Pragmata: Journal of Human Sciences

http://journal.tumkuruniversity.ac.in/
Vol. 2. Issue 2, June 2014, pp. 152-165 ISSN 2349-5065

Architecture of Kēraḷa Temples

Remya V.P.
Assistant Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology,
Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal.
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper presents very specific study into architectural character of Kēraḷa temples. For this purpose,
different aspects of plan and elevation of Kēraḷa temple are analyzed juxtaposed with Drāvid̩a style. The
evolution of temple architecture in Kēraḷa is classified under three phases. The study draws a clear picture
of Kēraḷa temples within the broad area of Drāvid̩a style. The reasons behind formulation of the unique
form of architecture which break from monotonous Drāvid̩a style are the adaptability to native
environment, use of different building materials and techniques employed by builders in accordance with
the materials.

Introduction

Temple architecture constitutes a major part of ancient Indian aesthetic expression. This knowledge branch had wide
distribution throughout the country from the latter half of fist millennium AD. Even though the underlying principles
and concepts of temple and its structure is same all through the country, owing to cultural changes, social and
economic conditions and use of materials and skill of builders, different regions in India developed its own version
of temple architecture. The religious architecture of south India mainly falls within Drāvid̩a style. This style
achieved a definite shape and got crystallized under the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Subsequently, it underwent
modifications and additions, without changing its personality. A regional variation of this style is seen on the west
coast of south India in Kēraḷa.
Kēraḷa is a land of temples, which has at least one temple in every square kilometer. Temple building
activity in this region has its origins in early 9th century AD. Through developmental stages, there evolved a temple 1/14
structure with its roots in Drāvid̩a style but heralding a regional character. There are many factors that mark the
character of these temples. The characteristic features of the temples of Kēraḷa, in comparison to Drāvid̩a style, and
the reasons behind the formation of these features are the content of the following.
Structural temple building and Brāhmaṇical religion had a parallel and steady development in Kēraḷa under
the Kulaśēkharas of Mahōdayapuram1. Early and Middle phases of temple architecture and Kulaśēkhara rule are
contemporary in Kēraḷa. It is also known that noted Bhakti poets Kulaśēkhara Āl̤ war (800-820 AD) and Cēramān
Perumāḷ Nāyanār (820-844 AD) were rulers of the same lineage2.
In Kēraḷa many rock-cut temples were built during the period prior to 8th century AD3. The rock-cut temple
building has a distribution from Tiruvananthapuram in south to Palakkad in north. These are distributed in two zones
of concentration, the northern group occupying the Cēra country and the southern group located in the ancient Āy
territory. By 8th century AD structural temples were built in Kēraḷa4. The possibility of structures built with
perishable material prior to this period cannot be ruled out. Literature prior to 8th century AD mentions religious
structures and painting. Unfortunately, these did not survive. The earliest known structural temples in Kēraḷa rose at
the time of Kulaśēkhara Varman and Rājaśēkhara Varman of Kulaśēkhara family in the first quarter of the 9th
century AD5. Inscriptions of the period use terms as ‘Taḷi’, ‘Mukkālvaṭṭam’ and ‘Kōyil’ to denote temple6.
Inscriptional evidences show that the Mahādēva temple at Tiruvanjikkulam near Kodungallur, Tṛkkulaśēkharapuram
Kṛṣṇa Temple, Kūṭalmāṇikkam Bharata temple at Inajalakkuda were some of the temples emerged during the
period. A rapid growth in temple building movement can be seen at this stage.
In Kēraḷa the structural temples have passed through three developmental stages, marking changes,
additions and modifications in structure. The developmental stages of Kēraḷa temples have been classified as Early
phase (800-1000 AD), Middle Phase (1001-1300 AD) and Late phase (1301-1800 AD) by H. Sarkar in his
 REMYA: ARCHITECTURE OF KĒRALA TEMPLES

monumental work ‘Architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala (1978)’7. The classification by him is appropriate,
authentic and widely accepted. Hence, same classification and dating are followed here.
Temple Architecture
The temples of Kēraḷa form an essential and integral part of Drāvid̩a architecture of lower Drāvid̩adēśa, yet it
displays certain variation on plan and elevation from its counterparts on the eastern cost of south India. These
variations are mainly owing to distinct climatic conditions and the employment of different building materials along 2/14
with the native systems of beliefs and culture. Original character and underlying principles of architecture of Kēraḷa
are same with Drāvid̩a style. The distribution of the Kēraḷa idiom of Drāvid̩a architecture is from
Thiruvananthpuram in south to the Tulu speaking regions of south Karnataka on the west coast of south India. Here
the Drāvid̩a style is modified with added features to suit native environment and needs.
Scholar like Stella Kramrisch calls the architecture of Kēraḷa temples as ‘Kēraḷa Style’8. But another
scholar, H. Sarkar is of the view that the Kēraḷa architecture is fundamentally a regional variation of the Drāvid̩a
order, mainly caused by various geographical factors like the high rain fall, availability of laterite formation and
dense jungles. He refuses the identity of Kēraḷa architecture as distinct from Drāvid̩a. According to him, the Kēraḷa
variation is earmarked by sloping roofs, profuse use of laterite in the wall construction and timber in super structure,
the high incidence of circular shrine and the unique interior arrangment9.
Ground Plan
In Kēraḷa, temples are built on plans varying from square, circular, apsidal and a few in elliptical and octagonal
shapes. The employment of circular plan in abundance is unique about Kēraḷa. A developed Kēraḷa temple consists
of five enclosures (pañca-prākāra) (Fig.1). They are:
A. Antar-Maṇd̩alam /Akatte Balivṛttam
B. Anta hāra / Cur̤r̤ambalam / Nālambalam
C. Madhya hāra
D. Bāhya hāra
E. Maryāda10
A. Antar-maṇd̩alam: This is the innermost prākāra of the temple. The constituent parts of antar-maṇd̩alam
are śrīkōvil, namaskāra-maṇd̩apa, well and Kokkaraṇi.
• Śrīkōvil: Śrīkōvil is the nucleus of the temple, equivalent to ‘Vimāna’ of Drāvid̩a terminology. It
stands in the center of inner courtyard. This courtyard is always four sided. Śrīkōvil consists in itself the
garbhagṛha in the center, a passage around the garbhagṛha for the circumambulation (pradakṣiṇa patha)
and intermediary chamber (antarāḷa) connecting the ambulatory path with the projecting mukha-maṇd̩apa
in the front. The pradakṣiṇa patha, antarāḷa and mukha-maṇd̩apa are optional components and built
depending upon the choice of the builder. From the early phase itself, temples with inner pradakṣiṇa patha
(Sāndhāra) and without inner pradakṣiṇa patha (Nirandhara) are built in Kēraḷa.
The plan of Śrīkōvil varied and was built on square, circular, apsidal or elliptical plan. In sāndhāra
structure, the ambulatory was created between the inner and outer walls. In most cases the garbhagṛha is
square, even when the enclosing śrīkōvil is circular (fig.2). In certain examples circular śrīkōvils contain
circular garbhagṛha with its interior transformed into square (fig. 3). Square śrīkōvil with circular interior of 3/14
garbhagṛha is also known in Kēraḷa (fig.4). Śrīkōvil built on apsidal plan often have apsidal or square
garbhagṛha (fig.5).
The intermediary chamber is rare in Kēraḷa temples. The projecting mukha-maṇd̩apa is always
narrower than the sanctum proper. This two unit division of śrīkōvil is not followed as a rule, but has more
occurrences in the square plan. In case of the circular and apsidal śrīkōvils, the divisions are only interior
and it is not discernible from outside. The arrangement of double ambulatory around the garbhagṛha is a
development from 11th century onwards. Columns are also arranged around the śrīkōvil.
Around the śrīkōvil is the arrangement of balipīṭhas on the orients and cardinal points forming a square.
These balipīṭhas on the inner courtyard represent aṣṭa-dikpālas and other divinities. Among them on the
southern side, is a panel of balipīṭhas representing Saptamātṛkas with Ganapati and Bhairava.
• Namaskāra-maṇd̩apa: Namaskāra-maṇd̩apa is also called as archana-maṇd̩apa. This is a
detached pillared hall built axially in front of the śrīkōvil. As a rule namaskāra-maṇd̩apa is built on square
 plan. Though the maṇd̩apa is not an essential feature and not seen in early temples, it forms a part of all
important temples from 11th century onwards.
• Well and Kokkaraṇi: A well is commonly seen in temples for exclusive purpose of drawing
water for temple rites. In some of the temples, instead of well, a small rectangular or apsidal tank with
number of steps called Kokkaraṇi are built for the same purpose.

B. Anta hāra: The enclosing structure on the four sides of the inner courtyard forms the second prākāra of the
temple called Anta hāra. In the regional language it is called as Cur̤r̤ambalam and Nālambalam. Fundamentally, the
anta hāra, is a colonnade. It also consists of many functional chambers like tiṭappaḷḷi (kitchen for shrine), muḷayaṟa
(chamber for ritual germination of pulses and cereals), store room and, at times, sub shrines also. As the court yard
is four sided, the Anta hāra is always four sided colonnade.
• Valiyambalam: The Antahāra has wider dimension on the front i.e. on both sides of main entrance. It
consists of walkways at ground level flanked by raised floor areas with colonnades. Sometimes, the wooden
ceiling above the walkway repeats the carved brackets, friezes and panels of the namaskāra-maṇd̩apa. Its broad
space is used for conducting hōmas and other sacrificial and ritual performances.

C. Madhya hāra: It is the third enclosure built closely around the outer wall of anta hāra, separated by a 4/14
narrow space in between. The wall of madhya hāra is attached with structure of poles affixed with lamps on it.
These lamps are sheltered by tiled roofs running continuously from one corner of the complex to the other. They are
punctuated by gables at the corners and axial entrances.
D. Bāhya Hāra: The courtyard around the Madhya hāra with various structures constitute bāhya hāra. It
comprises agra-maṇd̩apa, valiya balikal, outer balikal, Kṣētra pāla, dhvajastambha, dīpastambha, kūttambalam and
shrines of subsidiary deities.
1. Agra-maṇd̩apa: This is a portico attached to main entrance to the valiyambalam. It is also called as
balikalpura. This small portico is always quadrangular on plan. Usually the principle balipīṭha (valiya balikal) is
installed inside this portico.
2. Valiya balikal: Valiya balikkal is axially placed in front of the main deity on the bāhya hāra, either within
the agra-maṇd̩apa or outside. This balipīṭha has various components like miniature adhiṣṭhāna, wall, the parapet
and the lotus motif on the top. The pīṭha is a miniature and symbolic representation of the actual vimāna
(śrīkōvil) inside.
3. Outer balipīṭhas: On the bāhya hāra small balipīṭhas are installed at cardinal points representing the gaṇa
dēvatas of the principle deities of the temple. This balipīṭhas are arranged in such a way to form a boarder and
the outer ambulatory path is beyond this boarder. The balipīṭha representing kṣētrapāla is positioned outside the
ambulatory path on the north-east corner. Kṣētrapāla is the guardian of temple.
4. Dhvajastambha (flag post): This is axially erected to the entrance of the temple. During festivals, flag is
hoisted on this post as a ritual. This post is believed to have great symbolic significance and worship of dhvaja
is itself considered equal to the worship of main idol. The mount of the presiding deity (Vāhana) is placed on
the top of this post. Usually wood is the material used for its making. An outer covering with copper is made for
protection of the wood.
5. Dīpastambha: It is a multi layered lamp made of stone or metal, placed axially next to Dhvajastambha.
6. Sub Shrines: Besides the principle deity, worship is offered to sub deities or upadēvatas also. These deities
are consecrated on different parts of bāhya hāra as small sub shrines. Certain principles are followed in respect
to the position and facing direction of the sub shrines.
7. Kūttambalam: It is the theatre for performing arts. Kūttambalam is always built on the bāhya hāra, outside the
ambulatory path on the right corner. It has three main parts – aṇiyaṟa (green room), rangam (stage) and mṛdanga
pada, where drums are kept. 5/14
E. Maryāda: Maryāda forms the fifth and the outer most prākāra of Kēraḷa temples. It consists of the
compound wall with gōpura and Ūṭṭupura.
1. Gōpura: Gōpura was also called as Mahādvāra. It is the gateway built intersecting compound wall. The most
imposing Gōpura is built on the facing direction of principle deity and on other sides these are small and simple.
 REMYA: ARCHITECTURE OF KĒRALA TEMPLES

2. Ūṭṭupura: Ūṭṭupura is dining hall, usually built as part of the maryāda. This is always attached with kitchen
called agra śāla. Formerly it was used for feeding Brahmins only and later on devotees of all classes are fed here
on festival occasion. Temple tank is also built attached outside the compound wall.
On plan, a Kēraḷa temple is always consisted in a rectangular area, in the heart of which the shrine proper is
consecrated with surrounding allied structures. Generally, the plan and arrangement of anta hāra, madhya hāra and
bāhya hāra are uniform, except in multi-shrine temples, where more than one śrīkōvil is built facing different
directions. The character and identity of a temple is determined by architecture of its śrīkōvil. Śrīkōvil is the nucleus
of temple complex.
Elevation
The principles of Drāvid̩a architecture are laid out in texts such as Śaiva Āgamas (in its Kriyāpada sections),
Vaiṣṇava Pañcaratra works (eg. Atri Samhita and Vaikhānasāgama of Marīci and Kaśyapa), the Mayamatam,
Śilpratnam, Amśubhēda of Kaśyapa, Viśvakarma Śilpa, Viśvakarma Vāstu Śāstra, the Dīptatantra, Mānasāra,
Śilpasamgraha, Tantrasamuccaya and Iśana Śiva Gurudēva Paddhati. According to various texts Drāvid̩a temple is
characterized by an octagonal superstructure. Different texts differ regarding which part of the vimāna is octagonal.
According to Svāyambhūvāgama, Ajita Āgama, Suprabhēda Āgama, Marīci Samhita, Iśana Śiva Gurudēva Paddhati
and Kaṭakabhūṣaṇa, a vimāna which is octagonal from grīva and above is Drāvid̩a. Texts like Karṇāgama and
Dīptāgama finds the octagonal shape form the vēdi upwards. Kāmikāgama, Pādma-samhita and Mayamatam include
hexagonal and oblong along with octagonal as shapes of Drāvid̩a vimāna11.
According to Kāmikāgama an ēka-bhūmi Drāvid̩a vimāna has six component parts (aṅga) on its elevation.
It is called Ṣad̩āṅgavimāna. The six aṅgas from the bottom are Adhiṣṭhāna (styolobate/ plinth), Pādam (pilastered
wall), Prastara (entablature), Grīva (neck), Śikhara (Cupola) and the Stūpi (pinnacle). The top three components
constitute superstructure of the vim āna12.
Kēraḷa temple structure, even though falls within the Drāvid̩a style, displays marked variations on its
elevation (fig. 6). The ēkatala vimāna of Kēraḷa, irrespective of its plan, cannot be exactly identified with Ṣad̩varga 6/14
jāti ēkabhūmi vimāna of general Drāvid̩a style. It is difficult to differentiate the six aṅgas. Adhiṣṭhāna and pāda are
clearly distinguishable. An ēkatala vimāna of Kēraḷa idiom has adhiṣṭhāna and pāda identical with general Drāvid̩a
style but the part above starting from prastara has clearly unique form. The details of Kēraḷa temple’s elevation are
as follows.
• Adhiṣṭhāna: The moulded base of Drāvid̩a temple is called adhiṣṭhāna (stylobate/socle). Adhiṣṭhāna of Kēraḷa
temple śrīkōvils share the same features and mouldings as those of usual Drāvid̩a tradition. Both prati-bandha
and pāda-bandha adhiṣṭhānas are built in Kēraḷa. According to the H. Sarkar, adhiṣṭhāna of Kēraḷa style can be
classified into two. One, those with highly recessed mouldings (kampa) above the kumuda and the other variety
in which a kapōta or paṭṭika moulding is the crowning element and has recession only in the middle part13.
Principle moldings of the adhiṣṭhāna are Upāna (pādukam), Jagati, Kumuda, Gaḷa and Paṭi. Kampa, Vājana
motifs and Kapōta are optional features of the adhiṣṭhāna. Padmōpāna or padma pāduka as the bottom most
member of the adhiṣṭhāna is commonly seen in Kēraḷa. Employment of upapīṭha below the adhiṣṭhāna to raise
height was less popular among Kēraḷa temple builders. Having kapōta moulding above the gaḷa (kapōta-
bandha), is originally a Chalukyan feature and it is very frequently found in Kēraḷa, especially associated with
circular temples. Another very common feature is the vēdi or vēdika above the adhiṣṭhāna marking the
beginning of pāda (wall). In kapōta-bandha adhiṣṭhāna, praṇāḷa was fixed on upper part of kapōta or above the
vallabhi. In recessed type adhiṣṭhāna, praṇāḷa comes out from the kampa above kumuda. Decoration with dentil
course was also in vogue during early phase. Decorative floral design alternating gaḷa on kampa and vēdi was
innovation of 11th century. Replacing dentil course with vyāḷa and simha māla was introduced by the 12th
century. Elaboration of adhiṣṭhāna with detailed upapīṭha found trend from 14th century onwards14.

The material used for adhiṣṭhāna is granite except in rare instances where lateritic stones are used. The
sōpāna or entrance stair way to śrīkōvil (dvāramukha sōpāna) are also made of granite. This sōpāna have either
straight or lateral flights of steps. Side banister, also made of granite, is fixed on the sides of the steps. The half
arch shaped banister, resembling trunk of elephant is called hasti-hasta. General pattern shows the banister top
issuing out of the vyāla’s mouth, at times with complete standing figure of vyāla also. Sides of the banisters
display great art work, ghanadvāra motifs, vase motifs, floral decoration and figures of various divinities are
themes that find expression on the banister.
• Pāda/ Bhitti/ Wall: The second component on the elevation of a Drāvid̩a temple is pāda or wall portion. In the
Drāvid̩a tradition, the pāda is always with pilasters and niches. During the Pallava period the exterior walls were
fully decked with sculptures and pilasters. The tendency to dispense with embellishment and appreciate the 7/14
value of plain space is found in many Muttarayar and Pandya temples. Addition and multiplication of niches
were later trends that found great vogue under the Cholas15.
In the Kēraḷa idiom the outer wall of śrīkōvil is ornamented with ghanadvāras, return and projection of
wall, dēvakōṣṭas and sham niches, pilasters or kud̩ya stambhas., tōraṇas, pañjaras, jālakas, nāsika etc. From the
early phase itself, providing four functional doors was in practice in Kēraḷa temples. Śrīkōvil with one
functional door and three ghanadvāras were also simultaneously built. Having three functional doors with one
ghanadvāra and two functional doors with two ghanadvāras were innovations of the middle phase16.
Projection and return of the wall are frequently seen on temple built on square plan, such projection
and returns has less occurrence on circular plan and is very rare on those with apsidal plans. Generally, the
projection and return of the wall are extended downward through the adhiṣṭhāna till the pādukam. General
pattern of one central and two corner projection with two returns divide the wall into five bays. Multiplication
of these bays by projection and return is also practiced. Kud̩ya stambhas, tōraṇas with makara arches or śāla
śikharas, kapōta pañjara are the wall decoration elements associated with projection and return. Extension of
wall niches down penetrating the adhiṣṭhāna till the kumuda moulding or kapōta moulding are also seen in some
temples. In the absence of projection and recess, the walls are relieved with pilasters, niches and ghanadvāras.
The decorative element of the wall has a steady presence in Kēraḷa throughout different phases. Karṇas with
sham niches, bhardras with functional door or ghanadvāras and hārantara with śāla pañjaras is common pattern
associated with decoration with projection and recess.
The material used for construction of wall portion are lateritic stone, brick, lime plastering, stucco and
in a few cases wood. Rock was not the preferred material for wall in Kēraḷa temple architecture.

• Prastara: The third component on elevation of Drāvid̩a temple is prastara or entablature. It is the moulding
above the wall and pilasters. In the Drāvid̩a tradition prastara consist of uttira, vājana, vallabhi, kapōta, ālinga
and antari mouldings17.
The Tantrasamuchaya speaks of prastara with nine mouldings – kalluttara, vājana, bhūtamāla,
vājana, kapōta, ālingapaṭi, gaḷa, paṭi and vājana from the bottom to top18. In Kēraḷa idiom kapōta with nāsika or
kūd̩u and vallabhi is the prominent moulding. Prastara is generally represented by uttara, valabhi, kapōta and
ālinga, antari, if present, are blocked by later additions19. In most ēkatala structures, especially the circular ones,
the prastara portion is obscured by overhang of the sloppy roof above. As the circular ēkatala shrines has high 8/14
base, short wall and a vast over hanging conical roof, the scope of revealing any part above the bhitti is meager.
Supporting rafters of the roof are fixed just below the prastara. In dvitala and tri tala structures, the wall portion
of āditala has longer dimension. Hence, not only the prastara is revealed but also additional components of hāra
with aedicules are visible too. High relief of kūṭa, śālas and pañjaras are made in the hāra portion. In circular
dvitala vimāna, the hāra is partly obscured by the extended roof, the rafters of which are fixed between hāra and
prastara. In the square dvitala vimāna, rafters are fixed to the middle of hāra and the roof is not over shadowing
these areas, thus gives a very clear view of the prastara and hāra. Temples from the developed phase are added
with decoration of horizontal animal sequence pattern, arranged symmetrically in different parts of the hāra.
• Super Structure: The Drāvid̩a form of temples displays a vertical aspiration from the adhiṣṭhāna to stūpi,
though with horizontal elaboration. But the Kēraḷa variation of Drāvid̩a style declares its unique identity by
breaking this vertical aspiration. Pattern and principle of elevation are identical up to the prastara in both the
styles. But Kēraḷa example reveal marked variation in the execution and conceptualization of the super
structure.

Grīva: According to the canons the component above prastara is grīva. In the east coast of the south
India, being highly recessed grīva is a discernible distinguished part. But in the west coast, the Kēraḷa
temple do not display such a recession on the outer wall of the śrīkōvil. Moreover, the parts above the
prastara are literally obscured under the sloppy roof above. Thus a concept of grīva by recess, as in the
Drāvid̩a form, is not traceable in Kēraḷa variation of Drāvid̩a style. Grīva may be only the little upward
rise of the plain wall above prastara followed by sloping roof20.

Śikhara: The component part above the grīva is śikhara. General Drāvid̩a śikhara is eight sided
massive stone, placed over the grīva. In the Kēraḷa variation śikhara is not a single independent
 REMYA: ARCHITECTURE OF KĒRALA TEMPLES

component placed over grīva, rather it takes form of a sloping roof in pyramidal or conical shape,
depending on its ground plan. The roof extends down till the prastara or in some instance, below the
prastara covering considerable parts of the wall itself.
Above wall the pyramidal framework of wooden beams are fixed. These beams ultimately join at the top
where the pyramidal or conical roof culminates. Measures and proportion play a key role in joining of rafters as
whole super structure rests on this frame. From the tip of top corner a small wooden ball hangs inside called kūṭam,
into the holes on this kūṭam are fixed top ends of all beams. The construction of framework and its forms was
thought and planned, proportionate in all its parts. The various kinds of rafters, their length and thickness, their parts
were calculated as forming the hypotenuse of the respective angle of posts and brackets. The various joints have 9/14
each proper name and employment21. Over the wooden frameworks are laid the well burnt tiles or copper sheets. In
case of circular and apsidal śrīkōvil a layer of overlapping wooden plank arrangement is made above the wooden
framework and then the thatching with terracotta tiles or copper sheet is done on the top.
Shrine Interior
The śrīkōvil of Kerala temple contain varied architectural features on plan and elevation. The details discernable
from outside has been discussed in the foregoing. But the interior of these structures hold many more features which
are accessible to the priest of the temple only. Temples of both sāndhāra and nirandhara plan were built from the
early phase itself, ēkatala dvitala temples were also built simultaneously.
Sāndhāra temples can be divided in two groups namely shrines with wall of garbhagṛha (inner wall or
ārūd̩ha bhitti) rising to the same height as those of the outer walls (bāhya bhitti), another type represented by those
garbhagṛha forms an independent identity with a domical roof surmounting the sanctum. The latter feature is a
development traced from the middle phase (1001 to 1300 AD) onwards. The garbhagṛha distinguished by the inner
wall formed miniature Drāvid̩a vimāna. This inner vimāna is built with independent grīva and śikhara and
occasionally it has its own adhiṣṭhāna and other components of Drāvid̩a vimāna. By housing a miniature Drāvid̩a
vimāna inside a Kēraḷa styled temple with sloping roofs, a beautiful synthesis of pure Drāvid̩a form and its Kēraḷa
variation is created in the interior of Kēraḷa śrīkōvils. The arrangement of inner ambulatory path and columniation is
also remarkable in the śrīkōvil interior. Provision of double ambulatory path around the garbhagṛha and having two
rows of pillar are new additions in the lay out brought in the middle phase. However instances of double row of
pillar are limited with circular śrīkōvil only.
The interior of garbhagṛha also displays great architectural work. Square, being considered the perfect
shape, has been the most popular plan of garbhagṛha. The garbhagṛha of circular śrīkōvils were also built on square
plan and at times the circular exterior of garbhagṛha wall was transformed internally into square. Circular
garbhagṛha inside a circular śrīkōvil is a very common arrangements but transformation of the circular exterior into
square interior was also an equally common practice. The ceiling above the garbhagṛha forms an arch created by
corbelling. The corbelling at the middle of interior of the garbhagṛha wall from four corners and four sides i. e. on
eight sides and culminates in an arch on the top. This corbelling is called turava in the regional language. With this
corbelling, adaptation of eight sided śikhara interior is also traceable in Kēraḷa temples. 10/14

Materials used
The materials used for the construction of super structure are wood as beams and planks, terracotta tile and
metal sheets. These materials are comparatively lighter than enduring stone and are processed and placed in such a
way to meet the native climatic conditions. The wooden planks above the wooden framework are very well polished
and smoothened. The tiles above the wooden planks, which form the outer most layer of the roof, are highly heated
in kiln and has a glazy smooth surface which makes them water proof. Thus sloping roof facilitates easy flow of
water and prevents water logging, because native climate is characterized by two monsoons in a year with heavy
rainfall. In the dvitala and tritala śrīkōvils, the inter section of the roof with extending walls break the water flow and
longer contact between and water and the roof of the structure. The down ward extension of the roof covering upper
part of the wall also serves the purpose of protection from rain water. The lightness of the super structure is essential
to keep the balance of complete structure. The wall which carries the super structure is built with lateritic stone or
brick or wood or stucco. The adhiṣṭhāna is built with solid granite. Use of granite at the base serves three purposes.
Firstly, it provides a strength and stability to the base to counter the thrust placed by the elevation of structure.
Secondly, the granite is comparatively less vulnerable to natural agents of decay like termites, salinity and moisture
of the soil etc. Thirdly, given the loose nature of the soil on which the temple is built, the solid granite proves to be
more firm and stable.
 Thus, the use of materials adopted by builders in Kēraḷa is in conformity with native climatic conditions.
Their deep knowledge about the intrinsic relation between architectural form and environmental space which
envelops the architecture are evident from the choice of materials as well as its appropriate allocation in the structure
of the building. The organic unity and balance between architecture and its environment has to be viewed as decisive
factors behind the formulation of particular architectural form. The variations that Kēraḷa temples display from its
counter parts on the east coast can be explained as a result of the same environmental factors. The influence of
natural environment not only affects the form of architecture, but the choice of raw materials too. The absence or
least preference of stone in building upper part of the temple also is a result of attempt to create lighter structure that
the nature of the soil could withstand.
Kēraḷa temples, especially circular ones, express great aspiration towards horizontality. The sloping conical
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roofs, resting on broad cylindrical base, extend down leaving a narrow area uncovered between the roof and
adhiṣṭhāna is an evidence of this concept. The high base and low extending roof reduce the wall portion and the
horizontal bands above the adhiṣṭhāna also accents down the verticality to emphasize horizontality. This spread of
the conical roof above the wide cylinder gives the structure a buoyant lift and a light winged aeriality. As a matter of
fact, conical roof is the most satisfactory logical solution for the structure built on a circular plan22.
Conclusions
On ground plan Kēraḷa temples are distinguished by employment of circular and apsidal shapes for śrīkōvil.
Drāvid̩a examples from other places show predominant preference to quadrangular plan. The preference for circular
plan is not to be found in other parts of south India where Drāvid̩a style prevails. Arguments are active on the origin
of this characteristic. Many scholars attempted to assign a Buddhist ideological origin to this characteristics23.
Components of elevation in Kēraḷa temples are uniform with Drāvid̩a style from base till entablature. The
patterns of adhiṣṭhāna, wall decoration, its projections and recessions and prastara are similar features. But the
superstructure display remarkable variation from general Drāvid̩a style. The śrīkōvil which determines the
personality of a temple in Kēraḷa thus present a different outlook from Drāvid̩a vimāna.
In principle, plan and structure Kēraḷa temple share uniformity with Drāvid̩a style and the very conception
of temple here is not different from mainland India. The development of temple architecture in this part of India
was not an altogether isolated process; rather it had looked for examples beyond Western Ghats to Pallavas and
Chalukyas to model its religious edifices. However, these influences were only adopting and integrating of features
to enhance the beauty of an already developed concept. Hence, adopted features are blended into Kēraḷa flavour.
Thus, Kēraḷa temple builders have successfully maintained a Drāvid̩a character with Kēraḷa personality throughout
its history.
References:

1. Ramachandran, Adoor,K.K. (1986), Kerala State Gazetteer vol.II, Government of Kerala,

Thiruvanamthapuram, p.181
2. Ibid.p.182
3. Pannikar, Shivaji. (1999) Temple Tradition in Kerala in P J Cherian (Ed.) Essays on the Cultural Formation of
Kerala, KCHR, Thiruvanamthapuram. p. 78
4. Sarkar, H. (1978). An Architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala. ASI, New Delhi. pp. 60
5. Ibid. pp.60-61
6. Rao, Gopinath, T. A., (ed.) (1921) Travancore Archaeological Series, vol. I part II, p. 89
7. Sarkar, H. (1978). An Architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala. ASI, New Delhi. p.2
8. Kramrisch, Stella. (1956) Dravida and Kerala in the Art of Travancore, Artibus Asea, Switzerland. p. 8
9. Sarkar, H. op.cit. p.20
10. Tantrasamuccaya of Chennas Narayan Namboodiri Patala II, v. 73 cf KPC Anujan Bhattatirippad, (2010) 12/14
Panchangam Pustakashala, Kundumkulum. P. 115
11. Dhaky M. A., (1977) Indian Temple Forms. Abhinava Publications New Delhi, pp. 14-16
12. Ibid.p.15
13. Sarkar, H. op.cit. p.75
14. Ibid.p.76
15. Sarkar, H. op.cit. p.80
16. Mahalingam T. V., (1970) Studies in the South Indian Temple Complex, Karnataka University, Dharwad. p. 22
 REMYA: ARCHITECTURE OF KĒRALA TEMPLES

17. Mahalingam T. V., (1970) Studies in the South Indian Temple Complex, Karnataka University, Dharwad. pp.
22-23
18. Tantrasamuccaya of Chennas Narayan Namboodiri Patala II, v. 73 cf KPC Anujan Bhattatirippad, (2010)
Panchangam Pustakashala, Kundumkulum. P.104
19. Sarkar, H. (1984) Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture-Lower Dravidadesa Early Phase, AIIS,
Varanasi. p.273
20. Kramrisch, Stella; Cousens, J.H.; Poduval,Vasudeva,R. (1948) The Arts and Crafts of Travancore,Government
of Kerala, Thiruvanamthapuram, pp. 15-16
21. Ibid. pp.16-17
22. Pannikar, Shivaji. (1999) Temple Tradition in Kerala in P J Cherian (Ed.) Essays on the Cultural Formation of
Kerala, KCHR, Trivandrum. p. 77
23. Alexander, P.C. (1949). Buddhism in Kerala. Annamalai University, Annamalainagar. pp.38,63

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Fig.1: General lay-out of Kēraḷa style temple
Fig.2: Circular śrīkōvil with square garbhagṛha Fig.3:Circular śrīkōvil with circular garbhagṛha having
square interior

Fig.4: Square śrīkōvil with circular interior of garbhagṛha Fig.5: Apsidal śrīkōvil with apsidal interior

Fig.6: Elevation & section of Ekatala Kēraḷa śrīkōvil