryans may be the only people of northern origin. On the contrary,
there are grounds to believe that the five races of men (pañcha
janâh) often mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda may have been the
 400

races which lived with the Aryans in their original home, for we cannot
suppose that the Vedic Aryas after their dispersion from the original
home met only with five races in their migrations, or were divided only
into five branches. But the question is one which can be finally
decided only after a good deal of further research; and as it is not
necessary to mix it up with the question of the original home of the
Aryans, we may leave it out for the present. If the North Pole is
conclusively shown to be the cradle of the human race hereafter, it
would not affect in the least the conclusion we have drawn in these
pages from a number of definite Vedic and Avestic traditions, but if
the existence of the Aryan home near the North Pole is proved, as we
have endeavored to do in the foregoing pages, by independent
testimony, it is sure to strengthen the probability of the northern home
of the whole human race; and as the traditions of the Aryan people
are admittedly better preserved in the Veda and the Avesta than
those of any other race, it is safer and even desirable to treat the
question of the primeval Aryan home independently of the general
problem taken up by Dr. Warren and other scholars. That the Veda
and the Avesta are the oldest books of the Aryan race is now
conceded by all, and we have seen that it is not difficult to ascertain,
from traditions contained therein, the site of the Aryan Paradise, now
that we begin to search for it in the light thrown upon the subject by
modern scientific researches.
But if the fact of an early Aryan home in the far north is once
established by indisputable traditional evidence, it is sure to
revolutionize the existing views regarding the primitive history or
religion of the Aryan races. Comparative philologists and Sanskritists,
who looked for the primeval home “somewhere in Central Asia,” have
advanced the theory that the whole progress of the Aryan race,
intellectual, social or moral from primeval savagery to such civilization
as is disclosed by the Vedic hymns, was effected on the plains of
Central Asia. It was on these plains, we are told, that our oldest
ancestors gazed upon the wonders of dawn or the rising sun with
awe and astonishment, or reverentially watched the storm-clouds
 401

hovering in the sky to be eventually broken up by the god of rain and

thunder, thereby giving rise to the worship of natural elements and
thus laying down the foundations of later Aryan mythology. It was on
these plains that they learnt the art of weaving, the products of which
superseded the use of hides for clothing, or constructed their
chariots, or trained their horses, or discovered the use of metals like
gold and silver. In short, all the civilization and culture which
Comparative Philology proves on linguistic grounds to have been
common to the different Aryan races before their separation is
regarded to have, first originated or developed on the plains of
Central Asia in post-Glacial times. Dr. Schrader, in his Pre-historic
Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, gives us an exhaustive summary of
facts and arguments regarding primitive Aryan culture and civilization
which can be deduced from Linguistic Palæology, or Comparative
Philology, and as a repertory of such facts the book stands unrivalled.
But we must remember that the results of Comparative Philology,
howsoever interesting and instructive they may be from the linguistic
or the historical point of view, are apt to mislead us if we know not the
site of the original home, or the time when it was inhabited or
abandoned by the ancestors of our race. Comparative Philology may
teach us that cow was an animal known and domesticated before the
Aryan separation, or that the art of weaving was known in those old
days, because the words “cow” and “weave” can be traced in all the
Aryan languages. But it is now found that equations like these do not
help us much in definitely ascertaining where the united Aryans lived
and when they separated; while recent researches in Archaeology
and Anthropology have exhibited the improbability of a Central Asian
home of the Aryan races and successive migrations therefrom to
European countries. The hypothesis of a Central Asian home is,
therefore, now almost abandoned; but strange to say, that those, who
maintain that Europe was inhabited at the beginning of the Neolithic
age by the ancestors of the races who now inhabit the same regions,
are prepared to leave undetermined the question whether
 402

these races originated in Europe or went there from some other land.
Thus Canon Taylor, in his Origin of the Aryans, confidently advises us
that we need not concern ourselves with the arguments of those who
assert that Europe was inhabited by the ancestors of the existing
races even in the Paleolithic period; for, says he, “philologists will
probably admit that within the limits of the Neolithic age, it would be
possible to find sufficient time for the evolution and the differentiation
of the Aryan languages.”* In the last chapter of the same book we are
further informed that the mythologies of the different branches of the
Aryan race must have been developed after their separation, and that
resemblances, like Dyaus-pitar and Jupiter, or Varuna and Uranus,
must be taken to be merely verbal and not mythological in their origin.
In short, the advocates of the Central Asian as well, as of the
northern European home of the Aryans are both unwilling to carry
back the beginning of the Aryan civilization beyond post-Glacial
times, and we are told that Aryan mythology and religion cannot,
therefore, claim any higher antiquity.
All such guesses and speculations about the origin of the Aryan
race and its civilization will have now to be revised in the new light
thrown upon the subject by the theory of the Arctic home in pre-
Glacial times. We cannot now maintain that primitive Aryans were a
post-Glacial race, or that they advanced from barbarism to civilization
in the Neolithic period either in Central Asia or in the northern parts of
Europe; nor it is possible to argue that because the mythologies of
the different branches of the Aryan race do not disclose the existence
of common deities, these mythologies must be taken to have
developed after the separation of the Aryan races from their common
home. Thus, for instance, we are told that though the word Ushas
occurs in Zend as Ushangh, and may be compared to Greek Eos,
Latin Aurora, Lithuanian Auszra, Teutonic Asustrô and Anglo-Saxon
Eostra, yet it is only in the Vedic mythology that we find Ushas raised
to

* See: Taylor’s Origin of the Aryans, p. 57.

 403

the dignity of the goddess of the morning; and from this we are asked
to infer that the worship of the dawn was developed only on the
Indian soil. The theory of the Arctic home, however, makes it
impossible to argue in this way. If Vedic deities are clothed with
attributes which are unmistakably polar in their origin, — and in the
case of Ushas, the polar character has been shown to be
unquestionable, — we cannot hold that the legends pertaining to
these deities were developed on the plains of Central Asia. It was
impossible for the Indian priests to conceive or picture the splendors
of the dawn in the way we meet with in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; for it has been
shown that the evanescent dawn, with which they were familiar, is
quite dissimilar in character to the Arctic dawn, the subject of the
Vedic hymns. And what applies to the dawn can be predicated as
well of other deities and myths, e.g., of Indra and Vṛitra or the captive
Waters, of Vishnu hibernating for four months in a year, or of Trita or
the Third going down in a well, or of the Ashvins rescuing or saving
the gods from the temporary affliction to which they were again and
again subjected. These very names may not be found in the Celtic or
the Teutonic mythology, but an examination of the latter has been
found to disclose the same polar characteristics which are possessed
by Vedic deities or myths; and so long as this fundamental
coincidence exists between the two, it is unreasonable to contend
that the mythologies of the different branches of the Aryan race had
no common origin, or that the resemblances between the names of
the deities are more linguistic than mythological. The destruction of
the ancient Aryan home by glaciation and deluge introduces a new
factor in the history of the Aryan civilization; and any shortcomings or
defects in the civilization of the Aryan races, that are found to have
inhabited the northern parts of Europe in the beginning of the
Neolithic age, as distinguished from the civilization of the Asiatic
Aryan races, must now be accounted for as the result of a natural
relapse into barbarism after the great catastrophe. It is true that
ordinarily we cannot conceive a race that has once launched on a
career of
 404

progress and civilization suddenly retrograding or relapsing into

barbarism. But the same rule cannot be applied to the case of the
continuation of the ante-diluvian civilization into post-diluvian times. In
the first place very few people could have survived a cataclysm of
such magnitude as the deluge of snow and ice; and those that
survived could hardly be expected to have carried with them all the
civilization of the original home, and introduced it intact in their new
settlements, under adverse circumstances, amongst the non-Aryan
tribes, in the north of Europe or on the plains of Central Asia. We
must also bear in mind the fact that the climate of northern Europe
and Asia, though temperate at present, must have been very much
colder after the great deluge, and the descendants of those who had
to migrate to these countries from the Polar regions, born only to a
savage or nomadic life, could have, at best, preserved only
fragmentary reminiscences of the ante-diluvian culture and civilization
of their forefathers living in the once happy Arctic home. Under these
circumstances we need not be surprised if the European Aryas are
found to be in an inferior state of civilization at the beginning of the
Neolithic age. On the contrary the wonder is that so much of the ante-
diluvian religion or culture should have been preserved from the
general wreck, caused by the last Glacial epoch, by the religious zeal
and industry of the bards or priests of the Iranian or the Indian Aryas.
It is true that they looked upon these relics of the ancient civilization,
as a sacred treasure entrusted to them to be scrupulously guarded
and transmitted to future generations. Yet considering the difficulties
with which they had to contend, we cannot but wonder how so much
of the ante-diluvian civilization, religion or worship was preserved in
the Veda or the Avesta. If the other Aryan races have failed to
preserve these ancient traditions so well, it would be unreasonable to
argue therefrom that the civilization or the culture of these races was
developed after their separation from the common stock.
It has been shown previously that the climate of the Arctic
 405

regions in the inter-Glacial period was so mild and temperate as to be

almost an approach to a perpetual spring, and that there was then a
continent of land round about the Pole, the same being submerged
during the glacial epoch. The primitive Aryans residing in such
regions must, therefore, have lived a happy life. The only
inconvenience experienced by them was the long Arctic night; and we
have seen how this phenomenon has served to give rise to various
myths or legends describing the struggle between the powers of light
and darkness. The occurrence of the Arctic night, its tiresome length,
and the long expected morning light on the horizon after some
months were, naturally enough, the most important facts which
attracted the attention of our primeval forefathers, and it is no wonder
if they believed it to be the greatest exploit of their gods when the
beneficent dawn came dawning up, after several months of darkness,
from the nether world of aerial waters, inaugurating a new yearly
round of sacrifices, festivals, or other religious or social ceremonies. It
was the beginning of the Devayâna, when the powers of light
celebrated their victory over the demons of darkness, and the Child of
the Morning, the Kumâra, the leader of the army of gods, walked
victoriously along the Devayâna path commencing the cycle of
human ages, or mânushâ yugâ, as mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda. The
Pitṛiyâna, or the walk of the Manes, corresponded with the dark
winter, the duration of which extended in the original home from two
to six months. This was the period of rest or repose during which, as
observed previously, people refrained even from disposing the bodies
of the dead owing to the absence of sunshine. All social and religious
ceremonies of feasts were also suspended during this period as the
powers of darkness were believed to be in the ascendant. In short,
the oldest Aryan calendar was, as remarked by Dr. Schrader, divided
into two parts, a summer of seven or ten months and a corresponding
winter of five or two months. But it seems to have been an ancient
practice to reckon the year by counting the recurrence of summers or
winters rather than by combining the two seasons. It is thus
 406

that we can account for a year of seven or ten months in old times, or
annual sacrificial sattras extending over the same period. This
calendar is obviously unsuited to places to the south of the Arctic
circle; and the Aryans had, therefore, to change or reform the same,
as was done by Numa, in postglacial times, when, expatriated from
their mother-land, they settled in the northern parts of Europe and
Central Asia. But the reminiscence of the Devayâna as a special
period of sacrifices and ceremonies was tenaciously preserved, and
even now it is looked upon as a season of special religious merit. We
can, on this theory, easily explain why the Gṛihya-Sûtras attach
special importance to the Uttarâyana from a ceremonial point of view,
and why death during the Dakshinâyana is regarded as inauspicious.
How the inter-Glacial year of seven or ten months was changed to a
year of twelve months in post-Glacial times, and how the equinoctial
division which obtained at first on the analogy of the Devayâna and
the Pitṛiyâna, was subsequently altered to the solstitial one, the old
meaning of the word Uttarâyana undergoing (Orion, p. 25ƒ.) a similar
change, are questions, which, though important in the history of the
Aryan calendar, are not relevant in this place; and we shall, therefore,
proceed with the subject in hand. It is urged by some writers that
though the worship of natural elements is found to obtain in several
ancient Indo-European religions, yet its beginnings cannot be
supposed to go back to the time of the common origin of the related
peoples. Dr. Schrader has ably refuted this view in the concluding
pages of his book on the pre-historic antiquities of Aryan peoples;
and the theory of the Arctic home powerfully supports Dr. Schrader in
his conclusions. “If we put aside every thing unsafe and false,”
observes Dr. Schrader, “that Comparative Mythology and History of
Religion has accumulated on this subject, we are solely, from the
consideration of perfectly trustworthy material, more and more driven,
on all sides, to assume that the common basis of ancient European
religions was a worship of the powers of Nature practiced in
 407

the Indo-European period.” The fact that the Vedic deities like Ushas,
the Âdityas, the Ashvins or the Vṛitrahan are found invested with
Polar characteristics, further goes to confirm the conclusion based on
linguistic grounds, or common etymological equations for sky,
morning, fire, light or other natural powers. In short, whatever be the
stand-point from which we view the subject in question, we are led to
the conclusion that the shining sky (Dyaus pitâ), the sun (Sûrya), the
fire (Agni), the Dawn (Ushas), the storm or thunder (Tanyatu) had
already attained to the dignity of divine beings or gods in the primeval
period; and etymological equations like Sanskrit yaj, Zend yaz and
Greek azomai, show that these gods were worshipped and sacrifices
offered to them to secure their favor even in primeval times. Whether
this worship originated, or, in other words, whether the powers of
nature were invested with divine honors only in inter-Glacial times or
in times anterior to it, cannot, as stated above, be ascertained from
the materials in our hands at present. But this much is beyond
question that the worship of these elements, as manifestations of
divine power, had already become established amongst the
undivided Aryans in the Arctic home, and the post-diluvian Aryan
religions were developed from this ancient system of worship and
sacrifices. We have seen that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda mentions the ancient
sacrificers of the race like Manu, Angirases, Bhṛigus and others, and
the fact that they completed their sacrificial sessions in seven, nine or
ten months proves that they were the sacrifices of the undivided
Aryans in their Arctic home. It was these sacrificers who performed
the sacrifices of, the people during a summer of seven or ten months
and worshipped the mutational deities with offerings in primeval
times. But when the sun went down below the horizon, these
sacrificers naturally closed their sessions and made their offerings
only to Vṛitrahan, the chief hero in the struggle with the demons of
darkness, in order that he may, invigorated by their offerings
eventually bring back the

* See Dr. Schrader’s Pre-His. Antiqui. Ary. Peoples, transl. by Jevons, p.

418.
 408

light of the dawn to these worshippers. I do not mean to assert that

an elaborate system of sacrifices existed in inter-Glacial times; but I
do maintain that sacrifice was the main ritual of the primeval Aryan
religion, and that it is a mistake to suppose that it originated or was
invented only in post-Glacial times. I have dwelt at some length on
the question of ancient religious worship and ritual in this place
because the theory of the Arctic home very well exposes, in my
opinion, the fallacious character of many of the existing views on this
subject.
A people, who had come to worship the powers of Nature as
manifestations of divine will and energy, who had a well-developed
language of their own, and who had already evolved a legendary
literature out of the Arctic conditions of the year in their congenial
home near the North Pole, may well be expected to have made a
good advance in civilization. But we have at present very few means
by which we can ascertain the exact degree of civilization attained by
the undivided Aryans in their primitive home. Comparative Philology
tells us that primitive Aryans were familiar with the art of spinning and
weaving, knew and worked in metals, constructed boats and chariots,
founded and lived in cities, carried on buying and selling, and had
made considerable progress in agriculture. We also know that
important social or political institutions or organizations, as, for
instance marriage or the laws of property, prevailed amongst the
forefathers of our race in those early days; and linguistic paleontology
furnishes us with a long list of the fauna and the flora known to the
undivided Aryans. These are important linguistic discoveries, and
taking them as they are, they evidently disclose a state of civilization
higher than that of the savages of the Neolithic age. But in the light of
the Arctic theory we are naturally led to inquire if the culture of the
primitive Aryans was confined only to the level disclosed by
Comparative Philology, or whether it was of a higher type than the
one we can predicate of them simply on linguistic grounds. We have
seen above that in the case of the mythological deities and their
 409

worship the Polar character of many of the deities at once enables us

to assign them to the primitive period even when their names are not
found in all the Aryan languages; and the results of Comparative
Philology regarding primitive Aryan culture will have to be checked
and revised in the same way. The very fact that after compulsory
dispersion from their mother-land the surviving Aryans, despite the
fragmentary civilization they carried with them, were able to establish
their supremacy over the races they came across in their migrations
from the original home at the beginning of the post-Glacial period,
and that they succeeded, by conquest or assimilation, in Aryanising
the latter in language, thought and religion under circumstances
which could not be expected to be favorable to them, is enough to
prove that the original Aryan civilization must have been of a type far
higher than that of the non-Aryan races, or than the one found among
the Aryan races that migrated southward after the destruction of their
home by the Ice Age. So long as the Aryan races inhabiting the
northern parts of Europe in the beginning of the Neolithic age were
believed to be autochthonous there was no necessity of going
beyond the results of Comparative Philology to ascertain the degree
of civilization attained by the undivided Aryans. But now we see that
the culture of the Neolithic Aryans is obviously only a relic, an
imperfect fragment, of the culture attained by the undivided Aryans in
their Arctic home; and it would, therefore, be unreasonable to argue
that such and such civilization, or culture cannot be predicated of the
undivided Aryans simply because words indicating the same are
found only in some and not in all the Aryan languages. In other
words, though we may accept the result of Comparative Philology so
far as they go, we shall have to be more cautious hereafter in
inferring that such and such a thing was not known to the primitive
Aryans because common etymological equations for the same cannot
be discovered in all the Aryan languages. We have, it is true, no
means of ascertaining how much of the original civilization was lost in
the deluge, but we cannot, on that account, deny that some portion
 410

of it must have been irrecoverably lost in the great cataclysm that

destroyed the original home. Under these circumstances all that we
can safely assert is that the degree of culture disclosed by
Comparative. Philology is the lowest or the minimum that can be
predicated of the undivided Aryans. his important to bear this
reservation in mind because undue importance is sometimes
attached to the results of Comparative Philology by a kind of
reasoning which appeared all right so long the question of the site of
the original home was unsettled. But now that we know that Aryan
race and religion are both inter-Glacial and their ultimate origin is lost
in geological antiquity, it does not stand to reason to suppose that the
inter-Glacial Aryans were a race of savages. The archaeologists, it is
true, have established the succession of the ages of Stone, Bronze
and Iron; and according to this theory the Aryan race must have once
been in the Stone age. But there is nothing in archeology which
requires us to place the Stone age of the Aryan races in post-Glacial
times; and when Comparative Philology has established the fact that
undivided Aryans were acquainted with the use of metals, it becomes
clear that the degree of civilization reached by the undivided Aryans
in their Arctic home was higher than the culture of the Stone age or
even that of the age of metals. I have referred in the first chapter of
the book to the opinion of some eminent archaeologists that the
mete] age was introduced into Europe from other countries either by
commerce or by the Indo-European race going there from outside,
and the theory of the Arctic home with its inter-Glacial civilization
lends support to this view. I might in passing here refer to an instance
which illustrates the danger of relying exclusively on Comparative
Philology in this respect. Dr. Schrader has shown that copper, at any
rate, was known to the primitive Aryans; and he admits the possibility
that this metal may, in isolated cases, have been employed in the
manufacture of weapons like fighting knives or lance-heads. But we
are told that there are linguistic difficulties which prevent us from
assuming that gold and silver were known in the primitive period. On
an examination
 411

of the subject it will, however, be seen that in cases like these the
philologist relics too much on his own methods or follows them too
rigidly. For instance khalkos (copper or bronze) is mentioned by
Homer as a medium of exchange (II, vii, 472); and Comparative
Philology discloses two etymological equations, one derived from the
root mei (Sans. me) denoting “barter,” and the other derived from the
Sanskrit krî Greek priamai, meaning purchase. The ‫ي‬ig-Veda (VIII, 1,
5) also mentions a measure of the value called shulka, and, as, the
word is used in later Sanskrit literature to denote a small payment
made at a toll-house, it is not unlikely that shulka, originally meant a
small coin of copper or bronze similar in character to the khalkos
mentioned by Homer. Now it is true that ordinarily Greek kh, is
represented by h in Sanskrit, and that if this rule be rigidly applied to
the present case it would not be possible to phonetically identify
khalkos with shulka. Philologists have, therefore, tried to compare
khalkos with Sanskrit hrîku or hlîku. But, as remarked by Dr.
Schrader, the connection seems to be altogether improbable. Hrîku is
not a Vedic word, nor does it mean copper or bronze. Despite the
phonetic difficulty, — and the difficulty is not so serious as it seems to
be at the first sight, for Sanskrit sh is represented by k in Greek, and
this k sometimes gives place to the aspirated kh, — I am, therefore,
inclined to identify khalkos with shulka; and if this is correct, we must
conclude that undivided Aryans were familiar with some metal, either
copper or, bronze, as a medium of exchange. There are many other
points similar in character. But it is impossible to go further into this
subject in this place. I only want to point out the reservation with
which we shall have now to accept the results of Comparative
Philology in forming our estimate of the degree of culture reached by
the primitive Aryans, and show that when the primitive Aryan culture
is carried back to the inter-Glacial age, the hypothesis that primitive
Aryans were hardly better than the savage races of the present day
at once falls to the ground. If the civilization of some Aryan races in
the Neolithic age appears to be inferior or imperfect it must,
 412

therefore, be, as observed above, ascribed to relapse or

retrogression after the destruction of the ancient civilization by the Ice
Age, and the necessarily hard and nomadic life led by the people who
survived the cataclysm. The Asiatic Aryans, it is true, where able to
preserve a good deal more of the original religion and culture, but it
seems to be mainly due to their having incorporated the old traditions
into their religious hymns or songs; and made it the exclusive
business of a few to preserve and hand down with religious
scrupulosity these prayers and songs to future generations by means
of memory specially trained and cultivated for the purpose. But even
then how difficult the task was can be very well seen from the fact
that a greater portion of the hymns and songs originally comprised in
the Avesta has been lost; and though the Veda is better preserved,
still what we have at present is only a portion of the literature which is
believed on good grounds to have once been in existence. It may
seem passing- strange that these books should disclose to us the
existence of an original Arctic home so many centuries after the
traditions were incorporated into them. But the evidence in the
foregoing pages shows that it is a fact; and if so, we must hold that
the Neolithic Aryan people in Europe were not, as Prof. Max Müller
thinks, progressive, but, for the time at least, necessarily
retrogressive savages working only with such residua of the ante-
diluvian civilization as were saved from its general wreck.*
But though the Vedic or Aryan people and their religion and
culture can thus be traced to the last inter-Glacial period, and though
we know that the degree of culture attained by the primitive Aryans
was of a higher type than some scholars seem to be willing to assign
to them, yet there are many points in the primitive Aryan history which
still remain unsolved. For instance, when and where the Aryan race
was differentiated from other human races, or how and where the
Aryan speech was developed, are important questions from

* Max Müller’s Last Essays, pp. 172ƒƒ.

 413

the anthropological point of view, but we have, at present, no, means

to answer the same satisfactorily. It is quite possible that other human
races might have lived with the Aryans in their home at this time; but
the Vedic evidence is silent on this point. The existence of the human
race is traced by geologists to the Tertiary era; and it is now
geologically certain that the gigantic changes wrought on this globe
by glacial epochs were witnessed by man. But anthropology does not
supply us with any data from which we can ascertain when, where, or
how the human race came to be differentiated according to color or
language. On the contrary, it is now proved that at the earliest date at
which human remains. have been found, the race was already
divided into several, sharply distinguished types; and this, as
observed by Laing, leaves the question of man’s ultimate origin
completely open to speculation, and enables both monogenists and
polygenists, to contend for their respective views with plausible
arguments and without fear of being refuted by facts.* The evidence,
set forth in the foregoing pages, does not enable us to solve any of
these questions regarding the ultimate origin of the human race or
even of the Aryan people or their language and religion. We have
nothing in this evidence for ascertaining how far the existence of the
Aryan race can be traced back to pre-Glacial, as distinguished from
inter-Glacial times; or whether the race was descended from a single
pair (monogeny) or plurality of pairs (polygeny) in the remotest ages.
The traditional evidence collected by us only warrants us in. taking
back the Aryan people and their civilization from the Temperate zone
in post-Glacial to the Arctic regions in inter-Glacial times. It is true that
Aryans and their culture or religion cannot be supposed to have
developed all of a sudden at the close of the last inter-Glacial period,
and the ultimate origin of both must, therefore, be placed in remote
geological times. But it is useless to speculate on this question
without further evidence, and in the present state of our knowledge

* Laing’s Human Origins, pp. 404-5.

 414

we must rest content with the result that though Aryan race or religion
can be traced to the last inter-Glacial-period yet the ultimate origin of
both is still lost in geological antiquity.
I cannot conclude this chapter without briefly examining the
bearing of our results on the views entertained by Hindu theological
scholars regarding the origin, character and authority of the Vedas. It
is a question which has been discussed with more or less acuteness,
subtlety, or learning ever since the days of the Brâhmanas; and frond
a purely theological point of view I do not think there remains
anything to be now said upon it. Again, for the purposes of scientific
investigation, it is necessary to keep the theological and the
antiquarian aspect of the question quite distinct from each other. Yet
when our investigation, conducted on strict scientific lines, is
completed, we may usefully compare our conclusions with the
theological views and see how far they harmonize or clash with each
other. In fact no Hindu who reads a book like the present, can avoid
making such a comparison; and we shall be lightening his task by
inserting in this place a few remarks on this subject. According to the
view held by Hindu theologians, the Vedas are eternal (nitya), without
a beginning (anâdi), and also not created by a human author (a-
paurusheya); and we are told that these attributes have been
predicated of our sacred books from the most ancient times known to
our divines or philosophers. The whole of the third Volume of Dr.
Muir’s Original Sanskrit Texts is devoted to the discussion of this
subject, a number of original passages and arguments bearing on
which are there collected, including Sâyana’s lucid summary in the
introduction to his commentary on the ‫ي‬ig-Veda; and more recently
the late Mahâmahopâdhyâya Râjârâma Shâstri Bodas, the editor of
the Bombay edition of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, has done the same in a Sanskrit
pamphlet, the second edition of which is now published by his son,
Mr. M. R. Bodas, of the Bombay High Court Bar. I shall, therefore,
give in this place only a summary of the different views of Hindu
theologians, without entering into the details of the controversy which
can be studied from the
 415

above books. The question before us is whether the Vedic hymns,

that is, not only the words of the hymns but also the religious system
found or referred to therein, are the compositions of the ‫ي‬ishis to
whom they are assigned in the Anukramanikâs, or the ancient
Indexes of the Veda, in the sense in which the Shâkuntala is a
composition of Kâlidâsa; or whether these hymns existed from times
immemorial, in other words, whether they are eternal and without a
beginning. The hymns themselves are naturally the best evidence on
the point. But, as shown by Dr. Muir in the second chapter (pp. 218-
86) of the Volume above mentioned, the utterances of the Vedic
‫ي‬ishis on this point are not unanimous. Thus side by side with
passages in which the Vedic bards have expressed their emotions,
hopes or fears, or prayed for worldly comforts and victory over their
enemies, condemning evil practices like gambling with dice (X, 34), or
have described events, which on their face seem to be the events of
the day; side by side with passages where the poet says that ho has
made (krî) generated (jan), or fabricated (taksh) a new (navyasî or
apûrvya) hymn, much in the same way as a carpenter fashions a
chariot (I, 47, 2; 62, 13; II, 19, 8; IV, 16, 20; VIII, 95, 5; X, 23, 6; 39,
14; 54, 6; 160, 5; &c.); or with hymns in which we are plainly told that
they are composed by so and so, the son of so and so, (I, 60, 5; X,
63, 17; 67, 1; &c.), there are to be found in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda itself an
equally large number of hymns where the ‫ي‬ishis state in
unmistakable terms that the hymns sung by them were the results of
inspiration from Indra, Varuna, Soma, Aditi, or some other deity; or
that the Vedic verses (richah) directly emanated from the Supreme
Purusha, or some other divine source; or that they were given by
gods (devatta), or generated by them and only seen or perceived
(pashyât) by the poets in later times, (I, 37, 4; II, 23, 2; VII, 66, 11;
VIII, 59, 6; X, 72, 1; 88, 8; 93, 9; &c.). We are told that Vâch (Speech)
is nityâ or eternal (VIII, 75, 6, also cf. X, 125); or that the gods
generated the divine Vâch and also the hymns (VIII, 100, 11; 101, 16;
X, 88, 8). The evidence of the Vedic hymns does not, therefore,
enable us to decide the
 416

question one way or the other; but if the composition of the hymns is
once ascribed to human effort, and one to divine inspiration or to the
gods directly, it is clear that at least some of these old ‫ي‬ishis believed
the hymns to have been sung under inspiration or generated directly
by the goddess of speech or other deities. We may reconcile the
former of these views with the passages where the hymns are said to
be made by human effort, on the supposition that the poets who sang
the hymns believed themselves to be acting under divine inspiration.
But the explanation fails to account for the statement that the ‫ي‬ik, the
Yajus, and the Sâman, all emanated from the Supreme Purusha or
the gods; and we must, therefore, conclude that the tradition about
the eternity of the Vedas, or their divine origin is as old as the Veda
itself. Accordingly, when we come to the Brâhmanas and the
Upanishads, we naturally find the same view prevailing. They tell us
that the ‫ي‬ig-Veda proceeded from Agni (fire), the Yajur-Veda from
Vâyu (wind), and the Sâma-Veda from Sûrya (the sun), and that
these three deities got their warmth from Prajâpati who practiced
lapas for the purpose (Shat. Brâh, XI, 5, 8, 1 ƒƒ; Ait. Brâh. V, 32-34;
Chhân. Up. IV, 17, 1); or that the Vedas are the breathings of the
Supreme Being (Bṛih. Up. II, 4, 10); or that Prajâpati by means of the
eternal Vâch created the Vedas and everything else in this world; and
the same view is met with in the Smṛitis like those of Manu (I, 21-23)
and others, or in the Purânas, several extracts from which are given
by Dr. Muir in the volume above referred to. It is admitted that the
Vedas, with other things, are destroyed, at the end of a Kalpa, by the
deluge (pralaya) which overtakes: the world at the time. But we are
told that this does not affect the question of the eternity of the new
Kalpa by Brahmâ himself after the grand deluge, and by the ‫ي‬ishis,
who survive, after minor deluges. The authority generally quoted in
support of this view is a verse from the Mahâbhârata (Shânti-Parvan,
Chap. 210, v. 19) which says, “The great ‫ي‬ishis, empowered by
Svayambhû (the self-born), formerly obtained, through tapas
(religious austerity), the Vedas and the Itihâsas, which had
 417

disappeared at the end of the (preceding) Yuga.”* The ‫ي‬ishis are,

therefore, called the seers and not the makers of the Vedic hymns;
and the personal designation of some Shâkhâs, branches or
recessions of Vedas, as Taittirîya, Kâthaka, &c., as well as the
statements in the Vedic hymns, which say that so and so has made
or generated such and such a hymn, are understood to mean that the
particular Shâkhâ or hymn was perceived, and only perceived, by the
particular ‫ي‬ishi or poet. It is not, however, till we come to the works of
the authors and expositors of the different schools of Hindu
philosophy (darshanas) that we find the doctrine of the eternity of the
Vedas subjected to a searching examination; and, as remarked by
Dr. Muir, one who reads the discussions of these writers cannot fail to
be struck “with the acuteness of their reasoning, the logical precision
with which their arguments are presented, and the occasional
liveliness and ingenuity of their illustrations.Ӡ They all bear witness to
the fact that so far as tradition went, — an unbroken tradition of great
antiquity, — there was no remembrance of the Vedas having been
ever composed by or ascribed to any human author; and taking into
consideration the, learning and the piety of these scholars, their
testimony must be regarded as an unimpeachable proof of the
existence of such a tradition, which was considered ancient several
centuries before the Christian era. But though a tradition whose high
antiquity can be so well established deserves to be seriously
considered in our investigations regarding the character of the Vedas,
yet it is, after all, a negative proof, showing, it may be urged, nothing
more than no human author of the Veda has been known from times
beyond the memory of all these ancient scholars. Jaimini,

* Bhavabhûti, Utt., I, 15. Also Cf. Rig. VIII, 59, 6, quoted infra.
† Muir, O. S. T., Vol. III, p. 58.
 418

the author of Mîmâmsâ Sutras, therefore, further deduces (I, 1, 5) the

eternity of the Vedas from the relation or connection between words
and their meanings, which he holds to be eternal (autpattika) and not
conventional. A word is defined to be an aggregate of letters in a
particular order, and its sense is said to be conveyed by these letters
following each other in a definite succession. But Grammarians are
not satisfied with this view, and maintain that the sense of a word is
not expressed by the aggregate of its constituent letters which are
transient, but by a certain super-sensuous entity, called sphota (i.e.,
manifester, from sphut), which supervenes the aggregate of the
letters as soon as they are pronounced, and reveals their meaning.
Jaimini denies that there are words in the Vedas which denote any
transient objects, and as the Vedic words and their sense are eternal,
it follows, according to him, that the Vedas are self-demonstrative, or
that they shine, like the sun, by their own light, and are, therefore,
perfect and infallible. If particular parts of the Vedas are designated
after some ‫ي‬ishis, it does not, we are told, prove those sages to have
been their authors, but merely the teachers who studied and handed
them down. Bâdarâyana, as interpreted by Shankarâchârya (I, 31,
26-33), the great leader of the Vedânta School, accepts the doctrine
of the eternity of sound or words, but adds that it is the species to
which the word belongs, and not the word itself, that is eternal or
indestructible, and, there fore, though the names of deities, like Indra
and others, which are all created and hence liable to destruction, are
mentioned in the Veda, it does not affect the question of its eternity
as the species to which Indra and others are said to belong is still
eternal. In short, Vedic names and forms of species are eternal, and it
is by remembering these that the world is created by Brahmâ at the
beginning of each Kalpa (Maitr. Up., VI, 22). The Veda is, therefore,
the original WORD the source from which every thing else in the
world emanated, and as such it cannot but be eternal; and it is
interesting, as pointed out by Prof. Max Müller in his Lectures on
Vedanta Philosophy, to compare this doctrine with that of Divine
 419

Logas of the Alexandrian Schools in the West. The Naiyâyikas, on

the other hand, deny the doctrine of the eternity of sound or word, but
hold that the authority of the Vedas is established by the fact of their
having emanated from competent (âpta) persons who had an intuitive
perception of duty (sâkshâtkrita dharmânah, as Yâska puts it), and
whose competence is fully proved by the efficacy of such of the Vedic
injunctions as relate to mundane matters, and can, therefore, be’
tested by experience; while the author of the Vaisheshika Sûtras
clearly refers (I, 1, 3) the Veda to Îshvara or God as its framer. The
Sânkhyas (Sânkhya Sûtras, V, 40-51) agree with the Naiyâyikas in
rejecting the doctrine of the eternity of the connection of a word with
its meaning; and though they regard the Veda as paurusheya in the
sense that it emanated from the Primeval Purusha, yet they maintain
that it was not the result of a conscious effort on the part of this
Purusha, but only an unconscious emanation from him like his
breathing. According to this view the Veda cannot be called eternal in
the same sense as the Mîmâmsakas have done, and, therefore, the
texts which assert the eternity of the Vedas, are said to refer merely
to “the unbroken continuity of the stream of homogeneous
succession,” (Veda-nityatâ-vâkyâni cha sajâtîyâ-nupûrvî-
pravâhânuchcheda-parâni).* Patanjali, the great grammarian, in his
gloss on Pânini IV, 3, 101, solves the question by making a distinction
between the language (the succession of words or letters,
varnânupûrvî, as we find it in the present texts) of the Vedas and their
contents (artha), and observing that the question of the eternity of the
Vedas refers to their sense which is eternal or permanent (artho
nityah), and not to the order of their letters, which has not always
remained the same (varnânupûrvî anityâ), and that it is through this
difference in the latter respect that we have the different versions

* Cf. Vedântaparibhâshâ Âgama-parichcheda, p. 55, quoted in

Mahâmahopâdhyâya Jhalkikar’s Nyâya-kosha, 2nd Ed. p. 736. s.v.
 420

of Kathas, Kalâpas, Mudakas, Pippalâdas and so on. This view is

opposed to that of the Mîmâmsakas who hold both sense and order
of words to be eternal. But Patanjali is led to reject the doctrine of the
eternity of the order of words, because in that case we cannot
account for the different versions or Shâkhâs of the same Veda, all of
which are considered to be equally authoritative though their verbal
readings are sometimes different. Patanjali, as explained by his
commentators Kaiyyata and Nâgoji Bhatta, ascribes this difference in
the different versions of the Veda to the loss of the Vedic text in the
pralayas or deluges which occasionally overtake the world and their
reproduction or repromulgation, at the beginning of each new age, by
the sages, who survived, according to their remembrance.* Each
manvantara or age has thus a Veda of its own which differs only in
expression and not in sense from the ante-diluvian Veda, and that
different recessions of co-ordinate authority of the same Veda are
due to the difference in the remembrance of the ‫ي‬ishis whose names
are associated with the different Shâkhâs, and who repromulgate, at
the beginning of the new age, the knowledge inherited by them, as a
sacred trust, from their forefathers in the preceding Kalpa. This view
substantially accords with that of Vyâsa as recorded in the verse from
the Mahâbhârata quoted above. The later expositors of the different
schools of philosophy have further developed these views of the
Sutra-writers and criticized or defended the doctrine of the self-
demonstrated authority of the scriptural texts (shabda-pramâna) in
various ways. But we cannot go into their elaborate discussions in
this place; nor is it necessary to do so, for eventually we have to fall
back upon the view of Vyâsa and Patanjali, mentioned

* See Muir O. S. T., Vol. III, pp. 96-97.

 421

above, if the destruction of the Vedas during each pralaya, and its
repromulgation at the commencement of the new age is admitted.
Such, in brief, are the views entertained by Hindu orthodox
theologians, scholars and philosophers in regard to the origin,
character and authority of the Vedas; and on comparing them with
the results of our investigation, it will be found that Patanjali’s and
Vyâsa’s view about the antiquity and the eternity of the Vedas derives
material support from the theory of the Arctic home which we have
endeavored to prove in the foregoing pages on strict scientific and
historical grounds. It has been shown that Vedic religion and worship
are both inter-Glacial; and that though we cannot trace their ultimate
origin, yet the Arctic character of the Vedic deities fully proves that
the powers of Nature represented by them had been already clothed
with divine attributes by the primitive Aryans in their original home
round about the North Pole, or the Meru of the Purânas. When the
Polar home was destroyed by glaciation, the Aryan people that
survived the catastrophe carried with them as much of their religion
and worship as it was possible to do under the circumstances; and
the relic, thus saved from the general wreck, was the basis of the
Aryan religion in the post-Glacial age. The whole period from the
commencement of the post-Glacial era to the birth of Buddha may, on
this theory, be approximately divided into four parts:
1000 or 8000 B.C. — The destruction of the original Arctic
home by the last Ice Age and the commencement of the post-Glacial
period.
8000–5000 B.C. — The age of migration from the original
home. The Survivors of the Aryan race roamed over the northern
parts of Europe and Asia in search of lands suitable for new
settlements. The vernal equinox was then in the constellation of
Punarvasû, and as Aditi is the presiding deity of Punarvasû,
according to the terminology adopted by me in Orion, this may,
therefore, be called the Aditi or the Pre-Orion Period.
 422

5000–3000 B.C. — The Orion Period, when the vernal equinox

was in Orion. Many Vedic hymns can be traced to the early part of
this period and the bards of the race, seem to have not yet forgotten
the real import or significance of the traditions of the Arctic home
inherited by them. It was at this time that first attempts to reform the
calendar and the sacrificial system appear to have been
systematically made.
3000–1400 B.C. — The Kṛittikâ Period, when the vernal
equinox was in Pleiades. The Taittirîya Samhitâ and the Brâhmanas,
which begin the series of nakshatras with the Kṛittikâs, are evidently
the productions of this period. The compilation of the hymns into
Samhitâ’s also appears, to be a work of the early part of this period.
The traditions about the original Arctic home had grown dim by this
time and very often misunderstood, making the Vedic hymns more
and more unintelligible. The sacrificial system and the numerous
details thereof found in the Brâhmanas seem to have been developed
during this, time. It was at the end of this Period that the Vedânga-
jyotisha was originally composed, or at any rate the position of the
equinoxes mentioned therein observed and ascertained.
1400–500 B.C. — The Pre-Buddhistic Period, when the Sûtras
and the Philosophical systems made their appearance.
These periods differ slightly from those mentioned by me in
Orion; but the change is needed in consequence of the theory of the
Arctic home which carries back the beginning of the Pre-Orion or the
Aditi Period to the commencement of the present post-Glacial era. In
the language of the Purânas the first period after the close of the Ice
Age (8000–5000 B.C.) may be called the Kṛita Yuga or the age of
wandering, as the Aitareya Brâhmana (VII, 15) describes it to be. It
was the period when the Aryan races, expatriated from their
motherland, roamed over the northern parts of Europe and Asia in
search of new homes. It is doubtful if the Brâhmana meant
 423

as much when it described Kṛita to be the age of wandering. But

nevertheless it is interesting to notice the new light thrown upon the
characteristics of the four Yugas mentioned in the Brâhmana. Thus
we are told that “Kali is lying, Dvâpara is slowly moving, Tretâ is
standing up, and Kṛita is wandering.” Dr. Haug understands this
stanza to refer to the game of dice, and other scholars have proposed
different interpretations. But in the light of the Arctic theory we may as
well suppose that the different stages of life through which the Aryan
races had to pass in post-Glacial times, from wandering in search of
homes to final settlement in some lands of their choice, are here
described, somewhat after the manner of the Avestic account of the
sixteen ancient lands created by Ahura Mazda, and invaded in
succession by Angra Mainyu. But even apart from this verse, we can
very well see that during the first of the above periods the Aryan
races had no fixed home, and many must have been the settlements
made and abandoned by them before they permanently settled in
congenial lands. I have already stated above that Aryan religion and
worship are both inter-Glacial; and that Vedic religion and ritual is a
post-Glacial development of such relics of the ancient religion as
were preserved from the general wreck caused by the Ice Age; and
this affords in my opinion a safe basis to compare our results with
the, theological views mentioned above. We may not be able to fix
definitely when each hymn of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda was sung; but we may
safely say that those who survived the catastrophe, or their
immediate descendants, must have incorporated into hymns the
religious knowledge they had inherited as a sacred trust from their
forefathers at the first opportunity, that is, soon after they were able to
make at least temporary settlements. The hymns cannot, therefore,
be supposed to promulgate a new religion consciously or
unconsciously evolved on the plains of Central Asia in post-Glacial
times; and the Polar character of the

* Ait. Brâh. VII, 15.

 424

Vedic deities removes every doubt on the point. How far the language
of the hymns, as we have them at present, resembled the ante-
diluvian forms of speech is a different question; and according to
Patanjali and Vyâsa, we are not here concerned with the words or the
syllables of the hymns, which, it is admitted, have not remained
permanent. We have to look to the subject-matter of the hymns; and
there is no reason to doubt either the competency or the
trustworthiness of the Vedic bards to execute what they considered to
be their sacred task or duty, viz., that of preserving and transmitting
for the benefit of future generations, the religious knowledge they had
inherited from their ante-diluvian forefathers. It was by an agency
similar to this that the hymns have been preserved accent for accent,
according to the lowest estimate, for the last 3000 or 4000 years; and
what is achieved in more, recent times can certainly be held to have
been done by the older bards in times when the traditions about the
Arctic home and religion were still fresh in their mind. We may also
observe that the hymns were publicly sung and recited, and the
whole community, which must be supposed to have been interested
in preserving its ancient religious rites and worship, must have keenly
watched the utterances of these ‫ي‬ishis. We may, therefore, safely
assert that the religion of the primeval Arctic home was correctly
preserved in the form of traditions by the disciplined memory of the
‫ي‬ishis until it was incorporated first into crude as contrasted with the
polished hymns (su-uktas) of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda in the Orion period, to be
collected later on in Mandalas and finally into Samhitâs; and that the
subject-matter of these hymns is inter-Glacial, though its ultimate
origin is still lost in geological antiquity. Without miring up the
theological and historical views we may, therefore, now state the two
in parallel columns as follows: —

Theological view Historical view

1. The Vedas are eternal (nitya), 1. The Vedic or the Aryan religion
beginning-less (anâdi) can be proved to be
 425

and not made by man (a- inter-Glacial; but its ultimate

pauruṣheya). origin is still lost in geological
antiquity.
2. The Vedas were destroyed in the 2. Aryan religion and culture were
deluge, at the end of the last Kalpa. destroyed during the last Glacial
period that invaded the Arctic
Aryan home.
3. At the beginning of the present 3. The Vedic hymns were sung in
Kalpa, the Rishis, through tapas, post-Glacial times by poets, who
reproduced in substance, if not in had inherited the knowledge or
form, the ante-diluvian Vedas, which contents thereof in an unbroken
they carried in their memory by the tradition from their ante-diluvian
favor of god. forefathers.

On a comparison of the two columns it will be found that the

tradition about the destruction and the reproduction of the Vedas,
recorded by Vyâsa in the Mahâbhârata verse referred to above, must
be taken to have been founded substantially on a historical fact. It is
true that according to the Pûranic chronology the beginning of the
current Kalpa is placed several thousands of years before the present
time; but if, according to the estimates of some modern geologists,
the post-Glacial period is, even now, said to have commenced some
80,000 years ago, if not earlier, we need not be much surprised at the
Pûranic estimate, especially when, as stated above, it is found to
disclose a real tradition of 10,000 years assigned to a cycle of the
four yugas, the first of which began with the new Kalpa, or, in the
language of geology, with the present post-Glacial period. Another
point wherein the two views may be said to differ is the
beginninglessness (anâditva) of the Vedas. It is impossible to
demonstrate historically or scientifically that Vedic religion and
worship is absolutely without a beginning. All that we can say is that
its beginning is lost in geological antiquity, or that the Vedic religion is
as old as the Aryan language or the Aryan man himself. If theologians
are not satisfied with the support which this scientific view accords to
their theory about the eternity of the Vedas,
 426

the scientific and the theological views must stand, as they are,
distinct from each other, for the two methods of investigation are
essentially different. It is for this reason that I have stated the views in
parallel columns for comparison without mixing them up. Whether the
world was produced from the original WORD, or the Divine Logos, is
a question which does not fall within the pale of historical
investigation; and any conclusions based upon it or similar other
doctrines cannot, therefore, be treated in this place. We may,
however, still assert that for all practical purposes the Vedic religion
can be shown to be beginningless even on strict scientific grounds.
A careful examination of the Rig-Vedic hymns will show that the
Vedic ‫ي‬ishis were themselves conscious of the fact that the subject-
matter of the hymns sung by them was ancient or ante-deluvian in
character, though the expressions used were their own productions.
We have already referred before to the two sets of Vedic passages,
the first expressly saying that the hymns were made, generated or
fashioned like a chariot by the ‫ي‬ishis to whom they are ascribed, and
the other stating in equally unmistakable terms that the hymns were
inspired, given or generated by gods. Dr. Muir attempts to reconcile
these two contradictory views by suggesting that the different ‫ي‬ishis
probably held different views; or that when both of them can be
traced to the same author, he may have expressed the one at the
time when it was uppermost in his mind, and the other at another; or
that the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis or poets had no very clearly defined ideas of
inspiration, and thought that the divine assistance of which they were
conscious did not render their hymns the less truly the production of
their own mind.* In short, the existence of a human is not supposed
to be incompatible with that of the super-human element in the
composition of these hymns. But it will be seen that the above
reconciliation is at once weak and unsatisfactory. A better way to
reconcile the conflicting utterances

* See Muir O. S. T. Vol. III, pp. 274-5.

 427

of the ‫ي‬ishis would be to make a distinction between the expression,

language, or form on the one hand, and the contents, substance or
the subject-matter of the hymns on the other; and to hold that while
the expression was human, the subject matter was believed to be
ancient or superhuman. There are numerous passages in the ‫ي‬ig-
Veda where the bards speak of ancient poets (pûrve rishayah), or
ancient hymns (I, 1, 2; VI, 44, 13; VII, 29, 4; VIII, 40, 12; X, 14, 15;
&c.); and Western scholars understand by these phrases the poets or
hymns of the past generations of Vedic bards, but not anterior to the
post-Glacial times. But there are clear indications in the hymns
themselves which go to refute this view. It is true that the Vedic bards
speak of ancient and modern hymns; but they often tell us that
though the hymn is new (navyasî), yet the god or the deity to whom it
is addressed is old (pratna), or ancient (VI, 22, 7; 62, 4; X, 91, 13;
&c.). This shows that the deities whose exploits were sung in the
hymns ware considered to be ancient deities. Nay, we have express
passages where not only the deities but their exploits are said. to be
ancient, evidently meaning that the achievement spoken of in the
hymns were traditional and not witnessed by the poet-himself; thus, in
I, 32, I, the poet opens his song with a clear statement that he is
going to sing those exploits of Indra which were achieved at first
(prathamâni) or in early times, and the adjective pûrvyânî and pûrvîh
are applied to Indra’s exploits in I, 11, 3, and I, 61 13. The
achievements of the Ashvins are similarly said to be pûrvyânî in I,
117, 25; and the long list of the exploits given in this hymn clearly
shows that the poet is here rather summarizing the exploits
traditionally known to him than enumerating events witnessed by
himself or by his forefathers in the near past. This is also evident from
the fact that the ancient ‫ي‬ishis mentioned in the hymns, like the
Angirases or Vasishtha, are believed to have been invested with
supernatural powers (VII, 33, 7-13), or to have lived and conversed
with (I, 179, 2), or shared in the enjoyments of the gods (Devânâm
sadhamâdah VIII, 76, 4). They are also said to be the earliest guides
(pathikrit, X, 14, 15)
 428

for future generations. It is impossible to suppose that Vedic poets

could have ascribed such superhuman character to their ancestors in
the near past; and we are, therefore, led to the conclusion that the
ancestors here spoken of were the ante-diluvian ancestors (nahpûrve
pitarah) who completed their sacrifices in the Arctic year of 7 or 10
months. And what is true of the ancestors applies as well to the
ancient deities mentioned in the hymns. I have pointed out previously
that the legend of Aditi and her sons is expressly stated to be a
legend of the past age (pûrvyam yugam); and the same thing may be
predicated of the legends of Indra, the Ashvins or the other deities
whose exploits are described in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda as pûrvyâni or
prathamâni, that is, old or ancient. In short, the ancient hymns, poets,
or deities, mentioned in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda must be referred to a by-gone
age and not to post-Glacial times. The Arctic character of these
deities, it may be further observed, is intelligible only on this view.
The Vedic bards may well be credited with having composed, or
fashioned, new songs or hymns; but the question still remains
whether the subject-matter of these hymns was of their own creation,
and the fact that the deities. have been called ancient in
contradistinction with the songs offered to them (VI, 62, 4), and are
clothed with Polar attributes, at once enables us to solve the question
by answering that though the wording of the hymns was new, their
subject-matter was old, that is, traditionally handed down to the poet
from remote ages. Thus in a hymn of the tenth Mandala (X, 72, 1-2),
the poet desiring to celebrate the births or the origin of gods, thus
begins his hymn, “Let us, from the love of praise, celebrate, in recited
hymns, the births of gods, — any one of us who in this later age may
see them, (yah pashyâd uttare yuge).” Here we have a distinct
contrast between the births of gods on the one hand and the poet
who may see the hymn in the later age on the other, evidently
meaning that the subject-matter of the hymn is an occurrence of the
former age (yuga), and that the poet celebrates as he perceives or
sees it in the later age. The view that the Vedic hymns, or
 429

rather their contents, were perceived and not made by the ‫ي‬ishis,
derives material support from this statement. A similar expression is
also found in VIII, 59, 6, which says “Indra and Varuna! I have seen
(abhi apashyam); through tapas that which ye formerly gave to the
‫ي‬ishis, wisdom, understanding of speech, sacred lore (shrutam) and
all the places which the sages created when performing sacrifices.”*
The notion about the perception of the subject-matter of the Vedic
hymns is here referred to almost in the same terms in which it is
expressed by Vyâsa in the Mahâbhârata verse quoted above; and
with such express texts before us, the only way to reconcile the
conflicting statements about the human and the superhuman origin of
the hymns is to refer them to the form and the matter of the hymns
respectively, as suggested by Patanjali and other scholars. Dr. Muir
notices a passage (VIII, 95, 4-5) where the poet is said to have
“generated (ajîjanat) for Indra the newest exhilarating hymn
(navîyasîm mandrâm giram), springing from an intelligent mind, an
ancient mental product (dhiyam pratnâm), full of sacred truth.”† Here
one and the same hymn is said to be both new and old at the same
time; and Dr. Muir quotes Aufrecht to show that gir, that is,
expression or wording, is here contrasted with dhî or thought,
obviously showing that an old thought (pratnâ dhîh) has been
couched in new language (navîyasî gîh), by the bard to whom the
hymn is ascribed. In other words, the hymn is ancient in substance
though new in expression, — a conclusion to which we have been
already led on different grounds. We may also cite in this connection
the fact that amongst the different heads into which the contents of
the Brâhmanas have been classified by Indian divines, we find one
which is termed Purâ-kalpa or the rites or traditions of a by-gone age,
showing that even the Brâhmanas are believed to contain ante-
diluvian stories or traditions. The statement

* Rig. VIII, 59, 6, — इावणा यद रिषो मनीषा ं वाचो मित ं शतमदमम े । यािन
सथानाज धीरा य ं तानापसापँयम ॥
† See Muir O. S. T., Vol. III, p. 239.
 430

in the Taittirîya Samhitâ that “The priests, in old times, were afraid
that the dawn would not terminate or ripen into sunshine,” is quoted
by Sâyana as an example of Purâ-kalpa, and we have seen before
that this can be explained only by supposing it to refer to the Arctic
dawn, — an incident witnessible by man only in the inter-Glacial
times. If the Brâhmanas can be thus shown to contain or refer to the
facts of a by-gone age, a fortiori the Vedas may, very well, be said to
do the same. Thus from whatever side we approach the question, we
are irresistibly led, by internal as well as external evidence, to the
conclusion that the subject-matter of the Vedic hymns is ancient and
inter-Glacial, and that it was incorporated into the Vedic hymns in
post-Glacial times by ‫ي‬ishis who inherited the same in the shape of
continuous traditions from their inter-Glacial forefathers.
There are many other points in Vedic interpretation, or in Vedic
and Purânic mythology, which are elucidated, or we may even say,
intelligently and rationally explained for the first time, by the theory of
the Arctic home in inter-Glacial times. For instance, we can now
easily account for the disappointment of those Western scholars,
who, when the Vedas became first known to them, expected to find
therein the very beginnings of the Aryan civilization or the outpourings
of the Aryan mind as it first became impressed with awe and wonder
by the physical phenomena or the workings of natural elements and
looked upon them as divine manifestations. Our theory now shows
very clearly that though the Vedas are the oldest records of the Aryan
race, yet the civilization, or the characteristics and the worship of the
deities mention ed therein did not originate with the Vedic bards, but
was derived by them from their inter-Glacial forefathers and
preserved in the forms of hymns for the benefit of posterity; and if any
one wants to trace the very beginnings of the Aryan civilization he
must go back beyond the last-Glacial period, and see how the
ancestors of the Aryan race lived and work ed in their primeval Polar
home. Unfortunately we have very few materials for ascertaining the
degree of this civilization.
 431

But we think we have shown that there are grounds to hold that the
inter-Glacial Aryan civilization and culture must have been of a higher
type than what it is usually supposed to be: and that there is no
reason why the primitive Aryan should not be placed on an equal
footing with the pre-historic inhabitants of Egypt in point of culture and
civilization. The vitality and superiority of the Aryan races, as
disclosed by their conquest, by extermination or assimilation, of the
non-Aryan races with whom they came in contact in their migrations
in search of new lands from the North Pole to the Equator, if not to
the farther south, is intelligible only on the assumption of a high
degree of civilization in their original Arctic home; and when the
Vedas come to be further examined in the light of the Arctic theory,
we many certainly expect to discover therein many other facts, which
will further support this view, but which are still hidden from us owing
to our imperfect knowledge of the physical and social surroundings
amidst which the ancestors of the Vedic ‫ي‬ishis lived near the North
Pole in times before the Glacial epoch. The exploration of the Arctic
regions which is being carried on at present, may also help us
hereafter in our investigation of the beginnings of the Aryan
civilization. But all these things must be left to be done by future
investigators when the theory of the Arctic home of the Aryans comes
to be generally recognized as a scientific fact. Our object at present is
to show that there is enough evidence in the Veda and the Avesta to
establish the existence of an Arctic home in inter-Glacial times; and
the reader, who has followed us in our arguments, set forth in the
preceding pages, will at once perceive that the theory we have
endeavored to prove, is based on a solid foundation of express text
and passages traditionally preserved in the two oldest books of the
Aryan race, and that it is amply fortified by independent corroboration
received from the latest results of the correlative sciences, like
Geology, Archaeology Linguistic Palæology, Comparative Mythology
and Astronomy. In fact, the idea of searching for the evidence of an
Arctic home in the Vedas may be said to have been stimulated, if not
 432

suggested, by the recent advances made in these sciences, and it

will be seen that the method, adopted by us in working it up, is as
rigid as it ought to be. It is now several centuries since the science of
Vedic exegetics was founded by Indian Nairuktas; and it may seem
surprising that traces of an Arctic home in the Vedas should remain
undiscovered so long. But surprises like these are out of place in
investigations of this kind, where one must be prepared to accept the
results proved, in the light of advancing knowledge, by the strictest
rules of logic and guide, and if the validity of our conclusions be
tested by this standard, we hope it will be found that we have
succeeded in discovering the true key to the interpretation of a
number of Vedic texts and legends hitherto given up as hopeless,
ignored or misunderstood. In these days of progress, when the
question of the primitive human culture and civilization is approached
and investigated from so many different sides, the science of Vedic
interpretation cannot stand isolated or depend exclusively on
linguistic or grammatical analysis; and we have simply followed the
spirit of the time in seeking to bring about the co-ordination of the
latest scientific results with the traditions contained in the oldest
books of the Aryan race, — books which have been deservedly held
in the highest esteem and preserved by our ancestors, amidst
insurmountable difficulties, with religious enthusiasm ever since the
beginning of the present age.

FINIS

————— ™ —————
 433

INDEX

————— ™ —————
Abhiplava, a kind of shalaha, 191, his hidden home in waters and
193. darkness, 294; as child of waters, 294;
Adhyâtmikas, their school of Vedic traversing the universe, 309; his secret
interpretation, 220. third station, 309; seven rays or
Aditi, and her Aditya sons, the legend tongues, and ten secret dwellings of,
of, 139-146; said to have occurred in a 318.
former yuga, 145, 428. Agnishtoma, a Soma-sacrifice, 190
Âdityas, seven with an eighth stillborn Ahalyâ, the legend of, 327.
brother, represent the seven monthly Ahanî, Day and Night, distinguished
sun-gods in the Arctic region, 143-146, from Ushâsâ-naktâ, 124; right and left
262. side of the Year-god, 126-127.
Âdityânâm-ayanam, an yearly Ahîna, a Soma-sacrifice of less than
sacrificial session, 177, 193. thirteen days, 190.
Adri, a mountain, meaning of, in the Ahura Mazda, warning Yima about the
‫ي‬ig-Veda, 231, 234. coming winter in Airyana Vaêjo, 67,
Æsir, gods, the reign of, 72. 330.
Ages, archeological, of Stone, Bronze Airyana Vaêjo, the original Paradise of
and Iron, 3; distinction between the Iranians or the Aryan race, Yima’s
Neolithic and Paleolithic, 9; their co- Vara in, 67; description of, in the
relation with the geological, 10; of Vendidad, 332-334; wrongly identified
Beech, Oak and Fir, 11. with countries to the east of Iran, 335-
— Geological and their subdivisions, 337; change in the climate of, caused
10; climate and distribution of land and by Angra Mainyu, 341; proves its
water in, 19-23. invasion by ice during the last Glacial
— Human and divine in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, epoch, 343; ten winter months therein,
159 ƒ. 341-343; also seven summer months,
— Purânic, Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara, and 345 ƒ; annual rise of sun, moon and
Kali; their real duration, 391-397; their stars, and a year-long day at the place,
characteristics, 423. 66, 67, 350; possible only if it be
Aggilos, phonetic equivalent of located in the Arctic regions, and not to
Angiras, 147. the east of Iran, 352; description of the
Agni, fire, a Vedic matutinal deity, 68; glaciation of, 355.
living in long darkness, 116; Aitihâsikas, their school of Vedic
interpretation, 221.
 434

Aiyangâr, Mr., Nârâyana, on the Âpah, waters, distinguished as

interpretation of Vedic myths on the terrestrial and celestial in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
Astral theory, 59, 227; on the nature of 237; celestial or aerial ridden for ten
Kumâra, Kârrtikeya, 295; on the nature months by the sun, 163, 170; ruled
of Sitâ, 324. over by Varuna, 163; coeval with the
Aiyer, Mr., on the yuga-system in the world, 239; captivated by Vṛitra and
Purânas, 393-396. released to flow upwards by Indra,
Âjânadevatâs, 220. cannot but be celestial, 255, 273, 274;
Alburz, a mountain, separating the in the seven rivers must be celestial,
upper from the lower world in the 267-272; cosmic circulation of the
Avesta, 247; apertures in, for the sun to aerial, in the Avesta, 252; cessation of
pass through, 250, 296. their flow in winter, 252-254; cosmic
Alps, low in early geological ages, 20. circulation of, in other mythologies,
Altitude, high, its effect on climate, 20. 255-258; their nature and
Amma, the ascending stream of, in the characteristics as a Vedic deity
Finnish mythology, 256. summed up, 315; the same compared
Ammarik, the gloaming, in the Finnish the Purânic legends, 316.
mythology, 376. Apaosha, the demon conquered by
Anaximenes, on the overhead rotation Tishtrya, an Avestic proto-type of
of the sky, 72. Shushna in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 205, 206;
Aṅgirasâm-ayanam, the yearly fight with, lasting for a hundred nights,
sacrificial session of Angirases 148, 207.
177, 193. Apaturia, ancient Greek feast, 371.
Angirases, ancient sacrificers of the Apollon, oxen of, stolen by Hermes,
Aryan race, 147; probably Indo- 188; derived from Sanskrit apavaryan,
European in origin, 148; different 237.
species of, the Navagvas and the Apsu-jit, conqueror in waters, an
Dashagvas, 149; ten months’ sacrifical epithet of Indra, 228-229.
session of the latter, 150; helping Indra Aptoryâma, a Soma-sacrifice, 190.
in the rescue of the end of each year, Ap-tûrya, the fight for waters by Indra,
150; found the cows at the sun dwelling 228.
in darkness, 150; described as Virûpas, Âptya, See Trita.
that is, of various forms, 154. Arag, See Rangha.
Angra Mainyu, the evil spirit in the Archaeology, prehistoric, ages of Iron,
Avesta, destroys Airyana Vaêjo by Bronze and stone in, 3, 8;
introducing severe winter therein, 334; characterized by instruments of metals
explained as a glacial invasion, 343ƒ. and stone discovered in the recent
Anquetil, discovery of the Avesta by, strata of the earth, 7; ages not
330. synchronous in different
 435

countries, 8; transition from one into other human races, lost in geological
another gradual and not sudden, 8; antiquity, 414.
distinction between New and Old stone — Home, primitive, cannot be located
age, 9; ages of Beech, Oak and Fir, 11; in Central Asia, 17; nor in North
the date of the commencement of the Germany or Scandinavia, 380; must be
Neolithic age in, 12; latest researches located in the Arctic regions, 215, 275,
in, effect of, on primitive history, 3; on 363, 380, 387-389; destroyed during
Vedic interpretation, 6; summary of the the last Glacial epoch, 354, 355
latest researches in, 35, 36. migration therefrom at the beginning of
Arctic regions, characterized by mild the post-glacial period, 399.
climate suitable for human habitation in — Culture and religion, primitive,
inter-glacial times, 22, 35, 389; a wide Schrader’s view of, 2; in their Arctic
continent before the glacial epoch, 39; Home, 405-408; higher than the
appearance of the heavens in, 48, 52; Neolithic European, 408-412.
duration of day and night in, 51, 52; — Languages, unity of, 2; not
dawn in, 52, 53; distinguishing developed from the Finnic, 17; not of
characteristics of, summed up, 54-55. Neolithic origin, 408; origin of, lost in
Ardhau, the two celestial hemispheres geological antiquity, 414.
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 244. Âshvina-shastra, a prize, in the race
Ardvi Sûra Anâhita, Avestic celestial of matutinal deities, 76, 77, 278.
river, like the Vedic Sarasvatî, 246, Ashvins, a dual matutinal deity in the
248; grants a boon to Thraêtaona, 247, Veda, their path, 68; time of singing the
374. hymn or prayer of, 76; rescuers of
Aristotle, mentions an aerial river, 256; Dîrghatamas, 156-157; physicians of
his belief in the reality of the deluge, gods, explained by Max Müller as
361, restorers of the winter sun, 226, 278;
Arya, Indra, dealing measure for their double equipment, boat and
measure to Dâsa or Vṛitra, 128, 131. golden chariot, 257; help Indra in his
Âryabhatta, 392. fight with Vṛitra, 277-278; their exploits
Aryan, race and people, their unity in and character, 280-282; save their
primitive times, 2; controversy protégés from bottomless darkness,
regarding the original type of, 15; 282-283; inexplainable by the vernal
Vedic, settled in central Asia in the theory, 283-289; safely deliver
Orion period, 391; primitive, interglacial Saptavadhri from ten months’
and not post-glacial in origin, 402; confinement in the womb of his mother,
European Neolithic, not progressive but 290-293; satisfactorily explained by the
retrogressive savages, 408; origin of Arctic theory, 297; there three
and differentiation from
 436

stations, the third hidden, explained, meaning of, 204, 230, 234, 267.
309-310; their achievements said to be Autumns, a hundred, 362.
ancient, that is, inter-Glacial, 427. Avesta, passages in, See Index of
Asia, Northern, the glaciation of, and Avestic passages. Traditions about the
milder climate in, 13; Central, the Polar home in, 18, 329-363; method of
theory of the original Aryan home in, counting by seasons in, 265; See
challenged by Poshe and Penka, 4; Airyana Vaêjo.
Taylor’s view, 4; Rhys’ view 380; Indo- Âyus, a Soma-sacrifice, 190.
Iranian settlements in, not primitive, Azi-Dahâk, 248, 286, 287.
363, 390.
Astral, theory, to explain Vedic myths, BÂDARÂYANA, on the
227. inauspiciousness of dying in the
Astronomers, Hindu, locate Meru at Dakshinâyana, 70; on the eternity of
the North Pole, 62; chronology of, 392. the Vedas, 428.
Atharvan, an ancient sacrificer, 147- Balder, or Baldur, the Norse summer
148. god, his dwelling place in the heavens,
Ati-agnishtoma, a Soma-sacrifice, 375; killed by Hodur, the winter-god,
190, Ati-râtra, a Soma-sacrifice, 190; 377.
introduces and concludes a sattra, 192, Bali, the rescuer of Dîrghatamas, 156;
212; one of the night-sacrifices, 196- Purânic enemy of Vâmana, 304.
197, 299, extraction and purification of Ball, Sir Robert, supports Croll’s
Soma juice therein at night, 196-197; theory, 25; but refrains from adopting
an Avestic parallel, 197; meaning of ati Croll’s calculations, 32.
in, 209; production of a cycle of day Beech age, 11; See Ages.
and night therefrom, 209; position of, in Bhândârkar, Dr., on the date of
the annual round of sacrifices in Mâdhariputta and Pulumâyi, 264.
ancient times, 212-213. Bhartrihari, 316.
Atri, an ancient sacrificer, 147-148. Bhâskara, Bhatta, 182, 204.
Atri Saptavadhri, See Ashvins, and Bhâskarâchârya, on perpetual day
Saptavadhri. and night, 52; his erroneous view about
Aufrecht, Prof., 80, 82, 429. Uttarâyana, 62.
Aurora Borealis, 44, 64. Bhîshma, a Mahabharata warrior
Aupamanyava, a Nairukta, waiting to die in the Uttarâyana, 70.
correctness of his interpretation of Bhrigu, an ancient sacrificer, 148, 249.
shipi-vishta, 306, 307, 308. Bhujyu, a protégé of the Ashvins who
Aurnavâbha, 303. rescued him from bottomless darkness,
Autumnal, hundred forts of Vṛitra, 280, 282, 283, 284-287.
Bloomfield, Prof., 105, 267.
 437

Bodas, Râjârâma Shâstri, and M. R. Caspian, sea, wrongly identified with

414. Rangha, 338.
Brahma-chârin, the sun in the Celts, the yearly feasts of, 369; their
Atharva-Veda, 293. gods and heroes, 378ƒ.
Brahma-jâyâ, the Brahmin’s lost wife, Chailu, Paul Du. on the long night at
restoration of, 323. Nordkyn, 53; his Lana of the long night
Brâhmanas, the Vedic works, the referred to 198.
Vedas partially unintelligible at the time Chalceia, an ancient Greek yearly
of their composition, 5; classification of feast, 371.
the contents of, 119; their probable aim Chaturvirmsha, a sacrificial day 192,
and nature, 119-120; on the eternity of 193,
the Vedas, 416. Chatvâriṁshayâm sharadi, on the
Brihaspati, the son of Angiras, said to fortieth in autumn, the meaning of (in
be seven-mouthed, 155; his conquest Rig. II, 12, 11) 260.
of cows, 186; helps Indra in the rescue Chavee, on the original type of the
of cows, from Vala, 231; savior of Trita Aryan race, 15.
from distress, 311; seven-mouthed, Chronology, Purânic, of Kalpa
and ten-headed, 318; connected with Manvantaras, and Maha-yugas 391;
the story of Sarmâ and Panis, 322; length of a Kalpa, and a Yuga in 392;
restoration of his lost wife, 322. Rangâchârya’s and Aiyer’s views
Bronze, age, See Ages. thereon, 393-396 in Manu and
Bundahish, referred to or quoted, 207, Mahâbhârata, 396, 397.
247, 250, 336-338, 348. — Vedic, 391, 421, 422.
Bunsen, 330, 340, 342. Chyavâna the failing (sun), a protégé
Burma, Indian names of cities in, 272. of the Ashvins who restored him to
youth, 156, 226, 280-281.
Circum-polar, regions, distinguished
CACUS, a Greek monster like the from the Polar, 40; characteristics of,
Vedic Vala, 184. described and summed up, 51-56.
Calendar, Vedic, in the Taittiriya Civilization, Paleolithic and Neolithic,
Samhitâ, of 12 months and six 15, 16; primitive as deduced from
seasons, 58; ancient sacrificial, of ten comparative philology, 401; original
months, 212, 214, 215; Ancient Vedic or Aryan, inter-glacial, 408-412.
Roman, of ten months, 283, 213, 368: Climate, geological, equable and
ancient Celtic and Norse, 370-371; uniform over the whole earth till the end
ancient Greek, 371; primitive Aryan, of the Pliocene period, 20; sudden
Arctic, 40, 406. change in, during the Pleistocene, 21;
Calends, of May and of Winter, 368, cold in the glacial, and mild in the
369. interglacial period, 22, 23.
 438

Coins, bronze, in use amongst as Vṛitra’s stronghold, in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda,

undivided Aryans, 411. 115, 229; long, too long, the end of,
Comparative, Mythology and 115; Agni living long in, 116, 295; Indra
Philology, q.v. driving the Asuras from, 197; Arctic,
Couvade the Irish custom of 306, 317, synchronous with winter, 253-259; daily
379 and annual struggle between it and
Corpses, the custom of not disposing light, 224, 215, 378; protégés of the
of during winter, 67-71, 252-255 Ashvins condemned to, 282, 283; the
Cows, the three fold meaning of in the sun dwelling in, 298, 299.
Vedas, 185, 186; the sacrificial session Dakshinâ, the mother of the sun, 132.
of lasting for ten months 178-182; its Dakshinâyana, or Pitṛiyâna, night of
nature explained, 185 ƒ. gods, 63; death during, inauspicious,
Cow-stable, seven-fold and ten-fold 70; Bâdarâyana’s view of, 70; parallel
319 tradition in the Avesta, 71.
Cow’s Walk, See Gavam ayanam. Darmesteter, Prof., the translator of
Croll, Dr., his theory about the cause Vendidad and Yasht, his rendering of
of the Glacial period, 25-29; his three the Vendidad I and II, 67; on the nature
periods of the maximum eccentricity of of the legend of Tishtrya, 206; does not
the earth’s orbit, 30 his estimate of the explain why the appointed time of
duration and commencement of the Tishtrya varies from one to a hundred
Glacial period, 31 questioned by Ball nights, 207; his rendering of Tîr Yasht,
and Newcomb, 31 by Geikie and para 36, 209; his view of the same
Huddlestone, 33. single source of waters and light, 209;
Cuchulainn, the Celtic Sun-hero on the cessation of the flow of waters in
making love to a number of Dawns, winter, 252; on the transference of the
371, 373; his encounters with the name Hapta hindu to a new settlement,
Fomori or the Fir Bolg, 397; unaffected 272; on the meaning of Dâitya in Vend.
by couvade, 378; fighting without rest I, 337; his identification of the Airyana
for several days, 378, 379. Vaêjo examined and rejected, 335-340
Culture, primitive, See Civilization. Dâsa, Vṛitra, 128, 131.
Currents, oceanic and aerial, effects Dashadyu, a protégé of Indra, 317,
of, on climate, 20. 322.
Dashagvas, a species of the
DAITYA, the meaning of, in the Angirases, 318-320; See Navagvas.
Vendidad, 332, 337; a river in the Dashamâya, an enemy of Indra, 317,
Bundahish, otherwise called Dâitik, 321
337, 333 Dashame yuge, meaning of (in ‫ي‬ig. I,
Darkness, of the Polar night nature of, 158, 6), 157.
44; ghastly and sunless,
 439

Dasha prapitve, meaning of (in ‫ي‬ig its reason explained, 183, 367; denotes
Veda VI., 31, 3), 299-303. an ancient Arctic year of ten months,
Dâsharâjña, Indra’s fight with ten 184.
kings, 321ƒ. Deities, Vedic, pre-glacial in origin and
Dasharatha, 323, character, 403,
Dashashipra, an enemy of Indra, 318. Deluge, the Avestic account of, 353ƒ;
Dashoni, an enemy of Indra, 317, 321. the story of, in the Shatapatha
Dawn, two months’ duration of, at the Brâhmana, 358; said to be of water and
pole, 44, 45; revolving splendors of, 46, not ice, 360; Greek account of, 361;
47; why styled Dakshinâ, 133; the first; compared with the Avestic, account
commencing the mânushâ-yugâ, 163; 362; See Glacial period.
why addressed in the plural number in Demeter, the mother-earth rejoicing for
the Vedas, 88ƒ; in the Lettish, Greek six months in the presence of
and Celtic mythologies, 366; the dying Proserpine, 370,
torch of, in the Finnish mythology, 376; Deukaliôn, saved from the deluge in
as a Vedic Deity, See Ushas. Greek mythology, 361.
Dawn-theory, 3; its scope and Devayâna and Pitriyana originally
application, 222-224. representing the two-fold division of the
Day, longer than 24 hours in the Arctic year at the Pole, 67, 68; the path of the
regions, 51; six-monthly, in the gods, same as the path of Mazda in the
Tâittiriya Brâhmana, 65; in the Avesta, Avesta, 69; Vṛitra killed on the borders
66; in Manu and Mahâbhârata, 63, 64; of, 233
originally a real observation, 68; of the Dhîtis, prayers, seven-fold and ten-
gods, See Night of the gods. fold, 318.
Day and Night, a dual deity in the Dîrghatamas, the legend of, in the
Vedas, 120; two such dual deities 124; Mahâbhârata, 156; in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, id;
diurnal changes in, over the globe saved by Ashvins, 156; becoming
stated, 125; the existence of two dual decrepit in the tenth yuga, 157ƒ;
deities explainable only on the Arctic means the sun disappearing after
theory, 125, 126. riding on aerial waters for ten months,
Death, inauspiciousness of, in the 163; a solar legend of Arctic origin,
Dakshinâyana, 70; in winter in the 163, 214, 238, 284, 296, 326.
Parsi scriptures, 252-253. Divine, years, the theory of, 393-397;
Debris, glacial, its action and extent, See year.
22. Diviṣhṭi, striving for the day, 228.
December, the tenth and the last Divodâsa, the father of Sudâs, 321.
month in the ancient Raman year, Dixit, the late Mr. S. B., on the equinox
in the Kṛittikâs, 42, 392.
 440

Durga, a commentator on Yâska, 123. Euripides, on the fountain of the

Dvâdashâha, a twelve days’ sacrifice, world’s waters, 256.
how made up, 192. Evans, 7.
Dvâpara, the third yuga in Puranic
mythology, duration and nature of, 392- FATHERS, our ancient, in the Vedas,
396. 147.
Dvita, the Second, a brother of Tṛita, Fauna, and Flora, fossil, distinguish
311. different geological eras, 10; indicate
Dyotana, an enemy of Indra, 318. warm climate early times, 20.
Fedelm, of nine forms, in Celtic
mythology, 373
EARTH, classification of stratified rocks Finland, once thought to be the Aryan
on the surface of, 10; climate on, in home, 381, 388.
early geological times, 20; obliquity of Finns, not the originators of the Aryan
its axis producing seasons, id., change speech, 17, 19; the circulation of
in the position of axis improbable, 23- cosmic waters in the mythology of, 257.
24; diminishing heat of, 24; eccentricity Fir-age, archaeological, xi.
of its orbit producing glacial periods, Fir-Bolg, See Fomori.
according to Dr. Croll, 26, 27; Dr. Ball’s Fish, the, saved by Manu and in turn
estimate of the average heat received the savior of Manu, 358;
by each of its hemispheres, 32; Five, milkings, 109; seasons, 167ƒ.
maximum value of the eccentricity of its Floods, during deluges, probably
orbit, 67; three-fold in the Vedas and glacial in origin, 359.
the Avesta, 242; seven-fold, nine-fold Fomori, the Irish representatives of
and ten-fold, 318. darkness, 377.
Edda, a Norse epic poem, death of Foods, seven and ten, 318.
Anses in 378. Forseti, Baldur’s son, his long sittings
Eden, the garden of, in the Bible, 381. at the court, 380.
Egypt, the historic period in, 1, 11, 13, Fravashis, showing the path of Mazda
34; no trace of glaciation in, 13. to the sun, 69-70; correspond to Vedic
Ekâha, a Soma-sacrifice for a single Pitṛis, 254; said to have shown the way
day, 190. to the waters and the sun in the
Ekâshtakâ, the mother, 108. Avesta, 254.
Ekata, the First, Tṛita, 311.
Eleven-fold, division of gods in Vedas, GAVÂM-AYANAM, a ten-months’
269, 319. yearly sacrifice, or the Cow’s Walk,
Equinoxes, precision of, 26; cycle of, 149; of ten months in the Aitareya
27; used as a Vedic chronometer, 41. Brâhmana, 179; in the Tâittirîya
Eras, geological, climate 20; See Ages. Samhitâ, 180, 181; its
 441

ten months’ duration said to be an Ghoshâ, a protégé of the Ashvins,

immemorial custom, 182; represents 281.
the ancient Arctic year, 184; compared Gilbert, Mr., his view regarding the
with the old Roman year of ten months, commencement of the post-Glacial
184; meaning of cows (gavâm) in, 185- period, 12.
187; the type of yearly sacrifices, 192; Giri, a mountain, misinterpretation of,
an outline scheme of, 192; See Parvata.
supplemented by night-sacrifices, Glacial, epoch or period, discovery of
199ƒ, 211, 214, 367. its evidence, 4; nature of the evidence
Geikie, Prof., 7; on the commencement of, 21; existence of two, with an
of the post-Glacial period, 13; five intervening inter-Glacial, conclusively
glacial and four inter-Glacial periods established, 22; extent of Glaciation in
according to, 22, 33 35; on the Glacial Europe and America, 21; climate cold
and inter-Glacial climate in the Arctic in Glacial, warm in inter-Glacial, 22;
regions, 22-23; on Dr. Croll’s theory, various theories regarding the cause
32. of, 23; Lyell’s theory and estimate
Geldner, Prof., 301. about its duration, 24; Croll’s theory
Geology, eras and periods in, and estimate about its duration, 25-31;
enumerated and described, 10, 11, co- long duration of, 34; Avestic evidence
relation of geological and in proof of 353 ƒ.
archaeological ages, 10; Iron-Bronze Glaciation, in northern Europe and
and Neolithic included in the post- America, 12, 21; traces of, not yet
Glacial period and Paleolithic in the discovered in northern Asia, 13.
Pleistocene or the Glacial, 10; the date Go, a Soma-sacrifice, 191.
of the commencement of the post- Gods, the six-monthly night of, in
Glacial period in, 11; evidence and astronomical works, 62; in Manu and
extent of glaciation in the Glacial Mahâbhârata, 63-64; in the Taittirîya
period, 12, 22; climate in the early ages Brâhmana, 65; in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 67-70;
of, 20-23; causes of a succession of in other Aryan mythologies, 72; eleven-
Glacial periods in, 23; Dr. Croll’s view fold division of, in the, Vedas, 269, 319;
26-31; estimate of the duration of the temporary sickness or affliction of in
Glacial period, 34; latest researches in, ancient mythology, 378-380.
summary of, 34, 35, 36; supports the Go-iṣhṭi, the meaning of, 228.
Avestic account of the deluge of snow Gotama, a Vedic sage, 322.
and ice, 355-356; See Archaeology, Grassmann, Prof., 157, 301.
Climate, Glacial period. Griffith, Mr., his interpretation of Ṛig-
Gharma, a sacrificial pot, 174-175. Vedic verses stated and examined, 80,
82, 84, 92, 106, 122, 128, 129, 160,
165.
 442

Grill, on the German world-river, 256. Hermes, stealing the oxen of Apollon
Grote, his account of deluge in the 188.
Greek mythology, 361. Herodotus, mentions people sleeping
Gulf-stream, its effect on climate, 20, for six months, 66; his account of the
23. Phoenician mariners sailing round
Gwin, and Gwythur, fighting for the Africa, 133.
same damsel and having her in turn, Herschel, Sir, on seasons, 27; error in
370. his view regarding the heat received by
each hemisphere in summer and
HADES, conceived as turned upside winter, 29; on the perpetual spring in
down, 285. inter-Glacial times, 35.
Hanûmân, a Purânic deity, traced to Hesiod, on the source of earthly rivers,
Vrishâkapi, 324. 266.
Hapta-Hindu, Avestic name for Sapta Himâlayas, the, upheaved in later
Sinndhavah, its origin and meaning geological ages, 20.
explained, 267-272; See Sapta Hiranya-hasta, the gold hand, given by
Sindhavah. the Ashvins, 281, 289.
Hara-Berezaiti, a mountain in the Historic period, in Greece and Egypt,
Avesta; See Alburz. 1.
Haug, Dr., 138, 330, 423. Hodur, the blind Norse god of winter,
Heavens, spinning round of, in the ‫ي‬ig- killing Baldur, the god of summer, 377.
Veda, 60. Home, the primeval Aryan, not in
Hebrews, their belief in the existence Central Asia, 17, 380; nor in Finland or
of celestial waters, 238, 246. Scandinavia, 380-381; but in the Arctic-
Heeren, Prof., 330. regions, north of Siberia, in pre-Glacial
Hêlios, the sun, his 350 oxen and times, 388, 390; See Airyana Vaêjo.
sheep, 186, 288, 367; sailing from west Homer, Iliad and Odyssey, 72; his
to east in a golden boat, 255. legend of cow-stealing, 188; on the
Hemispheres, the two celestial, upper shape of the earth, 255, on the
and lower, referred to and mentioned in circulation of aerial waters, 256; draw
the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 243-244. from the same mythological source as
Hemanta, with Shishira, the dual Vâlmîki, 324; mentions Khalkos or
season, 168; represented the yearly bronze coins, 411.
sunset, 263. Horses, of the sun, sevenfold and
Hêrakles, names of the wives of, tenfold, 169, 317.
representing dawns, 366. Hudleston, Mr., on the extravagance
Hercules, the pillars of, 133; the cows of Dr. Croll’s calculations, 33.
of, carried off, by Cacus, 184. Hukairya, mountain in the Avesta, 247.
 443

Hundred, night-sacrifices, 195-200 assisted by Vishnu in his fight with

fortresses or cities destroyed by Indra, Vṛitra, 305, tenfold or ten incarnations
leather straps of Kutsa, 204; inoving in of, 317, seven-killer, and possibly ten-
the abode of Indra, and turning on and killer, 322; lover of Ahalyâ, 322;
off the course of ordinary days, 204. exploits of, said to be ancient or inter-
Hvarenô, the, Glory in the Avesta, 286. Glacial, 427, 101; See Âpas,
Hymns, Vedic, inter-Glacial in Dashagvas, Vala, Vṛitra.
substance, post-Glacial in form, 427- Inter-Glacial, period, See Glacial.
430. Irân Veg, See Airyana Vaêjo.
Iranians, their original home, 331,
ICE, of the Glacial period, its action, could not but be Arctic, 342; destroyed
22; invading Airyana Vaêjo, 353-354; during the glacial period, 357, See
its connection with the deluge in Indian Airyana Vaêjo.
mythology, 360. Iron, age, See Ages.
Iliad, the nature of day in, 72, mythical Ivan, the story of, 376.
element in, traceable to primitive Aryan
times, 324; mentions bronze coins, JAIMINI, his view about the eternity of
411. the Vedas, 417-418.
Incarnations, ten of Indra in the Jaxartes, the, and the Oxus, Aryan
Avesta and of Vishnu in the Purânas, settlements on the banks of, 34, 329,
317, 325. 336. 351
Indra, the principal Vedic deity, Jews, See Hebrews.
revolving the heavens as on a pole, 60- Jhalkikar, Mahâmahopâdhyaya, 419.
61; breaking the car of the dawn, 101; Jimha-bâra, with mouth downwards,
fights with his enemies in darkness, applied to the nether world, 284, 285.
115, 197; retaliates Dâsa’s mischief by Jyotish, or Jyotishtoma, a Soma-
producing the long Arctic day, 128-131; sacrifice, 190-193.
assisted by Navagvas and Dashagvas,
149; his war with Vala at the end of the KALI, a protégé of the Ashvins, 280-
year, 150, 151, 259; the only deity 281.
worshipped in the Atirâtra sacrifice, Kali-Yuga, commencement, duration
197; master of a hundred sacrifices, and nature of, 392-397; the age of final
200-205; his conquest over Vṛitra and settlements, 423.
release of captive waters, the sun and Kalidasa, 134.
the dawn, 227-259; as Vṛitra-han, 234, Kalpa, a higher unit of time in the
275; finds Shambara on the fortieth of Purânic chronology, 392, 393;
Sharad, 259-261; stealing the solar repromulgation of the Vedas at the
orb, on the completion of ten (months), beginning of each, 420, 425.
298-303;
 444

Kamadyu, a protégé of the Ashvins, Kumârila, his interpretation of the

280. legend of Ahalyâ, 222, 322.
Kânheri, an inscription of, 265. Kutsa, lying in a kata or a winter grave,
Kanva, an ancient sacrificer, 747. 254.
Kârle, inscriptions of, method of
counting time in, 264.
Karma-devatas, 220. LABRAID of the Swift Hand on the
Kârttikeya, See Kumara. Sword; King of the Irish Hades, 371.
Kashyapa, the eighth Aditya at Meru, Laing, Mr. Samuel, 7; on man’s
65. ultimate origin, 413.
Kata, a ditch to keep a dead body in, Lake-dwellers, in Switzerland, 11.
during winter, 71; Kutsa lying in, 254. Land and water, distribution of, in early
Khalkos, a bronze coin, phonetically geological ages, 20-22; depression and
identical with Shulka, 411. elevation of, causing the Ice-age, 25.
Kings, seven and three, 319. Lands, countries, sixteen, mentioned
Koi, the dawn, in the Finnish in the Vendidad, 332-334; represent
mythology, 376. successive historical migrations and
Koshchei, the Russian winter-demon not merely geographical divisions, 357.
carrying off a princess, 376; legend of, Lapps, how they count time during
376. long night, 198.
Kratu, means a destined course, 95, Lassen, Prof., 269, 330, 362.
107; also denotes a sacrificial Lets, cosmic circulation of waters in
performance, 203. the mythology of, 257; dawn addressed
Krichenbauer, Anton, on the two-fold in the plural in the same, 367.
nature of day in the Iliad and the Leverrier, M., his tables of the
Odyssey, 72. eccentricity of earth’s orbit, 30;
Krita, Yuga, commencement and Stockwell’s corrections therein, 31.
duration of, 392-396; the age of Lignana, Prof., his view about the
migration, 423. Navagvas and Dashagvas stated and
Krittikâs, or the Pleiades, the period of examined, 152-154; on Numa’s reform,
the vernal equinox being in, 42, 58, 367; on Navagvas and Novemsides,
120, 390, 422. 373.
Kubhâ, the Kabul river, 338 Lockyer, Sir Norman, ors the
Kuhn, Prof., 186; on the storm theory, orientation of the pyramids, 42; on the
225. ancient Egyptian calendar, 137; on the
Kuka, Mr. M. N., on Tishtrya’s cosmic circulation of aerial waters in:
connection with the year, 209. the Egpytian mythology, 258.
Kumâra, the Child, not surrendered by Logos, the Word, 418-419, 426.
the mother to the father, the story of, Lubbock, Sir John, 7.
294; basis of the Purânic story of
Kârttikeya, 296.
 445

Ludwig, Prof., on the axis of the earth Mann, a Smṛiti writer quoted, 63, 64,
in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 61; on the meaning of 238, 407, progenitor of the human
Ahâni, 84; on the seven rivers, 269. race, saved in the deluge, 358-360; an
Lugnassad, the Celtic summer feast, ancient Vedic sacrificer, 147-148.
369. Mânuṣhâ yugâ, means human ages
Lybia, Africa, sailing round of, 133. and not always human generations,
Lyell, Sir Charles, 7; his theory of the158-162; commenced with the first
cause of the Glacial period, and dawn, used to denote the whole year,
estimate of its duration, 24, on the 166.
origin of the tradition of the half-yearly
Mârtânda, the still-born Aditya, the
day, 67. derivation and meaning of, 145; See
Aditi, Âditya.
MACDONNELL, Prof., on the nature of Mâtsya-Purâna, account of the deluge
the dawn-hymns, 75; extracts from his in, 358.
Vedic mythology quoted, 28, 230, 280; Matutinal, deities, traveling by the
his view on the double character of Devayâna path, 68-69; following the
Indra discussed, 231, 236; on the dawns, 98; the story of the Ashvins
brothers of Thrâetaona, 312. leading the van in the march of, 277,
Macrobius, on Numa’s reform in the 280.
Roman Calendar, 183, 368. Max Müller, Prof. F., on the
Mâdhava, a commentator on the Sâma importance of the discovery of
Veda, on the meaning of virûpe, 122, relationship between Sanskrit and
123. Zend, 2; on the untranslatable portion
Mahâvrata, a Soma-sacrifice, symbolic of the Vedas, 5; on the meaning of
nature of, 192, 193. Samayâ 79, his explanation of dawns
Mahâbhârata, the, 64, 70, 156, 157, in the plural number unsatisfactory, 88;
307, 358, 359, 362, 392, 395, 396, 416. on the meaning of yojana, 96; of
Mahavira, a sacrificial pot, 175. chhandas, 106, of kshapah, 117, on
Mahayuga, a collection of Yugas, its the difference between Ushâsânaktâ
duration discussed, 394ƒ. and Ahanî, 124; his explanation of
Mahîdhara, a commentator on the eight Âdityas improbable, 143; on the
Vajasaneyî Samhita, 161, 301. meaning of mânuhâ yugâ, 159; on
Maid, the, of nine forms, 374. continuous nights, 166; on the threefold
Mainvô-i-Khard, 357. meaning of cows in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 185-
Mallinâth, 734. 186; on the stealing of cows inn the
Mamata, the mother of Dîrghatamas, Greek mythology and on the ancient
156-157. Greek year, 188-189; on the dawn
Man, his existence in the quaternary theory, 223-224; on the Vernal theory,
and the tertiary eras, 4, 11, 35. 226; on the derivation of;
 446

Apollon, 237; on seven rivers, 269, his Moytura, the battle of, in the Celtic
explanation of the Ashvins’ exploits, mythology, fought on the eve of
163, 278; his derivation of Trita November, 371.
improbable, 312; on the resemblance Much, with vi, meaning of, when
of names in the Iliad with Vedic names, applied to horses, 129.
324; on progressive savages, 412; on Muir, Dr., on the yuga system, 63, on
Logos, 418. the nature of dawn-hymns, 75; on
May, the calends of, 370, 371. Aditi’s legend, 143, 158; on the
Mazda, the path of, 69; followed by meaning of parastât, 245; his summary
waters and the sun, 246. of Fargard I of the Vendidad, 332, 333;
Meru, or the North Pole, six months’ on the deluge, 353-360; on the
day at, in the Samhitâs, 52; seat of the northern Aryan home, 362, 363; on the
gods, and six monthly night and day at, eternity of the Vedas, 414, 416, 417,
62, 458, 421; in the Taittirîya Âranyaka, 426, 429.
6; permanently illumined by Kashyapa, Myths, Vedic, necessity of re-
142. examining the explanations of, 39
Merv, the Avestic Mouru, 334. various theories about the explanations
Mesopotamia, not the same as of, 222 ƒ; disclose an arctic origin, 326,
Avestic Rangha, 336. 327.
Migrations, of the Iranian race in Mythology, science of, effect of recent
succession from Airyana Vaêjo, 335- geological discovery on, 3, 4; Vedic,
358; the age of, 421, 423. current interpretation of, 49; theories
Milkings, five, 109. for the explanation of, 222,
Mîmamsakas, their interpretation of comparative, supports the theory of the
Râtri in Râtri-Sattras shown to be Arctic home, 282, 283.
incorrect, 195ƒ; their view of the
eternity of the Vedas, 417-418.
Mitra, the representative of half-year NADERSHAHA, Mr. E. J. D., on the
long light, 326. method of counting time by seasons in
Monogeny, the theory of, regarding the Avesta, 266.
human origin, 413. Nâgoji Bhatt, on Patañjali’s view on the
Months, of sunshine, less than twelve eternity of the Vedas, 420.
in the Arctic regions, 53, 138; sacrificial Nairukta, a school of Vedic
session of ten, 176, 132; Avestic, of interpreters, 221, 222.
winter and summer, 345-348; See Naiyyâyikas, their views about the
Dashame yuge, Gavâm ayanam, eternity of Vedas, 419.
Seasons Year and Yuga. Navagvas, a species of the Angirases,
Moon, description of her appearance generally associated with the
at the pole, 44. Dashagvas, 148, their sacrificial
Mortillet, M. De., on the type of the session of ten months, 149;
primitive Aryans, 15. commenced with the dawn, id.,
 447

helped Indra in the rescue of the cows of the gods in the Vedas and the
from Vala, 150-151; the root meaning Avesta, 153, 159; long, safely reaching
of, 152; Yâska’s, Sayana’s and Prof. the other end of 117; apprehensions
Lignana’s view thereon, 152, 153; regarding its end, 118; continuous,
primarily denote sacrificers for nine or 166.
ten months, 153; compared to Roman Night-sacrifices, See Râtri-sattras and
Novemsides, Celtic Maid of nine Atirâtra.
Forms, and the nine steps of Thor in Nine, Forms, Maid of, 374.
the Norse mythology, 373, See Nine-fold, earth, ocean and sky, 319;
Angirases, Dashagvas. See Sevenfold.
Nava-prabhrainshana, the gliding of Ninety-nine, forts of Vṛitra, 204,
the ship on the Himalayas, 359. crossed by Indra, 204.
Navarâtra, a nine days’ sacrifice, 190. Nir-riti, the region below the earth,
Nau-bandhana, a peak of the 243.
Himalayas, 359. Nivids, about Indra, quoted, 228.
Nebulous, matter, in the universe Non-Aryan, races, may be Arctic in
described as watery vapor in the origin, 380, 399.
Vedas, 238. Nordkyn, or the North Cape in Europe,
Neco, Pharoah, king of Egypt, 133. sixty-seven days’ continuous night at,
Neolithic, the new Stone age, 53.
distinguished from the Paleolithic age, North Pole, Dr. Warren’s book on the
9; its probable commencement from origin of the human race at, 6, 384,
5000 B. C., 11. 399.
— Aryan races in Europe, dolicho- Novaia Zemlia, remnant of an old
cephalic and brachy-cephalic, Polar continent, 37.
ancestors of the present European November, the eve of commencement
races, 14; their culture compared with of the ancient Celtic year, 368, 369.
Indo-Germanic culture, 16; not Novemsides, new or nine Roman-
autochthonous in Europe, 16. gods, 373.
Nether, regions, or regions below the Numa, his addition of two months to
earth, known to Vedic bards, 241; the ancient Roman year of ten months,
conceived as dark, bottomless, or like 183, 367.
an inverted tub in the Vedas, 284-287 Nu-t, the Egyptian goddess of the sky,
Newcomb, Prof., on the extravagance 258.
of Croll’s calculations, 31.
Night, Polar, light and darkness, 229; OAK-AGE, 11; See Archaeology,
rivers, 204, in, 44; shorter than six Ages,
months, but longer than twenty-four Odin, the reign of, 72.
hours, 51; Odyssey, the, nature of day in, 72,
 448

Odysseus, consuming the oxen of Parâvat, the nether region, 243.

Hêlios, 188. Parvata, a mountain, misinterpreted
Okeanos, the world-surrounding ocean into a cloud in the Vedas, 231, 235.
in the Greek mythology, 256; Parâvrij, a protégé of the Ashvins, 281.
phonetically identical with Ashayâna, Patañjali, his view about the eternity of
316. the Vedas, 421.
Oldenburg, Prof., on continuous Pathyâ Svasti, the goddess of speech
nights, 166; on the meaning of div-ishti in the northern region, 362.
228, his view regarding Indra’s Peat-mosses, of Denmark, beds of
producing waters from the mountains, beach, oak and fir therein, 11, 12.
235, 300. Perpetual, spring, 38; day and night,
Orion; the constellation of, the period 52.
of vernal equinox being in, 390, 422. Persephone, daughter of Zeus, carried
Ottoro-corra, the Uttara-Kurus, as by Pluto for six months, 370.
mentioned by Ptolemy, 362. Penka, 4; his view on the type of the
Oxus, the river; Aryan settlements on, primitive Aryans in Europe, 15.
329, 336, 351, 363; See Jaxartes. Philology, comparative, on the division
of the year, 372, conclusions regarding
PADA-TEXT, of the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, the primitive Aryan culture, deduced
amendments in, suggested, 86, 300, therefrom, 408; necessity of modifying
301, 303. the same, 408-412.
Palaeolithic or the old Stone age, Phoenician, mariners rounding Africa,
distinguished from the Neolithic, 9; 133.
generally inter-glacial, 11. Pictel, Dr., 330.
— Man, inter-Glacial, 12-13; his Pim, Capt., his description of the Polar
culture, 15; proof of his existence in the year, 45.
interglacial period, 22, 23. Pipru, an enemy of Indra, 128.
Panama, the isthmus of, its Pischel, Dr., on the nature of
submergence in the Pleistocene period Vrishâkapi, 324.
improbable, 24. Pitriyana, See Devayâna.
Pañcha-janâh, the five races of men, Pleiades, See Kṛittikâs.
probably interglacial, 399. Pleistocene, or the Giacial period 10;
Pandit, the late Mr. S. P., on the changes of climate in, 21, 22.
seven-fold division of Solar rays, 316. Plutarch, on the ancient Roman year,
Panjaub, the land of five rivers and not of ten months, 183, 367; on the sleep
of seven, 268: rivers in, not denoted by of the Phrygian god, 306, 379; on the
Sapta-Sindhavah, 269; See, Seven imprisonment of the Paphagonian
rivers. gods, 323, 379.
 449

Pole, north, temperate climate at, in Purâ, the former or the interglacial age,
interglacial times 21, 39; existence of a 102.
continent at, in interglacial times, 38; Puraḥ, meaning of, 204.
regions round, distinguished from Purâ-kalpa, ancient rites and
circumpolar or Arctic regions, 40; star, traditions, 119, 429.
change in the position of, 41; special Purûravas, 224.
features of the calendar at, 43;
characteristics or differential of Polar
regions summed up, 54. QUARTERNARY, era, existence of
Polygeny, theory of, 413. man in, 4, 23; sudden changes of
Posehe, 4; his view regarding the type climate in, 21; comprises at least two, if
of the primitive Aryans in Egypt, 15. not more, glacial periods, 22.
Post-glacial, period, its Raj s (singular), meaning of, 242;
commencement about 50 or 60 (dual), the two Rajas, meaning the two
thousand years ago according to hemispheres, 244.
English geologists, and 7 or 8 thousand Râma,, the hero of the Râmâyana,
according to American geologists, 12; 323, 324; and incarnation of Vishnu,
See Glacial period. 32, traceable to the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, id.
Prajâpati, the creator of the Vedas, Râmâyana, on the three steps of
416. Vishnu, 304; mythical element in,
Pralaya, the deluge, destruction of the probably derived from Vedic
Vedas in, 416. mythology, 324; the Râmâyana and the
Prâleya, ice, an indication of the glacial Iliad had probably a common source,
nature of the deluge, 360. 324.
Prapitva, advancing time, the meaning Rangâchârya, Prof., on the meaning of
of, in the Veda, 301. yuga, 163, 164; on the Kaliyuga, 392,
Pravargya, a sacrificial ceremony, 393.
represents the revival of the sun, 174. Rangha, a mythical river to the west of
Prehistoric times, effect of the Alburz in the Avesta, 338; wrongly
discovery of comparative philology on identified with the Caspian sea, 338;
the study of, 2; See Archeology, probably the same as the Vedic Rasâ,
Geology. 338.
Pre-Orion, period, its commencement, Ratri-sattras, the nightly Soma-
390; consistent with geological sacrifices, their nature and
evidence, 391. classification, 194; the meaning of Râtri
Prishthya, a kind of Shalâha, 191-193. in the appellation, 195ƒ; hundred in
Ptolemy, 362. number, from one to hundred nights,
Pûshan, the sun, the golden boat of, 195; must have been originally
257, seven-wheeled and ten-rayed, performed (luring
318.
 450

night, 198; the reason of the number of, an yearly cycle of, in ancient times,
199-209. 212.
Râtri-Sûkta, a hymn to the night, 117. Sacrificers, ancient, 147.
Râvana, the ten-mouthed enemy of Samarkand, the Avestic Sughdha,
Râma, 323; throwing gods into prison, 334, 336.
323, probably suggested by the ten Samudrau, the two oceans, meaning
non-sacrificing kings in the Vedas, 323. the upper and lower celestial
Rays, of the sun, seven and ten, 317, hemispheres, 244.
Rebha, a protégé of the Ashvins 280, Sandhyâ, or links between the yugas,
281, 283. duration of, 395.
Religion, Vedic, pre-glacial in origin, Sânkhyas, their view about the eternity
406, 407. of the Vedas, 419.
Rhode, Dr., 330. Saporta, M. de, on the Arctic origin of
Rhys, Prof., on the nature of the the human race, 381.
ancient Teutonic year, 184; his Hibbert Sapta-vadhri, the seven-eunuch, a
lectures, referred to, 306, 366-384; on protégé of the Ashvins, 289; praying for
the affliction of gods or sun-heroes in safe delivery after ten months’
the Celtic mythology, 378-379; on the gestation, explained, 291ƒ.
primeval Aryan home in the Arctic Saramâ, 223.
region, 380. Saranyu, 223.
Rijishvan, a friend of Indra, 128. Sarasvatî, a celestial river in the Veda,
Rijrâshva, a protégé of the Ashvins 247; described as slaying Vṛitra, 248;
slaughtering a hundred sheep, 189, compared to the Avestic Ardvi Sûra
226, 281, 287, 288. Anâhita, 248.
Rikshas, or the seven bears, See Ursâ Sato-karahe, of hundred deeds, an
Major. adjective of Verethraghna in the
Rishis, Vedic, their view about the Avesta, 208.
origin of Vedic hymns, 426-432; Sattras, annual, in imitation of the
distinguished into older and later, 428; yearly course of the sun, 138; Gavâm-
older interglacial, later post, glacial, ayanam, the type of the annual, 178;
430. sacrificial sessions, division of, 190.
Roth, Prof., on the nature of Saranyu, Satyavrata, Pandit, 122.
226. Savitri, the sun, traversing the
Rudra-datta, on the meaning of universe, 309; his third heaven in
Atiratra, 209. Yama’s regions, 309.
Sâyana, his method of explaining
difficult Vedic passages, 5, 85, 94, 131,
SACRIFICE, or the year, its 387; referred to, 61, 68, 75, 82, 83, 84;
preservation and revival, 175; annual; on the use of dawns in the plural
an outline of the scheme of, 192, number, 88,
 451

90; his explanation of thirty dawns, 93, Seven, rivers, or Sapta-sindhavah,

94, 106; on the thirty yojanas traversed flowing upwards, 268; cannot be the
by the dawn, 95; on the fears about rivers of the Panjaub, 268; three-fold,
endless nights 119-120; on meaning of celestial, terrestrial and infernal, 269;
virûpe, 122; on much with vi, 129-131; associated with the seven rays or
on the seven rays of sun, 140; on the seven suns, 270; released by Indra,
existence of the different suns in cannot but be celestial, 271.
different quarters, 142; on the meaning Sevenfold, 146, 270; and tenfold
of Navagvas and Dashagvas, 154; on division of things in Vedas explained on
mânushâ yugâ, 158; on kshapah, 166; the Arctic theory, 316, 321.
on the meaning of padena, 181; on the Shabara, a commentator on Jaimini,
duration of Gavâm-ayanam, 182; on 195, 263.
night-sacrifices, 196, on the meaning of Shaḷaha, a group of six days, a
shatakratu, 202; on Ati-râtra, 203; on sacrificial unit of time, 192.
chatvârimshyâm sharadi, 260; on the Shambara, killed by Indra on the
meaning of vadhri, 259, 290; on fortieth day of autumn, 261.
prapitve, 301, 303; on the ten-fold Shankarâchârya, 70, 167; on the
division, 316. eternity of Vedas, 418
Scandinavia, supposed to be the Sharad, autumn, the last season of
Ancient Aryan home, 380. sunshine in the ancient home, 259-261;
Schrader, Dr., his work on prehistoric explained etymologically, 262.
antiquities, 2; on neolithic, paleolithic Shatakratu, an epithet of Indra, 200;
culture, 15, 16; on the ancient division means the lord of a hundred sacrifices
of the year, 372; on primitive Aryan and not of hundred powers, 202, 203;
culture and civilization, 401; on purânic tradition based on, 201.
primitive Aryan religion, 406, 407; on Shatapatha-Brâhmana, an account of
the use of metals in primitive times, deluge in, 358.
411. Shatarâtra, a hundred nights’ sacrifice,
Seasons, of the year, five in older denotes the long Arctic night, 201.
times, 167; reason of, 168; denotes an Shâtyâyanins, on the legend of Trita,
Arctic year of ten months, 170; method 312.
of counting time by, in Paleography, Shayu, a protégé of the Ashvins, 281,
265; in the Avesta, 266. 282.
Separation, Aryan, caused by the Shikshâ by Panini quoted, 94.
glacial epoch, and not by overcrowding Shipi-vishṭa, an opprobrious name of
or irresistible impulse, 366. Vishnu, explained by the Arctic theory,
Seven, milking the one, 175. 307, 309.
 452

Shodashî, a Soma-sacrifice, 190. Sun, or Sûrya, shining and

Shulka, a primitive Aryan coin, 411. disappearing for six months at the
Shushna, Indra’s fight with, on the Pole, 44; rising in the south, 44; a
completion of ten, 299-303 matutinal Vedic deity, 68, southern
Siberia, freshness of fossil deposits in, course of, in Polar regions, 49;
13; primitive Aryan home to described in the Veda as unyoking his
the north of 388. car and halting in the midst of heaven,
Siddhânta-Shiromani, perpetual day 128; standing still in the Bible, 129;
and night in, 52. rocking like a gold swing in the heaven,
Sita, the wife of Râma, 324 130; different suns for different
represented as his sister and wife in seasons, 142, 143; dwelling in
Buddhistic Jâtakas, 325; probable darkness, 150, 151, 299; his eye
explanation of, 325. covered with aerial vapor, 169; falling
Soma, seven-wheeled and ten-rayed, beyond the heaven, 178; conceived as
318. the son of Dyu and Earth, 291;
Soma-sacrifices, their classification described as moving in the mother’s
and nature, 190ƒ; See Gâvam- womb, while above the horizon, 292;
ayanam, and Râtri-sattras. his exit from the womb after ten months
South, the sun rising in, 43. explained, 292; a paradox arising
Sphota, the doctrine of, 418. therefrom, 293-294; his wheel or orb,
Spiegel, Prof., 66, 207, 209, 330, 332, 297ƒ; his chariot a mono-cycle, 299;
352, 354; his identification of Airyana stolen by Indra, 301; on the completion
Vaêjo questioned, 336. of ten, meaning of, 300-301; See,
Spring, perpetual, 35, 38. Horses, Prapitva, Rays.
Spitzbergen, warm climate in, be fore Sunshine, of less than twelve months’
the glacial period, 20; remnant of an duration at the Pole, 139.
old Polar continent, 37. Sûrya, her marriage with Soma, 223.
Stars, spinning round and round and Sûrya-siddhânta, on six-monthly day
the Pole 42, 43; motion of, in circum- and night, 62.
polar region, 48, 49. Svara-sâman, days, 192, 193.
Stone-age See Ages, Neolithic,
Paleolithic.
Storm-theory, 224, 226; its TAYLOR, Canon, his views on the
inadequacy to explain the legend of effects of recent scientific discoveries
Indra and Vṛitra, 231-235. on Mythology, 4; on primitive Aryan
Striæ, scratches, glacial, 21. races in Europe, 15; on the origin of the
Sudâs, engaged in fight with the ten Aryan tongue, 17; on the Neolithic
non-sacrificing kings, 321. origin of the Aryan race, 402.
Summer, long and cool in inter-Glacial Telang, the late Mr., on the description
time, 30, 35. of Râma in the Dasharatha jâtaka, 325.
 453

Ten, kings, opponents of Sudâs, 321. Triath, an old Irish word for sea,
Ten-fold, See, Seven-fold. phonetically same as Trita, 313.
Tertiary, era, existence of man in, 4; Trita Aptya, a Vedic deity assisting
climate in, 20. Indra in his fight with Vṛitra, 248;
Till, or boulder clay, 22. Avestic Thraêtaona, 310, urges Indra
Tishtrya, his fight with Apaosha in the to fight, 311; falls into a well, 311;
Avesta, 205; a reproduction of Indra’s derivation of his name, 312; Prof. Max
fight with Vṛitra, 205; lasted for one Müller’s view untenable, 312; denotes
hundred days, 207; special sacrifices the third part of the year 311, 313;
required to be performed at the time, explained on the Arctic theory, 313;
208; described as bringing circling compared to Ivan in the Slavonic
years of men, 208-209. mythology, 375.
Thor, the Norse sun-hero, walking nine Triton, Greek, phonetically equivalent
paces before being killed by the to Vedic Trita, 313.
Serpent, 374. Twilight, duration of, at the Pole, 58; of
Thraêtaona, Avestic deity, the gods in the Norse mythology, 72.
corresponding to Trita Âptya, 248; Two, creating the five, 175.
restores glory to Yima, 268; slays Azi-
Dahâk, 312; accompanied by his two UCHATHYA, the father of Dirghatamas
brothers in the Avesta, 312; throws up in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 156.
Vifra-Navâza, 375. Uchchâ-budhna, with the bottom up,
Three-fold, division of the Earth in the applied to the nether world, 285.
Veda and the Avesta, 241. Ukko, the descending stream of, in the
Thridi, old Norse name of Odin, same Finnish Mythology, 256.
as Trita, 313. Ukthya, a Soma-sacrifice, 190.
Tongue, Aryan, not developed from Upsala, an ancient Aryan site, 381.
the Finnic, 17; its origin lost in Ursâ Major, the constellation of the
geological antiquity, 413. Great Bear, high altitude of, in ‫ي‬ig-
Tradition, Pre-glacial, how preserved Veda, 61; above the path of the sun,
in the Vedas, 398-399; in the Avesta, 134.
18, 354-356. Urvashî, 224.
Traitan, the tormenter of Dîrghatamas, Ushas, the Vedic goddesses of morn,
156. the most beautiful of Vedic deities, 75;
Tree of Varuna, with bottom up, 286. its physical character unobscured, id;
Treta, the second Puranic era, duration lasted long enough to allow the
of, 393-396; nature of 423. recitation of the whole ‫ي‬ig-Veda,
 454

77; or to admit of a five-fold or three- Vâjapeya, a Some-sacrifice, 190.

fold division, 78; said to shine Vala, Indra’s enemy, vanquished with
perpetually in old times, 78; difference the assistance of Navagvas at the end
between it and vi-ushti, id.; three Vedic of the year, 149, 150, 151, 155, 199,
texts proving that it lasted continuously 231, 259, 260; his cave split by the
for several days, 79, 366; addressed in word of Bṛihaspati, 186.
plural as well as singular 88; not Vâlmîki, drew probably from the same
honorifically as supposed by Yâska, mythological source as Homer, 324.
88; nor owing to the number of Vâmana, the fifth incarnation of
presiding deities, 89; nor by reference Vishnu, 304.
to the consecutive daily dawns, go; the Vandana, rescued by the Ashvins,
plural represents one long continuous 150, 226, 280, 282.
dawn divided into many day-long Vunguhi, a river in the Airyana Vaêjo
portions, go; thirty dawns or dawn- but not mentioned in the Vendidad,
sisters in the Taittirîya Samhitâ, 90, 337.
103-112; in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, 94; a Vanna-issa, the old father in the
continuous team of thirty dawns in the Finnish Mythology, 376
Taittirîya Brâhmana, 97-98; all moving Vara, of Yima, the annual sunrise and
round and round in the same plane, 95; year-long day in, 67, 350
their circular motion in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda, Vartikâ, rescued by the Ashvins,
97; the characteristics of Vedic dawns Yâska’s view about, 221.
summed up, 99-100; variation in the Varuna, ruler of the waters, 163, 238;
duration of, illustrated by the story of his tree and region turned upside
Indra’s shattering its car, 101; all prove down, 286; representative of long
its Polar character, 102. Arctic darkness, and hence described
Utathya, the father of Dirghatamas in as embracing the nights, 326.
the Mahâbhârata, 156. Vedas, still imperfectly understood, 5,
Utsarginam avajsam, a sacrificial 39; new key to their interpretation
session lasting for a lunar year, 193. supplied by the latest geological
Uttara, the north, why so called, 134. researches, 6; strata of, not necessarily
Uttarâyana, originally equinoctial, in chronological order, 42; how
misunderstood by Bhâskara, 52-53. preserved, 398, 399; eternity of,
Uttarakuras, 362. discussed, 414, 430; Manu’s and
Vyâsa’s view on the eternity of, 416;
VACH, the speech, eternity of, 415. Jaimini’s view, 417; grammarians’,
Vadhrimati, a protégé of the Ashvins, Badârâyana’s, Naiyyâyikas’ view, 418,
282, 289. Sânkhyas’
 455

view, 419; Patañjail’s view, 420; below the horizon in the Arctic region
theological and historical views 309.
compared, 424, 425; the view of Vedic Vishpalâ, Ashvins’ protégé, 226, 281.
‫ي‬ishis themselves, 426, 429; lost in the Vishuvan, the central day in the Soma-
deluge and repromulgated afterwards sacrifice, 192.
by the ‫ي‬ishis, 416; practically eternal in Vishvaka, relieved by the Ashvins,
substance though not in form, 420. 280.
Veh, See Vanguhi. Vivasvat, the ten of, 176; the father of
Verethraghna, the Avestic form of Manu, 361.
Vṛitrahan, 205 ten incarnations 325. Vouru-Kasha, the gathering place of
Vernal, theory, 227; its inadequacy to waters in the Avesta, 206, 246; the
explain the legends of the Ashvins, scene of Tishtrya’s fight with Apaosha,
283, 287. 206.
Vifra Navâza, compared with the Vrishâkapâyî, 223.
Navagvas, 374. Vrishâkapi, the probable Vedic
Vigfusson, Dr. on the ancient Norse ancestor of Hanûmân, 324.
year commencing in October, 371. Vritra, the traditional enemy of Indra,
Vimada, a protégé of the Ashivins, engulfed in long darkness, 115;
280. Yâska’s view about the nature of, 221;
Vipras, or sacrificers seven and ten, believed to imprison the waters in the
318. rain-cloud, 224; four-fold character or
Vîras, or warriors, seven, nine and ten, effect of his fight with Indra, 227, 228;
320 321. his dark and hidden watery abode 229;
Virûpas, an epithet of the Angirases, simultaneous release of light and water
155. by the killing of Vṛitra, 231- 237; utterly
Virûpe, means unlike in length and not inexplicable on the Storm theory, 232,
unlike in hue, 122. 237; explained by the theory of the
Vishnâpû, a protégé of the Ashvins, cosmic circulation of aerial waters, 723,
280. 240, 255; and by the Arctic theory, 258;
Vishnu, as a Vedic deity, nature of his the date of Indra’s fight with, 259, 267;
three strides, 303, 304; helped Indra in See Apah Indra, Shambara, Seven
the Vṛitra-fight, 305, his third step rivers, Vala.
identical with the nether world, 306 his Vṛitṛahan, the killer of Vṛitra, an
sleep for four months on his serpent- ancient Arctic deity, 274, 275.
bed, id, why called Shipivishta, 306, Vritra-tûrya, fight with Vṛitra, 227.
309; meaning of Shipivishta 307, 308; Vyâsa, his view about the eternity of
indicates the long disappearance of the the Vedas, 416, 420.
sun
 456

WALLACE, supports Lyell’s theory of shorter than summer by 33 days, 29;

the Glacial period, 24. death in, regarded as inauspicious, 70;
Wallis, Mr., his erroneous view that the cessation of the flow of waters in, 252;
nether world was unknown to the Vedic of ten months id., the Airyana Vaêjo,
bards, 239, 242. 341; one hundred winters, 366.
Warren, Dr., on the original home of — Calends, the night of, in Celtic
the human race at the North Pole, 6; mythology, 368.
on the existence of a Polar continent in — Nights, the Norse feast of, 371.
primitive times, 37; his description of Woden, the disappearance of the gold
the Polar dawn with its revolving ring of, 379.
splendors 46, 47; on Greek traditions Word, the final source of every thing,
of six-monthly day, 72; on the cosmic 418; compared to Logos, 418-426.
circulation of aerial waters, 255; on the
conception of anti-podal underworld as YASKA, his method of interpreting
an inverted tub, 285; on the cradle of difficult Vedic passages, 6, 63, 75, 79,
the human race, 383-384. 319, 387; on the use of dawns in the
Waters, captivated by Vṛitra, 227, 228; plural number, 88, 90, 93, on the seven
divided into terrestrial and celestial, rays of the sun, 140; on the etymology
237, 238; nature of the celestial, id.; of Navagvas, 152; silent on Ati-râtra,
movement of the celestial or aerial in 196; on the schools of Vedic
the Avesta, 247, 248; moving upwards, interpretation, 219; on Vṛitra, 221; on
249; cessation of the movements of, in the cup with the mouth downwards
winter, 253, cosmic circulation of, in 282, on the Pada text, 303; on Vishnu’s
other mythologies, 255, 256; See three steps, 303; on shipivishta, 307;
Apah. on the seven rays of the sun, 316.
Weber, Prof., on the Iliad and the Yama, the agents of, 148.
Râmâyana, 325. Year, Polar, distribution of light and
West, Dr., on the meaning of Dâîtîk in darkness during, 45; circumpolar
the Vendidad, 337. described, 51; ancient Vedic of 360
Wheel, of the sun, stolen by Indra, 297; days and 6 seasons, 58-59; old
See sun. Egyptian, traces of, how preserved,
Wieland, the German smith, 188. 137; sacrificial, how preserved and
Winter, at perihelion and aphelion revived, 175, ancient Roman, of ten
difference between, 27; succession of months, 183, compared to annual
these after 21,000 years, 27; short and sacrificial sattra of ten months 183;
warm in the interglacial, and long and ancient Celtic, closed with the last day
cold in the glacial times, 28, 29; longer of October, 369; old Norse, 371; divine,
or or of the gods, the theory of 393; how
 457

originated, 395; Arctic, before Aryan — Pûrvyam yugam, the former age,
separation in inter-glacial times, 404- meaning time before the present Kalpa,
405. 145.
Year-god, five-footed and resting on — Purânic, cycle of four equal to
watery vapors, 169. 10,000 years, duration and character
Yima, the Avestic Yama, his Vara or of, 392-399; Rangâchârya’s and Aiyer’s
enclosure, 350; annual sun, rise therein view on the duration of, 393; See,
350; proves its Polar position, 351; Ages, Dashameyuge, Kali, Tṛita, &c.
prophecy of its destruction, 353.
Yuga, meaning of, in the ‫ي‬ig-Veda
158; of two kinds, divine and human, ZEUS, born bred and buried according
159; both denote a period of time and to Cretan tradition, 406, reduced to a
not a generation of men 159, 161, sinewless mass by Typho, 407.
denote a period of the year, 162, singly Zimmer, Prof., his view that the nether
it denoted one month, 163, regions were known to the Vedic bards
Rangâchârya’s view, thereon 164. supported, 239-240.

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For the purpose of quoting: Bâl Gangâdhar Tilak, The Arctic Home in the Vedas; Being Also a
New Key to the Interpretation of Many Vedic Texts and Legends (Poona City: Tilak Bros., 1956)