ESDEP GenContents

ESDEP
EUROPEAN STEEL DESIGN

EDUCATION PROGRAMME
STEEL STRUCTURES
General Contents
Volume 1 - 12
RE-ARRANGED FROM THE ORIGINAL

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
EXPORT-IMPORT - SKOPJE
50th aniversary
1960 - 2010
Foreword by FAKOM
ESDEP (European Steel Design Education Programme) is a very valuable material, originally
intended to the process of harmonization of both the level and scope of knowledge and expertise in the
field of steel structures. Starting from the original idea to represent a base for harmonization purposes
of university education among the EU countries, the final result has surpassed the original idea and
exceeded the expectations, becoming an obligatory reading for all the professionals in the field of steel
structures, especially from the viewpoint of their practical preparation for application of unified European
standards in all member countries of the European Union.
ESDEP has been prepared under organization of CEN (European Committee for Standardi-
zation) and under patronage of European Commission. 26 working groups consisting of more than 150
experts from all member countries of the European Union have been involved in the process of its
preparation. ESDEP consists of 22 parts which cover all the fields of steel structures, with exactly 202
lectures. In its original raw form (as downloaded), the material is of 150 MB computer memory. The
whole material, in the form of hard copy as we re-arranged it for easier everyday use, amounts to about
2400 pages.
ESDEP is a real treasury of information, knowledge and experience, universal and all-inclu-
sive in its approach, and in our opinion rather successfully adapted to different levels of previous exper-
tise and competence of its readers, from advanced under-graduate and post-graduate students to
experienced engineers and specialists, designers and constructors of steel structures.
ESDEP has been prepared in its original contents some ten years ago. Consequently, any
qualified reader may find differences in relation to the state of the present European standards, and par-
ticularly to Eurocodes, as well as regarding some information which obviously needs updating having in
mind, first of all, the development of both science and practice in the field of steel structures and
extraordinary achievements in the field of information technology and its use in modern CAD and CAM
processes in the coarse of past decade.
During the re-arrangement of the text, some errors were found, especially in some formulae,
as well as many misalignments in tables. We believe that all are corrected, but it is possible that some
residues still exist. If any doubt, please compare with the original formulae in Eurocodes and/or other
EN standards.
However, all this does not interfere with its value. We estimate that ESDEP could also be of
great interest and practical benefit for all Macedonian civil, structural and mechanical engineers, and
especially for the FAKOM as a leading regional company in the field of steel construction, in the process
of our adaptation and complete acceptance of European standards as an EU candidate member country.
Prof. d-r Tihomir Nikolovski

FAKOM AD - Skopje
ESDEP
EUROPEAN STEEL DESIGN EDUCATION PROGRAMME
STEEL STRUCTURES
General Contents
Volume 1: Section 1A
Section 1A: ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS
Lecture 1A.1: Introduction to Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
2. Development in Production and Design ........................................................ 3
2.1 Steel Production ....................................................................................... 3
2.2 Range of Steels........................................................................................ 4
2.3 Design ..................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Fabrication ............................................................................................... 7
3. Advantages of Steel ....................................................................................... 8
3.1 Speed of Execution .................................................................................. 8
3.2 Lightness, Stiffness and Strength .......................................................... 11
3.3 Adaptability of Usage of Steel Frames for Refurbishment .................... 13
3.4 Quality ................................................................................................... 14
4. The Future of Steel: Further Developments ................................................ 15
5. The Future for Steel: Training and ESDEP .................................................. 15
6. Concluding Summary ................................................................................... 16
7. References ................................................................................................... 16
Lecture 1A.2: Steelmaking and Steel Products
1. A Brief Historical Account of Steelmaking ................................................... 17
2. Steelmaking Today (Performance and Output) ........................................... 18
3. Steelmaking in the World and Europe ......................................................... 19
3.1 Production .............................................................................................. 19
3.2 Consumption ......................................................................................... 20
3.3 Steelmaking and the Environment ........................................................ 21
4. How is Steel Produced? ............................................................................... 21
4.1 General................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Steelmaking ........................................................................................... 21
5. European Standardisation of Steel Products ............................................... 22
5.1 Standardisation Process ........................................................................ 22
5.2 Contents of Euronorms (EN) for Steel .................................................. 22
6. Steel in Civil Engineering and Building Activities ......................................... 23
6.1 Steel in Construction ............................................................................. 23
Lecture 1A.3: Introduction to Structural Steel Costs
1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 27
2. Life Cycle Costs ........................................................................................... 27
2.1 Attitude ................................................................................................... 27
2.2 Cost Elements ....................................................................................... 28
2.3 Energy Costs ......................................................................................... 28
General Contents (I)

ESDEP – European Steel Design Education Programme
2.4 Maintenance .......................................................................................... 28

2.5 Adaptability ............................................................................................ 28
2.6 Benefits and Financial Return ............................................................... 30
2.7 End of Life Costs ................................................................................... 30
3. Total Construction ........................................................................................ 30
3.1 Typical Breakdown of Costs and Interactions ....................................... 30
3.2 Speed of Execution ................................................................................ 31
3.3 Weather ................................................................................................. 32
3.4 Services, Cladding and Structure .......................................................... 32
3.5 Foundations ........................................................................................... 34
4. Steelwork Costs ........................................................................................... 35
4.1 Erection .................................................................................................. 36
4.2 Fabrication ............................................................................................. 36
4.3 Corrosion and Fire Protection ................................................................ 37
6. Additional Reading ....................................................................................... 38
Lecture 1A.4: European Building Market
1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 39
2. Current Situation .......................................................................................... 39
3. Legislative Framework and Timetable for Harmonisation ............................ 40
4. The Role and the Development of the Eurocodes ....................................... 41
5. The CE Mark ................................................................................................ 41
6. The Future for Construction in the Unified European Market ...................... 42
8. Additional Reading ....................................................................................... 43
Annex A: Questionnaire – Building Procurement in Europe ............................ 43
Austria .......................................................................................................... 44
Belgium ........................................................................................................ 45
Finland .......................................................................................................... 48
France .......................................................................................................... 49
Germany ...................................................................................................... 51
Greece ......................................................................................................... 53
Ireland .......................................................................................................... 55
Italy .............................................................................................................. 57
Luxembourg ................................................................................................. 59
Spain ............................................................................................................ 59
Sweden ........................................................................................................ 61
United Kingdom ........................................................................................... 63
Volume 2: Section 1B
Section 1B: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design
1. Design Objectives ........................................................................................ 65
2. How Does the Designer Approach his New Task? ...................................... 67
3. How Does the Designer Develop His Structural System? ........................... 68
3.1 Pose and Initial Concept that May well Satisfy the Functions ............... 68
3.2 Recognise the Main Structural System and Contemplate
the Necessary Strength and Stiffness ................................................... 73
3.3 Asses Loads Accurately and Estimate Sizes of Main Elements ........... 74
(II) General Contents

3.4 Full structural Analysis, using Estimated Element Sizes with

Suitable Modelling of joints, Related to Actual Details .......................... 75
3.5 Communicate Design Intentions through Drawings
and Specifications ................................................................................. 76
3.6 Supervise the Execution Operation........................................................ 77
3.7 Conduct Regular Maintenance .............................................................. 77
3.8 Differences of Emphasis in Design Approach Compared to
that of a Medium Sized Building ............................................................ 77
5. References ................................................................................................... 78
Appendix 1. ...................................................................................................... 79
Lecture 1B.2.1: Design Philosophies
1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 81
2. Uncertainties in Structural Design ............................................................... 83
3. Designing to Avoid Collapse ........................................................................ 85
3.1 Historical Background ........................................................................... 85
3.2 Stability .................................................................................................. 86
3.3 Robustness............................................................................................. 87
4. Other Design Objectives ............................................................................... 88
4.1 Deformation ........................................................................................... 88
4.2 Vibrations ............................................................................................... 88
4.3 Fire Resistance ..................................................................................... 89
4.4 Fatigue ................................................................................................... 89
4.5 Execution ............................................................................................... 89
4.6 Maintenance .......................................................................................... 90
5. Design Responsibilities ................................................................................ 90
7. References ................................................................................................... 91
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 93
2. Principles of Limit State Design ................................................................... 93
3. Actions ......................................................................................................... 96
3.1 Characteristic Values of Action (Gk, Qk and Ak) .................................. 97
3.2 Design Values of Actions ..................................................................... 98
4. Material Properties ....................................................................................... 98
4.1 Characteristic Values of Material Properties ......................................... 97
4.2 Design Values of Material Properties .................................................... 98
5. Geometrical Data ......................................................................................... 98
6. Partial Safety Factors ................................................................................... 98
7. Ultimate Limit State ...................................................................................... 99
8. Serviceability Limit State .............................................................................. 99
8.1 Deflections ........................................................................................... 100
8.2 Dynamic Effects .................................................................................. 100
9. Structural Design Models ........................................................................... 100
10. Concluding Summary ............................................................................... 100
11. Glossary ................................................................................................... 101
12. References ............................................................................................... 101
13. Additional Reading ................................................................................... 101
Appendix: Partial Safety Factors .................................................................... 102
General Contents (III)

Lecture 1B.3: Background to Loadings

1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 105
2. Permanent Actions ..................................................................................... 106
2.1 Dead Loads ......................................................................................... 106
3. Variable Actions ......................................................................................... 108
3.1 Imposed Loads .................................................................................... 109
3.2 Permitted Reductions in Imposed Loads ............................................. 109
3.3 Superimposed Bridge Loads ............................................................... 110
3.4 Crane Loads ........................................................................................ 110
3.5 Environmental Loads ........................................................................... 111
3.6 Wind Loads .......................................................................................... 111
3.7 Snow Loads ......................................................................................... 114
3.8 Wave Loads ......................................................................................... 115
3.9 Temperature Effects ............................................................................ 115
3.10 Retained Material ............................................................................... 115
3.11 Seismic Loads ................................................................................... 115
3.12 Accidental Loads ............................................................................... 115
4. Concluding Summary ................................................................................. 115
5. References ................................................................................................. 116
6. Additional Reading ..................................................................................... 116
Lecture 1B.4.1: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Structures
1. Properties of the Three Ferrous Metals: Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel .............................................................................. 117
2. Evolution of Ferrous Metals ....................................................................... 117
2.1 Blacksmith’s Wrought Iron ................................................................... 117
2.2 Molten or Cast Iron .............................................................................. 118
2.3 Industrialised Wrought Iron .................................................................. 118
2.4 Steel ..................................................................................................... 118
3. Achievements with Structural Iron & Steel ................................................. 118
4. The Period of Cast Iron .............................................................................. 119
4.1 Cast Iron Arched Bridges .................................................................... 119
4.2 Cast Iron in Buildings............................................................................ 121
4.3 Composite Cast and Wrought Iron in Buildings ................................... 122
4.4 Suspension Bridges ............................................................................. 123
5. The Wrought Iron Period (1850 – 1900) ..................................................... 123
5.1 Wrought Iron in Bridges ....................................................................... 123
5.2 Wrought Iron in Buildings .................................................................... 126
6. The Steel Period (1880 – Present Day) ..................................................... 126
7. Present Techniques and Future Prospects ................................................ 127
8. Concluding Summary.................................................................................. 128
Lecture 1B.4.2: Historical Development of Steelwork Design
1. Historical Development of Steelwork Design: State of Structural
Knowledge in the 18th Century and Before ................................................ 129
2. State of Structural Knowledge in Britain in the Early 19th Century ............ 130
3. Understanding of the Timber in the Early 19th Century ............................. 130
4. Understanding of the Cast Iron in the Early 19th Century ......................... 131
5. Understanding of the Wrought Iron in the Early 19th Century ................... 132
6. The Years of Testing 1820 – 1850 ............................................................. 133
(IV) General Contents

7. Terminology: Stress, Strain, Cohesion, etc. .............................................. 135

8. Structural Design between 1850 and 1900 ................................................ 135
9. Postscript on the 20th Century .................................................................. 138
Lecture 1B.4.3: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Buildings
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 141
2. Early Structural Uses of Iron in Buildings ................................................. 141
3. Industrial Buildings and Mills ...................................................................... 143
4. Long Span Roofs ....................................................................................... 145
5. Multi-storey Building Frames ..................................................................... 148
5.1 Floor Construction .............................................................................. 149
5.2 Beams and Columns ........................................................................... 150
5.3 Frame Construction ............................................................................. 150
5.4 Wind Braced Structures ...................................................................... 150
6. Developments in Design for Steel Framed Buildings ................................ 152
Lecture 1B.4.4: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Bridges
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 159
2. Arch Bridges ............................................................................................... 160
3. Beam Structures Including Trusses and Plate/Box Girder Bridges ........... 163
3.1 Wooden Bridge Structures .................................................................. 163
3.2 Development of Plated Girders – Robert Stephenson ........................ 164
3.3 Truss Bridges (Parallel Girders) .......................................................... 165
3.4 Pauli Girder. Saltash Bridge, Lohse Girder (Fish-Belly or
parabolic Girders)................................................................................. 167
3.5 Cantilever bridges, Gerber Beams ...................................................... 169
3.6 Truss Bridges in the USA .................................................................... 171
3.7 Plate/Box Girder Bridges ..................................................................... 171
3.8 Tied Arches ......................................................................................... 171
3.9 Cable Stayed Bridges .......................................................................... 172
4. Suspension Bridges ................................................................................... 172
4.1 Chain suspension Bridges ................................................................... 173
4.2 Wire Cable Suspension Bridges ......................................................... 174
4.3 Railway Cable Suspension Bridges .................................................... 176
4.4 The Roeblings ..................................................................................... 176
4.5 Increasing the Spans ........................................................................... 178
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to the Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
1. Types of Industrial Buildings ...................................................................... 181
2. Structural Steels for Industrial Buildings .................................................... 182
3. Choice of Industrial Building ...................................................................... 183
4. Shapes of Industrial Buildings .................................................................... 183
5. Stability of Industrial Buildings ................................................................... 186
6. Global Analysis .......................................................................................... 187
General Contents (V)

Lecture 1B.5.2: Introduction to the Design of Special Industrial Buildings

1. Types of Special Industrial Buildings ......................................................... 189
2. Handling Methods ...................................................................................... 189
3. Daylighting .................................................................................................. 191
4. Services ...................................................................................................... 192
5. Special Roof Loading .................................................................................. 192
6. Maintenance ............................................................................................... 192
7. Fire Protection ............................................................................................ 193
8. Some Examples of Special Buildings ......................................................... 193
8.1 Coal-Fired Power Station .................................................................... 193
8.2 Aircraft Maintenance Hangar ............................................................... 194
8.3 Milk Powder Plant ................................................................................ 196
8.4 Industrial Complex ............................................................................... 197
9. Concluding summary ................................................................................. 199
Lecture 1B.6.1: Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 1
1. Fundamentals ............................................................................................. 201
2. The substructure ........................................................................................ 202
3. Introduction to the Superstructure .............................................................. 204
4. Steel Bridges .............................................................................................. 206
4.1 General Aspects .................................................................................. 206
4.2 Deck Systems ...................................................................................... 207
5. Plate Girder Bridges ................................................................................... 208
6. Truss Girder Bridges .................................................................................. 210
7. Box Girder Bridges ..................................................................................... 211
9. References ................................................................................................. 214
Lecture 1B.6.2: Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 2
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 215
2. Footbridges ................................................................................................ 215
3. Moving Bridges ........................................................................................... 216
3.1 General ................................................................................................ 216
3.2 Bascule Bridges ................................................................................... 217
3.3 Swing Bridges ...................................................................................... 218
3.4 Lift Bridges ........................................................................................... 219
3.5 Other Types of Moving Bridges ........................................................... 219
4. Service Bridges .......................................................................................... 219
5. Guidance of Initial Design .......................................................................... 220
5.1 Selection of Bridge Form ..................................................................... 220
5.2 Selection of span ................................................................................. 222
Lecture 1B.7.1: Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 225
2. The Structural Scheme .............................................................................. 225
3. Columns ..................................................................................................... 227
4. Beams ........................................................................................................ 228
5. Floor Structures .......................................................................................... 230
6. Bracing ....................................................................................................... 231
7. Structural Systems ..................................................................................... 232
(VI) General Contents

8. Design Requirements ................................................................................ 235

Lecture 1B.7.2: Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 2
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 239
2. From Multi-Storey to High-Rise Buildings .................................................. 240
3. The main Features of Low-Rise Steel Buildings ........................................ 241
4. Structural Systems for High-Rise buildings ............................................... 244
5. Calculation Models ..................................................................................... 246
5.1 Basic Assumptions .............................................................................. 246
5.2 The Pin-Ended Structure ..................................................................... 248
5.3 The Truss Bracing ............................................................................... 250
6. Seismic Requirements of Steel Structures ................................................ 252
7. Behaviour under Horizontal Loads ............................................................ 253
9. References ................................................................................................. 256
Lecture 1B.8: Learning from Failures
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 257
2. Analysis of some Structural Failures ......................................................... 258
2.1 General ................................................................................................ 258
2.2 Contractual Relationship ..................................................................... 258
2.3 Structural Failures ............................................................................... 258
Volume 3: Sections 2 & 3

Section 2: APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 271
1.1 Why Metallurgy for Civil and Structural Engineers? ............................ 271
1.2 The Scope of Lectures in Group 2 ...................................................... 271
2. Structure and Components of Steel .......................................................... 272
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 272
2.2 The Components of Steel ................................................................... 272
2.3 The Cristal Structure ........................................................................... 273
3. Iron-Carbon Phases ................................................................................... 275
3.1 Influence of Temperature on Crystal Structure ................................... 275
3.2 Solution of Carbon in BCC and FCC Crystals ..................................... 275
3.3 Nomenclature ..................................................................................... 276
3.4 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram ........................................................ 276
4. Cooling Rate .............................................................................................. 278
4.1 Cooling Rate during Austenite to Ferrite Transformation
and Grain Size ..................................................................................... 278
4.2 Slowly Cooled Steels ........................................................................... 279
4.3 Rapidly Cooled Steels ......................................................................... 284
5. Inclusions .................................................................................................. 287
5.1 Sulphur, Phosphorus and Other Impurities ......................................... 287
5.2 Manganese in Structural Steels .......................................................... 289
General Contents (VII)


7. References ................................................................................................. 290
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming Process
1. Steelmaking Technology ............................................................................ 291
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 291
1.2 Steel Production .................................................................................. 292
1.3 Secondary or Ladle Steelmaking ......................................................... 295
1.4 Casting and Solidification .................................................................... 297
2. Forming Technology and Heat Treatments ............................................... 299
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 299
2.2 Hot Rolling ........................................................................................... 299
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steel
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 307
1.1 Nature of Metals .................................................................................. 307
1.2 Structure-Sensitive and Structure-Insensitive Properties .................... 307
2. Strength ...................................................................................................... 308
2.1 Dislocation and Plastic Deformation .................................................... 308
2.2 Stress-Strain Curve for simple Tension Specimen .............................. 309
2.3 Multi-Axial Response ........................................................................... 312
2.4 Influence of Temperature and Strain Rate .......................................... 313
2.5 Means of Strengthening ...................................................................... 315
2.6 Hardness ............................................................................................ 317
Appendix 1 ...................................................................................................... 318
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels
1. Toughness .................................................................................................. 319
1.1 Types of Fracture ................................................................................. 319
1.2 Influence of Temperature, Loading Rate, Multi-Axiallity
and Geometry ....................................................................................... 320
1.3 Notched Impact Bend Test .................................................................. 321
1.4 Fracture Toughness ............................................................................ 322
1.5 Fitness for Purpose .............................................................................. 325
2. Optimal Combination of Strength and Toughness ..................................... 329
3. Fatigue Properties ...................................................................................... 330
3.1 Initiation-Controlled Fatigue ................................................................. 330
3.2 Propagation-Controlled Fatigue ........................................................... 332
Appendix 1 ......................................................................................................334
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 335
2. Definition of Steel ....................................................................................... 335
3. Classification of Steel Grades .................................................................... 335
3.1 Classification by Chemical composition ............................................. 335
3.2 Classification by Main Quality Classes ................................................ 336
(VIII) General Contents

4. Quality Standards for Structural Steels ...................................................... 336

4.1 General Considerations ...................................................................... 336
4.2 The Main Points .................................................................................. 337
5. Structural Steel Grades .............................................................................. 340
5.1 Hot-Rolled Products in Non-Alloy Steels for General
Structural Applications to EN 10025 [4] .............................................. 340
5.2 Hot-rolled Products in Weldable Fine Grain Structural
Steels to EN 10113 [5] ........................................................................ 341
5.3 Structural Steels for Offshore Applications ......................................... 342
5.4 Anti-Lamellar Steel Grades ................................................................. 343
5.5 Weathering Steel to EN 10155 [6] ....................................................... 344
5.6 Steel Grades for Hot Dip Galvanizing ................................................. 346
7. References ................................................................................................. 347
Appendix 1: Requirements for Structural Steels ............................................. 348
Appendix 2: Definition and Classification of Steel Grades to EN 10020 ....... 348
Appendix 3: Definitions for the Thermo-Mechanical Treatment of Steels ..... 349
Appendix 4: Comparison of the Chemical Composition (Ladle Analysis)
for Structural Steel Grades Providing a Minimum Yield Strength of
355 N/mm2.................................................................................................. 350
Lecture 2.5: Selection of Steel Quality
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 351
2. The Phenomenon of Brittle Fracture .......................................................... 352
3. Fracture Mechanics Concepts and Testing Procedures ............................ 353
4. Methodologies for Steel Selection ............................................................. 355
4.1 The French Approach .......................................................................... 356
4.2 The British Approach ........................................................................... 356
4.3 The Belgian Approach ......................................................................... 357
5. Methodology Adopted in Eurocode 3 ......................................................... 358
6. Present Status of the Eurocode Rules ....................................................... 359
7. Comparison of Specifications Derived from Various Approaches ............. 359
8. Discussion .................................................................................................. 362
9. Comment on the Present Eurocode 3 Rules ............................................. 362
11. References ............................................................................................... 363
Tables 1 to 18 ................................................................................................ 365
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural Steels
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 383
1.1 A Brief Description of the Welding Process ........................................ 383
1.2 The Main Welding Processes .............................................................. 383
1.3 Welded Joints Design and Preparation ............................................... 384
1.4 The Effect of the Welding Thermal Cycle on the Microstructure ......... 386
1.5 Residual Welding Stresses and Distortion .......................................... 386
1.6 Residual Stress Relief ......................................................................... 388
2. The Weldability of Structural Steels ........................................................... 388
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 388
2.2 Weld Metal Solidification Cracking ...................................................... 388
2.3 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking ................................................... 389
2.4 Lamellar Tearing ................................................................................. 392
2.5 Re-Heat Cracking ................................................................................ 393
General Contents (IX)


4. References ................................................................................................. 394
Section 3: FABRICATION AND ERECTION
Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 395
2. Forms of contract and Organisation ........................................................... 395
2.1 General ................................................................................................ 395
2.2 Contract Procedures ............................................................................ 396
2.3 Planning ............................................................................................... 396
2.4 Drawing Office ..................................................................................... 396
3. Fabrication Procedures .............................................................................. 397
3.1 Workshop Layout ................................................................................. 397
3.2 Material Handling and Preparation ...................................................... 398
3.3 Templates and Marking ....................................................................... 399
3.4 Sawing Line and Rolled Sections ........................................................ 399
3.5 Drilling and the Beam Line System ..................................................... 399
3.6 Cropping, Guillotines and Punching .................................................... 400
3.7 Flame Burning of Plates ...................................................................... 401
3.8 Pressing and Forming ......................................................................... 401
3.9 Methods of Welding ............................................................................. 401
3.10 Welding Design and Control of Distortion ......................................... 402
3.11 The Role of the Welding Engineer ..................................................... 402
3.12 Automatic Production of the Plate Girders ........................................ 402
3.13 Machine Operations ...........................................................................403
3.14 Fabrication Tolerances ...................................................................... 403
3.15 Trial Erection in the Fabrication Shop ............................................... 404
3.16 Inspection and Quality Control .......................................................... 404
Lecture 3.1.2: General Fabrication of Steel Structures II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 407
2. Cost Factors ............................................................................................... 407
2.1 Material ................................................................................................ 408
2.2 Fabrication ........................................................................................... 408
2.3 Protection of the Steelwork .................................................................. 409
2.4 Delivery ................................................................................................ 409
2.5 Commercial Factors ............................................................................. 410
3. Improvement of Design: Examples ............................................................ 411
Lecture 3.2.1: Erection I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 415
2. Technical Specifications ............................................................................. 416
3. Site Organisation ........................................................................................ 416
3.1 Principal Jobs on Site .......................................................................... 416
3.2 Estimation of Needs ............................................................................. 416
3.3 Basic Installations and site Conditions ................................................ 416
3.4 Direct Manpower .................................................................................. 417
3.5 Cranes, tools and Other Equipment .................................................... 417
(X) General Contents


Lecture 3.2.2: Erection II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 419
2. Erection Procedures .................................................................................. 419
2.1 Reception, Unloading and Handling of Construction Material ............ 419
2.2 Foundations and Base Plates (Levelling, Measuring, etc.) ................. 421
2.3 Assembly and Erection ........................................................................ 421
2.4 Bolting Connection on Site ................................................................. 422
Lecture 3.2.3: Erection III
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 425
2. Welding Connection on Site ....................................................................... 425
3. Quality control ............................................................................................ 426
3.1 Quality Assurance Manual .................................................................. 426
3.2 Quality Control Programme ................................................................ 426
3.3 Inspection Programme ........................................................................ 426
4. Safety at the Erection Site ......................................................................... 426
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 429
2. Methods of Making a Welded Joint ........................................................... 429
3. Structure and Properties of Welds ............................................................. 431
4. Edge Preparation of Butt Welds ................................................................ 432
5. Welding Procedures ................................................................................... 434
5.1 Current ................................................................................................. 435
5.2 Welding Position .................................................................................. 435
5.3 Environment ........................................................................................ 435
6. Shrinkage ................................................................................................... 435
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
1. Introduction – Heat Sources and Methods of Shielding ............................ 437
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding ......................................................................... 437
3. Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding ............................................................. 438
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ................................................................ 441
5. Stud Welding ............................................................................................. 441
6. Choice of Process ...................................................................................... 442
Lecture 3.5: Fabrication / Erection of Buildings
1. Introduction - Fabrication ........................................................................... 445
2. Cost Structure ............................................................................................ 445
3. Production Network ................................................................................... 446
3.1 Primary / Secondary Production ........................................................ 446
3.2 Workshop Layout – Material Preparation ............................................ 447
3.3 Workshop Layout – Material Finishing ................................................ 448
4. Design / Detailing Economies .................................................................... 448
General Contents (XI)

5. General – Erection ..................................................................................... 450

5.1 Site Planning ........................................................................................ 450
5.2 Site Organisation ................................................................................. 450
5.3 Setting Out ........................................................................................... 451
5.4 Operations ........................................................................................... 451
5.5 Single-Storey buildings ........................................................................ 451
5.6 Multi-Storey Buildings .......................................................................... 452
5.7 Timing .................................................................................................. 453
5.8 Safety .................................................................................................. 453
Lecture 3.6: Inspection / Quality Assurance
1. Introduction / Definitions ............................................................................. 455
2. Objectives ................................................................................................... 455
3. Safety Margins .......................................................................................... 456
3.1 Process Variations ............................................................................... 456
3.2 Gross Error .......................................................................................... 456
4. Responsibilities .......................................................................................... 456
4.1 Involvement ......................................................................................... 456
4.2 Evolution through Practice ................................................................... 456
4.3 Causes and Prevention of Failures ..................................................... 457
4.4 Timing .................................................................................................. 457
4.5 Specialisation ....................................................................................... 457
4.6 Records ............................................................................................... 457
5. Main Types of Inspection ........................................................................... 457
5.1 Design .................................................................................................. 457
5.2 Manufacture ......................................................................................... 457
6. Stages of Inspection ................................................................................... 458
7. Methods of Inspection, Purpose and Acceptance Criteria ......................... 458
7.1 Identifications ....................................................................................... 458
7.2 Chemical Analysis ............................................................................... 459
7.3 Mechanical Tests ................................................................................. 459
7.4 Dimensional Measurements ................................................................ 462
Volume 4: Sections 4A, 4B, 5 & 6

Section 4A: CORROSION PROTECTION
Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 465
1.1 Dry Corrosion ....................................................................................... 465
1.2 Wet Corrosion ...................................................................................... 466
1.3 Why Protect Steel? .............................................................................. 467
2. Protecting Structural Steelwork .................................................................. 468
2.1 Effect of Environment and surface conditions ..................................... 468
2.2 Protect with What? ............................................................................... 468
2.3 Surface Preparation ............................................................................. 468
2.4 Cathodic Protection ............................................................................. 469
2.5 Stainless Steel ..................................................................................... 479
2.6 Weathering Steels ............................................................................... 470
(XII) General Contents


4. References ................................................................................................. 471
Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................... 472
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork
1. Life Expectancy .......................................................................................... 473
1.1 Likely time to First Maintenance .......................................................... 473
1.2 Life between Maintenance .................................................................. 473
1.3 Assessment of Life Requirements ...................................................... 474
2. Design ........................................................................................................ 474
2.1 Design for Protective Systems ............................................................ 474
2.2 Where to Apply Protection ................................................................... 476
2.3 Special Areas ...................................................................................... 477
3. Surface Preparation ................................................................................... 478
3.1 Degreasing .......................................................................................... 478
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust ................................................................. 478
3.3 Blast Cleaning ..................................................................................... 478
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard ...................................................................... 479
3.5 Surface Roughness ............................................................................. 479
3.6 Flame Cut Edges ................................................................................. 480
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation ............................................... 480
4. Surface Coatings ....................................................................................... 480
4.1 Paint Systems ..................................................................................... 480
4.2 Metallic Coatings ................................................................................. 481
4.3 Metal Spraying .................................................................................... 481
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems .................................................................... 481
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention ..................................................... 481
5. Maintenance of Structures and Plant ......................................................... 482
7. References ................................................................................................. 483
Table 1 Classification of Environments .......................................................... 485
Table 2 Typical Protective Systems ............................................................... 486
Table 3 Methods of Blast Cleaning (ISO 8504-1 & 2) ................................... 500
Table 4 Classification of Abrasives Used for Cleaning Steel ......................... 501
International Standards for Metallic and Non-Metallic
Blast-Cleaning Abrasives .......................................................................... 502
Appendix 1 Factors affecting the Choice of Coating Systems ....................... 503
Appendix 2 Paint Types ................................................................................. 504
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
1. Practical Design ......................................................................................... 509
2. Treatments for Connections ....................................................................... 509
3. Dealing with Welds .................................................................................... 510
4. External Environments and the Building’s Exterior .................................... 510
5. Environments Inside Buildings ................................................................... 510
5.1 Hidden Steelwork ................................................................................ 510
5.2 Steelwork in Perimeter Walls .............................................................. 512
6. Special Cases ............................................................................................ 512
6.1 Steel in Concrete ................................................................................. 512
General Contents (XIII)

6.2 Hollow Sections ................................................................................... 513

6.3 Cladding ............................................................................................... 513
8. References ................................................................................................. 514
Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................... 514
Appendix 2 ..................................................................................................... 515
Lecture 4A.4: Corrosion Protection of Bridges
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 519
2. Exposure Conditions .................................................................................. 519
2.1 Environments ....................................................................................... 519
2.2 Factors Influencing Corrosivity ............................................................ 520
2.3 Different Areas ..................................................................................... 520
3. Protective Systems ..................................................................................... 521
3.1 Coating Systems for Bridges ............................................................... 521
3.2 Metallic Coatings ................................................................................. 521
3.3 Stainless Steel ..................................................................................... 521
3.4 Weathering Steel ................................................................................. 521
3.5 Closed Sections ................................................................................... 522
4. Protection of Different Components ........................................................... 522
4.1 Load Bearing Structures ...................................................................... 522
4.2 Cables and Devices ............................................................................. 522
4.3 Secondary Elements ........................................................................... 522
5. Design ........................................................................................................ 522
6. Maintenance ............................................................................................... 522
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion in Offshore and Sheet Piling
1. Offshore ...................................................................................................... 525
2. Sheet Piling ................................................................................................ 527
3. Corrosion in Soils ....................................................................................... 528
4. Electrical Methods of Corrosion Control .................................................... 529
5. Aerobic and Anaerobic Organisms ............................................................ 531
Section 4B: FIRE PROTECTION
Lecture 4B.1: Introduction to Fire Safety
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 533
1.1 Fire Losses .......................................................................................... 533
1.2 The Fire Risk ....................................................................................... 534
1.3 Objectives of Fire Safety ..................................................................... 534
1.4 Fire Safety Concept ............................................................................. 535
1.5 cost Effectiveness ................................................................................ 540
2. Overview of Assessment Methods of Structural Fire
Resistance of Load-Bearing Elements ....................................................... 541
2.1 Current fire Resistance Requirements = Assessment Method 1 ........ 541
2.2 Fire Resistance Requirements Based on T-Equivalent
Assessment Method 2 ......................................................................... 541
2.3 Engineering Design Methods Based on Natural Fires
Assessment Method 3 ......................................................................... 544
(XIV) General Contents

2.4 Some Thoughts on Fire Resistance Requirements

Considering the Effect of Active Fire Protection .................................. 545
4. References ................................................................................................. 546
Lecture 4B.2: Background to Thermal Analysis
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 549
2. Heat Transfer Equation .............................................................................. 551
3. Heating of Steel Sections ........................................................................... 552
4. Thermal Response of Composite Steel – Concrete Elements .................. 556
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 556
4.2 Thermal Response of Composite Columns ........................................ 556
4.3 Thermal Analysis of composite Slabs ................................................. 556
6. References ................................................................................................. 558
Lecture 4B.3: Background to Structural (Mechanical Fire) Analysis
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 559
2. Applied Load .............................................................................................. 561
3. Determination of the Fire Load Bearing Resistance .................................. 561
4. Load Bearing Resistance of Steel Members ............................................ 562
4.1 Tension Members ................................................................................ 562
4.2 Columns .............................................................................................. 562
4.3 Beams ................................................................................................. 562
4.4 Beam Columns .................................................................................... 564
4.5 Main Parameters ................................................................................. 564
4.6 Steel Elements with non-Uniform Temperature Distribution ............... 564
5. Load Bearing Resistance of composite Members ..................................... 565
5.1 Composite Beam ................................................................................. 565
5.2 Composite Slabs ................................................................................. 566
5.3 Composite Columns ............................................................................ 566
6. Connections between Members ................................................................ 567
8. References ................................................................................................. 568
Lecture 4B.4: Practical Ways of Achieving Fire Resistance of Steel Structures
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 569
2. Bare Steel Structures ................................................................................. 570
3. Protected Steel Structures ......................................................................... 571
4. Composite Construction ............................................................................. 575
5. Partially Exposed Steel Sections ............................................................... 577
6. Protection by Screens ................................................................................ 577
7. Exterior Steelwork ...................................................................................... 578
8. Water Cooling ............................................................................................ 578
10. References ............................................................................................... 580
Lecture 4B.5: Calculation Examples
Example 1: Critical Temperature of Tension Member ................................... 581
Example 2: Critical Temperature of Beam ..................................................... 581
General Contents (XV)

Example 3: Critical Temperature of Column .................................................. 582

Example 4: Fire Protection to Steel Beam ..................................................... 582
Example 5: Moment Resistance of composite Beam .................................... 582
Example 6: Time-Equivalent of Natural Fire .................................................. 583
Section 5: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

Lecture 5.1: Introduction to Computer Aided Design & Manufacture
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 585
2. Computer Hardware ................................................................................... 587
3. Printers and Plotters ................................................................................... 588
4. Input / Output and Storage ......................................................................... 589
5. Interaction ................................................................................................... 589
6. The User Interface ...................................................................................... 590
7. Programming Computers ........................................................................... 592
8. Structural analysis and Design Software ................................................... 592
9. Computer Aided Design: Two-Dimensional Draughting ............................ 594
10. Three-dimensional Structural Modelling .................................................. 595
11. Numerical Control in Fabrication .............................................................. 598
12. The Future ................................................................................................ 598
Lecture 5.2: The Future Development of Information Systems for
Steel Construction
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 601
2. Information Exchange in the Construction Process ................................... 601
2.1 Information Exchange: The Present .................................................... 601
2.2 Information Exchange: The Future ...................................................... 603
3. A Framework for Change ............................................................... 604
3.1 The Product Model .............................................................................. 604
3.2 Information Exchange between Software Products ............................ 605
3.3 Management Information system (MIS) .............................................. 607
4. Implementation ........................................................................................... 608
6. References ................................................................................................. 610
Section 6: APPLIED STABILITY

Lecture 6.1: Concepts of Stable and Unstable Elastic Equilibrium
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 611
2. Stable and Unstable Equilibrium States ..................................................... 611
3. Minimum Potential Energy ......................................................................... 612
4. Bifurcation Buckling .....................................................................................612
5. Postcritical Behaviour of Perfect and Imperfect Systems ...........................614
6. Limit Point Buckling .................................................................................... 615
7. Coincidence of Several Instability Modes .................................................. 615
Lecture 6.2: General Criteria for Elastic Stability
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 619
2. General ....................................................................................................... 619
3. Principle of Virtual Work ............................................................................. 621
4. Principle of Stationary Total Potential Energy ............................................ 622
(XVI) General Contents

5. Stability of Equilibrium ................................................................................ 623

6. Neutral Equilibrium – Critical Loadings ...................................................... 624
7. Illustration of Basic Examples .................................................................... 624
Example 1 .................................................................................................. 624
Example 2 .................................................................................................. 626
Equilibrium Configuration .......................................................................... 627
Stability ...................................................................................................... 627
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 629
2. Flexural Buckling of Columns .................................................................... 631
3. Lateral Buckling ......................................................................................... 633
4. Buckling of Plates ...................................................................................... 634
Lecture 6.4: General Methods for Assessing Critical Loads
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 637
2. General Energy Methods Applied to Elastic Systems ............................... 638
3. Rayleigh Coefficient ................................................................................... 638
4. The Rayleigh-Ritz Method ......................................................................... 639
5. The Galerkin Method ................................................................................. 640
6. Numerical Methods .................................................................................... 641
7. Some Typical Strain Energies .................................................................... 641
8. Examples Using Different Methods ........................................................... 642
Rayleigh Coefficient Method .................................................................... 643
Rayleigh-Ritz Method ................................................................................ 644
Galerkin Method ........................................................................................ 645
Lecture 6.5: Iterative Methods for Solving Stability Problems
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 647
2. Method of Vianello ..................................................................................... 648
3. Review of Newmark’s Method ................................................................... 649
4. Method of Vianello-Newmark ..................................................................... 650
5. Equilibrium Configurations ......................................................................... 651
Lecture 6.6.1: Buckling of Real Structural Elements I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 653
2. Effect of Material Plasticity ......................................................................... 653
2.1 Ideal Rigid-Plastic Behaviour Model ................................................... 653
2.2 Ideal Elastic-Plastic Behaviour Model ................................................. 654
2.3 Strength Curve for an Ideal Strut ........................................................ 655
2.4 Effect of the Real Elastic-Plastic Behaviour of the Material ................ 655
3. Strength of Real Struts ............................................................................... 657
3.1 Effect of Geometric Imperfections ....................................................... 657
3.2 Effect of Residual Stresses ................................................................. 660
3.3 Combined Effect of Imperfections ....................................................... 662
General Contents (XVII)


Lecture 6.6.2: Buckling of Real Structural Elements II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 665
2. Buckling of Plates ....................................................................................... 665
3. Torsional Buckling of Columns ................................................................... 670
4. Flexural-Torsional Buckling ........................................................................ 671
5. Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams ......................................................... 672
6. Buckling of Shells ....................................................................................... 673
7. Improving the Buckling Resistance ............................................................ 675
8. Frame Instability ......................................................................................... 675
10. References ............................................................................................... 676
Volume 5: Section 7
Section 7: ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.1: Methods of analysis of Steel Structures
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 677
2. Elastic Global Analysis ............................................................................... 678
3. Plastic Global Analysis ............................................................................... 680
4. Additional Comments ..................................................................................684
Lecture 7.2: Cross-Section Classification
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 687
2. Requirements for Cross-Section Classification .......................................... 688
3. Criteria for Cross-Section Classification ..................................................... 689
4. Concluding Summary ..................................................................................693
5. References ................................................................................................. 694
Appendix 1 ................................................................................................. 695
Lecture 7.3: Local Buckling
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 699
2. Definition of the “Effective Width” .............................................................. 700
3. Design of Members .................................................................................... 700
3.1 Columns in Compression .................................................................... 700
3.2 Beams in Bending ................................................................................ 701
3.3 Beam-Columns .................................................................................... 702
5. References ................................................................................................. 702
Lecture 7.4.1: Tension Members I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 703
2. Behaviour of Cross-Sections in Tension Members .................................... 704
2.1 General ................................................................................................ 704
2.2 Residual Stresses ................................................................................ 705
2.3 Connections ......................................................................................... 705
(XVIII) General Contents

3. Analysis ...................................................................................................... 707

3.1 Stiffness Requirements ....................................................................... 707
3.2 Resistance of the Cross-Sections ....................................................... 707
2.3 Connections ........................................................................................ 705
5. References ................................................................................................. 710
Lecture 7.4.2: Tension Members II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 711
2. Composition of Ropes and Cables ............................................................ 711
3. Mechanical Properties ............................................................................... 713
4. Design Values............................................................................................. 713
5. Connections ............................................................................................... 714
6. Behaviour of a Cable ................................................................................. 715
7. Modulus of Elasticity due to Sagging ......................................................... 718
8. Concluding Summary .................................................................................. 719
Lecture 7.5.1: Columns I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 721
2. Main Kinds of Compression Members ....................................................... 721
2.1 Simple Members with Uniform Cross-Section ..................................... 721
2.2 Simple Members with non-Uniform Cross Sections ............................ 722
2.3 Built-up Columns ................................................................................. 723
3. Pure Compression without Buckling .......................................................... 724
3.1 Stub Columns ...................................................................................... 724
3.2 Effective Area ...................................................................................... 725
4. Stability of Slender Steel Columns ............................................................ 725
4.1 Euler Critical Stress ............................................................................. 725
4.2 Buckling of Real Columns ................................................................... 726
5. The European Buckling Curves ................................................................. 729
5.1 Reference slenderness ....................................................................... 729
5.2 Basis of the ECCS Buckling Curves ................................................... 729
5.3 Equivalent Initial Bow Imperfection ..................................................... 729
5.4 Design Steps for Compressions Members .......................................... 729
7. References ................................................................................................. 731
Tables 1, 2, 3 & 4 ....................................................................................... 732
Lecture 7.5.2: Columns II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 735
2. Analytical Formulation of the European Buckling Curves ......................... 736
2.1 Initial Deflection ................................................................................... 736
2.2 Eccentricity of the Applied Load .......................................................... 737
2.3 Ayrton-Perry Formula .......................................................................... 737
2.4 Generalized Imperfection Factor ......................................................... 738
2.5 European Formulation ......................................................................... 738
3. Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling ................................................. 739
3.1 Cross-Section Subjected to Torsional and Flexural-Torsional
Buckling ................................................................................................ 739
General Contents (XIX)

3.2 Torsional Buckling ............................................................................... 740

3.3 Flexural-Torsional Buckling ................................................................. 741
5. References ................................................................................................. 742
Table 1 ....................................................................................................... 743
Lecture 7.6: Built-up Columns
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 745
2. The Effect of Shear Deformations on the Elastic Critical
Column Load ............................................................................................. 745
3. Evaluation of Shear Stiffness of Laced and Battened Columns ............... 749
3.1 Laced Columns .................................................................................... 749
3.2 Battened built-up Columns ................................................................. 751
3.3 Quantitative Comparison ..................................................................... 751
4. The Elastic Critical Loads of Built-up Columns .......................................... 751
5. The Bearing Capacity of Steel Built-up Columns and
the Design Philosophy of Eurocode 3 ........................................................ 753
7. References ................................................................................................. 756
Tables 1 & 2 ............................................................................................... 756
Lecture 7.7: Buckling Lengths
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 759
2. Effective Length of Columns ...................................................................... 760
3. Columns of Non-Sway Frames .................................................................. 764
4. Columns of Sway Frames .......................................................................... 766
6. References ................................................................................................. 767
Tables 1, 2 & 3 ........................................................................................... 768
Lecture 7.8.1: Restrained Beams I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 770
2. Beam Types ............................................................................................... 770
3. Design of Beams for simple Bending ......................................................... 771
4. Design of Beams for Shear ........................................................................ 773
5. Deflections .................................................................................................. 774
6. Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections .......................................................... 775
7. Biaxial Bending ........................................................................................... 775
8. Bending and Torsion .................................................................................. 776
10. References ............................................................................................... 776
Table 1 ....................................................................................................... 777
Lecture 7.8.2: Restrained Beams II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 780
2. Behaviour of Steel Beams in Bending ....................................................... 780
2.1 Statically Determinate Beams ............................................................. 780
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Beams ........................................................... 783
2.3 Bending of I-Sections .......................................................................... 784
2.4 Bending of Singly-Symmetrical Sections ............................................. 786
3. Effect of Shear Forces ............................................................................... 786
(XX) General Contents

4. Plastic Behaviour under General combined Loading ................................ 787

6. References ................................................................................................. 767
Table 1 ....................................................................................................... 788
Lecture 7.9.1: Unrestrained Beams I
1. Structural Properties of Sections Used as Beams ..................................... 790
2. Response of Slender Beams to Vertical Loading ...................................... 790
3. Simple Physical Model .............................................................................. 791
4. Factor Influencing Lateral Stability ............................................................. 792
5. Bracing as a Means of Improving Performance ......................................... 793
6. Design Application ..................................................................................... 794
7. Method of Eurocode 3................................................................................. 795
9. References ................................................................................................. 798
Lecture 7.9.2: Unrestrained Beams II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 800
2. Physical Significance of the Solution ......................................................... 800
3. Extension to Other Cases ......................................................................... 801
3.1 Load Pattern ........................................................................................ 801
3.2 Level of application of Load ................................................................. 803
3.3 Conditions of Lateral Support .............................................................. 803
3.4 Continuous Beams .............................................................................. 804
3.5 Beams Other than Doubly-Symmetrical I-Sections .............................. 805
3.6 Restrained Beams ............................................................................... 805
5. References ................................................................................................. 806
Appendix 1: Analysis of Lateral-Torsional Buckling ................................... 807
Appendix 2: Buckling of a Centrally Loaded Beam ................................... 810
Lecture 7.10.1: Beam Columns I
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 811
2. Cross-Sectional Behaviour ....................................................................... 811
3. Overall Stability .......................................................................................... 813
4. Treatment in Design Codes ....................................................................... 815
5. Effect of Pattern of Primary Moments ........................................................ 817
7. References ................................................................................................. 818
Table 1 ....................................................................................................... 818
Lecture 7.10.2: Beam Columns II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 819
2. Forms of Behaviour ................................................................................... 819
3. Flexural-Torsional Buckling ........................................................................ 820
4. Design ........................................................................................................ 821
5. Biaxial Bending ......................................................................................... 822
6. Design for Biaxial Bending and Compression ........................................... 823
7. Treatment of Other than Class 1 or 2 Sections ......................................... 823
8. Determination of k-Factors ......................................................................... 824
General Contents (XXI)

9. Cross-Section Checks ................................................................................ 824

10. Concluding Summary................................................................................ 824
11. References ............................................................................................... 824
Tables 1 & 2 ................................................................................................ 826
Lecture 7.10.3: Beam Columns III
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 827
2. Method of Verification for Isolated Members ............................................ 828
2.1 Beam-Columns with Mono-Axial Bending Only ................................... 828
2.2 Beam-columns with Bi-Axial Bending .................................................. 829
3. Method of Verification of whole Frames ..................................................... 830
3.1 General ................................................................................................ 830
3.2 Basic Assumption ................................................................................ 830
3.3 Tools for the Procedure ....................................................................... 831
5. References ................................................................................................. 832
Table 1 ....................................................................................................... 832
Lecture 7.11: Frames
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 833
2. Framing Systems ...................................................................................... 834
3. Simple Construction ................................................................................... 835
4. Continuous Construction ............................................................................ 835
5. Method of Analysis ..................................................................................... 835
5.1 Firs-Order Elastic Analysis .................................................................. 835
5.2 First-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis ........................................................ 835
5.3 Elastic Critical Load ............................................................................. 836
5.4 Second-Order Elastic Analysis ............................................................. 837
5.5 Second-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis ................................................... 837
5.6 First-Order, Elastic-Plastic Theory ....................................................... 837
5.7 Second-Order, Elastic-Plastic Analysis ...............................................837
5.8 Second-Order, Plastic Zone Analysis .................................................. 837
6. Comments .................................................................................................. 837
7. Frame Classification ................................................................................... 838
7.1 Braced Frames .................................................................................... 838
7.2 Unbraced Frames ................................................................................ 838
7.3 Sway Frames ....................................................................................... 839
8. Member Check and Frame Design ............................................................ 841
10. References ............................................................................................... 843
Lecture 7.12: Trusses and Lattice Girders
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 845
2. Typical Members ...................................................................................... 847
3. Load on Trusses and Lattice Girders ......................................................... 847
4. Analysis of Trusses .................................................................................... 848
4.1 General ................................................................................................ 848
4.2 Secondary Stresses in Trusses ........................................................... 849
4.3 Rigorous Elastic Analysis .................................................................... 850
(XXII) General Contents

5. Secondary Considerations ........................................................................ 850

5.1 Cross-Braced Trusses in Buildings ..................................................... 850
5.2 Lateral Bracing for Bridges .................................................................. 851
5.3 Deflection of Trusses ........................................................................... 852
6. Design of Truss Members .......................................................................... 852
6.1 Compression Members in Buildings .................................................... 852
6.2 Compression Members in Bridges ...................................................... 853
6.3 Tension Members for Buildings ........................................................... 853
6.4 Tension Members for Bridges ............................................................. 854
6.5 Members Subject to Reversal of Load ................................................ 854
7. Practical Design ......................................................................................... 854
9. References ................................................................................................. 855

Section 8: PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.1: Introduction to Plate Behaviour and Design
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 857
2. Basic Behaviour of a Plate Panel .............................................................. 857
2.1 Geometric and Boundary Conditions .................................................. 857
2.2 In-plane Actions ................................................................................... 858
2.3 Our-of-plane Actions ........................................................................... 859
2.4 Determination of Plate Panel Action ................................................... 859
2.5 Variations of Buckled Mode ................................................................. 860
2.6 Grillage analogy for Plate Buckling ..................................................... 861
2.7 Post Buckling Behaviour and Effective Widths ................................... 862
2.8 The Influence of Imperfections on the Behaviour of Actual Plates ..... 864
2.9 Elastic Behaviour of Plates under Lateral Actions .............................. 865
3. Behaviour of Stiffened Plates ..................................................................... 865
Lecture 8.2: Behaviour and Design of Unstiffened Plates
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 869
2. Unstiffened Plates under In-plane Loading ................................................ 870
2.1 Load Distribution ................................................................................. 870
2.2 Stability of Unstiffened Plates ............................................................. 872
3. Unstiffened Plates under Out-of-plane Actions .......................................... 882
3.1 Action Distribution ............................................................................... 882
3.2 Deflection and Ultimate Resistance .................................................... 885
4. Influence of the Out-of-plane Actions on the Stability
of Unstiffened Plates .................................................................................. 886
6. References ................................................................................................. 886
Lecture 8.2: Behaviour and Design of Stiffened Plates
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 889
2. Stiffened Plates under In-plane Loading .................................................... 890
2.1 Action Distribution ............................................................................... 890
2.2 Stability of Stiffened Plates .................................................................. 891
3. Stiffened Plates under Out-of-plane Action Application ............................. 898
General Contents (XXIII)

3.1 Action Distribution ................................................................................ 898

3.2 Deflection and Ultimate Resistance ..................................................... 899
4. Influence of the Out-of-plane Actions on the Stability
of Stiffened Plates ...................................................................................... 899
6. References ................................................................................................. 899
Lecture 8.4.1: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 901
1.1 Types ................................................................................................... 902
1.2 Proportions .......................................................................................... 904
2. Design Concepts ........................................................................................ 904
3. Influence of Buckling on Design ................................................................. 905
3.1 Shear Buckling of the Web .................................................................. 906
3.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Girder .............................................. 906
3.3 Local Buckling of the Compression Flange ......................................... 906
3.4 Compression Buckling of the Web ...................................................... 906
3.5 Flange Induced Buckling of the Web ................................................... 906
3.6 Local Buckling of the Web ................................................................... 907
4. Post-Buckling Strength of the Web ............................................................ 907
5. Design Considerations ............................................................................... 907
7. References ................................................................................................. 907
Lecture 8.4.2: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 909
2. Shear Buckling and Resistance ................................................................. 910
3. Interaction between Shear and Bending .................................................... 915
3.1 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Simple
Post-Critical Method ............................................................................ 915
3.2 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Tension
Field Method ........................................................................................ 916
5. References ................................................................................................. 916
Lecture 8.4.3: Plate Girder Design – Special Topics
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 917
2. Transverse Web Stiffeners ......................................................................... 918
3. End Panels and Posts ................................................................................ 920
4. Web Crippling ............................................................................................. 922
5. Longitudinal Stiffeners ................................................................................ 923
6. Girders with Openings in Slender Webs .................................................... 923
8. References ................................................................................................. 924
Lecture 8.5.1: Introduction to Design of Box Girders
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 925
2. Main Features of Box Girders .................................................................... 926
3. Global Analysis ........................................................................................... 927
4. Torsion and distortion ................................................................................. 928
(XXIV) General Contents

4.1 Torsion and Torsional Warping ........................................................... 928

4.2 Distortion ............................................................................................. 929
5. Flange Design ............................................................................................ 930
5.1 Tension Flanges .................................................................................. 930
5.2 Compression Flanges ......................................................................... 930
5.3 Orthotropic Steel Decks ...................................................................... 930
6. Web Design ................................................................................................ 931
7. Cross Sectional Restraints ......................................................................... 931
7.1 General Function and Description ....................................................... 931
7.2 support Diaphragms ............................................................................ 931
7.3 Intermediate Restraints ....................................................................... 931
7.4 Load Carrying Transverse Stiffeners .................................................. 931
8. Articulations ............................................................................................... 932
Lecture 8.5.2: Advanced Design of Box Girders
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 933
2. Global Analysis Methods ........................................................................... 933
3. Grillage ....................................................................................................... 934
3.1 General ................................................................................................ 934
3.2 Grillage Modelling for Box Girder Bridges ........................................... 934
3.3 Longitudinal Grillage Elements ............................................................ 935
3.4 Transverse Grillage Elements ............................................................. 935
3.5 Torsional Rigidities .............................................................................. 935
3.6 Skew Bridges ...................................................................................... 936
3.7 Interpretation of the Output of a Grillage Analysis .............................. 936
4. Orthotropic Plate Analysis .......................................................................... 936
5. Finite Element Analysis .............................................................................. 936
6. Folded Plate Analysis ................................................................................ 937
7. Torsional Warping ...................................................................................... 937
8. Cross Section Distortion ............................................................................ 938
9. Shear Lag ................................................................................................... 940
10. Diaphragms .............................................................................................. 940
12. References ............................................................................................... 941
Lecture 8.6: Introduction to Shell Structures
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 943
2. Possible Forms of Behaviour ..................................................................... 946
3. Importance of Imperfections ...................................................................... 947
5. References ................................................................................................. 949
Lecture 8.7: Basic Analysis of Shell Structures
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 951
2. Bending and Stretching of Thin Shells ....................................................... 951
3. Buckling of Shells – Linear and Non-Linear Buckling Theory .................... 952
4. Post-Buckling Behaviour of Thin Shells ..................................................... 954
5. Numerical Analysis of Shell Buckling ......................................................... 955
6. Buckling and Post-Buckling of Struts, Plates and Shells ........................... 956
General Contents (XXV)

7. Imperfection Sensitivity .............................................................................. 959

9. References ................................................................................................. 961
Lecture 8.8: Design of Unstiffened Cylinders
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 963
2. Unstiffened Cylinders under Axial Compression ........................................ 964
3. Unstiffened Cylinders under External Pressure ......................................... 968
4. Unstiffened Cylinders under Axial Compression and External Pressure ... 971
6. References ................................................................................................. 972
Lecture 8.9: Design of Stringer-Stiffened Cylindrical Shells
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 973
2. Buckling of Stiffened Shells ........................................................................ 973
3. Cylindrical Shells with Longitudinal Stiffeners and Subjected
to Meridianal Compression ....................................................................... 974
4. Limitation of the Imperfections ................................................................... 975
5. Strength Conditions .................................................................................... 975
6. Local Panel Buckling .................................................................................. 976
7. Stiffened Panel Buckling ............................................................................ 976
8. Local Buckling of Stringers ......................................................................... 979
10. References ............................................................................................... 979
Section 9: THIN WALLED CONSTRUCTION

Lecture 9.1: Thin-Walled Members and Sheeting
1. Introduction to the Design of cold-Formed Sections ................................... 981
1.1 Typical Products and Uses .................................................................. 981
1.2 Applications ......................................................................................... 981
1.3 Advantages .......................................................................................... 983
1.4 Manufacture ......................................................................................... 983
1.5 Materials .............................................................................................. 984
1.6 Effects of Cold Forming ....................................................................... 984
1.7 Connections ......................................................................................... 985
1.8 Codes .................................................................................................. 986
2. Characteristic Behaviour ............................................................................ 986
2.1 General ................................................................................................ 986
3. Local Buckling and the Effective Width Concept ....................................... 987
3.1 Doubly and Singly Supported Elements .............................................. 988
3.2 Effective Cross-Sections ..................................................................... 989
3.3 Web Buckling and Crippling ................................................................ 990
3.4 Lateral-Torsional Buckling ................................................................... 991
Interaction of Local and global Buckling .................................................... 992
4. Practical Considerations ............................................................................ 992
4.1 Good Practice Notes ........................................................................... 992
4.2 Influence of Joint Flexibility .................................................................. 992
4. Concluding Summary ..................................................................................992
5. References ................................................................................................. 993
Lecture 9.2: Design Procedures for Columns
1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 995
(XXVI) General Contents

2. Preparation of Design Procedures ............................................................. 995

3. Design of Axially Loaded Columns .......................................................... 1001
4. Concluding summary ............................................................................... 1003
5. References ............................................................................................... 1003
Lecture 9.3: Design Procedures for Beams
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1005
2. Preparation of Design Procedures ........................................................... 1005
2.1 Resistance Moment MRd ................................................................... 1005
2.2 Shear Lag .......................................................................................... 1006
2.3 Flange Curling ................................................................................... 1007
2.4 Lateral and Torsional Restraints ....................................................... 1008
3. Design of Beams ...................................................................................... 1009
3.1 Designs of Beams without Lateral-Torsional Buckling ...................... 1009
3.2 Design of Beams with Lateral-Torsional Buckling ............................. 1009
3.3 Design for Torsion ............................................................................. 1010
4. Design of Purlins ..................................................................................... 1010
4.1 Cross Sections .................................................................................. 1010
4.2 Purlin Systems .................................................................................. 1010
4.3 Design Models ................................................................................... 1011
4.4 Stability Check ................................................................................... 1013
4.5 Design of Special Purlin Systems ..................................................... 1011
4.6 Further Aspects of Design ................................................................. 1013
4.7 Design by Testing .............................................................................. 1014
4.8 Some Practical Aspects .................................................................... 1015
6. References ............................................................................................... 1016
Lecture 9.4: Design Procedures for Columns
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1017
2. Design Procedures .................................................................................. 1019
3. Calculation Procedures for Trapezoidal Sheeting ................................... 1020
3.1 Calculation Procedures for Bending .................................................. 1021
3.2 Calculation Procedures for Shear ..................................................... 1024
3.3 Calculation Procedures for Web Crippling ........................................ 1024
3.5 Calculation Procedures for Developing Moment Redistribution ........ 1024
3.6 Calculation Procedures for Estimation of the Bending Stiffness ....... 1025
5. References ............................................................................................... 1025
Lecture 9.5: Stressed Skin Design
Notation ..................................................................................................... 1027
1. Introduction – Design Principles .............................................................. 1028
1.1 Diaphragm Action .............................................................................. 1028
1.2 Suitable Forms of Construction ......................................................... 1029
1.3 Benefits, condition and Restrictions .................................................. 1029
1.4 Types of Diaphragm .......................................................................... 1030
2. Resistance of Shear Diaphragms ............................................................ 1031
2.1 Principles ........................................................................................... 1031
2.2 Design Expressions ........................................................................... 1032
General Contents (XXVII)

3. Flexibility of Shear Diaphragms ............................................................... 1033

3.1 Principles ........................................................................................... 1033
3.2 Design Expressions ........................................................................... 1033
4. Application of Stressed skin Design ......................................................... 1034
4.1 Shear Diaphragms Alone .................................................................. 1034
4.2 Shear Diaphragms with rigid Frames ................................................ 1034
4.3 Complex diaphragms ......................................................................... 1034
4.4 Openings in Diaphragms ................................................................... 1034
4.5 Diaphragms Bracing .......................................................................... 1034
4.6 Simplified Design Method .................................................................. 1035
5. References ............................................................................................... 1036
Tables 1 to 6 ............................................................................................. 1037
Lecture 9.6: Connections in Thin-Walled Construction
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1041
2. Connection Types .................................................................................... 1041
3. Types of Fasteners .................................................................................. 1042
3.1 Mechanical Fasteners ....................................................................... 1043
3.2 Welds ................................................................................................. 1045
4. Connections Design ................................................................................. 1046
4.1 General Requirements .......................................................................1046
4.2 Forces in the Connections ................................................................. 1047
4.3 Failure Modes of Connections ........................................................... 1048
4.4 Applications ....................................................................................... 1050
6. References ............................................................................................... 1051
Tables 1 & 2 ............................................................................................. 1052
Lecture 9.7: Application of Thin-Walled Construction
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1053
1.1 Available Products ............................................................................. 1054
2. Composite Construction ........................................................................... 1056
2.1 Cold-Formed Sections and Sheeting ................................................. 1056
2.2 Profiled Sheeting and Concrete ......................................................... 1057
2.3 Fasteners ........................................................................................... 1057
3. Physical Characteristics .......................................................................... 1058
3.1 Acoustics ........................................................................................... 1058
3.2 Fire Resistance .................................................................................. 1058
3.3 Condensation ..................................................................................... 1058
3.4 Durability ............................................................................................ 1058
4. Use in Service .......................................................................................... 1059
5. Types of Light-Weight Structures ............................................................. 1059
5.1 Industrial Buildings .............................................................................1059
5.2 Housing .............................................................................................. 1062
5.3 Temporary Accommodation .............................................................. 1063
5.4 Storage .............................................................................................. 1063
(XXVIII) General Contents

Volume 7: Section 10
Section 10: COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Lecture 10.1: Composite Construction - General
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1065
2. Composite Action in Beams ..................................................................... 1067
3. Composite Members ................................................................................ 1069
3.1 Composite Beams ............................................................................. 1069
3.2 Shear Connection .............................................................................. 1072
3.3 Beam-to-Column connection ............................................................. 1073
3.4 Composite Columns .......................................................................... 1074
3.5 Partially Encased Steel Sections ...................................................... 1075
3.6 Composite Slabs ............................................................................... 1076
4. Composite Floor Construction ................................................................ 1077
5. Composite Bridges ................................................................................... 1079
7. References ............................................................................................... 1080
Lecture 10.2: The Behaviour of Beams
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1081
2. Component Behaviour ............................................................................. 1081
3. Description of a Simply Supported Composite Beam .............................. 1083
3.1 General .............................................................................................. 1083
3.2 Structural Behaviour .......................................................................... 1085
3.3 Practical Load Situation ..................................................................... 1087
3.4 Creep and Shrinkage ........................................................................ 1087
3.5 Propped and Unpropped Composite Beams .................................... 1088
3.6 Partial Connection ............................................................................. 1089
4. Continuous Composite Beams ............................................................... 1090
6. Additional Reading .................................................................................. 1091
Lecture 10.3: Single Span Beams
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1093
1.1 Ultimate Limit State ........................................................................... 1094
1.2 Serviceability Limit State ................................................................... 1095
2. Design Aspects of the Concrete Flange in Compression ....................... 1095
2.1 Effective Width ................................................................................. 1095
2.2 Maximum Longitudinal Shear in the Concrete Slab .......................... 1096
3. Design Calculation ................................................................................... 1097
4. Plastic Design Method ............................................................................. 1098
4.1 Positive Bending Moment .................................................................. 1099
4.2 Vertical Shear .................................................................................... 1102
4.3 Vertical Shear in Combination with Bending Moment ....................... 1102
6. References ............................................................................................... 1104
Tables 1 & 2 ............................................................................................ 1105
Lecture 10.4.1: Continuous Beams I
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1107
General Contents (XXIX)

2. Rigid-Plastic Global Analysis ................................................................... 1108

3. Behaviour of Continuous Composite Beams .......................................... 1109
4. Rotation Capacity for Plastic Analysis ...................................................... 1110
5. Rigid-Plastic Analysis in Eurocode 4 ........................................................ 1111
6. Classification of Cross Sections ............................................................... 1112
7. Plastic Resistance moments .................................................................... 1112
8. Distribution of Bending Moments ............................................................. 1114
10. References ............................................................................................. 1115
11. Additional Reading ................................................................................. 1115
Lecture 10.4.2: Continuous Beams II
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1117
2. General Principles ................................................................................... 1117
2.1 Effective Width of Concrete Flange ................................................... 1117
2.2 Modular Ratio .................................................................................... 1118
2.3 Load arrangements and Load Cases ................................................ 1118
3. Distribution of Bending moments ............................................................. 1118
3.1 Cracked Section analysis .................................................................. 1118
3.2 Uncracked Section Method ............................................................... 1119
3.3 Redistribution of Support moments for Elastic Analysis .................... 1119
4. Classification of Cross-Sections of Beams .............................................. 1120
5. Elastic Resistance Method ....................................................................... 1120
6. Lateral-Torsional Buckling ........................................................................ 1122
6.1 Lateral Restraint ................................................................................ 1123
8. References ............................................................................................... 1124
Table 1 ..................................................................................................... 1124
Lecture 10.5.1: Design for Serviceability I
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1125
1.1 General .............................................................................................. 1125
1.2 Serviceability Limit States .................................................................. 1125
2. Elastic Analysis ........................................................................................ 1126
2.1 General .............................................................................................. 1126
2.2 Elastic Moduli ..................................................................................... 1127
2.3 Geometrical Properties of the Section ............................................... 1129
2.4 Section Stiffnesses ............................................................................ 1130
2.5 Simply Supported and Continuous Composite Beams ..................... 1130
3. Serviceability Limit States: Cracking ....................................................... 1131
3.1 Explicit Methods ................................................................................. 1131
3.2 Deemed-to-Satisfy Approach ............................................................ 1131
4. Serviceability Limit States: Deflection ...................................................... 1132
4.1 Explicit Methods ................................................................................. 1132
6. References ............................................................................................... 1134
Tables 1 to 9 ............................................................................................ 1135
Lecture 10.5.2: Design for Serviceability II
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1139
2. Creep and Shrinkage .............................................................................. 1139
(XXX) General Contents

2.1 General .............................................................................................. 1139

2.2 Creep ................................................................................................. 1140
2.3 Shrinkage .......................................................................................... 1143
2.4 Methods of Analysis for Creep and Shrinkage .................................. 1143
3. Serviceability Limit States: Cracking ........................................................ 1144
3.1 Deemed-to-Satisfy Approach ............................................................ 1147
3.2 Explicit Calculation of Cracks Widths ................................................ 1148
5. References ............................................................................................... 1150
Tables 1 to 3 ............................................................................................ 1150
Lecture 10.6.1: Shear Connections I
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1151
1.1 The Forces Applied to Connectors .................................................... 1151
1.2 Basic forms of Connection ................................................................ 1154
2. Design Values for Shear connectors ....................................................... 1155
3. Application of Design Values .................................................................. 1156
4. Spacing of Shear Connectors .................................................................. 1157
5. Shear Connectors in Slabs Formed Using Profiled Steel Sheeting ......... 1158
6. Alternative Forms of Connection ............................................................. 1158
8. References ............................................................................................... 1159
Lecture 10.6.1: Shear Connections II
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 951
2. Classification of Shear Connectors .......................................................... 1162
3. Design with Non-Ductile Connectors ....................................................... 1162
4. Design of Simply Supported Beams with Ductile Connectors ................. 1163
4.1 Definition of Full and Partial Shear Connection ................................ 1163
4.2 Design Method for Partial Shear Connection .................................... 1164
4.3 Checking of the Serviceability Limit State ......................................... 1167
6. References ............................................................................................... 1169
Lecture 10.6.3: Shear Connections III
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1171
2. Shear Connection Design in continuous Composite Beams ................... 1171
2.1 General Aspects ................................................................................ 1171
2.2 continuous Beams with Critical Cross-Sections in Class 1 ............... 1172
3. Case of Continuous Beams with Critical Cross-Sections
in Class 2 at Internal Supports ................................................................ 1176
5. References ............................................................................................... 1176
Lecture 10.7: Composite Slabs
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1177
1.1 Definition ............................................................................................ 1177
1.2 Types of Profiled Sheeting ................................................................ 1178
1.3 Steel-Concrete connection ................................................................ 1178
2. Design Principles .................................................................................... 1179
2.1 Design Situations .............................................................................. 1179
General Contents (XXXI)

2.2 Actions ............................................................................................... 1180

2.3 Material Properties ............................................................................. 1180
2.5 Deflection Limits ................................................................................ 1181
3. Behaviour and analysis ............................................................................ 1182
3.1 Behaviour of Profiled Sheeting .......................................................... 1182
3.2 Behaviour of Composite Slabs .......................................................... 1182
3.3 Analysis of composite Slabs .............................................................. 1184
4. Resistances of Sections ........................................................................... 1185
4.1 Positive Bending Resistance ............................................................. 1185
4.2 Negative Bending Resistance ........................................................... 1186
4.3 Vertical and Punching Shear Resistance .......................................... 1187
4.4 Longitudinal Shear Resistance .......................................................... 1188
4.5 Elastic Properties of Cross-Sections ................................................. 1189
5. Verifications .............................................................................................. 1189
5.1 Verification of the Ultimate Limit States ............................................. 1190
5.2 Verification of the Serviceability Limit states ..................................... 1190
7. References ............................................................................................... 1191
Tables 1 & 2 ............................................................................................. 1192
Lecture 10.8.1: Composite Columns I
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1193
2. Types of Cross-Sections of Composite Columns and Their
Advantages ............................................................................................... 1193
3. Material Grades and Material Safety ........................................................ 1194
4. Local Buckling Failure .............................................................................. 1195
5. Resistance of Cross-Sections to Axial Loads .......................................... 1195
6. Relative Slenderness and Stiffnesses ...................................................... 1196
7. Resistance of Members to Axial Loads .................................................... 1197
8. Restrictions to the applicability of simplified Method
According Eurocode 4 .............................................................................. 1198
9. Bearing in composite columns ................................................................. 1199
10. Concluding Summary ............................................................................. 1199
11. References ............................................................................................. 1199
Tables 1 to 7 ............................................................................................ 1200
Lecture 10.8.2: Composite Columns II
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1201
2. General ..................................................................................................... 1201
3. Analysis for Bending Moments ................................................................. 1201
4. Compression and Uniaxial Bending ......................................................... 1202
5. Interaction Curve for combined Compression and Bending .................... 1203
6. Compression and Biaxial Bending ........................................................... 1205
7. Influence of Shear Forces ........................................................................ 1206
8. Regions of Load Introduction ................................................................... 1207
10. References ............................................................................................. 1208
Lecture 10.9: Composite Buildings
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1209
2. Composite Action between Structural elements in Buildings ................... 1210
(XXXII) General Contents

3. Building components ................................................................................ 1211

3.1 Floor Structures ................................................................................. 1211
3.2 Framing Systems to Resist Horizontal Loads ................................... 1221
3.3 Connections ...................................................................................... 1221
4. Erection Methods ..................................................................................... 1226
5. Seismic Design ........................................................................................ 1227
6. Dynamic Sensitivity .................................................................................. 1227
8. Fire Condition ........................................................................................... 1228
Table 1 ..................................................................................................... 1229
Lecture 10.10: Composite Bridges
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1231
2. Composite Bridges – Principal Types ...................................................... 1232
3. Main Advantages of Composite Bridges .................................................. 1233
4. Structural Action ....................................................................................... 1235
4.1 Positive Bending Moment Regions .................................................. 1235
4.2 Negative Bending Moment Regions .................................................. 1235
5. Shear Connection .................................................................................... 1238
6. Fabrication and Erection .......................................................................... 1239
8. References ............................................................................................... 1239
Section 11: CONNECTION DESIGN – STATIC LOADING
Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1241
2. Components of Connections .................................................................... 1242
3. Types of Connections .............................................................................. 1244
3.1 Column Splices ................................................................................. 1245
3.2 Column Bases ................................................................................... 1245
3.3 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections .............................................. 1246
3.4 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections ............................ 1247
3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections .................................................. 1247
3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections ................................ 1247
3.7 Horizontal Bracing Connections ........................................................ 1248
3.8 Vertical Bracing Connections ............................................................ 1248
4. Requirements for Economy ..................................................................... 1248
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1251
2. Requirements for Structural Behaviour ................................................... 1251
3. Classification as a Basis for Design ......................................................... 1253
4. Load Transfer ........................................................................................... 1255
6. References ............................................................................................... 1259
7. Additional Reading .................................................................................... 1259
General Contents (XXXIII)

Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded Connections

1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1261
2. Types of Welds ......................................................................................... 1261
2.1 Butt Welds ......................................................................................... 1262
2.2 Fillet Welds ........................................................................................ 1262
2.3 Plug and Slot Welds .......................................................................... 1263
2.4 Spot Welds ........................................................................................ 1263
3. Descriptions of Welds – Definitions .......................................................... 1264
4. Mechanical Properties of Materials .......................................................... 1265
4.1 Parent Metal ...................................................................................... 1265
4.2 Filler Metal ......................................................................................... 1265
5. Edge Preparation Fit-up ............................................................................ 1266
6. Weld Qualities – Discontinuities ............................................................... 1267
8. References ............................................................................................... 1268
Lecture 11.2.2: Welded Connections – Basis for Weld Calculations
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1270
2. Butt Weld .................................................................................................. 1270
2.1 Full Penetration Butt Welds ............................................................... 1270
2.2 Partial Penetration Butt Welds ........................................................... 1271
2.3 Stress distribution in Butt Welds ........................................................ 1272
3. Fillet Weld Calculation .............................................................................. 1272
3.1 Assumptions ...................................................................................... 1272
3.2 Basic Method ..................................................................................... 1273
3.3 Mean Stress Method ......................................................................... 1273
3.4 Long Welds ........................................................................................ 1274
4. Slot and Plug Welds Calculation .............................................................. 1274
6. References ............................................................................................... 1274
Lecture 11.2.3: Welded Connections – Application of fillet Weld Calculation
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1276
2. Side fillet Welds ........................................................................................ 1277
2.1 Application of the Mean Stress Method ............................................. 1277
2.2 Application of the Alternative Method ................................................ 1277
2.3 Connection Strength Equal to Member Strength ............................... 1277
3. End Fillet Welds ....................................................................................... 1278
3.1 Application of the Mean Stress Method ............................................. 1278
3.2 Application of the Alternative Method ................................................ 1278
3.3 Connection Strength Equal to Member Strength ............................... 1279
4. Oblique Loading ....................................................................................... 1279
5. Load-Deformation Behaviour ................................................................... 1279
6. Welds to Unstiffened Flanges .................................................................. 1280
7. Base Metal Checking ............................................................................... 1281
9. References ............................................................................................... 1282
(XXXIV) General Contents

Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts

1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1284
2. Principle of Transmission ......................................................................... 1284
3. Dimensions of the Bolts ........................................................................... 1286
4. Bolt Grades .............................................................................................. 1286
5. Diameter of the Holes .............................................................................. 1287
6. Nominal and Stress Sections of a Bolt .................................................... 1287
7. Shear Resistance ..................................................................................... 1288
7.1 Normal Joints .................................................................................... 1288
7.2 Long Joints ........................................................................................ 1289
8. Bearing Resistance .................................................................................. 1290
9. Tension Resistance ................................................................................. 1291
10. Bolts Subject to Shear and Tension ...................................................... 1291
11. Spacing Requirements ........................................................................... 1293
11.1 Basis ................................................................................................ 1293
11.2 Connections of Plates ..................................................................... 1293
11.3 Angles Connected by One Leg ....................................................... 1294
12. Concluding Summary.............................................................................. 1295
13. References ............................................................................................. 1295
Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded Bolts
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1297
2. Load Transmission ................................................................................... 1298
2.1 Friction Connections .......................................................................... 1298
2.2 Tension Connections ......................................................................... 1299
3. Preload in Bolts ........................................................................................ 1299
4. Tightening Bolts ....................................................................................... 1300
5. Nuts and Washers ................................................................................... 1302
6. Holes ........................................................................................................ 1303
7. Slip Resistance ........................................................................................ 1303
8. Shear and Tension Resistance ................................................................ 1304
9. Provisions for Friction Grip Resistance .................................................... 1304
11. References ............................................................................................. 1305
Lecture 11.3.3: Particular Aspects in Bolted Connections
1. General Consideration ............................................................................. 1307
2. Oversized and Slotted Holes ................................................................... 1308
3. Fit of Contact Surfaces ............................................................................ 1309
4. Determination of the Slip Factor .............................................................. 1309
5. Fitted and Injection Bolts .......................................................................... 1310
6. TC Bolts – Load Indicator Washers ......................................................... 1313
6.1 “Tension Control” (TC) Bolts ............................................................. 1313
6.2 Load Indicator Washer ...................................................................... 1313
7. Plates Protected Against Corrosion ......................................................... 1314
8. Protected Bolts ......................................................................................... 1314
9. Hydrogen Embrittlement – Stress Corrosion ............................................ 1314
11. References ............................................................................................. 1315
Lecture 11.4.1: Analysis of Connections I: Basic Determination of Forces
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1317
General Contents (XXXV)

2. Determination of Forces ........................................................................... 1318

2.1 Forces on the Connection ................................................................. 1318
2.2 Force Distribution in the Connection ................................................. 1318
2.3 Basic Load Cases for Local Elements ............................................... 1319
3. Distribution of Forces ............................................................................... 1320
3.1 Influence of Stiffness Differences .......................................................1320
3.2 Free Centre of Rotation and Forced Centre of Rotation ................... 1322
5. References ............................................................................................... 1327
11. References ............................................................................................. 1327
Lecture 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections II: Distribution of Forces
in Groups of Bolts and Welds
1. Distribution of Forces .............................................................................. 1329
1.1 Long Connections .............................................................................. 1329
1.2 Distribution of Forces in Weld Groups ............................................... 1334
1.3 Non-Linear Distribution of Bolt Forces ............................................... 1337
1.4 Combination of Different Types of Fasteners .................................... 1339
3. References ............................................................................................... 1340
Lecture 11.4.3: Analysis of Connections III: Transfer of Direct Tension
or Compression and Shear
1. Transfer of Axial Tensile or Compressive Forces .................................... 1341
1.1 Butt Welds ......................................................................................... 1341
1.2 Transfer of Axial Loads Using Cover Plates ...................................... 1341
1.3 Connections to Gusset Plates ........................................................... 1345
2. Transfer of Shear Forces ......................................................................... 1348
4. References ............................................................................................... 1352
Lecture 11.4.4: Analysis of Connections IV: Resistance to Moment
by combined Tension and Compression
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1353
2. Transfer of Tensile Forces ....................................................................... 1354
2.1 Criteria ............................................................................................... 1354
2.2 Plastic Failure of the Column Flange ................................................. 1355
2.3 Yield/Rupture of the Column Web ..................................................... 1361
3. Transfer of Compression Forces .............................................................. 1362
4. Transfer of Shear Forces (Shear Zone) ................................................... 1364
6. References ............................................................................................... 1365
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1367
2. Beam-to-Beam Connections .................................................................... 1368
3. Beam-to-Column Connections ................................................................. 1369
4. Column Splices ........................................................................................ 1371
5. Bracing Connections ................................................................................ 1372
(XXXVI) General Contents

6. Column Bases .......................................................................................... 1372

7. Beam-to-Concrete Wall Connections ....................................................... 1374
9. References ............................................................................................... 1375
Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1377
2. Resume of What “Continuous” Implies .................................................... 1377
3. Rigid and Full Strength Connections in Practice ..................................... 1378
3.1 Full Strength Connections ................................................................. 1378
3.2 Rigid Connections ............................................................................. 1379
4. Means of Forming Connections ............................................................... 1379
5. Strength Design of Connections .............................................................. 1380
5.1 Calculation of Bolt Tension ................................................................ 1382
5.2 The Equivalent T-Stub Concept ........................................................ 1382
5.3 Multiple Bolt Rows ............................................................................. 1382
5.4 Justification of the Plastic Bolt Force Distribution ............................. 1383
6. The Pitched-Roof Portal Frame ............................................................... 1383
8. References ............................................................................................... 1384
Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-continuous Framing
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1385
2. Defining Terms ......................................................................................... 1386
3. Plastic and Elastic Global Analysis .......................................................... 1386
4. What Makes a Connection Suitable? ....................................................... 1387
5. The Need for Rigidity ............................................................................... 1388
6. Standardized Connections Design .......................................................... 1388
7. Calculation of Connection Properties ...................................................... 1390
8. Economical Connection Design ............................................................... 1392
9. Unbraced Frames .................................................................................... 1392
11. References ............................................................................................. 1393
Lecture 11.8: Splices in Buildings
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1395
1.1 Types of Splices ................................................................................ 1395
1.2 Loads in Splices ................................................................................ 1396
1.3 Scope of Present Lecture .................................................................. 1396
2. Splices in Tension Members .................................................................... 1397
2.1 Bolted Splice Plated Connections ..................................................... 1397
2.2 Welded Splice Connections .............................................................. 1399
2.3 Special connectors ............................................................................ 1399
3. Splices in Compression Members ........................................................... 1399
3.1 Bolted Splice Plated Connections ..................................................... 1400
3.2 Bolted End Plated Connections ......................................................... 1400
3.3 Fully Welded Connections ................................................................. 1400
3.4 Additional comments ......................................................................... 1401
4. Splices in Members Subject to Bending .................................................. 1401
5. Splices in Members Subject to Combined Axial Force and Bending ....... 1402
General Contents (XXXVII)

Section 12: FATIGUE
Lecture 12.1: Basic Introduction to Fatigue
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1403
1.1 Nature of Fatigue ............................................................................... 1403
1.2 How Welds Fatigue ........................................................................... 1403
1.3 Crack Growth History ........................................................................ 1404
2. Fatigue Strength ....................................................................................... 1404
2.1 Definition of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life ................................. 1404
2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life .............................................. 1404
2.3 S-N Curve .......................................................................................... 1405
2.4 Effect of Mean Stress ........................................................................ 1405
2.5 Effect of Mechanical Strength ............................................................ 1406
3. Classification of Details ............................................................................ 1406
3.1 Detail Classes .................................................................................... 1406
3.2 Detail Types ....................................................................................... 1407
3.3 Commonly Used Detail Types ........................................................... 1407
4. Stress Parameters for Fatigue ................................................................. 1408
4.1 Stress Area ........................................................................................ 1408
4.2 Calculation of Stress Range Δσ ..........................................................1408
4.3 Effects of Geometrical Stress concentration and Other Effects ........ 1409
4.4 Secondary Effects .............................................................................. 1409
5. Loading for Fatigue .................................................................................. 1409
5.1 Types of Loading ............................................................................... 1409
5.2 Cycle Counting .................................................................................. 1410
6. Calculation of Damage ............................................................................. 1410
8. References ............................................................................................... 1412
Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1413
2. Characteristics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces ........................................... 1413
3. Nature of Fatigue ...................................................................................... 1415
4. Fatigue Loading ........................................................................................ 1417
5. Fatigue Life Data ...................................................................................... 1419
5.1 Fatigue Strength Curves .................................................................... 1419
5.2 Fatigue Testing .................................................................................. 1420
5.3 Presentation of Fatigue Test Data ..................................................... 1422
6. Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life ..................................................... 1422
6.1 Material Effects .................................................................................. 1423
6.2 Mean Stress Effects ........................................................................... 1425
6.3 Notch Effects ..................................................................................... 1426
6.4 Size Effects ........................................................................................ 1428
6.5 Effects of Surface Finish .................................................................... 1429
6.6 Residual Stress Effects ..................................................................... 1430
6.7 Effects of Corrosion ........................................................................... 1430
7. Cycle Counting Procedure for Variable Amplitude Loading ..................... 1431
7.1 The Reservoir Method ....................................................................... 1431
(XXXVIII) General Contents

7.2 The Rainflow Counting Method ......................................................... 1433

7.3 Exceedance Diagram Method ........................................................... 1436
7.4 Block Loading .................................................................................... 1437
7.5 Frequency and Spectrum Aspects .................................................... 1438
9. References ............................................................................................... 1439
Lecture 12.3: Effect of Workmanship on Fatigue Strength
on Longitudinal and Transverse Welds
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1441
2. Longitudinal Welds ................................................................................... 1443
3. Transverse Butt Welds ............................................................................. 1443
3.1 Effect of Internal Defects ................................................................... 1444
3.2 Effect of Welding Procedure .............................................................. 1445
4. Other Welds ............................................................................................. 1446
4.1 General .............................................................................................. 1446
4.2 Transverse Fillet Weds ...................................................................... 1446
4.3 Load-Carrying and Non Load-Carrying Attachments ........................ 1447
5. Inspection ................................................................................................. 1448
5.1 Inspection of Longitudinal Welds ...................................................... 1448
5.2 Inspection of Transverse Butt Welds ................................................ 1448
5.3 Inspection of Other Welds ................................................................. 1450
6. Choice of Quality ...................................................................................... 1450
7. Design consideration ............................................................................... 1451
9. References ............................................................................................... 1452
Lecture 12.4.1: Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints (I)
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1453
2. Geometric Stress or Hot Spot Stress Approach ...................................... 1454
2.1 Definition of Geometric Stress and Stress Concentration
Factors .............................................................................................. 1454
2.2 Definition of Fatigue Life .................................................................... 1456
2.3 Thickness Effect ................................................................................ 1456
2.4 Fatigue Limit ...................................................................................... 1458
2.5 Fatigue Life and Δσ-N Curves ........................................................... 1458
2.6 Low Cycle Fatigue ............................................................................. 1459
2.7 Design Procedure .............................................................................. 1459
3. Classification Method ............................................................................... 1460
4. Other Methods ......................................................................................... 1461
4.1 Failure Criterion Method .................................................................... 1461
4.2 Punching Shear Method .................................................................... 1461
4.3 Relation to Static Strength ................................................................. 1461
5. Effect of Secondary Bending moments ................................................... 1461
6. Simple Connections and Attachments ..................................................... 1463
7. Partial Safety Factors ............................................................................... 1463
8. Cumulative Damage ................................................................................ 1463
10. References ............................................................................................. 1463
Table 1a, 1b & 2 ........................................................................................... 1464
General Contents (XXXIX)

Lecture 12.4.2: Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints (II)

1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1465
2. Modelling of the Structure ........................................................................ 1465
3. End-to-End Connections and Attachments .............................................. 1467
4. Geometric Stress Method ........................................................................ 1467
4.1 Reference Curves .............................................................................. 1467
4.2 Determination of Geometric Stresses by F.E. Modelling ................... 1467
4.3 Stress Concentration Factors ............................................................ 1469
4.4 Fatigue Life ......................................................................................... 1472
5. Classification Method ............................................................................... 1472
6. General Requirements for Welding .......................................................... 1473
8. References ............................................................................................... 1473
Tables 1 & 2 ................................................................................................. 1475
Lecture 12.5: Improvement Techniques in Welded Joints
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1479
1.2 General .............................................................................................. 1479
1.2 The Potential for Improving Fatigue Strength .................................... 1480
2. Improvement Methods – Operating Principles ......................................... 1481
3. Some Improvement Methods and Their Effect on Fatigue Strength ........ 1482
3.1 Improved Welding Techniques .......................................................... 1482
3.2 Grinding ............................................................................................. 1483
3.3 Weld Toe Remelting .......................................................................... 1484
3.4 Residual Stress Method ................................................................... 1485
3.5 Compounding .................................................................................... 1486
4. Applying Improvement Methods to Real Structures ................................. 1487
5. Improvement Methods and Design Life ................................................... 1487
5.1 Current Design rules Incorporating Improvement Techniques .......... 1487
5.2 Improved Welds and Size Effects ...................................................... 1488
5.3 Future Modification to Design rules ................................................... 1489
8. References ............................................................................................... 1489
Table 1 ......................................................................................................... 1491
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1493
2. Fatigue Behaviour of Bolts Loaded in Tension ........................................ 1494
2.1 Location of Failure ............................................................................. 1494
2.2 Influence of Mean Stress and Material .............................................. 1495
2.3 The Fatigue Design Curve for Bolts in Tension ................................. 1496
2.4 Comparison between Ultimate and Fatigue Life for Bolts ................. 1497
3. Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections s Loaded in Tension .............. 1497
3.1 The Principle of the Effect of Preloading ........................................... 1497
3.2 The Effect of the Location of the Contact Area ................................. 1498
4. Fatigue of Bolted Connections Loaded in Shear ..................................... 1500
4.1 The Principle of Load Transfer .......................................................... 1500
4.2 Stress Concentration around the Holes ............................................ 1501
4.3 Location of Failure ............................................................................. 1501
(XL) General Contents

5. Fatigue Design Curves for Connections Loaded in Shear ..................... 1501

5.1 Non Preloaded Bolts ......................................................................... 1501
5.2 Preloaded Bolts ................................................................................. 1502
6. Remarks Concerning the Magnitude of the Preload ................................ 1502
7. Fatigue Strength of Anchor Bolts ............................................................. 1502
9. References ............................................................................................... 1503
Lecture 12.7: Reliability analysis and Safety Factors Applied to Fatigue Design
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1505
2. Statistical Analysis of S-N Curves ........................................................... 1505
3. Safety concept and Partial Safety Coefficients ........................................ 1510
3.1 Derivation of Partial Safety Factors ................................................... 1510
5. References ............................................................................................... 1513
Lecture 12.8: Basic Design Concepts in Eurocode 3
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1515
2. Practical Implication of Design Criteria .................................................... 1515
2.1 Main Factors Affecting the Fatigue Strength ..................................... 1515
2.2 Fatigue Life Criteria ........................................................................... 1516
2.3 Design Stresses for Fatigue Assessment ......................................... 1517
3. Design Stress Spectrum .......................................................................... 1518
3.1 Stress History .................................................................................... 1518
3.2 Stress Histogram ............................................................................... 1519
4. Fatigue Design curves Classification concept ......................................... 1520
5. Fatigue Test Results ................................................................................ 1522
6. Cumulative Damage Rule, Equivalent Stress Range Concept ................ 1523
6.1 Palmgren-Miner Rule ........................................................................ 1523
6.2 Equivalent Stress Range ................................................................... 1523
6.3 Equivalent Stress Range for an S-N Curve with a Double
Slope Constant .................................................................................. 1523
7. Residual Stress Effect .............................................................................. 1526
9. References ............................................................................................... 1527
Lecture 12.9: Eurocode 3 Classification for Constructional Details
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1529
2. General Presentation of the Case Study ................................................. 1529
3. Notes on Detailed Figures 2-7 of the Case Study ................................... 1531
5. References ............................................................................................... 1540
Lecture 12.10: Basics of Fracture Mechanics
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1541
2. Background to Modern Fracture Mechanics ........................................... 1541
3. Effects of Mode of Loading ...................................................................... 1543
4. Effects of Crack Geometry ....................................................................... 1544
5. Effects of Finite components Geometry ................................................... 1545
6. Local Welding Effect at a Crack Tip ......................................................... 1546
7. Significance of the Stress Intensity Factor ................................................ 1547
9. References ............................................................................................... 1547
General Contents (XLI)

Lecture 12.11: Stress Analysis of the Cracked Bodies

1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1549
2. Basic Solution for a Stress Field in a Problem of Plane Elasticity ........... 1550
2.1 Method of Westergaard ..................................................................... 1550
2.2 Definition of z (or its derivatives) for the Case of a Through-
Thickness Crack of Length 2a in an Infinite Plate (Figure 2) ............ 1551
2.3 Determination of z in the Case of the Griffith Problem ...................... 1551
3. Crack Tip Elastic Stress Field for General Cracking Conditions .............. 1553
4. Plasticity ................................................................................................... 1554
4.1 Irwin’s Model ...................................................................................... 1554
4.2 Plastic Zone Contour from Von Mises and Tresca Criteria
(Figure 5) ........................................................................................... 1555
5. Front Crack Yielding Model of DS Dugdale (1960) and Blatt (1962) ....... 1556
5.1 Plastic Zone Dimension ..................................................................... 1556
5.2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement ...................................................... 1557
7. References ............................................................................................... 1559
Lecture 12.12: Determination of Stress Intensity Factors
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1561
2. Analytical Solutions .................................................................................. 1562
3. Bueckner’s Principle and Weight Functions ............................................. 1564
4. Finite Element Analysis of Cracked Bodies ............................................. 1566
5. Reference solutions from Parametric Equations ...................................... 1567
6. Plasticity Effects ....................................................................................... 1569
7, Concluding Summary ............................................................................... 1569
8. References ............................................................................................... 1570
Appendix: Numerical Example and Tables 1 & 2 ......................................... 1570
Lecture 12.13: Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fatigue
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1573
2. Fracture Mechanics Crack Propagation Behaviour ................................. 1574
3. Determination of Life under Constant Amplitude ..................................... 1575
4. Variable Amplitude Loading ..................................................................... 1576
5. Threshold Effects ......................................................................................1578
6. Effects of Residual Stresses .................................................................... 1579
Lecture 12.14: Fracture Mechanics: Structural Engineering Applications
1. Safety, Durability and Applicability ........................................................... 1581
1.1 Introduction to Safety and Durability Concepts ................................. 1581
1.2 Damage Growth concepts ................................................................. 1582
1.3 Design Concepts Accounting for Damage ........................................ 1584
1.4 Reliability and Risk analysis .............................................................. 1585
2. Life Prediction Methodology .................................................................... 1586
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1586
2.2 Crack Growth Behaviour Effects ....................................................... 1587
2.3 Fatigue Crack Growth Prediction Models .......................................... 1589
4. References ............................................................................................... 1593
(XLII) General Contents

Lecture 12.15: Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fitness for Purpose

1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1595
2. Crack Shape Development ...................................................................... 1595
3. Multiple Crack Initiation ............................................................................ 1597
4. Final Failure Criteria ................................................................................. 1598
5. Advanced Treatments .............................................................................. 1600
7. References ............................................................................................... 1601

Section 13: TUBULAR STRUCTURE
Lecture 13.1: Applications of hollow Sections in Steel Structures
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1603
2. Mechanical and Geometrical Properties of Hollow Sections ................... 1604
2.1 Mechanical Properties ....................................................................... 1604
2.2 Geometrical Properties ...................................................................... 1604
2.3 Tension Loading ................................................................................ 1604
2.4 Compression Loading ....................................................................... 1604
2.5 Torsion ............................................................................................... 1606
2.6 Bending ............................................................................................. 1606
2.7 Fatigue ............................................................................................... 1606
3. Other Aspects of Application of Hollow Sections ..................................... 1606
3.1 Drag Coefficients ............................................................................... 1606
3.2 Corrosion Protection .......................................................................... 1607
3.3 Use of Internal Void ........................................................................... 1607
4.1 Aspects of Fabrication ....................................................................... 1609
4.2 Welding .............................................................................................. 1609
4.3 End Preparation ................................................................................ 1610
4.4 Bending ............................................................................................. 1611
4.5 Bolting ................................................................................................ 1612
5. Design Applications ................................................................................. 1614
5.1 Columns ............................................................................................ 1614
5.2 Uniplanar Trusses ............................................................................. 1614
5.3 Multiplanar Trusses ........................................................................... 1615
5.4 Space Structures ............................................................................... 1616
5.5 Composite Structures ........................................................................ 1617
6. Design Philosophy ................................................................................... 1617
7. Design Procedure for a Hollow Section (CHS or RHS) Truss ................. 1619
8. Reasons for Using hollow Sections ......................................................... 1620
10. References ............................................................................................. 1620
Tables 1 to 9 ................................................................................................ 1620
Lecture 13.2: The behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between
Circular Hollow Sections under Predominantly Static Loading
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1625
2. Criteria and Modes of Failure ................................................................... 1626
3. Analytical Models ..................................................................................... 1627
3.1 Ring Model (Figure 3a) ...................................................................... 1627
General Contents (XLIII)

3.2 Punching Shear Model ...................................................................... 1628

3.3 Shear Model ...................................................................................... 1629
4. Test Evidence ........................................................................................... 1629
5. Strength Formulae for Axially Loaded Joints ........................................... 1629
6. Other Types of Joints or Other Load Conditions ...................................... 1630
6.1 Special Types of Welded CHS Joints ................................................ 1630
6.2 Plate or I-Sections Connected to CHS Chords ................................. 1630
6.3 CHS chords Loaded by Bending Moments ....................................... 1630
6.4 Multiplanar CHS Joints (KK- and TT- Connections) .......................... 1631
7. Design Charts ........................................................................................... 1631
8. Design Procedures for Joint in Lattice Girders ........................................ 1632
10. References ............................................................................................. 1633
Tables 1 to 5 ................................................................................................. 1634
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between
Rectangular Hollow Sections under Predominantly Static Loading
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1639
2. Criteria and Modes of Failure ................................................................... 1640
3. Analytical Models ..................................................................................... 1642
3.1 Yield Line Model ................................................................................ 1642
3.2 Punching Shear model ...................................................................... 1643
3.3 Effective Bracing Width Model ........................................................... 1643
3.4 Shear Failure Model of the Chord ......................................................1644
3.5 Chord Wall Bearing or Local Buckling Model .................................... 1645
4. Test Evidence ........................................................................................... 1645
5. Other Types of Joints or Other Load Conditions ...................................... 1646
5.1 Joints between Circular Bracings and a Rectangular Chord ............. 1646
5.2 Plate or I-Sections Connected to RHS Chord ................................... 1646
5.3 RHS Joints Loaded by Bending Moments ......................................... 1646
5.4 Multiplanar RHS Joints KK- and TT-Connections) ............................ 1646
6. Design Charts ........................................................................................... 1647
7. Design Procedures for Joints in Lattice Girders ....................................... 1648
10. References ............................................................................................. 1648
Tables 1 to 7 ................................................................................................. 1649
Section 14: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS
Lecture 14.1.1: Single-Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1655
2. Anatomy and Conception of the Structure ............................................... 1656
2.1 Cladding ..............................................................................................1656
2.2 Secondary Elements ......................................................................... 1656
2.3 The Main Frame of the Structure ....................................................... 1657
3. Loading ..................................................................................................... 1662
3.1 External Gravity Loads ...................................................................... 1662
3.2 Wind Loads ........................................................................................ 1662
3.3 Internal Gravity Loads ....................................................................... 1663
3.4 Cranes ............................................................................................... 1663
3.5 Other Actions ..................................................................................... 1663
4. Fabrication ................................................................................................ 1664
(XLIV) General Contents

5. Transportation .......................................................................................... 1665

6. Erection .................................................................................................... 1665
8. References ............................................................................................... 1666
9. Wider Reading ......................................................................................... 1666
Lecture 14.1.2: Single-Storey Buildings: Envelope and Secondary Structure
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1667
2. Cladding System ...................................................................................... 1667
2.1 Roof Cladding ..................................................................................... 1669
2.2 Wall Cladding .................................................................................... 1669
3. Resistance of Cladding to Loads ............................................................. 1670
4. Shapes of Purlins and Rails ..................................................................... 1670
4.1 Cold Formed Purlins .......................................................................... 1671
4.2 Hot-Rolled Shapes ............................................................................ 1671
5. Resistance of Purlins and Rails to Loads ................................................ 1672
6. Main Frame Bracing ................................................................................. 1673
7. Concluding Summary ................................................................................ 1675
8. References ............................................................................................... 1675
Panels, Roof Panels, Wall Panels Tables ................................................... 1676
Ultimate Load Tables, Load Factors, Purlins ............................................... 1679
Lecture 14.2: Single-Storey Buildings: Envelope and Secondary Structure
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1681
2. Elastic Analysis of Portal Frames ............................................................ 1683
2.2 Imperfections ..................................................................................... 1685
2.3 Second Order Global analysis ........................................................... 1685
2.4 First Order Global analysis ................................................................ 1686
3. Special Features of Behaviour for Tapered Portal Frames
and Associated Design Rules .................................................................. 1687
4. Practical Design and Fabrication of Tapered Portal Frames ................... 1689
6. References ............................................................................................... 1690
Lecture 14.3: Analysis of Portal Frames: Plastic Analysis
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1691
2. Requirements for Plastic analysis ............................................................ 1692
3. Application of Plastic analysis to a Beam ................................................ 1695
4. Application of Plastic Analysis to a Flat Top Portal Frame ...................... 1697
5. Principles of Virtual Work ......................................................................... 1698
6. Plastic Analysis Methods ......................................................................... 1699
7. Application of the simple Rigid-Plastic Method of Analysis
to the Design of a Pitched Portal Frame .................................................. 1699
9. References ............................................................................................... 1700
Annex A: some Design Rules for simple Portal Frames .............................. 1701
Lecture 14.4: Crane Runway Girders
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1705
2. Types of Cranes ....................................................................................... 1708
2.1 Classification of Cranes ...................................................................... 1608
3. Crane Rails .............................................................................................. 1709
General Contents (XLV)

3.1 Rail Splices ........................................................................................ 1709

3.2 Rail Fastenings .................................................................................. 1710
4. Loads on the Crane Runway Girder ......................................................... 1711
5. Selection of the Crane Runway Girder ..................................................... 1712
5.1 Optimum Girder Proportions .............................................................. 1713
6. Design of the Crane Runway Girder ........................................................ 1713
6.1 Crane Runway Girder-to-Column Details .......................................... 1713
6.2 Rigidity Requirements ....................................................................... 1714
6.3 Web Stiffeners ................................................................................... 1715
6.4 Lateral Forces and Lateral Torsional Buckling .................................. 1716
6.5 Fatigue consideration ........................................................................ 1716
7. Concluding Summary ................................................................................1716
Lecture 14.5: Space Structure Systems
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1717
1.1 Definitions .......................................................................................... 1717
1.2 Historical Background ........................................................................ 1718
1.3 Different Types of System ................................................................. 1718
2. Design of Spatial Truss Systems ............................................................. 1723
2.1 Conceptual Design .............................................................................1723
2.2 Design Method ................................................................................... 1723
2.3 Initial Sizing ........................................................................................ 1723
2.4 Choice of the Structural System ........................................................ 1728
2.5 Qualification Procedure ..................................................................... 1728
3. Analysis of Space Truss Systems ............................................................ 1728
3.1 Different Analysis Methods ................................................................ 1728
3.2 Design Assumption ............................................................................ 1729
3.3 Limit of Validity of the Methods Described ........................................ 1730
3.4 Displacement Method ........................................................................ 1730
4. Fabrication of Space Trusses .................................................................. 1731
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1731
4.2 Structural System .............................................................................. 1731
4.3 Methods of Fabrication and Erection ................................................. 1732
6. References ............................................................................................... 1733
Lecture 14.6: Special Single-Storey Structures
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1735
1.1 General ...............................................................................................1735
1.2 Safety ................................................................................................. 1736
2. An Outline of Older Types of Special Single Storey Structures ............... 1736
2.1 The Saw-Tooth Roof ......................................................................... 1737
2.2 The Umbrella and Butterfly Roofs ..................................................... 1737
2.3 Arched Roofs ..................................................................................... 1737
2.4 Prestressed Frames .......................................................................... 1738
2.5 Domes ............................................................................................... 1738
3. Cable and Tension Structures .................................................................. 1740
3.1 General .............................................................................................. 1740
3.2 Stiffness under Transverse Loading .................................................. 1741
(XLVI) General Contents

3.3 Anchorage ......................................................................................... 1743

4. Additional Special Structure Categories .................................................. 1745
4.1 Hangars ............................................................................................. 1745
Lecture 14.7: Anatomy of Multi-Storey Buildings
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1747
2. Primary Structure ..................................................................................... 1748
2.1 Vertical Load-Bearing Elements ......................................................... 1748
2.2 Horizontal Load-Bearing Elements .................................................... 1753
3. Secondary Elements and Finishes .......................................................... 1756
4. Performance Requirements ..................................................................... 1757
6. References ............................................................................................... 1757
Lecture 14.8: Classification of Multi-Storey Frames
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1759
2. Bracing Systems ...................................................................................... 1760
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 1760
2.2 Engineering Definition ....................................................................... 1760
2.3 Eurocode Definitions .......................................................................... 1761
3. Framed Systems ...................................................................................... 1761
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1761
3.3 Eurocode Definition ........................................................................... 1763
4. Braced and Unbraced Frames ................................................................. 1764
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1764
5. Sway and Non-Sway Frames .................................................................. 1765
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1765
7. References ............................................................................................... 1767
Lecture 14.9: Methods of Analysis of Multi-Storey Frames
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1769
2. Objectives and Preliminary Considerations ............................................. 1769
3. Actions ..................................................................................................... 1770
3.1 Permanent Actions ............................................................................. 1770
3.2 Variable Actions – Imposed Loads .................................................... 1771
3.3 Variable Actions – Wind Loads ......................................................... 1771
3.4 Seismic Actions ................................................................................. 1773
3.5 Temperature ...................................................................................... 1773
4. Limit States .............................................................................................. 1773
4.1 Ultimate Limit State ........................................................................... 1774
5. Frame Classification ................................................................................ 1775
5.1 Classification as Braced or Unbraced ................................................ 1775
General Contents (XLVII)

5.2 Classification as Sway or Non-Sway ................................................. 1775

6. Allowance for Imperfection ....................................................................... 1776
7. Analysis Model and Method ..................................................................... 1776
7.1 Simple Framing .................................................................................. 1776
7.2 Continuous Frames ........................................................................... 1777
9. References ............................................................................................... 1779
Tables 1 to 3 ................................................................................................. 1780
Lecture 14.10: Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-Storey Buildings
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1781
2. Element of the Structure .......................................................................... 1782
2.1 Bracing Systems ................................................................................ 1782
2.2 Simple Frames ................................................................................... 1785
2.3 Floors ................................................................................................. 1788
3. Design of the Structure ............................................................................ 1788
3.1 Loads and Their Combination ........................................................... 1788
3.2 Beam Design ..................................................................................... 1789
3.3 Column Design .................................................................................. 1790
3.4 Bracing System .................................................................................. 1790
3.5 Connections ....................................................................................... 1791
4. Erection .................................................................................................... 1792
6. References ............................................................................................... 1792
Tables 1 and 2 .............................................................................................. 1793
Lecture 14.11: Influence of Connections on Behaviour of Frames
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1795
2. Classification of connections .................................................................... 1796
2.1 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Elastic Frame Stability ............ 1796
2.2 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Frame Strength ...................... 1798
2.3 Influence of Connection Strength on Frame Behaviour .................... 1800
3. Modelling of the Connection ..................................................................... 1800
5. References ............................................................................................... 1802
Lecture 14.12: Simplified Method of Design for Low-Rise Frames
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1803
2. The Method .............................................................................................. 1804
3. Scope ........................................................................................................1806
4. Global analysis for Ultimate Limit States ................................................. 1808
5. Design of Beams for Ultimate Limit States .............................................. 1810
6. Design of Columns for Ultimate Limit States ........................................... 1810
7. Design for Serviceability Limit State ......................................................... 1811
9. References ............................................................................................... 1812
Tables 1 & 2 ................................................................................................. 1812
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength
and Semi-Rigid Connections
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1813
2. Classification of Connections ................................................................... 1814
(XLVIII) General Contents

3. Relation between Frame and Connection Behaviour .............................. 1819

4. Plastically Designed Connections in Elastically Designed Frames ......... 1820
5. Elastically Designed Connections in Plastically Designed Frames ......... 1820
7. References ............................................................................................... 1820
Table 1 ......................................................................................................... 1821
Lecture 14.14: Methods of Analysis of Rigid Joined Frames
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1823
2. Eurocode 3 Approach to Analysis and Design ........................................ 1823
2.1 General Approach ............................................................................. 1823
2.2 Second Order Effect .......................................................................... 1824
2.3 Imperfections ..................................................................................... 1824
3. Methods of Global Elastic Analysis .......................................................... 1826
3.1 Premise ............................................................................................. 1826
3.2 First Order Elastic Global Analysis .................................................... 1827
3.3 Second Order Elastic Global Analysis .............................................. 1827
3.4 Calculation of Internal Forces and Moments ..................................... 1829
3.5 Cross Section Requirements ............................................................. 1831
4. Methods of Global Plastic Analysis .......................................................... 1831
4.1 Rigid Plastic Analysis ........................................................................ 1831
4.2 Elastic - Perfectly Plastic Analysis .................................................... 1833
4.3 Elasto - Plastic Analysis .................................................................... 1833
4.4 Calculation of Internal Forces and Moments ..................................... 1834
6. References ............................................................................................... 1835
Lecture 14.15: Tall Building Design
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1837
2. Systems Evolution ................................................................................... 1839
2.1 Shear Frame Systems ....................................................................... 1839
2.2 Shear Truss and Frame System ....................................................... 1840
2.3 Frames, Vertical Trusses, Belt and Outrigger Trusses ..................... 1840
2.4 The Framed Tube .............................................................................. 1841
2.5 The Diagonalized Tube ..................................................................... 1843
2.6 Bundled Tube or Modular Tube System ........................................... 1843
2.7 Mixed Steel Concrete Systems ......................................................... 1845
3. Ultra High-Rise Structures ....................................................................... 1846
3.1 Superframe or Megaframe ................................................................ 1846
3.2 Super - Trussed Tube ....................................................................... 1848
4. Exposed Steel Systems ........................................................................... 1848
6. References ............................................................................................... 1850
Volume 11: Sections 15A & 15B

Section 15A: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1851
2. Offshore Platforms ................................................................................... 1851
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types ............................................................... 1851
General Contents (XLIX)

2.2 Environment ....................................................................................... 1853

2.3 Construction ....................................................................................... 1853
2.4 Codes ................................................................................................ 1853
2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey ..................................................... 1853
3. Offshore Development of an Oil/Gas Field .............................................. 1854
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1854
3.2 Jacket Base Platform for Shallow Water ........................................... 1854
3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water .......................... 1854
4. Jacket and Pile Foundation ...................................................................... 1855
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1855
4.2 Pile Foundation .................................................................................. 1855
4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance .................................................................... 1855
5. Topsides ................................................................................................... 1856
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1856
5.2 Jacket Based Topsides ..................................................................... 1856
5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-Based Topsides ............. 1856
6. Equipment and Living Quarter Modules ................................................... 1858
7. Construction ............................................................................................. 1858
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1858
7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides .............................................. 1858
7.3 Offshore Lifting .................................................................................. 1860
7.4 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening ..................................................... 1861
7.5 Load-Out ............................................................................................ 1861
7.6 Platform Removal .............................................................................. 1863
8. Structural Analysis .................................................................................... 1863
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1863
8.2 In-place Phase ................................................................................... 1863
8.3 Construction Phase ........................................................................... 1863
9. Cost Aspects ............................................................................................ 1863
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1863
8.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) .............................................................1863
8.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX) .......................................................1864
10. Deep water Developments ......................................................................1864
12. Glossary of Terms .................................................................................. 1865
13. References ............................................................................................. 1865
Lecture 15A.2: Loads (I): Introduction and Environmental Loads
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1867
2. Environmental Loads ............................................................................... 1867
2.1 Wind Loads ........................................................................................ 1867
2.2 Wave Loads ...................................................................................... 1868
2.3 Current Loads .................................................................................... 1872
2.4 Earthquake Loads .............................................................................. 1873
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads .......................................................................... 1874
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations ............................................... 1874
2.7 Marine Growth ................................................................................... 1874
(L) General Contents

2.8 Tides .................................................................................................. 1875

2.9 Sea Floor Movement ......................................................................... 1875
4. References ............................................................................................... 1875
Table 1 .......................................................................................................... 1876
Lecture 15A.3: Loads (II): Other Loads
1. Permanent (Dead) Loads ......................................................................... 1877
2. Operating (Live) Loads ............................................................................ 1877
3. Fabrication and Installation Loads ........................................................... 1878
3.1 Lifting Forces ..................................................................................... 1878
3.2 Lead-out Forces ................................................................................ 1878
3.3 Transportation Forces ....................................................................... 1879
3.4 Launching and Upending Forces ...................................................... 1881
4. Accidental Loads ...................................................................................... 1881
5. Load Combinations .................................................................................. 1882
7. References ............................................................................................... 1883
Tables 1 & 2 ................................................................................................. 1883
Lecture 15A.4: Analysis (I)
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1885
2. Analytical Model ....................................................................................... 1885
2.1 Stick Models ...................................................................................... 1885
2.2 Plate Models ...................................................................................... 1886
3. Acceptance Criteria .................................................................................. 1886
3.1 Code Checks ..................................................................................... 1886
3.2 Allowable Stress Method ................................................................... 1886
3.3 Limit State Method ............................................................................ 1886
4. Preliminary Member Sizing ...................................................................... 1888
4.1 Jacket Pile Sizes ............................................................................... 1888
4.2 Deck Leg Sizes ................................................................................. 1888
4.3 Jacket Bracings ................................................................................. 1888
4.4 Deck Framing .................................................................................... 1888
5. Static in-Place Analysis ............................................................................ 1888
5.1 Structural Model ................................................................................. 1888
5.2 Loadings ............................................................................................. 1889
5.3 Loading Combinations ....................................................................... 1889
6. Dynamic Analysis ..................................................................................... 1888
6.1 Dynamic Model ................................................................................... 1889
6.2 Equation of Motion ............................................................................. 1889
6.3 Modal Superposition Method ............................................................. 1891
6.4 Direct Integration Method .................................................................. 1892
Lecture 15A.5: Analysis (II)
1. Fatigue Analysis ....................................................................................... 1893
1.1 Fatigue Model .................................................................................... 1893
1.2 Deterministic Analysis ....................................................................... 1894
1.3 Spectral Analysis ............................................................................... 1894
1.4 Wind Fatigue ..................................................................................... 1895
General Contents (LI)

2. Abnormal and Accidental Conditions ....................................................... 1895

2.1 Model ................................................................................................. 1895
2.2 Impact ................................................................................................ 1896
2.3 Progressive Collapse ......................................................................... 1896
3. Load-Out and Transportation ................................................................... 1896
3.1 Load-Out ............................................................................................ 1896
3.2 Transportation .................................................................................... 1897
4. Installation ................................................................................................ 1897
4.1 Launching .......................................................................................... 1897
4.2 Upending ........................................................................................... 1898
4.3 Docking .............................................................................................. 1898
4.4 Unpiled Stability ................................................................................. 1898
4.5 Piling .................................................................................................. 1898
4.6 Lifting ................................................................................................. 1898
5. Local Analysis and Design ....................................................................... 1899
5.1 Pile/Sleeve Connections .....................................................................1899
5.2 Members within the Splash Zone ...................................................... 1899
5.3 Straightened Nodes ........................................................................... 1899
5.4 Appurtenance .................................................................................... 1899
5.5 Helidecks ........................................................................................... 1900
5.6 Flare Booms ...................................................................................... 1900
7. References ............................................................................................... 1900
Lecture 15A.6: Foundations
1. Introductions ............................................................................................ 1903
1.1 Classification of Soils ........................................................................ 1903
1.2 Granular Soils .................................................................................... 1903
1.3 Cohesive Soils ................................................................................... 1904
1.4 Multi-Layered Strata .......................................................................... 1904
2. Design ...................................................................................................... 1904
2.1 Design Loads ..................................................................................... 1904
2.2 Static Axial Pile Resistance ............................................................... 1905
2.3 Lateral Pile Resistance ...................................................................... 1905
2.4 Pile Driving ......................................................................................... 1906
3. Different Kinds of Piles ............................................................................. 1907
3.1 Driven Piles ........................................................................................ 1907
3.2 Insert Piles ......................................................................................... 1907
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles ................................................................... 1908
3.4 Belled Piles ........................................................................................ 1908
4. Fabrication and Installation ..................................................................... 1908
4.1 Fabrication ......................................................................................... 1908
4.2 Transportation .................................................................................... 1908
4.3 Hammers ........................................................................................... 1909
4.4 Installation .......................................................................................... 1910
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections ................................................................ 1912
4.6 Quality Control ................................................................................... 1913
4.7 Contingency Plan ............................................................................... 1914
(LII) General Contents

6. References ............................................................................................... 1914

Tables 1 to 3 ................................................................................................ 1915
Lecture 15A.7: Tubular Joints in Offshore Structures
1. Introductions ........................................................................................... 1917
2. Definitions ................................................................................................ 1917
2.1 Geometrical Definitions ..................................................................... 1918
2.2 Geometrical Ratios ............................................................................ 1918
3. Classification ............................................................................................ 1918
3.1 T and Y Joints ................................................................................... 1918
3.2 X Joints .............................................................................................. 1918
3.3 N and K Joints ................................................................................... 1919
3.4 KT Joints ............................................................................................ 1919
3.5 Limitations ......................................................................................... 1919
3.6 How to Classify a Joint ...................................................................... 1920
4. Gap and Overlap ...................................................................................... 1920
4.1 Definitions .......................................................................................... 1920
4.2 Limitations ......................................................................................... 1920
4.3 Multiplanar Joints .............................................................................. 1920
5. Joint Arrangement .................................................................................... 1920
6. Static Strength ......................................................................................... 1921
6.1 Load Taken into Account ................................................................... 1921
6.2 Punching Shear ................................................................................. 1921
6.3 Overlapping Joints ............................................................................. 1923
6.4 Reinforced Joints ............................................................................... 1924
7. Stress Concentration ............................................................................... 1924
7.1 Stress Concentration Factor .............................................................. 1925
7.2 Kellog Equation ................................................................................. 1925
7.3 Parametric Formulae ......................................................................... 1925
8. Fatigue Analysis ....................................................................................... 1926
8.1 Nominal Stress Range ...................................................................... 1926
8.2 Hot Spot Stress Ranges .................................................................... 1927
8.3 S-N Curves ........................................................................................ 1927
8.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Ratio ................................................... 1927
10. References ............................................................................................. 1928
Lecture 15A.8: Fabrication
1. Introductions ........................................................................................... 1929
1.1 Construction Phases ......................................................................... 1929
1.2 Construction Philosophy .................................................................... 1929
2. Engineering of Execution ......................................................................... 1930
3. Fabrication ............................................................................................... 1931
3.1 Fabrication Processes ....................................................................... 1931
3.2 Node Fabrication ............................................................................... 1933
3.3 Jacket Sub-Assemblies ..................................................................... 1934
3.4 Dimensional control ........................................................................... 1934
4. Jacket Assembly and Erection ................................................................. 1934
4.1 Jacket Assembly ............................................................................... 1934
4.2 Jacket Erection .................................................................................. 1936
General Contents (LIII)


6. References ............................................................................................... 1938
Appendix 1 ................................................................................................... 1939
Lecture 15A.9: Installation
1. Introductions ............................................................................................ 1943
1.1 Project Phases ................................................................................... 1943
1.2 Construction Philosophy .................................................................... 1943
1.3 Installation Planning .......................................................................... 1946
2. Load-out and Seafastening ...................................................................... 1946
3. Offshore Transportation ........................................................................... 1948
4. Offshore Installation ................................................................................. 1948
4.1 Removal a Jacket from Barge ........................................................... 1949
4.2 Jacket Up-ending and Set-down ....................................................... 1950
4.3 On-bottom Stability ............................................................................ 1952
6. References ............................................................................................... 1953
Table 1 ......................................................................................................... 1954
Lecture 15A.10: Superstructures (I)
1. Introductions ............................................................................................ 1955
2. Basic Aspects of Design .......................................................................... 1955
2.1 Space and Elevations ........................................................................ 1955
2.2 Lay-out Requirements ....................................................................... 1957
2.3 Loads ................................................................................................. 1958
2.4 Interface Control ................................................................................ 1959
2.5 Weight Engineering ........................................................................... 1959
3. Structural Systems ................................................................................... 1960
3.1 Selection of Topside for a Main Jacket-Based Structures ................ 1960
3.2 Selection of Topsides for Gravity Based Structures .......................... 1960
3.3 Floor System ...................................................................................... 1961
3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor ............................ 1962
4. Flooring Design ........................................................................................ 1962
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1962
4.2 Floor Plate ......................................................................................... 1963
4.3 Stringers ............................................................................................ 1963
4.4 Deck Beams ...................................................................................... 1964
4.5 Horizontal Bracing ............................................................................. 1966
6. References ............................................................................................... 1968
Lecture 15A.11: Superstructures (II)
1. Introductions ............................................................................................ 1967
2. Main Structure Design .............................................................................. 1968
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1968
2.2 Main Structure – Portal Frame Design .............................................. 1968
2.3 Main Structure – Truss Design .......................................................... 1969
2.4 Main Structure – Stressed Skin Design ............................................. 1970
2.5 Non-Load Bearing Walls .................................................................... 1970
(LIV) General Contents

2.6 Crane Pedestals ................................................................................ 1970

3. Analysis of Deck Structures ..................................................................... 1971
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1971
3.2 Plate Girder Design ........................................................................... 1972
3.3 Lifting of Joints .................................................................................. 1972
3.4 Lifting Points ...................................................................................... 1972
3.5 Modelling of Floor Plates ................................................................... 1972
3.6 Support of Modules ........................................................................... 1973
4. Construction ............................................................................................. 1973
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1973
4.2 Fabrication ......................................................................................... 1973
4.3 Weight Engineering ........................................................................... 1974
4.4 Load Out ............................................................................................ 1974
4.5 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening .................................................... 1975
4.6 Installation ......................................................................................... 1976
4.7 Hook up ............................................................................................. 1978
4.8 Commissioning .................................................................................. 1978
4.9 Inspection, Maintenance and Repair (IMR) ....................................... 1978
4.10 Removal .......................................................................................... 1978
6. References ............................................................................................... 1979
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
1. Introductions ........................................................................................... 1981
2. Connections in Offshore Deck Modules ................................................. 1982
3. Connections between Deck Stringers and Beams .................................. 1982
4. Connections between Intermediate and Main Deck Beams .................... 1983
5. Beam to Deck Leg Connections .............................................................. 1984
6. Connections between Beams and Columns ............................................ 1986
7. Truss Connections ................................................................................... 1987
8. Special Connections ................................................................................ 1989
10. References ............................................................................................. 1991
Section 15B: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BRIDGES
Lecture 15B.1: Conceptual Choice
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1993
2. Fundamental Bridge Forms ..................................................................... 1993
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1993
2.2 Bridges which Carry Loads Mainly in Flexure ................................... 1993
2.3 Bridges which Carry their Loads Mainly as Axial Forces .................. 1994
2.4 Truss Bridges .................................................................................... 1994
3. The Purpose and Function of a Bridge .................................................... 1995
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1995
3.2 Clearance Requirements ................................................................... 1995
3.3 Loading .............................................................................................. 1995
3.4 The Topography and Geology of the Site ......................................... 1996
4. Other Factors Influencing Conceptual Choice ......................................... 1996
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1996
4.2 Methods of Erection .......................................................................... 1997
General Contents (LV)

4.3 Local Construction Skills and Materials ............................................. 1999

4.4 Future Inspection and Maintenance .................................................. 1999
4.5 Aesthetic and Environmental Aspects ............................................... 1999
5. Detailed Considerations – Girder Bridges ................................................ 2000
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2000
5.2 The Deck ........................................................................................... 2001
5.3 Typical Layouts of Short and Medium Span Bridges ........................ 2001
5.4 Long Span Girder Bridges ................................................................. 2004
5.5 Minimum Cost or Minimum Weight? .................................................. 2005
5.6 Design for Construction ..................................................................... 2005
Lecture 15B.2: Actions on Bridges
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2007
2. Highway Design Loadings ........................................................................ 2007
2.1 Dead Load ......................................................................................... 2007
2.2 Traffic Loads ...................................................................................... 2008
2.3 Longitudinal Tractive Forces ............................................................. 2009
2.4 Centrifugal Forces ............................................................................. 2009
2.5 Sidewalks and Parapets .................................................................... 2010
3. Railway Design Loadings ......................................................................... 2011
3.1 Dead Load ......................................................................................... 2011
3.2 Train Loads ........................................................................................ 2011
3.3 Dynamic Effects (Impact) .................................................................. 2011
3.4 Longitudinal Tractive and Braking Forces ......................................... 2012
3.5 Centrifugal Forces ............................................................................. 2012
3.6 Lateral Forces from Loads ................................................................. 2012
4. Other Loads on Bridges ........................................................................... 2012
4.1 Wind Loads ........................................................................................ 2012
4.2 Thermal Forces on Bridge Structures ............................................... 2013
4.3 Shrinkage of Concrete ....................................................................... 2014
4.4 Settlement of Foundations ................................................................. 2014
4.5 Earthquake Actions ............................................................................ 2015
4.6 Forces due to Water Currents and Ice .............................................. 2015
4.7 Collisions ........................................................................................... 2015
4.8 Friction in Bearings ............................................................................ 2015
4.9 Construction and Erection Loads ...................................................... 2016
5. Critical Load Cases for Design ................................................................. 2016
5.1 Load Combinations ............................................................................ 2016
5.2 Modelling the Construction Process .................................................. 2016
5.3 Variable Actions on the Completed Structure ................................... 2017
7. References ............................................................................................... 2018
Lecture 15B.3: Bridge Deck
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2019
2. Historical Development ........................................................................... 2020
2.1 From Separation to Integration of Functions ..................................... 2020
2.2 Greater Simplicity ...............................................................................2021
2.3 Evolution of Stringer in Steel Decks .................................................. 2021
(LVI) General Contents

3. Modern Highway Bridge Decks ............................................................... 2023

3.1 Reinforced Concrete Slabs for Composite Bridges .......................... 2023
3.2 Orthotropic Steel Decks .................................................................... 2025
4. Modern Railway Bridge Decks ................................................................. 2028
4.1 Replacement Structures .................................................................... 2028
4.2 New Alignments ................................................................................ 2028
6. References ............................................................................................... 2029
Lecture 15B.4 Plate Girder and Beam Bridges
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2031
1.1 General ............................................................................................... 2031
1.2 Types of Application .......................................................................... 2032
1.3 Range of Application ......................................................................... 2033
1.4 Types of Through Girder Bridges ...................................................... 2033
2. Span Arrangements ................................................................................. 2033
2.1 Continuous simple Spans .................................................................. 2033
2.2 Proportions of Main Girders .............................................................. 2034
2.3 Profile of Main Girders ....................................................................... 2034
3. Initial Design of Composite Girder Bridges .............................................. 2035
3.1 Girder Spacing and Deck Slab Thickness ......................................... 2035
3.2 Initial Selection of Flange and Web Sizes ......................................... 2035
3.3 Economic and Practical Considerations ............................................ 2036
4. Initial Design of Non-composite Plate Girder Bridges ............................. 2037
4.1 Bridge Cross-Section ........................................................................ 2037
4.2 Main Girders ...................................................................................... 2038
4.3 Deck .................................................................................................. 2038
5. Girder Stability and Bracing ..................................................................... 2039
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2039
5.2 Composite Plate Girder Bridges ........................................................ 2039
5.3 Non-composite Plate girder Bridges ................................................. 2041
6. Detailed Design ........................................................................................ 2042
6.1 Global Analysis .................................................................................. 2042
6.2 Actions and Combinations ................................................................. 2042
6.3 Element and Connection Design ....................................................... 2043
6.4 Effects Peculiar to Steel Open Grid Deck Configuration ................... 2043
8. References ............................................................................................... 2045
Lecture 15B.5 Truss Bridges
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2047
2. Different Types of Truss ........................................................................... 2048
2.1 Historical Background ........................................................................ 2048
2.2 Highway Truss Bridges ..................................................................... 2049
2.3 Choice of Truss configuration for Railway Bridges ........................... 2049
2.4 Particular Applications ....................................................................... 2050
3. General Design Principles ....................................................................... 2051
3.1 Span Range ...................................................................................... 2051
3.2 Ration of Span to Depth .................................................................... 2051
General Contents (LVII)

3.3 Geometry ........................................................................................... 2051

3.4 Grade of Steel .................................................................................... 2051
3.5 Compression Chord Members ........................................................... 2051
3.6 Tension Chord Members ................................................................... 2053
3.7 Vertical and Diagonal Members ........................................................ 2053
3.8 Maintenance ...................................................................................... 2054
4. Lateral Bracing ......................................................................................... 2054
5. Analysis .................................................................................................... 2056
5.1 Global Load Effects ........................................................................... 2056
5.2 Local Load Effects ............................................................................. 2056
6. Connections ............................................................................................. 2057
6.1 General .............................................................................................. 2057
6.2 Truss Joints ....................................................................................... 2057
6.3 Cross Girder Connections ................................................................. 2058
6.4 Lateral Girder Connections ................................................................ 2059
8. References ............................................................................................... 2059
Lecture 15B.6 Box Girder Bridges
1. Introduction and History ........................................................................... 2061
2. General Design Principles ........................................................................ 2063
2.1 Span ...................................................................................................2063
2.2 Span-to-Depth Ratio .......................................................................... 2064
2.3 Cross Section .................................................................................... 2064
3. Structural Details ...................................................................................... 2065
3.1 Longitudinal Stiffeners ....................................................................... 2065
3.2 Pier Diaphragms and Intermediate Cross Frames ............................ 2065
3.3 Intermediate Transverse Elements between Boxes .......................... 2065
3.4 Bearings ............................................................................................. 2065
4. Analysis .................................................................................................... 2066
4.1 General .............................................................................................. 2066
4.2 Torsion ............................................................................................... 2066
4.3 Braced and Unbraced Intermediate Cross Frames ........................... 2066
5. Erection Methods ......................................................................................2067
6. Learning from Failure ............................................................................... 2068
8. References ............................................................................................... 2070
Lecture 15B.7 Arch Bridges
1. Introduction................................................................................................ 2071
1.1 General .............................................................................................. 2071
1.2 Historical Development ...................................................................... 2071
1.3 Types of Application .......................................................................... 2071
1.4 Range of application .......................................................................... 2071
2. Types of Arch Bridges .............................................................................. 2071
2.1 Arch Layout .........................................................................................2071
2.2 Structural Arrangement ..................................................................... 2073
3. Choice of Elements .................................................................................. 2074
3.1 The Arch ............................................................................................ 2075
3.2 The Stiffening Girder ......................................................................... 2075
(LVIII) General Contents

3.3 The Hangers ...................................................................................... 2075

3.4 The End Portals ................................................................................. 2076
4. Special Aspects of Behaviour and Analysis ............................................. 2076
4.1 Primary Effects .................................................................................. 2076
4.2 Secondary Effects ............................................................................. 2078
5. Comparison between the Types of Arch Bridges .................................... 2079
6. Special Features of Construction ............................................................. 2079
8. References ............................................................................................... 2081
Annex A .................................................................................................... 2081
Lecture 15B.8 Cable Stayed Bridges
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2083
2. Types ....................................................................................................... 2083
2.1 Arrangement of Stay Cables ............................................................. 2084
2.2 Supporting Conditions of the Girder .................................................. 2084
2.3 Position of Cable Planes and Type of Girder .................................... 2085
3.1 Stay Cables ....................................................................................... 2086
3.2 Girder ................................................................................................. 2086
3.3 Pylon .................................................................................................. 2087
4. Special Aspects of Behaviour and Analysis ............................................. 2088
5. Connections ............................................................................................. 2090
Table 1 ..................................................................................................... 2093
Lecture 15B.9 Suspension Bridges
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2095
2. Types ....................................................................................................... 2097
3.1 The Main Cables ............................................................................... 2097
3.2 Pylons ................................................................................................ 2098
3.3 Stiffening girder ................................................................................. 2100
3.4 Anchorages ....................................................................................... 2100
4. Special Effects of Behaviour and Analysis .............................................. 2101
4.1 Temperature ...................................................................................... 2101
4.2 Aerodynamic Excitation ..................................................................... 2102
4.3 Analysis ............................................................................................. 2103
5. Connections ............................................................................................. 2104
5.1 Hangers and Cable Bands ................................................................ 2104
Lecture 15B.10 Bridge Equipment
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2107
1.1 Function ............................................................................................. 2107
1.2 Layout ................................................................................................ 2108
1.3 Types of Bearing ............................................................................... 2108
General Contents (LIX)

2. Finishes .................................................................................................... 2113

2.1 Waterproofing Course ....................................................................... 2113
2.2 Wearing Course ................................................................................. 2113
3. Expansion Joints ...................................................................................... 2114
3.1 Characteristics of Expansion Joints ................................................... 2114
3.2 Types of Expansion Joints ................................................................. 2114
4. Parapets ................................................................................................... 2116
4.1 Pedestrian Parapets .......................................................................... 2116
4.2 Crash Barriers .................................................................................... 2116
4.3 Safety Fences .................................................................................... 2117
5. Anti-Corrosion Protection ......................................................................... 2117
6. Drainage of Rainwater .............................................................................. 2117
7. Fascia ....................................................................................................... 2117
8. Inspection Facilities .................................................................................. 2118
8.1 Fixed Installations .............................................................................. 2118
8.2 Movable Installations ......................................................................... 2118
8.3 Special Equipment ............................................................................. 2119
9. Integration of the Equipment into the General Design ............................. 2119
10. Concluding summary ............................................................................. 2119
Lecture 15B.11 Connection in Bridges
1. Introduction................................................................................................ 2121
2. Types of Splice ..........................................................................................2122
2.1 Welded Splices .................................................................................. 2122
2.2 Bolted Splices .................................................................................... 2123
2.3 Hybrid Splices .................................................................................... 2123
3. Design ...................................................................................................... 2124
4. Types of Member ......................................................................................2124
4.1 Beams and Plate Girders .................................................................. 2124
4.2 Trusses .............................................................................................. 2124
4.3 Secondary Members .......................................................................... 2125
4.4 Orthotropic Decks .............................................................................. 2126
5. Fatigue ..................................................................................................... 2126
7. Inspection / Quality Assurance ................................................................. 2128
Lecture 15B.12 Introduction to Bridge Construction
1. Introduction................................................................................................ 2129
2. Initial Planning ...........................................................................................2129
2.1 Promotion .......................................................................................... 2129
2.2 Planning ............................................................................................. 2130
2.3 Control Arrangements ....................................................................... 2130
2.4 Independent Supervisor .................................................................... 2130
3. Tender Procedures ................................................................................... 2130
4. Estimation of the Cost of a Steel Bridge .................................................. 2131
5. Criteria for Choice if a Tenderer as a Steelwork Contractor .................... 2131
5.1 Technical Ability ................................................................................. 2131
5.2 Programme ........................................................................................ 2131
(LX) General Contents

5.3 Costs ................................................................................................. 2131

6. Execution – General ................................................................................ 2132
7. Materials ................................................................................................... 2132
7.1 Steel Specifications ........................................................................... 2132
7.2 Steel Grade and the Fabricator ......................................................... 2132
7.3 Weldability and Welding Procedures ................................................ 2132
8. Layout and Facilities of the Fabrication Shop .......................................... 2133
8.1 General .............................................................................................. 2133
8.2 Objectives .......................................................................................... 2133
8.3 Fabrication Plant ............................................................................... 2133
8.4 Standardization ................................................................................. 2134
9. Fabrication in Practice ............................................................................. 2134
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2134
9.2 Fabrication Information ...................................................................... 2135
9.3 Size of Fabricated Pieces .................................................................. 2135
9.4 Procedures for a Typical Composite Bridge ...................................... 2135
9.5 Plate Girders ..................................................................................... 2136
9.6 Truss or Lattice Girder Bridges ......................................................... 2138
9.7 Box Girder Bridges ............................................................................ 2138
10. Transportation ........................................................................................ 2139
11. Site Assembly and Erection ................................................................... 2139
11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 2139
11.2 Methods of Erection ........................................................................ 2140
11.3 Control of Dimensional Tolerances ................................................. 2141
11.4 Wind Effects .................................................................................... 2141
11.5 Site Connections ............................................................................. 2141
12. Site Organization ................................................................................... 2142
12.1 General ............................................................................................ 2142
12.2 Site Agent ........................................................................................ 2142
12.3 Junior Site Staff ............................................................................... 2142
12.4 Information Provided ....................................................................... 2142
12.5 Promoter’s Site Staff ....................................................................... 2143
Volume 12: Sections 15C, 16, 17 & 18

Section 15C: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS
Lecture 15C.1: Design of Tanks for the Storage of Oil and Water
1. Design of Welded Cylindrical Tanks ........................................................ 2145
1.1 General .............................................................................................. 2145
1.2 Design standards .............................................................................. 2145
1.3 Design Pressure and Temperature ................................................... 2146
1.4 Material .............................................................................................. 2146
2. Design Loading ......................................................................................... 2146
2.1 Dead Load ......................................................................................... 2146
2.2 Superimposed Load .......................................................................... 2146
2.3 Contents ............................................................................................ 2146
2.4 Wind Loads ........................................................................................ 2146
2.5 Seismic Loads ................................................................................... 2147
General Contents (LXI)

3. Bottom Design .......................................................................................... 2147

4. Shell Design ............................................................................................. 2149
4.1 Circumferential Stresses ................................................................... 2149
4.2 Axial Stresses in the Shell ................................................................. 2150
4.3 Primary Wind Girders ........................................................................ 2150
5. Fixed Roof Design .................................................................................... 2152
5.1 General .............................................................................................. 2152
5.2 Membrane Roofs ............................................................................... 2153
5.3 Support Roofs .................................................................................... 2153
5.4 Venting ................................................................................................2155
6. Design of Floating Roofs and Covers ...................................................... 2155
6.1 Use of Floating Roofs and Covers ..................................................... 2155
6.2 Floating Roofs .................................................................................... 2155
6.3 Floating Covers .................................................................................. 2156
7. Manholes, Nozzles and Openings ........................................................... 2156
7.1 Manholes ........................................................................................... 2156
7.2 Nozzles .............................................................................................. 2157
9. References ............................................................................................... 2158
Appendix A ................................................................................................2158
Lecture 15C.2: Structural Design of Bins
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2161
2. Bin Classification ...................................................................................... 2162
2.1 Bin Size and Geometry ...................................................................... 2162
2.2 Type of Flow ...................................................................................... 2162
2.3 Structural Material of the bin Wall ...................................................... 2163
3. Calculation of Pressure on bin Walls ....................................................... 2163
3.1 General .............................................................................................. 2163
3.2 Eurocode 1 – Rules for the Calculation of Loads
from the Stored Material ................................................................... 2164
3.3 Other Loading considerations ............................................................ 2168
4. Structural Analysis and Design ................................................................ 2170
4.1 Selection of the Bin Form .................................................................. 2170
4.2 Design of Non-Circular bins ............................................................... 2170
4.3 Design of Circular Bins ...................................................................... 2173
6. References ............................................................................................... 2176
Lecture 15C.3: Lattice Tower and Masts
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2179
2. High Voltage Transmission Towers ......................................................... 2180
2.1 Background ........................................................................................ 2180
2.2 Types of Towers ................................................................................ 2181
2.3 Functional Requirements ................................................................... 2181
2.4 Loads on Towers, Load Cases .......................................................... 2182
2.5 Overall Design and Truss configuration ............................................ 2183
2.6 Structural analysis ............................................................................. 2185
2.7 Detailing of Joints .............................................................................. 2187
(LXII) General Contents
4. References ............................................................................................... 2190

Lecture 15C.4: Guyed Masts
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2191
2. The Description of a Guyed Mast ............................................................. 2191
2.1 The Foundations ............................................................................... 2191
2.2 The Steel Mast .................................................................................. 2192
2.3 The Guy Ropes .................................................................................. 2192
2.4 Structural Accessories ....................................................................... 2193
2.5 Equipment ......................................................................................... 2193
3. The Design of Guyed Masts .................................................................... 2193
3.1 Initial dimensioning ............................................................................ 2193
3.2 Final Dimensioning and Checking ..................................................... 2195
4. Some Other Aspects of Guyed Masts ..................................................... 2196
4.1 In the Design Phase .......................................................................... 2196
4.2 In the Manufacturing Phase .............................................................. 2196
4.3 In the Erection Phase ........................................................................ 2196
6. Additional Reading .................................................................................... 2197
Lecture 15C.5: Chimneys
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2199
2. Actions ..................................................................................................... 2200
2.1 Permanent Loads .............................................................................. 2200
2.2 Dust Load (Temporary Load) ............................................................ 2200
2.3 Wind .................................................................................................. 2200
2.4 Earthquake Loading .......................................................................... 2203
2.5 Thermal Effects ................................................................................. 2203
2.6 Chemical Effects ............................................................................... 2203
3. Design of the Structural Shell .................................................................. 2204
3.1 Resistance Check ............................................................................. 2204
3.2 Serviceability Check .......................................................................... 2205
3.3 Fatigue Check ................................................................................... 2205
4. Some Specific Items of Steel Chimney Design ....................................... 2206
4.1 Connections between the Different Sections
of the Cylindrical Shell ...................................................................... 2206
4.2 The Support at the Base ................................................................... 2206
4.3 Large Apertures ................................................................................. 2206
5. Fabrication and Erection Tolerances ....................................................... 2206
6. References ............................................................................................... 2207
Section 16: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: REFURBISHMENT
Lecture 16.1: Strengthening of Structures
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2209
2. Levels of Reconstruction ........................................................................... 2210
3. Temporary Works .................................................................................... 2211
3.1 Needling and Propping ..................................................................... 2211
3.2 Stabilizing Vertical Elements ............................................................. 2211
4. Systems for Strengthening (Repair and Reinforcing) .............................. 2213
4.1 Strengthening Masonry Structures ..................................................... 2214
General Contents (LXIII)

4.2 Timber Structures .............................................................................. 2215

4.3 Concrete Structures ........................................................................... 2216
4.4 Iron and Steel Structures ................................................................... 2217
6. References ............................................................................................... 2219
Lecture 16.2: Transformation and Repair
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2221
2. Modifying Building Structures ................................................................... 2222
2.1 Gutting ............................................................................................... 2222
2.2 Insertion ............................................................................................. 2222
2.3 Extension ........................................................................................... 2222
2.4 Reducing Dead Load ......................................................................... 2223
3. General considerations in Refurbishment ................................................ 2223
3.1 Construction ....................................................................................... 2223
3.2 Replacement of Roofs ....................................................................... 2223
3.3 Corrosion of Existing Steelwork ......................................................... 2223
4. Case Study: The Historical Centre of Ancona, Italy ................................. 2224
5. Case Study: Van Leer Office Building in Amstelveen, Netherland .......... 2225
5.1 Assembly of the Main and Support Construction .............................. 2226
5.2 Lowering the Floor ............................................................................. 2226
5.3 Finishing Construction ....................................................................... 2226
6. Case Study: Office Building, Sea containers Limited, London,
Great Britain ............................................................................................ 2226
7. Case Study: Gymnasium in Cantu, Como, Italy ....................................... 2227
8. Case Study: Rue de l’Ourco, Paris, France ............................................. 2228
9. Case Study: Chemistry Buildings of Technical University
of Berlin, Germany ................................................................................... 2229
10. Case Study: Alter Bahnhoff Exhibition Hall, Rosenheim, Germany ....... 2231
11. Case Study: Rue St.Jacques – A Modern Apartment above a Late
19th Century House ................................................................................ 2231
12. Case Study: Abbey of Val Saint-Lambert Seraing, Belgium .................. 2232
13. Case Study: Extension to the Imperial War Museum, London .............. 2232
15. References ............................................................................................. 2233
Lecture 16.3: Re-use of Buildings
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2235
2. Principle of Restructuring ......................................................................... 2236
2.1 Typical Construction Sequence ......................................................... 2236
2.2 New Internal Construction – Floor systems ....................................... 2236
2.3 Connecting to the Façade ..................................................................2236
2.4 Retaining System for Façade as Part of Permanent Work ................ 2237
2.5 Restructuring Involving Modifications to Façade ............................... 2238
2.6 General Considerations of Steel in Restructuring ............................. 2238
3. Case Study: Working Quarters at Folkwang School in
Essen-Werden, Germany ........................................................................ 2239
4. Case Study: Kannerland, Limpertsberg, Luxembourg ............................. 2239
5. Case Study: The Roemerhof in Zurich, Switzerland [2] ........................... 2240
(LXIV) General Contents

6. Case Study: Office Building Weteringschans 165, Amsterdam,

Netherlands .............................................................................................. 2241
7. Case Study: The Court of Justice in Ancona, Italy .................................. 2242
9. References ............................................................................................... 2243
Lecture 16.4: Traditional Residual Life Assessment for Bridges
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2245
2. General Elements ................................................................................... 2246
2.1 The Wöhler Curves ........................................................................... 2246
2.2 The Palmgren – Langer – Miner Rule ............................................... 2246
2.3 Dynamic Coefficients for Actual Trains ............................................. 2248
2.4 Dynamic Coefficients for the UIC Loading ........................................ 2248
3. Main Steps for the Assessment of the Fatigue Safety
of Existing Railway Bridges ...................................................................... 2249
4. Strengthening of Steel Bridges ................................................................ 2251
4.1 General considerations ..................................................................... 2251
4.2 Methods of Strengthening ................................................................. 2252
4.3 The Reinforcement of the Saligny Bridge over the Danube .............. 2255
6. References ............................................................................................... 2257
Tables 1 to 6 ............................................................................................ 2258
Example of Calculation Procedure and Table 7 ...................................... 2264
Lecture 16.5: Refurbishment of Bridges: New Approaches
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2267
2. Problem .................................................................................................... 2268
3. Updating or Reproduction of Drawings and Static Analysis .................... 2268
4. The Basis of the Toughness Verification ................................................. 2269
4.1 “Brittleness” and “Ductility” ................................................................ 2269
4.2 Determination of Vital Elements ........................................................ 2270
4.3 Assumption on Initial Cracks ............................................................. 2271
2.4 Basic Verification Principles .............................................................. 2271
2.4 The Use of the J-Integral ................................................................... 2273
5. Practical Verification Procedure ............................................................... 2274
5.1 General .............................................................................................. 2274
5.2 Determination of acrit .......................................................................... 2274
5.3 Determination of the minimum Service Time N(tp) ............................ 2274
5.4 Example for the Application ............................................................... 2274
6. Verification in Case of Strengthening ...................................................... 2276
7. Procedure if Measured Material Properties Are Not Available ................ 2277
9. References ............................................................................................... 2277
Section 17: SEISMIC DESIGN
Lecture 17.1: An Overall View of the Seismic Behaviour
of Structural Systems
1. Presentation of Slides of Earthquake Damage ....................................... 2279
2. Discussion of Earthquake Damage .......................................................... 2279
3. Ground Behaviour ................................................................................... 2281
General Contents (LXV)

4. Soil Structure Interaction .......................................................................... 2282

5. The Behaviour of Foundations ................................................................. 2283
6. The Response of Steel Framed Structures .............................................. 2283
7. The Behaviours of Floors ......................................................................... 2285
8. The Behaviour of Secondary Structures and Appendages ...................... 2285
9. The Behaviour of Masonry and Cladding ................................................. 2287
10. Tanks .......................................................................................................2289
Lecture 17.2: Introduction to Seismic Design, Seismic Hazard
and Seismic Risk
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2291
2. The Seismic Event ................................................................................... 2291
2.1 General ............................................................................................. 2291
2.2 Origins of Earthquakes ...................................................................... 2292
2.3 Earthquake Characteristic ................................................................. 2293
2.4 Response Spectrum .......................................................................... 2297
3. Earthquake Input for Structural Design .................................................... 2298
4. Final Remarks .......................................................................................... 2302
6. References ............................................................................................... 2302
Lecture 17.3: The Cyclic Behaviour of Steel Elements and Connections
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2303
2. Ductility ..................................................................................................... 2304
3. Material ..................................................................................................... 2304
4. Loading Histories ...................................................................................... 2305
5. ECCS Testing Procedure ......................................................................... 2306
5.1 Complete Testing Procedure ............................................................ 2306
5.2 Interpretation of Tests ........................................................................ 2307
6. Bracing Elements ..................................................................................... 2308
7. Beams and Columns ................................................................................ 2310
8. Connections ............................................................................................. 2312
10. References ............................................................................................. 2317
Lecture 17.4: Structural Analysis for Seismic Actions
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2319
2. Direct Method of Dynamic Analysis (Time Integration) ............................ 2319
3. Response Spectrum Method of analysis ................................................. 2320
4. Inelastic Behaviour and its Role in Design ............................................... 2323
6. References ............................................................................................... 2326
Table 1 ..................................................................................................... 2327
Lecture 17.5: Requirements and Verification of Seismic Resistant Structures
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2329
2. General Design Considerations for Buildings in Earthquake Areas ........ 2330
3. Design of Steel Structures in Earthquake Areas ...................................... 2334
(LXVI) General Contents

5. References ............................................................................................... 2343

Lecture 17.6: Special Topics
1. Bridges ..................................................................................................... 2345
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2345
1.2 General Guidelines and Basic Requirements ................................... 2345
1.3 Seismic Actions ................................................................................. 2346
1.4 Methods of Analysis .......................................................................... 2347
1.5 Non-Linear Behaviour and q-Factors ................................................ 2347
1.6 Deck Bearings and Longitudinal Restraints ...................................... 2347
1.7 Provisions for Steel and Composite Bridges ..................................... 2348
1.8 References ........................................................................................ 2348
1.9 Additional Reading ............................................................................ 2348
2. Liquid Storage Tanks ............................................................................... 2348
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2348
2.2 Anchored Tanks ................................................................................ 2350
2.3 Unanchored Tanks ............................................................................ 2352
2.4 Current Design Codes and Recommendations ................................. 2354
4. References ............................................................................................... 2355
Section 18: STAINLESS STEEL
Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel
1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 2357
2. History ...................................................................................................... 2357
3. What is Stainless Steel? .......................................................................... 2358
4. Why Use Stainless Steel? ........................................................................ 2359
4.1 Reasons ............................................................................................ 2359
4.2 Further Favourable Properties of Stainless Steel ............................. 2359
5. Types of Stainless Steel .......................................................................... 2360
5.1 Austenitic Stainless Steel .................................................................. 2360
5.2 Further Stainless Alloys ..................................................................... 2362
6. Designation of stainless Steels ................................................................ 2363
6.1 Descriptive Systems .......................................................................... 2363
6.2 AISI System ....................................................................................... 2363
6.3 Material Number System (Werkstoff No.) ......................................... 2363
6.4 Abbreviated System of Designation ................................................... 2364
6.5 Application in standards .................................................................... 2364
7. Fabrication and Products ......................................................................... 2364
7.1 Product Forms ................................................................................... 2364
7.2 Cold Working ..................................................................................... 2365
7.3 Weldability ......................................................................................... 2365
7.4 Finishes ............................................................................................. 2365
8. Bolts and Nuts .......................................................................................... 2365
9. Typical Application ................................................................................... 2366
Tables 1 to 5 .......................................................................................... 2368
General Contents (LXVII)

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2371
2. Preliminary Considerations ...................................................................... 2371
2.1 General ............................................................................................. 2371
2.2 Choice of Material Grade ................................................................... 2372
2.3 Availability of Structural Forms .......................................................... 2372
3. Mechanical Behaviour .............................................................................. 2373
3.1 Stress-Strain Relationship ................................................................. 2373
3.2 Cold Working ..................................................................................... 2374
3.3 Effect of Temperature ........................................................................ 2375
3.4 Other Properties ................................................................................ 2376
4. Structural Element Behaviour and Design ............................................... 2376
4.1 General .............................................................................................. 2376
4.2 Classification and Local Buckling ...................................................... 2377
4.3 Column Design .................................................................................. 2380
4.4 Beam Design ..................................................................................... 2381
5. Connections ............................................................................................. 2382
5.1 General Aspects ................................................................................ 2382
5.2 Bolted Connections ........................................................................... 2382
5.3 Welded Connections ......................................................................... 2383
7. References ............................................................................................... 2383
Table 1 (Sheet 1 to 4) .............................................................................. 2383
Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 2387
2. Behaviour of Stainless Steel in Corrosive Environments ......................... 2388
2.1 Pitting ................................................................................................. 2388
2.2 Crevice Corrosion .............................................................................. 2388
2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion ........................................................................... 2388
2.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking ................................................................. 2389
2.5 General (Uniform) Corrosion ............................................................. 2389
2.6 Intergranular Attack and Weld Decay ................................................ 2389
3. Grade Selection ........................................................................................ 2390
4. Detailing Consideration ............................................................................ 2391
5. Storage and Handling .............................................................................. 2391
7. References ............................................................................................... 2392
Lecture 18.4: Fabrication
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 2393
2. Machining of Stainless Steel .................................................................... 2394
2.1 Cutting .............................................................................................. 2394
2.2 Drilling and Punching ......................................................................... 2394
2.3 Grinding ............................................................................................. 2395
3. Shaping and Joining Operations .............................................................. 2395
3.1 Cold Forming ..................................................................................... 2395
3.2 Welding .............................................................................................. 2398
3.3 Bolts, rivets and Screws .....................................................................2399
3.4 Adhesive Bonding .............................................................................. 2400
(LXVIII) General Contents

4. Inspection ................................................................................................. 2400

5. Finishing ................................................................................................... 2400
General Contents (LXIX)

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ESDEP

EUROPEAN STEEL DESIGN

RE-ARRANGED FROM THE ORIGINAL

Prof. d-r Tihomir Nikolovski

General Contents (I)

2.4 Maintenance .......................................................................................... 28

(II) General Contents

3.4 Full structural Analysis, using Estimated Element Sizes with

General Contents (III)

Lecture 1B.3: Background to Loadings

(IV) General Contents

7. Terminology: Stress, Strain, Cohesion, etc. .............................................. 135

General Contents (V)

Lecture 1B.5.2: Introduction to the Design of Special Industrial Buildings

(VI) General Contents

8. Design Requirements ................................................................................ 235

Volume 3: Sections 2 & 3

General Contents (VII)

6. Concluding Summary ................................................................................. 290

(VIII) General Contents

4. Quality Standards for Structural Steels ...................................................... 336

General Contents (IX)

3. Concluding Summary ................................................................................. 394

(X) General Contents

4. Concluding Summary ................................................................................. 418

General Contents (XI)

5. General – Erection ..................................................................................... 450

Volume 4: Sections 4A, 4B, 5 & 6

(XII) General Contents

3. Concluding Summary ................................................................................. 470

General Contents (XIII)

6.2 Hollow Sections ................................................................................... 513

(XIV) General Contents

2.4 Some Thoughts on Fire Resistance Requirements

General Contents (XV)

Example 3: Critical Temperature of Column .................................................. 582

Section 5: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

Section 6: APPLIED STABILITY

(XVI) General Contents

5. Stability of Equilibrium ................................................................................ 623

General Contents (XVII)

4. Concluding Summary.................................................................................. 662

(XVIII) General Contents

3. Analysis ...................................................................................................... 707

General Contents (XIX)

3.2 Torsional Buckling ............................................................................... 740

(XX) General Contents

4. Plastic Behaviour under General combined Loading ................................ 787

General Contents (XXI)

9. Cross-Section Checks ................................................................................ 824

(XXII) General Contents

5. Secondary Considerations ........................................................................ 850

Volume 6: Sections 8 & 9

General Contents (XXIII)

3.1 Action Distribution ................................................................................ 898

(XXIV) General Contents

4.1 Torsion and Torsional Warping ........................................................... 928

General Contents (XXV)