The Entheogenic Origins of Mormonism: A Working Hypothesis

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp.
212–260 (2019)
DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.020
The entheogenic origins of Mormonism: A working hypothesis*

ROBERT BECKSTEAD1, BRYCE BLANKENAGEL2, CODY NOCONI3 and MICHAEL WINKELMAN4**
1
Retired, Department of Emergency Medicine, Pocatello, ID, USA
2
Naked Mormonism Podcast, Seattle, WA, USA
3
Independent Researcher, Portland, OR, USA
4
Retired, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
(Received: March 19, 2019; accepted: June 8, 2019)
Historical documents relating to early Mormonism suggest that Joseph Smith (1805–1844) employed entheogen-
infused sacraments to fulfill his promise that every Mormon convert would experience visions of God and spiritual
ecstasies. Early Mormon scriptures and Smith’s teachings contain descriptions consistent with using entheogenic
material. Compiled descriptions of Joseph Smith’s earliest visions and early Mormon convert visions reveal the
internal symptomology and outward bodily manifestations consistent with using an anticholinergic entheogen. Due to
embarrassing symptomology associated with these manifestations, Smith sought for psychoactives with fewer
associated outward manifestations. The visionary period of early Mormonism fueled by entheogens played a
significant role in the spectacular rise of this American-born religion. The death of Joseph Smith marked the end of
visionary Mormonism and the failure or refusal of his successor to utilize entheogens as a part of religious worship.
The implications of an entheogenic origin of Mormonism may contribute to the broader discussion of the major world
religions with evidence of entheogen use at their foundation and illustrate the value of entheogens in religious
experience.
Keywords: Joseph Smith, Mormonism, entheogen, psychedelic, spirituality
INTRODUCTION early Mormon converts. In this entheogenic working hypoth-

esis of early Mormonism, we consider the supernatural as
The number and quality of spiritual experiences reported by natural (Taves, 2014; Winkelman & Baker, 2015) and entheo-
participants in early Mormonism (Welch & Carlson, 2005) gens as medical therapy (Rucker, Jelen, Flynn, Frowde, &
far exceeded the daily background frequency reported in Young, 2016; Winkelman, 2001; Winkelman & Sessa, 2019).
today’s general population (Underwood, 2006, 2011). Because the two largest factions of Mormonism have opened
Multiple supernatural and naturalistic explanations have their libraries to everyone (Spencer, 2009) and “primary
been suggested to account for the sheer number of early source materials are so abundant and available, far more
Mormon visions and ecstasies, including rational supernat- so than for more ancient religions” (Mason, 2015, p. 22),
uralism (Erying, 1989; Park, 2008; Widtsoe, 1915), out-of- Mormonism may provide insight into the role entheogens
body experiences (Bushman, 2006; Fillerup, 1996), animal played in the early success of traditional religions (see
magnetism or Mesmerism (Bunker & Bitton, 1975), Richards, 2016; Winkelman, 2010, 2013).
prophetic charisma (Foster, 2005), dissociation secondary
to childhood trauma (Morain, 1998), enthusiasm associated Visionary experience as veridical
with the Second Great Awakening (Staker, 2009, pp. 19–26;
Taves, 1999), apparent materialization of the sacred during Converts who reported angelic visitations, ecstasies, and
trance (Taves, 2014), pious fraud (Vogel, 2004, p. vii), and visions of God in 19th-century Mormonism regarded their
automatic writing (Dunn, 2002). However, no single experiences as veridical and not as imaginary constructs of
explanation has to date successfully accounted for the the mind. The 19th-century publication, The Essential
number and quality of visions in early Mormonism. Nor Guide to Datura (“Essential,” n.d.), describes the subjective
can these modalities explain the “on-demand” visions that visionary experience of datura intoxication as “widely
were neither spontaneous nor the result of prolonged auste- perceived to be real.” In reviewing firsthand reports of early
rities. To date, Joseph Smith’s and early Mormon converts’ Mormon visionary experience, we find overlaps of these
visionary experience are neither easily defined nor under-
stood (Waterman, 1999). *The authors have made minor spelling and grammatical
Against this background, we present compelling evidence corrections to some quotations to clarify writing errors.
suggesting that many early Mormon visionary experiences ** Corresponding author: Michael Winkelman, PhD; Caixa Postal
were facilitated by entheogenic substances that resulted in 62, Pirenopolis, Go. 72980-000, Brazil; Phone: +1 623 239 1662;
mood elevation and heightened spiritual awareness among E-mail: [email protected]
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© 2019 The Author(s)

Early Mormon entheogens
with contemporary accounts of visions facilitated by and (b) converts who would sacrifice everything they
entheogenic substances, and with known symptomology possessed, even their own lives, and those of their family,
associated with entheogenic use. to gather together, establish cities, and build temples to
Defenders and critics of Mormonism may misunderstand create a New Jerusalem, or Zion in America. While new
this paper’s thesis as questioning the validity of Mormon- religions were prevalent in the 19th-century America, the
ism’s founding visionary experiences. Nothing could be zeal with which Mormons defended their religion speaks to
further from the truth. All human experience and insight the charismatic power of the founding prophet, a charisma
emerge in the chemistry of the brain, including the achieve- which may have leveraged entheogens for chemically in-
ments of mathematics, science, epistemology, and even duced spiritual awakening. We propose that the entheogenic
morality. To explore how brain chemistry was involved in context of early Mormon involved sacraments, ordinances,
Joseph Smith’s religious experiences and those of other and endowments feeding these seekers’ hunger for primary
early Mormon believers and whether entheogens facilitated religious experience.
those experiences is not to question the spiritual validity and Discovering their yearning could be satisfied in
power of those experiences but to illuminate how such Mormonism, seekers flocked to Joseph Smith (Figure 1),
compelling experiences were accessed then and draw impli- swelling Church membership from a mere 6 in 1830 to
cations for how they may be accessed now. If the prepon- 8,000 living in Nauvoo by 1844 rivaling Chicago in popu-
derance of evidence leads to the conclusion that entheogens lation size (Hoyt, 1933, p. 50). Critical to the rise of convert
facilitated many of Smith’s visionary experiences and those numbers that the Church experienced was that between
of many early Mormon converts, then another oddity of the 1830 and 1836, seeker converts participating in Mormon
rise of Mormonism is explainable, the dramatic decline in rituals in which sacraments were ingested or anointing oils
reported visionary experience after Joseph Smith’s death. applied, had the dreams, speaking in tongues, miracles, and
spiritual raptures they sought, with many enjoying visions of
Entheogens as authentic mystical experience God and Jesus Christ (Anderson, K. R., 1996, 2012;
Petersen, 1975, pp. 80–81). The experiences surrounding
Clinical research with entheogens (psychedelics) indicates the dedication of the Kirtland temple in 1836 have been
that while they produce varying experiences, they also called the Mormon Pentecost (Olmstead, 2000), and had a
produce mystical experiences indistinguishable from those similar impact on the rise of early Mormonism as the early
produced by non-drug means (i.e., prolonged meditation; Christian Pentecost had on the rise of Christianity; both
see Griffiths, Hurwitz, Davis, Johnson, & Jesse, 2019;
Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Richards,
2016). A double-blind study in the 1960s with students at
the Harvard Divinity School (Pahnke 1963, 1966) found
those sessions facilitated by psilocybin-reported experiences
ranked, immediately and decades later, as among the most
profound and life-shaping spiritual experiences in their lives
(also see Doblin’s, 1991 follow-up study). Richards (2016)
reviewed this and other clinical research and examined their
implications for issues in religious studies. The profound
and undeniable implications of entheogens are their ability
to produce genuine mystical experiences that are phenome-
nologically indistinguishable from the mystical experiences
that result from devoted spiritual practices or which occur
spontaneously. The clinical research establishes that it is
pharmacology rather than personal expectation alone that
enables entheogens to produce the standard core mystical
features such as union with and intuitive knowledge of God,
a sense of transcendence of time and space, a connection
with sacredness, a sense of ineffability, and positive mood.
This direct encounter with primal religious and mystical
experiences provoked by entheogens has profound implica-
tions for religious studies in general (Smith, 2000, 2001),
and as we will show here, for our understanding of the
sacred visionary experience of early Mormonism.
Context of Mormon entheogens
Two salient characteristics of the early Mormon religion,

founded by Joseph Smith (Figure 1) in 1830, were:
(a) converts who were “seekers” whose “greatest hunger
was for spiritual gifts like dreams, visions, tongues, mira- Figure 1. Painting of Joseph Smith, ca. 1842. Community of
cles, and spiritual raptures” (Bushman, 2005, p. 147); Christ. Public domain
Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp. 212–260 (2019) | 213

Beckstead et al.
sects faced the same charges of drug-related visions but was instead the route to the spiritual. This unique aspect
(see Acts 2:1–31, “KJV”). of Joseph Smith’s theology and prophetic practice finds
Sectarian observers were appalled by the strange expression in his doctrine of “means.” In Smith’s theology,
behaviors associated with visionary sacrament meetings divine action operates through the instrumentality of mate-
that Mormons had opened to the public. Of this period, the rial causes, including human action and natural law. The
Cleveland Harold & Gazette reported: Book of Mormon raises this idea to the status of a general
law of divine action, asserting: “The Lord God worketh
Large [Mormon] meetings, continued for successive through means” (Smith, 1830, p. 236, emphasis added).
days, were held – earnest preachings and alarming Joseph Smith’s doctrine that God operates by “means”
exhortations were given : : : swoons, trances, jerkings, and that the physical is a gateway to the spiritual provides a
and visions were frequent (“The Mormons,” 1839) theological rationale for using entheogenic herbs and fungi.
In the view of some prominent Mormons, entheogens are
A non-Mormon medically trained observer, James J. Moss not prohibited by Joseph Smith’s dietary “word of wisdom”
who witnessed several meetings concluded that the strange (see below). Such entheogens would be physical means God
behaviors and visions were produced by drinking “medicated” has provided for humankind to achieve spiritual ends.
sacramental wine and contemplated stealing a bottle “to see if Smith’s approach anticipated recent developments in the
it were drugged or not” (Moss, 1878). Importantly, Moss, study of religion, particularly the role physical process plays
who was a believing Campbellite and had witnessed in religious experience. In this, Smith seemed to anticipate
Methodist enthusiasm during the same period, distinguished Edward O. Wilson, professor of biology at Harvard and one
between characteristic religious enthusiasm and sensational of the world’s leading experts on biological diversity, who
early Mormon visionary experience. Although Joseph Smith concluded that “we have come to the crucial stage in the
was not present at these meetings, he attended subsequent history of biology when religion itself is subject to the
meetings where the sacrament produced similar bodily man- explanations of the natural science” (Fuller, 2008, p. 4).
ifestations (Bushman, 2005, pp. 156–157). In response to the Joseph Smith likely understood that entheogens were a
multiple complaints generated by the strange behaviors of trigger for religious experience, a fact vindicated when
Mormon enthusiasts, Smith closed sacrament meetings to considering entheogens as simple molecules cannot create
outside observers, restricted attendance to male members only, the richness of early Mormon visions and ecstasies without
added anointings with oil, and began construction of a temple the human capacity for religious experience. Instead, the
in Kirtland, Ohio. During the dedication period of the Kirtland religious experience is a product of the body through the
temple in early 1836, en mass visions were once again actions of endogenous and exogenous neurotransmitters on
reported by many of those who participated, with the same human cognition. Mormons regularly modify their physical
accusations of drugged sacramental wine (see below). chemistry to promote spiritual experience through the Mor-
The evidence for Joseph Smith’s use of entheogens mon practice of monthly prayer and fasting, but this is an
explained in detail in this paper is primarily based on six unreliable method of inducing a transcendent spiritual ex-
straightforward phenomena reported or observed during the perience of the nature experienced at the foundation of
life of Joseph Smith. Mormonism.
1. Entheogens were found in every area the Smith family In Smith’s (1835) “the Word of Wisdom,” he overtly
resided, and produce visions, and spiritual ecstasies. endorses the use of one mind-altering substance for spiritual
2. Joseph Smith was mentored by individuals with ends, wine in the sacrament of communion (D&C 89:5). The
experience in esoteric fields of knowledge. revelation further teaches that “all wholesome herbs God
3. Visionary experience in early Mormonism was hath ordained for the constitution, nature, and use of man—
every herb in the season thereof, and every fruit in the
frequently “on-demand” rather than spontaneous.
4. Joseph Smith devised a method to facilitate dramatic season thereof; all these to be used with prudence and
religious experience among his followers (Welch & thanksgiving” (D&C 89:10-11). Adherence to the prohibi-
Carlson, 2005). tion of addictive substances and the use herbs carries the
5. There was an association between early Mormon promise of “wisdom and great treasures of knowledge, even
visionary experience and participation in Mormon hidden treasures” and protection from the “destroying
angel” (D&C, 89:19-21). Herbs were a physical means to
ordinances where bread and wine were served, and
profound religious experience, experiences that rarely occur
oil anointings were received.
6. Visionary experiences of the magnitude experienced without using entheogens. As we discuss, evidence suggests
during Joseph Smith’s life ceased at his death. that Smith gained knowledge and skill in working with
herbs (D&C, 42:43; 59:17–18; 89:10–11; Haller, 2000;
We find the best explanation for these phenomena is Heinerman, 1975), including entheogens. Joseph Smith’s
Joseph Smith’s personal use of entheogens and his admin- grandson, Frederick M. Smith, came to the same conclusion
istration of entheogens to early Mormon converts. as discussed below.
Joseph Smith was also a restorationist and advocated a
Entheogens as the “means” unique form of Native American “restoration” or “revival.
From its title page onward, The Book of Mormon advocated
In contrast to traditional Christianity, Smith consistently a “restoration” of Native temporal and spiritual power and
understood matter and the body to be sacred, not profane. Smith sought alliances with Native Americans and traded
For Joseph Smith, the physical did not impede the spiritual objects of spiritual significance with them. If Smith learned
214 | Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp. 212–260 (2019)

of entheogens that bore the imprimatur of Native Ameri- and his ancestors, mentors, and colleagues. We then
can shamanism, he would have been likely to seek mentors summarize the evidence for the entheogens available to
in their use, not only for himself but also for converts of Joseph Smith and his mentors, followed by descriptions of
his Church. Besides facilitating religious visions and early Mormon visions and ecstasies we correlate with a
spiritual ecstasies, entheogens have remarkable antide- clinical syndrome suggestive of intoxication with visionary
pressant properties, suggesting a motivation, possibly anticholinergic substances.
unconscious, for their use by the Smith family and in
early Mormonism.
HISTORICAL SETTING: ANCESTORS,
MENTORS, AND COLLEAGUES
Wholesome herbs God hath ordained
That Joseph Smith did not consider entheogens a problem For Joseph Smith to fulfill his promise that every Mormon
is evident from his attitudes toward herbs. Joseph Smith convert would have visions of God and spiritual ecstasies,
knew of herbs and their uses and claimed the requisite he needed assistance from trusted associates who would
knowledge and skill to devise and prescribe herbal covertly procure, process, store, and administer entheogens.
remedies for others (Heinerman, 1975). Joseph Smith’s Several early church leaders (including the Smiths,
development into a village scryer or “seer” involved Cowdery, and Whitmer families in particular) were deeply
following the path set forward in several esoteric traditions invested in the study of occult practices, and herbal, plant,
of the area he grew up, and possibly from his interpretation pharmaceutical, folk medicine /craft, and the utilization of
of biblical passages indicating the ingestion of some “spirituous liquors” (Brooke, 1996; Quinn, 1998).
material preceding the visions of Ezekiel and John as
discussed below. Salem witch trials
In line with other health edicts of the 19th century, in
1835, Joseph Smith delivered a revelation called “The Word The Smith family involvement with the magic world view
of Wisdom” suggesting dietary practices and the proper and and possibly entheogenic material went back several
improper use of alcohol, tobacco, and other substances. generations. For instance, the Smiths were involved with
However, Smith carved out an exception for plant and herb the witch trials in 17th century Salem, Massachusetts, that
medicine in the Word of Wisdom. may have been instigated by the psychedelic ergot fungi
(Claviceps purpurea). Samuel Smith, Joseph Smith’s great
And again, verily I say unto you, all wholesome herbs grandfather, gave testimony in April 1692 that Mary Easty
God hath ordained for the constitution, nature, and use threatened him after which he reported, “I received a little
of man. Every herb in the season thereof, and every fruit blow on my shoulder, and the stone wall rattled very much”
in the season thereof. All these to be used with prudence (Smith, 1692). After the Salem trials, other generations of
and thanksgiving (Smith, 1835) his ancestors resided in areas noted for beliefs and practices
of folk magic and alchemy (Quinn, 1998, p. 31). European
The first “anti-Mormon” book, Mormonism Unvailed [sic] occultism also shaped the cultural milieu in which the witch
by Eber D. Howe (1834), attributed the exemption carved trials occurred. Mormon historian B. H. Roberts noted,
out for “herb[s] in the season thereof ” to Frederick G. “Indeed it is scarcely conceivable how one could live in
Williams’ influence on Joseph Smith (discussed below). New England [in the 18th-19th centuries] and not have
Howe referenced Williams’ herbarium on either side of his shared such beliefs” (Quinn, 1998, p. 29).
Kirtland home while disparaging his “communion with The hypothesis of ergotism as the culprit in the Salem
spirits from other worlds.” Howe continues, witch trials of 1692 (Caporael, 1976) is based on the signs of
convulsive ergotism including seeing apparitions, feeling
We are next told that every wholesome herb, God pinpricks, pinches, burning sensations, and by symptoms of
ordained for the use of man!! and we should infer that urinary obstruction. However, those afflicted had none of
the writer or the recording angel had been inducted into the constitutional symptoms or residual effects known to
the modern use of herbs, by the celebrated Doctor. F. G. occur with ergot poisoning (Woolf, 2000), making poison-
Williams in Kirtland. F. G. Williams is a revised quack, ing by ergot-infected rye bread less likely. The manifest
well known in this vicinity, by his herbarium on either symptoms were attributed to potions made by Tituba, a
side of his house; but whether he claims protection by South American Arawak Indian or Caribbean enslaved
right of letters, patent from the General Government, or person (Albanese, 2005; Breslaw, 1996) owned by the
by communion with spirits from other worlds, we are not Reverend Samuel Parris (Dannaway, Piper, & Webster,
authorized to determine. (pp. 229–230) 2006). Tituba was familiar with Hoodoo religion (Martin,
2006) and plant medicines from her African heritage and
The Smith family exemption of entheogenic herbs as pro- could have prepared an anticholinergic such as datura
hibited substances in the Word of Wisdom seems genera- (Caporael, 1976). This could have produced the symptoms
tional considering that Joseph Jr.’s grandson Frederick M. ascribed to Parris’ daughter, and her cousin, the first
Smith, also a prophet to the Reorganized Church of Jesus “bewitched” inhabitant of Salem, whose behaviors, resem-
Christ of Latter Day Saints, carved out a similar exemption bled the anticholinergic toxidromal (Holstege & Borek,
for peyote as discussed below. We begin by examining the 2012) and dissociative features of Hallucinogen Persisting
historical setting of entheogenic practices of Joseph Smith Jr. Perception Disorder (Martin, 2006).

Beckstead et al.
Joseph Smith Sr.
The founding prophet of Mormonism, Joseph Smith Jr., was

born on the December 23, 1805 into a Christian family
enmeshed in folk-magic and the occult (Quinn, 1998).
Joseph Smith’s father, along with his other sons Alvin and
Joseph Jr., engaged in the “more esoteric components of the
western New York religious-cultural situation” (Shipps,
1987). Joseph Smith’s earliest mentor was his father, who
we believe would have communicated his entheogenic and
magico-religious knowledge to his sons.
Figure 3. Joseph Smith’s silver Jupiter talisman, after Barrett’s The
Magus (courtesy of Signature Books)
Ginseng extraction
Joseph Sr.’s knowledge of preparing plant extracts was especially Joseph Jr. whose cane was inscribed with
recorded in 1811 when he collected and crystallized the symbols from The Magus conveying the message: “Jupiter-
2018 equivalent of $57,000 worth of ginseng root (Figure 2) reigns over-Joseph Smith” (Ibid). Shown in Figure 3 is
intended for sale in China (Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 49). the silver Jupiter talisman also bearing the markings of
Administration of ginseng root extract compares well with Jupiter.
Modafinil, a widely prescribed pharmaceutical drug used to Joseph Smith Jr. possessed a Jupiter talisman, and a cane
treat “excessive daytime sleepiness associated with narco- with a carved “serpent,” a character in the Edenic allegory,
lepsy or shift-work” (Neale, Camfield, Reay, Stough, & and one animal believed to be “governed by both Saturn and
Scholey, 2013). Having crystallized and likely made use of Jupiter;” this, Quinn argues, shows that Smith relied on the
this psychoactive themselves, the Smith’s would have had works of occultists Francis Barrett and Heinrich Cornelius
no difficulty collecting, processing, and storing more potent Agrippa (Quinn, 1998, pp. 90–91). Agrippa (1486–1535)
psychoactive plants and fungi for their medicinal and names henbane, mandrake, and black poppy as three herbs
magico-religious practices. “under the power of Jupiter” (Agrippa, 1801). According to
Barrett (1801, pp. 89–92), henbane and black poppy are
Family magical practices among the herbs used to invoke the “images of spirits”
through proper suffumigations involving hemlock, henbane,
Quinn (1998) has argued that the Smiths, who lived in black poppies, mandrake root, and other plants. Also,
Vermont, New Hampshire, Upstate New York, and North- Joseph Smith possessed an esoteric Amulet (Quinn, 1998,
ern Ohio, engaged several magico-religious practitioners of p. 93) that seems to bear symbols belonging to both alchemy
which Luman Walters (discussed below) played a signifi- and masonry and representing Psilocybe species mushroom,
cant role as mentor to both Joseph and his father which we discuss below.
(pp. 98–135). The Smith family, including Joseph Jr.,
possessed and employed several magic-related artifacts
The visions of Joseph Smith’s parents
including astrological charts, magical parchments, a cere-
monial dagger, an alchemical amulet, a silver Jupiter In 1853, Joseph Smith’s mother, Lucy Mack Smith, related
talisman, and a cane that all “manifest direct indebtedness” several family dreams in her book, Biographical Sketches of
to occultists including Sibly, Scot, Agrippa, and Barrett Joseph Smith, the Prophet, and his progenitors for many
(Quinn, 1998, p. 118). Quinn characterizes these occult Generations and from which we learn about Joseph Smith’s
books of “enormous significance” to the Smith family, life growing up in the magically and religiously charged
environments of sparsely populated New England and
Upstate New York.
Lucy’s first vision
The golden Amanita muscaria could be the mushroom that

best fits Lucy Smith’s remarkable first vision. Lucy’s dream
occurred c. 1802–1808, at least 3 years before her husband’s
two dreams in 1811 (described below) and 12 years before her
son’s first vision. Joseph Sr. had just informed Lucy it was
best for her to “desist” attending the Methodist church because
his father and older brother were very displeased. Lucy related
that “after praying for some time : : : [she] fell asleep and had
the following dream” in which she saw trees that “were very
beautiful, they were well proportioned, and towered with
majestic beauty to a great height : : : I saw one of them was
Figure 2. Ginseng found near the old Smith family farm, Sharon, surrounded with a bright belt, that shone like burnished gold,
Vermont (photo by Robert Beckstead) but far more brilliantly” (Smith, J., 1853, pp. 54–55).

A. muscaria occasionally forms “fairy rings” around the acid to the more hallucinogenic and less toxic muscimol and
host tree (Figure 4), and the color of a mature A. muscaria, “once completely dry, the golden mushroom’s power is
as shown in Figure 5, “takes on a metallic sheen ranging in complete” (Heinrich, 2002, p. 170). A golden A. muscaria
color from red-orange to golden or bronze” (Heinrich, surrounding its host tree may have been one of Lucy’s
2002, p. 14), a feature enhanced by early morning or waking memories and incorporated into this dream.
evening light. Further, aging and drying converts ibotenic Lucy’s dream ended with her mood lightened as she
concluded that her husband would share her feelings,
when “more advanced in life, would : : : rejoice therein;
and unto him would be added intelligence, happiness,
glory, and everlasting life” (Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 56).
Lucy’s dream included a conscious memory of having
seen a “burnished gold” ring probably of A. muscaria. If
Lucy deliberately tried this entheogenic fungus, she may
have done so as treatment for her lifelong depression
(Groesbeck, 1988).
Joseph Smith Sr.’s first vision
Two dreams reported by Joseph Smith Sr. strongly suggest

experience with entheogens whose content contains not only
allisions to entheogens but also some familiarity with
esoteric allegory and symbolism.
Datura dream. In what his wife described as his “first
vision,” Joseph Sr. found himself entirely alone, although
accompanied by an “attendant spirit.” In the “desolate
field,” before him, Joseph Sr. saw only dead, fallen
timber, and heard only “deathlike silence.” Querying his
attendant spirit on the meaning of such desolation and
dreariness, Joseph Sr. was told that ahead he would
find, “a certain log a box, the contents of which, if you
eat thereof, will make you wise.” Shortly after “tasting” the
contents, Joseph Sr. reports being threatened by “all
manner of beasts : : : bellowing : : : most terrifically.”
In the panic, Joseph Sr. escaped on the “fly,” and when he
returned to his natural senses, Joseph Sr. found
Figure 4. Ring surrounds a host tree (not shown) Shutterstock himself “trembling.” Despite the frightful experience,
Joseph Sr. reported being “perfectly happy” (Smith,
L. M., 1853, p. 57).
The following datura experience posted online is impres-
sive for its robust emotional impact, the overlay of visionary
material on everyday reality, and the generation of a differ-
ent reality.
You effectively keep your rational, sober mind along with

your ego while on Datura; it’s rather that your sober
mind is experiencing a completely different reality.
Imagine normal sobriety but as you start to dream while
awake. Rather than enlightenment through ego death,
the nightshades offer dimensional travel to other planes
of reality (deCypher, 2008)
The frightening aspect of Smith’s dream suggests a waking

experience with datura fruit and his memory of the biblical
warnings of death (“thou shalt surely die”) associated with
the “tree of knowledge of good and evil” (Genesis 2:17),
coupled with his awareness of reports of fatalities associated
with datura poisoning (e.g., Bigelow, 1817). Smith’s guide
echoes the serpent in Genesis 3:3, who advises that eating of
the fruit “will make you wise.” An element of Joseph Sr.’s
Figure 5. Mature, Burnished Golden A. muscaria (photo by first dream reappears in his second dream, thorns. Signifi-
Heinrich, 2002) cantly, thorns are introduced into the world, according to

Beckstead et al.
Genesis 3:3, because of the ingestion of the “forbidden fruit” (a hallucinogen and sedative) had entheogenic uses among
of the tree, perhaps symbolically referencing the thorny Native Americans (Alrashedy & Molina, 2016).
mature datura seedpod. What then, was the knowledge that
Joseph Sr. received from his spirit guide and his dreams? Native Americans
According to his wife, following his two dreams, Joseph Sr.
“seemed more confirmed than ever, in the opinion that there Smith always lived close to Native Americans and likely
was no order or class of religionists that knew any more was influenced by shamanic activities. For instance, the
concerning the Kingdom of God, than those of the world, or Algonquin (Delaware, Fox, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Sauk) in
such as made no profession of religion whatever” (Smith, the Northeast and Great Plains, the Iroquois (Cayuga,
L. M., 1853, p. 60). Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca) in the northeast (Tooker &
A. muscaria dream. The same year as the first dream, Sturtevant, 1979, p. xviii) and the Cherokee in the southeast
Joseph Sr. had a second entheogen-related dream, which (Hamel & Chiltoskey, 1975, p. 41) and their shamans
involved basking in ecstasy, the joy, and love associated resided close enough to Joseph Smith that he would have
with the Edenic tree of life. In this dream, which he related been captivated by their religious and medical practices.
to his wife Lucy, a psychopomp leads Joseph Sr. to a tree In 1822 Seneca Indian Chief, Red Jacket, nephew of
with, “beautiful branches spread themselves somewhat like Chief Handsome Lake, spoke only miles from where Joseph
an umbrella, and it bore a kind of fruit, in shape much like Smith lived. Red Jacket might have sparked 17-year-old
a chestnut bur, and as white as snow, or, if possible, Joseph Smith’s interest in Native American culture and
whiter.” As he watched, the chestnut “shells commenced seeking a Native American shamanic mentoring (Taylor,
opening and shedding their particles, or the fruit which 2010).
they contained, which was of dazzling whiteness.” When Joseph Smith demonstrated his interest in Native Ameri-
he partook of the fruit, he experienced something can life at age 18 when he regaled his family with stories of
“delicious beyond description” and, inviting his family to ancient Indian life (Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 79), and later
eat, they “got down upon [their] knees, and scooped [the partially built his prophetic career on a Native platform with
fruit] up, eating it by double handfuls” (Smith, L. M., The Book of Mormon. Comparative religionist Åke V.
1853, p. 85). Ström (1969) has demonstrated many parallels of Joseph
In this dream, Joseph Sr. incorporates the spiny, thorny Smith’s teachings and practices with those of Native reli-
fruit of the chestnut, a feature of the first dream, which is gions of Northeastern North America, especially that of the
similar in appearance to the fruit of datura. Instead of datura, Algonquins. The parallels are extensive enough that Ström
however, the umbrella-shaped fruit scooped from the posits that the boy Joseph may have been heavily influenced
ground in the second dream evokes images of dazzling by an Algonquin neighbor. Smith’s Native American influ-
white spores dropping from the gills of an A. muscaria ences may have included North American entheogens, such
against a bright background or on a black surface. as D. stramonium, A. muscaria, and Psilocybe species. The
Joseph Sr.’s esoteric Christian A. muscaria dream Native Americans used entheogens in medical and spiritual
concludes with Joseph Sr. explaining to his wife, Lucy, practices such as the Ojibway Midewiwin or Grand Medical
“I drew near and began to eat [the fruit] of it, and I found it Society. The Ojibway (Anishinaabe people) in their legend
delicious beyond description. As I was eating, I said in my of Miskwedo described the use and effects of A. muscaria
heart, ‘I cannot eat this alone, I must bring my wife and (Navet, 1988).
children, that they may partake with me.’ I went and brought We summarize here the version told by medicine woman
my family, which consisted of a wife and seven children, and Keewaydinoquay Peschel (1979) where Miskwedo, the red-
we all commenced eating, and praising God for this bless- topped mushrooms, the spiritual children of Grandmother
ing. We were exceedingly happy, insomuch that our joy Cedar and Grandfather Birch. Two brothers came upon
could not easily be expressed” (Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 85). Miskwedo “turning and revolving, buzzing and murmuring,
singing a strange song of happiness under a brilliantly
Emma Smith sunny sky.” The older brother tried to dissuade his younger
brother from eating the mushroom, but defies his brother
Emma Hale, Joseph’s wife, was gifted in using herbs. One and merged with the mushroom, becoming a Miskwedo
of Emma’s medicines was a healing salve that contained himself. Distraught, the older brother ran home to ask the
“jimson weed” or Datura stramonium (Bailey, 1952) and medicine men what to do; and he was told to return, locate
when the Sauk Indians visited Nauvoo in 1841, she the chief and the wisest Miskwedo, and stick the quill of an
exchanged recipes for herbal medicines with the wife of eagle feather through each of their stipes to stop them
Chief Keokuk (Newell & Avery, 1994). In 1867, Emma turning and singing songs of happiness, then to do the same
wrote to her son, Joseph Smith III: “I will tell you now how I to his younger brother and carry him home. He followed the
make the salve. Of sweet elder bark a good large handful elder’s instruction, and his younger brother turned back
after it is scraped, and as much gymson [jimson] leaves and into his previous form. However, after returning home, the
buds if they are green and tender enough to be pounded up older brother arose in the morning “with his heart heavy
fine” (Bidamon, 1867; Youngreen, 2001, pp. 97, 119). with sadness and foreboding,” while his younger brother
Emma’s grandchildren also reported her use of psychoactive “arose smiling each day, his heart filled with happiness, his
medicinal beer, ginseng, and lobelia, or “Indian tobacco” lips singing merriment.” The older brother became suspi-
(Youngreen, 2001, pp. 73, 99). Ginseng has stimulant, cious when, the younger brother urinated more frequently
antidepressant, and aphrodisiac properties, while lobelia and took longer than before. When the older brother

investigated, he found his younger brother with “arms are spiritual alchemy, and speculative freemasonry (Owens,
open wide, spread like the umbrella of a mushroom” with 1999). Significantly, some members of these esoteric
beautiful robes “glowing red, and tufts of white” singing schools of thought had an interest in entheogen use and
with a “voice of happiness” to the “people following him.” encoded their knowledge in esoteric works of art.
Now and forever, older brothers are unhappy in contrast to During the 13th century, esoteric Christian artists painted
the younger brothers who “drink the Elixir of the Great Biblical themes associated with entheogenic mushrooms
Miskwedo” learning much of “the supernatural and other (Brown & Brown, 2016; also see Brown & Brown in this
knowledge” by drinking “the liquid Power of the Sun.” issue). For instance, in Figure 6 is an “Eden Panel” found in
Together, these stories transmit knowledge about A. mus- Saint Michael’s Church, Germany (1240 CE) showing
caria, where to look for it, how to recognize it, the joys it can Adam and Eve standing, and a serpent coiled on a tree in
bestow, and the displeasure of authorities if consumed. For front of a spotted A. muscaria mushroom cap. Also, in
instance, these mushrooms are always associated with trees Figure 7, the Edenic tree also takes on the form of an A.
such as cedar and birch and have red tops with white tufts. muscaria in a ca. 1291 fresco found in Plaincourault Abbey,
The experience of ingesting these mushrooms includes tran- Indre, France. Figure 8 shows a painting by the Flemish
sient ego disillusion, unity with the Divine, and mood artist, Petrus Christus (c. 1410–1475) portraying the child
elevations. The stories also warn of authoritarian displeasure, Christ laying supine on an A. muscaria bed looked over by
whom themselves refuse filling their hearts with happiness,
try to suppress its use. In The Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith
relates a similar story about Lehi’s use of entheogens. Lehi
comes upon a tree ladened with fruit that filled his soul “with
exceeding great joy.” However, others, whose dress was
“exceeding fine,” mocked, and pointed their fingers at those
“partaking of the fruit.” The scoffing caused some who ate
from the tree to feel ashamed and fall “away into forbidden
paths” (Smith, J., 1830, p. 20).
Midewiwin shaman are believed to possess the power of
a long life, even “victory over death” through healing plants
and the rituals. Such power strongly suggests that among
other herbal remedies, the Midewiwin shaman utilized
entheogenic material.
Delaware (Tantaquidgeon, 1972, p. 37) and Mohegan
(Ibid, pp. 72, 128) peoples were familiar with datura. Native
Americans living in Virginia gave a psychoactive brew called
“wysoccan” to their young men during a rite of passage,
causing a “derangement for 20 days,” strongly suggesting it
contained D. stramonium (Schultes, 1975, 9, 142) or A.
muscaria (Geraty, 2015). Most North American Eastern
Woodland Indian groups reported: “datura as the base of Figure 6. Eden Panel, St. Michael’s Church Germany, 1240.
a narcotic drink used in manhood initiation rites” (Goodman, Public domain
1993). In 1705, Virginian Indians were reported to have been
using datura in their religious ceremonies (Safford, 1922) and
there was widespread use of datura in initiation ceremonies in
Native North America (Jacobs, 1996). Further, sometimes,
Eastern Native Americans would add “datura and other
powerful substances : : : to tobacco to prepare a particularly
potent smoke” (Fuller, 2008, p. 81).
Growing up and into adulthood, Smith lived relatively
near to the Algonquin areas of the Potawatomi, Ojibwa, and
Delaware peoples whom all belonged to the Algonquin
family. We will explore Smith’s relationships with this
group of peoples when we discuss his transactions with
the Potawatomi in the early 1840s Nauvoo. However, it is
enough to note that Smith likely noted the secretive
Midewiwin medical society with its selective membership,
graded training of new shamans, and their use psychoactive
materials including datura and A. muscaria.
Esoteric Christianity
Joseph Smith was influenced at a young age by several Figure 7. Temptation in the Garden of Eden, Plaincourault Chapel,
categories of esotericism, including esoteric Christianity, France, ca. 1299. Color enhanced. Public domain

Beckstead et al.
be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting

life. (p. 120)
The “living water,” according to Heinrich, is water-soluble

muscimol, the principle psychoactive in A. muscaria. Mus-
cimol is excreted unchanged in the urine, which the shaman
or others can consume. Supporting Heinrich’s argument of
entheogenic urine, we note Jesus’s saying in John 7:8,
He that believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of

his belly shall flow rivers of living water.
The phrase “out of [Jesus’] belly” may describe entheogenic-

laced urine. Due to physiological processes, urine after
ingesting A. muscaria is more potent than the tea initially
consumed. The entheogenic component of A. muscaria is
Figure 8. The Nativity, Petrus Christus, 1452 (only close up of water-soluble, and when extracted with water, turns the water
infant Jesus is shown). Public domain the color of red wine. Further, the mushrooms upturned cap
(Figure 9) and becomes the cup holding the elixir of life, and
Joseph, Mary, and winged angels. The relative abundance of the mushroom itself becomes the life-giving bread. Heinrich
Christian A. muscaria syncretic art led Antonio Escohotado (2002, p. 122) quotes Jesus telling he disciples:
(2012) to conclude, “it seems indisputable that there is a
connection between visionary mushrooms and Christianity” I am the living bread that has come down from heaven.
(p. 73). There are reasons to think that given his esoteric Anyone who eats this bread will live forever; and the bread
background, Joseph Smith or one of his mentors had access that I shall give is my flesh : : : if you do not eat [my]
to this art, decrypted it, and then encoded in Smith’s flesh and drink [my] blood, you will not have life in you.
teachings, revelations, and ordinances. Anyone who does eat my flesh and drink my blood has
Where then did Joseph Smith first learn of alchemy and eternal life : : : for my flesh is real food and my blood is
esoteric Christianity? In his book, Magic Mushrooms in real drink : : : As I, who am sent by the living Father,
Religion and Alchemy, Heinrich (2002, pp. 105–153) myself draw life from the Father, so whoever eats me
discusses the relationship between esoteric Christianity and will draw life from me. This is the bread come down
using A. muscaria as a sacramental meal. According to from heaven : : : anyone who eats this bread will live
Heinrich, Jesus unmistakably identifies himself with an forever. (p. 121)
entheogenic substance, an elixir of life and bread of heaven,
the A. muscaria mushroom shown in Figure 9. Heinrich Implied in Heinrich’s discussion of these passages is his
quotes Jesus telling a woman, confidence that anyone using entheogens in a Christian
context will experience “many of the states described : : :
: : : whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him in mystical Christianity” (p. 5).
shall never thirst; but the water that I shall give him shall Although most of Smith’s revelations and teachings
suggest the traditional Christian understandings of Jesus,
occasionally he betrayed a different view. For
instance, in 1844, Smith is reported to have said,
I am the only man that has ever been able to keep a whole
church together since the days of Adam : : : Neither
Paul, John, Peter, nor Jesus ever did it : : : The followers
of Jesus ran away from Him; but the Latter-day
Saints never ran away from me yet. (Roberts, 1915,
pp. 408–409)
In this statement, Smith seems to suggest that Jesus did not

differ from him – meaning that Smith understood Jesus as
shaman-like, as a human and not a God. Likewise, Jesus-
like Smith healed the “lame arm” of Mrs. John Johnson
(Dahl & Cannon, 1997) and raised William Hungtington
from the dead (Curtis, 1892).
Spiritual alchemy
Figure 9. A. muscaria as elixir (blood of Christ) and bread (flesh of Owens (1999) argues that Joseph Smith “certainly
Christ) (photo by Heinrich, 2002) [learned]. . . about the Philosopher’s Stone and alchemy’s

transmutational mystery” (p. 158). Alchemy became a Masonic Lodge, founded at the end of 1839, anticipated the
subject of several artists in Europe. Owens argues that spring of 1842 groundbreaking of the Nauvoo temple.
Smith likely learned about alchemy from “a physician Joseph Smith’s father and older brother, Joseph Sr. and
named Luman Walter(s), who was a distant cousin of Hyrum, respectively, were both Masons, and Joseph Jr. was
Smith’s future wife and a member of the circle associated likely familiar with Captain William Morgan, famously
with the early treasure quests” (p. 16) of which young murdered for publishing the secrets of Masonry in 1826.
Joseph was a member. Agreeing with Owens, D. Michael After Morgan’s death, his widow, Lucinda Morgan, secretly
Quinn reasons that Walters was Smith’s teenage mentor and became one of Smith’s 33 known plural wives in 1838
occult advisor (1998, pp. 116–122). (Compton, 1997). Early Mormon leaders and successors to
In his book, Science, Alchemy and the Great Plague of Joseph Smith, including Brigham Young, the leader of
London William S. Shelley (2017) stated “that alchemical Mormonism’s most successful schism, were deeply in-
writings concerned chemical processes from their late an- volved in Masonry before their conversion to Mormonism
tique beginning until the Renaissance. Spiritual alchemy (Durham, 1974; Tanner, n.d.). There were masonic motifs,
originated, it would appear, in the early sixteenth century architecture, ritual, and iconography in the Nauvoo, Illinois
when Paracelsus [1493–1541] blended his medical practice temple. For example, on the outside architecture of the
of alchemy with his interest in the Hermetic-Platonic tradi- temple were the masonic sunstones, upside-down five-
tion of Renaissance esotericism” (p. 4). Sometime late in the pointed star stones, moonstones, and a masonic compass
reign of Queen Elizabethan (1533–1603), alchemical texts and a square weathervane. Inside the temple, the masonic
“seem to be exclusively spiritual, that is, that have no “all-searching eye” was shown on the original architect’s
apparent interest in practical laboratory procedures” (Ibid). drawing (Stack, 2002).
English alchemists such as Elisa Ashmole (1617–1692) Joseph’s mother, Lucy Smith (Anderson, 2001, p. 23; also
and Robert Boyle (1627–1691), according to Shelley, “were see Joseph Smith Papers, 1844–1845) revealed how “for a
concerned with one or more substances, termed the red season that we stopped our labor and went trying to win the
stone, the angelic stone, and otherwise, whose effects were faculty of Abrac,” a secret masonic process with roots in
described as spiritual.” Shelley then argues, “these are much older traditions. Mormon scholar and historian Michael
substances that produced mystical experiences and was Quinn (1998) reports that the
implicitly psychoactive” and associates it with “the motif
of [Israelite] manna, : : : the hidden manna of Revelation
2:17, : : : [the] hermetic tradition, : : : English alchemical
literature from the Tudor period onward,” and in “the
twelfth century theology of the school of Laon [northern
France], afterward spreading to Cistercian, Franciscan,
and other writers” (Ibid).
Heinrich (2002) explores the connection between alche-
my and entheogens, including the allegorical use of the
Rebis such as the one in Figure 10 to transmit privileged
knowledge of entheogenic A. muscaria (pp. 172–177, 184).
The Rebis is a double-headed hermaphrodite linked to the
prima materia, philosophers stone, an elixir of life within the
allegory, A. muscaria. According to Lewis Spence (1920,
p. 10), one of the “grand objects of alchemy” was the
discovery of an elixir to ensure health and prevent death,
“elixirs of life” containing herbs and medicinals that Hein-
rich argues are entheogens.
We now examine an amulet in Figure 11 belonging to
Joseph Smith and gifted to Eliza R. Snow, his most esoteric
plural wife. Figure 12 shows an inverted mushroom species
(presumably Psilocybin) comparing favorably to the
mushroom-appearing tassels dangling from both the belt
worn by the Rebis in Figure 13 and the belt engraved on
Joseph Smith’s amulet in Figure 14. It is reasonable to
propose that Figures 11 and 13 represent the same thing,
Psilocybe species mushrooms.
Speculative Masonry
Mormon historian and former director of the Institute of

Religion in Salt Lake City, Reid C. Durham documented
Joseph Smith’s Masonic heritage and his adoption of
Masonic ritual and iconography found in the Mormon
Nauvoo temple endowment (Durham, 1974). The Nauvoo Figure 10. Rebis by Solomon Trismosis, 1852. Public domain

Beckstead et al.
Figure 13. Enlarged belt on the Salomon Trismosin Rebis (adapted

from Figure 10)
Figure 11. Joseph Smith’s alchemical amulet (courtesy of

Signature Books)
Figure 14. Enlarged belt on the Joseph Smith amulet (adapted

from Figure 11)
of the names of God in conjurations. [And that]

“Abraxas [was a] Gnostic name for God that had
become associated with magic.” (pp. 68–67)
In America, as in Europe, speculative masonry subsumed

many mysteries in the ancient world (Casey & Gutierrez
2005, p. 222). There is evidence to suggest that these
mysteries utilized entheogens including the Greek Eleusinian
mysteries (Wasson, Ruck, & Hofmann, 2008, pp. 2–7), the
Demeter-Persephone cult (Ibid, pp. 12–15), and the Dionysi-
ac mystery cults (Ibid, pp. 15–18). The Roman Phrygian rites
for Magna Mater (Drummond, 2013, p. 46), the Mithraic
cults of Persia (Ezdejini, 2016), and the mysteries surround-
ing the Egyptian gods Osiris and Isis (Berlant, 2005) are all
suspected of entheogen use in their rites.
According to Chris Bennett (2018), the “imagery of the
[Masonic] Lodge, was built with a set and setting that in
many ways could be enhanced by the use of entheogens”
(p. 681) and the idea that some “masonic drinks may be a
remnant of early sacramental potions that contained
psychoactive ingredients : : : [has] been pondered for well
over a century” (p. 693). For instance, Bennett quotes from
an 1835 Masonic history by John Fellows who in rehearsing
the entheogens of Ancient Egyptians, Pythagoreans, and
Druids, “refers to a soporific cake of honey and medicated
Figure 12. Inverted relatively young Psilocybe species mushroom grain medicatis frugibus [i.e. drugged]) along with
(Shutterstock photo) preparations of poppy and other psychoactive substances
[with fellow Mason as] its target audience” (Ibid). Bennett
Faculty of Abrac was a well-known phrase linking magic then notes Fellow’s informing the candidate that in drinking
and divinity. Medieval and early modern magic manu- the potion offered to him during initiation, it is a eucharist by
scripts in England used “Abrac” and “Abraca” as one which “the real presence of the Saviour is manifest” (Ibid).

In his book, Alchemically Stoned, the 33rd degree Mason received Walters’ teachings and eventually exceeded his
P. D. Newman (2017) argues that features of Masonic skills as a conjurer and scryer (Cole, 1831).
ceremonies, architecture, and accouterments strongly
suggest some Masonic lodges used entheogenic material Esoteric practice
from Acacia species known to contain the psychedelic
dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Shannon (2008) and Nemu Walters used a seer stone, conjuration, animal sacrifice, and
(2019; Editor’s Note: see Nemu’s article here) similarly likely a hallucinogen to occasion “interview with the spirit,
argue for the Hebraic use of the entheogenic Acacia tree. supposed to have the custody of [a particular] hidden
According to Mormon writer Jeffrey Bradshaw (2015), treasure” (Quinn, 1998). It was Walters who “first
“In the ceremonies of the Royal Arch Degree of the York suggested to Joseph the idea of finding a book.” Occasion-
rite, candidates pass through a series of veils and eventually ally, Walters could be found reading to a receptive audience
enter into the divine presence” (p. 162), but in the Nauvoo from an “old book” in a language that only he could
temple endowment, it “is not a mere representation but is understand and prophesied that Joseph Jr. “was about to
the reality of coming into a heavenly presence” (p. 218). find : : : a history of hidden treasures” and a “record of the
Mormon historian Andrew Ehat (1994) explains, “In former inhabitants of America” (Cole, 1831; Morgan,
temples, we have a staged representation of the step-by- 2014).
step ascent into the presence of the Eternal while we are yet Joseph Jr. was chosen as a treasure seer by the same
alive : : : [and] “there should have been a change in us as company that had hired Walters, leaving him angry and
there certainly was with Moses when he was caught up to resentful (Kane, 1995). Residents believed Walters’ mantle
celestial realms and saw and heard things unlawful to utter” fell on the young Joseph. While acting as a seer for this
(pp. 53–54, emphasis added). We argue that the “change” company, Smith announced that he found golden plates
required to be “caught up to celestial realms” required the containing a history of Amerindian ancestors, from which
administration of an entheogen, a change that, like in he subsequently “translated” The Book of Mormon. Smith
Kirtland, would produce observable symptomatology. If used a seer stone to translate, and we hypothesize an
this hypothesis is correct, an entheogenic endowment may entheogen; the use of the latter is suggested by reports of
have been the source of Smith’s confidence that converts his frequent “intoxication” or “altered” appearance while
would in “reality” be “caught up to celestial realms.” The translating. Luman Walters and Joseph reconciled because
secret that Smith needed converts to keep was the visible Walters was later reported to be a “disciple” of Joseph Smith
symptomology they would observe during the Nauvoo in Kirtland, Ohio, suggesting Walters’ direct impact on
temple endowment. Mormon visionary experience could extend into the early
Kirtland period at least (Quinn, 1998, p. 131). Walters likely
Policy of secrecy received his esoteric training, including alchemical-drug
expertise while studying in Europe (see below). The esoteric
In an 1841 meeting, Joseph Smith explained a purpose of the physician’s involvement in Mormonism was confirmed by
lodge is to learn to keep secrets. Smith explained, “the reason Brigham Young, one of Joseph Smith’s successors (Young,
we do not have the secrets of the Lord revealed unto us is 1858). Joseph Smith’s alchemical-masonic amulet suggests
because we do not keep them” (Roberts, 1908, p. 478) and Walter’s drug-alchemical influence in Smith’s early career
later observed, “The secret of Masonry is to keep a secret” (see below).
(Roberts, 1915, p. 59). What did Smith want to keep secret?
Besides Smith’s unusual marriage practice (Hales, 2015; Van Medical practice
Wagoner, 1985, 1989) and his kingdom building ambitions
(Grow, Esplin, McGee, & Mahas, 2016), we argue it was to Walters’ medical practice fared much better than his
keep secret administration of an entheogen in the endowment. seership duties. He secured his medical reputation by curing
a child of severe “croup” after traditional physicians had, in
Luman Walters, Occultist and eclectic physician despair, given up. Croup was “the common term for every
affection of the windpipe,” stridor that produced a high-
Mormon scholar and historian Michael Quinn (1998) pitched crowing sound on exhalation. Porter (1826) notes
reviewed the historical record about Luman Walters that antiphlogistics (anti-inflammatories) were used by all
(1789–1860), who was an accomplished physician, preach- physicians of the period, as were opium (Papaver somni-
er, and magician. Through his travels and scientific training ferum) and Atropa belladonna and D. stramonium, both of
in France, Germany, and Italy, Walters became an “eclectic” which contain hallucinogenic anticholinergic alkaloids
physician whose practices involved occult techniques that (Hartshorne, 1855).
included the administration of medicinal herbs he processed Operating his laboratory, Walters could isolate the active
in his well-stocked laboratory. Walters was an exceptionally anticholinergic component of the Datura plant as an extract
qualified mentor. During Joseph Smith’s teen years and or a tincture. He would know the appropriate doses to treat:
early twenties, Walters utilized his occult training as an respiratory diseases such as asthma, cough-variant asthma,
astrologer and seer for treasure companies, one of which and to relieve pain from sciatica, menstruation, and cancer
was a “fraternity” of rodsmen, with Joseph Sr. as one of the (Benich & Carek, 2011). Datura was well known, and
leading members. During this period, Walters was young “Indeed, so closely does it resemble belladonna, that even,
Joseph’s “constant companion and bosom friend” and given in the intoxication which it produces, the same follies are
Smith’s extraordinary level of intelligence, he readily committed.” The effects of this plant are well-known in

Beckstead et al.
some parts of Europe, and the plant was vulgarly called Favoring herbs himself, Smith had great sympathy for
“Herbe aux Sorciers” (Thomson, 1832) and was “commonly this branch of medical practice. Soon after his induction into
connected with witchcraft, death, and horror” (Folkard, the religion, Smith appointed Williams to the office of
1884). Walters undoubtedly used anticholinergics such as Second Counselor to the Prophet, Smith’s scribe, and printer
A. belladonna, D. stramonium, and Hyoscyamus niger as for church publications. As a physician, Williams was
treatments and knew of their use as visionary substances. He “universally known through this country as an eminent and
may have also known the antidepressant properties of skillful man” saving Samuel Smith’s wife in childbearing
anticholinergic-facilitated experience and used these and reviving the newborn child (Williams, 1972). Fellow
medicines to treat melancholy (Drevets, Zarate, & Furey, physicians living in Nauvoo used ergot in the obstetrical
2013). Further suggesting that Walters prescribed psychoac- practices and we have no reason to believe that Williams’
tives is a statement in the following report in the Geneva skills were any different.
(NY) Times, “In the olden days, roots, herbs and vegetables
were considered highly essential as medicine for nervous Indian Mission
disorders by a number of physicians. Among the early
physicians to use these ingredients in his prescriptions for One aspect of Williams’ involvement in early Mormonism
nervous disorders was Dr. Luman Walters, a noted physi- was his mission journey to proselytize to the Native Amer-
cian and surgeon who practiced in the village of Gorham icans from late 1830–1831. Joseph Smith revealed to Oliver
over a half-century ago” (Anon., 1929). Cowdery and three other Elders they were to commence
Walters would have brought from Europe the medical and their missionary efforts to the Lamanite, as Smith called
occult books from which he taught and perhaps loaned to the Native Americans Indians (Smith, 1833, p. 68) and scout the
Smiths. Anyone with access to The Magus, such as Walters location for a satellite “stake” (or congregation) to be
and the Smiths did, would read recipes describing halluci- organized in Missouri. During this journey, the missionaries
nogenic anticholinergics, or “herbs of the spirits” that could met Williams, and he joined the group to meet with, and
be smoked, used orally, dermally, or intravaginally. Cere- proselytize to, the Natives near modern Kansas City,
monial magicians in both Europe and America used vision- Missouri, in a Native settlement known as Kaw Township.
ary substances. Dale Pendell notes that included in John For a botanically centric physician, an opportunity to meet
Porta’s book Natural Magick, published in 1558, “a number with the so-called “Lamanites” and intermingle knowl-
of recipes both for sleeping potions and madness potions, edge of herb craft and mysticism with the people who had
using stramonium (Datura), belladonna, and henbane. been using American plants for millennia would have
Natural Magick was an immediate best-seller” (Pendell, been an exciting prospect. Dr. Williams’ medical practice
2005, p. 244). Weirus includes “nightshade” in his visionary later reflects this newfound knowledge of “Indian
formula. Although nightshade can be a generic term for medicine,” as evidenced by multiple advertisements Wil-
members of the Solanaceae family, including the Solanum liams published in the Quincy Whig from 1839 to 1842
genus of food plants such as tomato, potato, and eggplant, it (Williams, 2012, p. 169).
could also be a term for highly toxic Bittersweet (Solanum The overwhelming logistical constraints of supplying
dulcamara), or woody nightshade, with purple and yellow scores or hundreds of Mormons on multiple occasions with
flowers and red ovoid berries (Evens & Stellpflug, 2012). various plant medicines could have been satisfied by an
experienced Thomsonian Botanical physician like Frederick
Frederick G. Williams, Apothecary G. Williams, with his herbarium. As evidence of their close
fraternity, Joseph Smith named one of his children after
One early convert to Mormonism living in Kirtland was a Frederick G. Williams. Smith had a strong and previously
second-generation German immigrant named Frederick G. unremarked tendency to draw physicians close to him and
Williams. Born in October 1787, Williams took up the place them in positions of close confidence. Smith began his
practice of medicine around 1816 after the death of his career as a seer with botanical physician Luman Walters as
sister-in-law during childbirth. Williams gravitated towards his mentor, and later made Frederick Williams one of his top
Thomsonianism medicine and was frequently called an two or three confidants. In the early 1830s, Smith ordained
“herbal” or “vegetable” doctor. However, Williams him his counselor in the newly organized First Presidency.
(2012) did not limit his practice to herbal medicine; his In the early 1840s, he made physician Willard Richards an
skill set included setting fractured bones, suturing wounds, apostle and his private secretary. Also, around the same
and treating burns, cholera, venereal disease, and delivering time, he made physician John Cook Bennett a counselor in
newborns (Williams, 2012, pp. 10, 15, 159, 162, 167). If the First Presidency and arguably his right-hand man and
Williams followed Samuel Thomson’s (1841) Materia Med- closest companion in the early 1840s.
ica, which was in its 13th edition, he would have given
enemas to assist with childbirth (p. 698), and if needed,
given a tea consisting of raspberry leaves and “No. 2,” the ENTHEOGENIC MATERIALS
later signifying the class of medicinal stimulants found in
London and Edinburgh Dispensatories (p. 115). Since 1822, The availability of entheogenic material to the Smith family
ergot of rye was thought “to be the most efficacious remedy and their ability to process and utilize it are foundational to
in cases of protracted labor and excessive hemorrhage” our thesis of an entheogenic early Mormonism. Sources of
and by 1838, was “was available in every dispensary in entheogens available to the Smith family and other herbal-
London” (Bauer, 1838, p.479). ists interested in divination, visions, and spiritual ecstasies

included D. stramonium, A. muscaria variation guessowii,

Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata, and C. purpurea. Moreover,
with established trade networks extending into southwestern
Texas, Smith Joseph Smith potentially had access to two
additional entheogens, Lophophora williamsii and Incilius
alvarius.
D. stramonium and H. niger
Two prominent members of the Solanaceae plant family

were available in the areas the Smith family domiciled,
D. stramonium (Jimson weed or Jamestown weed) and
H. niger (Black henbane). The Drug Enforcement Admin-
istration (2013) reports datura plants growing wild, as
ornamentals, and in herbal gardens throughout much of the
United States from the northeastern states to Texas; and the
USDA plant database shows both D. stramonium and
H. niger growing in extensive areas across the entire
Northeastern states and other areas in the country.
Both plants contain the tropane alkaloid deliriants atropine,
hyoscyamine, and scopolamine and are among the oldest
Figure 15. P. ovoideocystidiata (Shutterstock photo)
medicines known to humankind (Sweta & Lakshmi, 2015);
physicians used them since antiquity as effective medicinals in
Eurasia (Alizadeh, Moshiri, Alizadeh, & Balali-Mood, 2014),
and early post-colonial America (Ashe, 1808; Coxe, 1827, entheogen in cultures worldwide. When ingested, psilocy-
pp. 209–210). Datura, for example, was used for its analgesic, bin content of these mushrooms is dephosphorylated into
antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, and antihelmintic proper- the psychoactive compound psilocin, explaining why these
ties (Soni, Siddiqui, Dwivedi, & Soni, 2012). Antithetically, fungi “have been exploited for their psychotropic effects
19th-century clinicians reported successfully treating a case of since prehistoric times” (Guzman, 2009). Psilocybe species
a chronic delusional state with a 10-day course of carefully mushrooms are best known for their entheogenic use in
prescribed D. stramonium (Sigmond, 1849). pre-Columbian Mexico, where they were used at least the
Magico-religious practitioners also used hyoscyamine and last 2,000 years. Psilocybe mushroom use extends back to
scopolamine since antiquity (Muller, 1998), primarily to 6000 BP in Europe and to 7000 BP in Africa (Ruiz, Piper, &
facilitate visions and ecstasies during divinatory and shamanic Ruck, 2011).
healing ceremonies, religious rituals, and witchcraft (Busia &
Heckels, 2006; Keller & Kane, 1967). Anticholinergics were Amanita muscaria
also used as an anesthetic by the Greek physician, Pediacus
Dioscorides (c. 40 – 90 AD), and noted by the Roman A. muscaria var. guessowii mushrooms, such as the one
encyclopedist, Aulus Celcus (c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD). In the shown growing near Kirtland, Ohio in Figure 16, are widely
earliest attempts at general anesthesia, wine extractions of the distributed in the woodlands and forests of Northeastern
bark of the root of mandrake, and the seeds of opium and America, where it is recognizable by its yellow to yellow–
henbane were used to cause “dead sleep” so the patient “not orange cap with remnants of the universal veil forming
apprehend the pain” of surgery (Carter, 1996). white scales and a skirt about its stem (Ostry, Anderson, &
The properties of datura were also well-known among O’Brien, 2010). It fruits in enormous quantities, often
colonials living in 18th-century Boston (Meyers, 2011, attaining dinner-plate size, and can be found growing in
p. 40). During the 1676 rebellion by Virginia settlers, a circle or “fairy ring” around its host tree. The fairy ring can
“hungry [British] soldiers consumed the plant and then be striking in appearance, especially as the mushroom
hallucinated for eleven days” (p. 58). This same sympto- matures and takes on a golden color, enhanced by the early
mology will return in 1830–1831 Kirtland. morning or evening light (Heinrich, 2002, plate 36). The cap
contains ibotenic acid and muscimol, with the more hallu-
P. ovoideocystidiata cinogenic and less toxic muscimol content increasing as the
mushroom dries.
P. ovoideocystidiata (Figure 15) mushroom ranges from A. muscaria may be the oldest entheogen known with some
Rhode Island to Kentucky and is especially common in the believing its use began after the “last Ice Age in the northern
Ohio River valley (Guzmán, Gaines, & Ramírez-Guillén, Eurasian forest belt [and] spread north following the retreat-
2007). These mushrooms are usually harvested from April to ing polar ice cap, approximately 11,000 B.P.” (Hajicek-
mid-June but sometimes persist into late September or early Dobberstein, 1995. p. 100) and used as an entheogen by
November and have a farinaceous or flour-like taste, possibly Siberian shaman for millennia (Lee, Dukan, & Milne, 2018).
making ground-up mushroom concealable in bread. Further, Indo-European speaking groups developed
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms have different phar- “a vocabulary pertaining to its shamanic use” followed
macology than A. muscaria and historically are a major centuries later by the “priests of the Vedic culture [who] sang

Beckstead et al.
Figure 17. Sweet Honeydew stage of ergot on wheat development

(photo by Crop Production Magazine, 2018)
Figure 16. A. muscaria var. guessowii found just outside Kirtland,
Ohio (photo by Robert Beckstead, 2007)
hymns in praise of Soma the god, the sacred plant and the
sacred drink pressed from the plant” (Ibid). It appears from the
2nd to the 9th-century CE among “Buddhist adepts : : : [who]
may have been ingesting this mushroom” as an entheogen
(Ibid). A. muscaria use appears in alchemy, Christianity, and
among free and adept masons; we argue that it appears in the
dreams and visions of the Joseph Smith family.
C. purpurea (ergot and mushroom)
The physicians Luman Walters, Frederic G. Williams, and

John C. Bennett (see below) may have provided Joseph
Smith with visionary ergot. In Figure 17, soft white sphacelia
(tissue) is producing sugary or honey-tasting honeydew
(Shelley, 1995). The darkly colored sclerotium in Figure 18, Figure 18. Ergot (C. purpurea) sclerotium on rye (photo by
when mature, drops to the ground. When there is moisture, Dominique Jacquin. Shutterstock)
ergot on the ground germinates, forming mushroom-like
fruiting bodies (stromas) with stipes and heads of various
colors in Figure 19. The non-water-soluble ergopeptine Water-soluble psychoactive alkaloids from C. purpurea
alkaloids “were the agents responsible for the recurring (ergot) include ergonovine and methylergonovine (Webster
plagues of ergotism known throughout European history” et al., 2000, p. 2). These alkaloids are believed to constitute
(Webster, Perrine, & Ruck, 2000, p. 8). The same alkaloids the kykeon elixir of the greater Greek Eleusinian mysteries
were used by physicians since the 16th century to stimulate (Wasson et al., 2008). Peter Webster argues that “Greek
uterine contraction to hasten childbirth, to stop post-partum priests could easily have harvested enough ergot [0.5 kg]
hemorrhage, or to induce abortion (Scarborough, 1971). Use from the nearby barley fields [to serve] 1000 Eleusis
of ergot for these purposes included 1840s Nauvoo, Illinois participants” (Webster et al., 2000, p. 8).
where it was available to Mormon physicians. “Hierophantic priests might well have discovered how to
William Shelley (1995) argues that ergot use as an achieve partial hydrolysis of the most toxic alkaloids of C.
entheogen can be “traced through the Greco-Roman World, purpurea, resulting in an extract of ergot containing a blend
through the worship of Mithra and the Hebrew Scriptures of psychedelic[s] : : : eliminat[ing] the toxic ergopeptine
into the activities of the early Christians and from there to alkaloids, converting them to psychoactive ergine and
the ‘hidden tradition’ of alchemy’” (Marshall, 1999). isoergine : : : closely similar to the Aztec’s ololiuqui”

Figure 19. Stromata germinating on a sclerotium of C. purpurea

(photo by KnarkKorven, 2011)
(Ibid, p. 7), LSD, or psilocybin (Wasson, Kramrish, Ott, &

Ruck, 1986).
The life cycle of ergot lends itself to allegory in esoteric Figure 20. God Creates Plants, ca. 1200. Public domain
Judeo-Christian as it does in spiritual alchemy and masonry.
For instance, the manna which Moses said came from heaven
tastes “like wafers [made] with honey” (Exodus 16:14,
“KJV”), a description consistent with ergot’s honeydew
stage. While undetected ergot infects bread and causes
disease, water-soluble alkaloids can be added to bread,
making it an entheogenic Hebrew sacrament. Consistent with
entheogenic use of ergot, Moses tells the tribes of Israel that
manna is “the bread which the Lord hath given you to eat”
(Exodus 16:15), a theme echoed in the Christian era when
Jesus says here is the “bread of life” (John 6:30, “KJV”).
Figure 20 shows frame from the ca. 1200 Great Canter-
bury Salter, in Canterbury, England, titled “God Creates
Plants” showing God with four mushroom-appearing
figures below him; all five figures have uplifted hands
seeming to mirror each other. This medieval salter reveals
esoteric Christianity’s fascination with entheogenic mush-
rooms. In this figure, God appears to wear an A. muscaria
cap showing its gill side down, while the left-most figure
appears to be a stylized Psilocybe mushroom and the far-
right figure appears to represent the stromata of an ergot
fungus sclerotium. The dark, purplish sclerotium in
Figure 18 that has replaced a grain of rye will remain dormant
for an extended time if harvested, or fall to the ground. The
grounded sclerotium will eventually be moistened by rain or Figure 21. Enlarged ergot stroma (adapted from Figure 19)
irrigation and produce stroma resembling tiny mushrooms in
Figure 19, while Figure 21 is an enlargement of a stroma
showing its yellowish-red stippled head comparable to the Bennett would have been qualified to safely prepare vision-
head of the rightmost mushroom figure in the salter frame. ary ergot as a ceremonial entheogen in the Nauvoo temple.
A Mason and early Mormon convert, John C. Bennett,
was a practicing physician and obstetrician. There is cir- L. williamsii (peyote)
cumstantial evidence that Bennett, accused of administering
“medicine” to induce abortion, was familiar with the medi- During the period of Indian Removal beginning in 1830,
cal uses of ergot (Hedges & Smith, 2010). Luman Walters or Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River
Frederick G. Williams likely had the education and practical passed through Nauvoo on their way to their seasonal
training to cultivate, harvest, and prepare the psychoactive hunting grounds. Potawatomi delegations, also often includ-
materials associated with ergot for the Kirtland temple. ing members of the Fox and Sauk nations, visited Joseph

Beckstead et al.
Smith between April 18 and August 28 of 1843 (discussed

below). The purpose of these negotiations is not altogether
clear to historians. However, as we will see, the negotiations
probably involved Joseph Smith giving valuable and sacred
property to the Potawatomi without apparent gain to Smith
in return. We suggest that Joseph Smith may have negotiat-
ed with Native Americans for the delivery of peyote to
Nauvoo for the Nauvoo temple endowment.
Peyote (L. williamsii) in Figure 22 grows along the
Mexican–Texas border and has been used in Native
American magico-religious ceremonies for millennia
(Bruhn, De Smet, El-Seedi, & Beck, 2002). “Indians regard
the [peyote] as a panacea in medicine, a source of inspira-
tion. Moreover, [it is] the key which opens to him all the
glories of another world” (Stewart, 1974, 1987). In aborigi-
nal time, the peyote cult was among the Uto-Aztecan tribes
(Slotkin, 1955, p. 203), and perhaps even earlier “in the
Mesoamerican and Greater Southwest cultural superareas”
(Ibid, p. 204), and among “tribes adjacent to those of the
United States: Pima, Opata, Jumano, Lagunero, and Coa-
huilteco” (Ibid, pp. 206–207). The diffusion of peyotism
northeastward occurred in stages beginning to the “Old
Peyote Complex” of Mexico before the Spaniards arrived
in the 16th century, eventually culminating in the Plains
Indian Peyote Religion in the late 19th century (Slotkin,
1955, p. 28; Troike, 1962). The map in Figure 23 shows the
location of the peyote beds (dark gray) and the Indian tribes
(light gray) who were practicing peyotism before 1800
(Slotkin, 1955, p. 207). When Joseph Smith sent Lyman Figure 23. Tribal distribution of peyotism before 1800. Map by
Wight to Texas to establish Mormon colonies, he would Allen K. Philbrick (Slotkin, 1955, p. 107)
have been in contact with both the source of peyote and
Native Americans expert in its use. “ : : : peyote has been introduced into these provinces for the
After the Spaniards took control of what is now Mexico in purposes of detecting thefts, of divining other happenings and
1571, peyote cults were suppressed by priests of the Catholic of foretelling future events, it is an act of superstition,
Inquisition, who nearly eradicated peyote rituals. An condemned—as opposed to the purity and integrity of our
Inquisition document of 1620 outlines Catholic opposition Holy Catholic faith. The fantasies suggest the intervention of
to the ancient Amerindian religion and its peyote sacrament: the Devil, the real authority of this vice” (Rudgley, 1993,
p. 75).
Peyote cult recovery first took place among the Huichol
(discussed below) and Tarahumara tribes. Peyote use among
Mescaleros and Lipan Apache likely had its origin in the late
18th century with “the Apache making one ritual complex
from features selected from the totality of the Mexican and
Spanish religious and ceremonial life they knew” (Stewart,
1948, pp. 35–36). Also, Åke Hultkrantz (1997, p. 31)
argued there are “reasons to assume that Mexican tribal
Peyote ritualism constituted the transition to the Plains
Peyote rite, and thereby to the modern Peyote religion”
with intermediates being the Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa
Apache. Further, there is evidence of peyote use by Lipan
Apache in the 1770s. It would be naive to believe that Plains
Indians shaman, medicine men, or doctors would not have
been interested in peyote long before the establishment of
Peyote religion.
Why would Joseph Smith be interested in peyote that
requires an overland journey of 1,300 miles through
Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Indian Territory before
arriving in the peyote fields? We suggest that Smith heard of
“aspects of peyotism” and its visionary properties as infor-
mation made its way east, until in 1835, there were “Euro-
Figure 22. Peyote cactus (L. williamsii) (Shutterstock photo) pean [peyote] cactus fanciers” (Slotkin, 1955, p. 208).

Typifying Native American’s feelings about peyote, facilitated by smoking parotid gland secretions of the Sonoran
Comanchero war chief Quanah Parker once spoke of the Desert toad (I. alvarius) shown in Figure 24 and found in the
advantage peyote offered Native American religion over same general area as peyote (see Figures 23 and 25 below).
those in the United States: According to Lyttle, Goldstein, and Gartz (1996), “Bufo
toad (and related genera) has held a place in humanity’s
The white man goes into his church house and talks about archaic consciousness since time immemorial. The earliest
Jesus, but the Indian goes into his tipi and talks to Jesus” representations of Bufo toads (and toads generally) go back
: : : [and the Indians received] “their inspiration from the thousands of years. The appearance of toad-based artifacts is
Great Father, while the white man [received] his through prehistoric were portrayed in ancient pictographs, paintings,
the book they have.” (Hagan, 1995, p. 56) and sculpture” (p. 268). Secretions harvested from the parotid
glands of I. alvarius are rich in highly entheogenic 5-MeO-
Joseph Smith, who had promised converts visions of God, DMT (Barsuglia et al. 2018; Griffiths, 2018). Evidence
would have been naturally interested in the ceremonial use suggests that 5-MeO-DMT, harvested from I. alvarious, was
of peyote for Mormon rituals. Below we discuss evidence he an entheogen used by the Olmec, Mayan and especially the
sought to obtain peyote. Aztec civilizations where “Aztec icons focus in great detail on
the Bufo toad’s parotid glands, which contain substances that
Incilius alvarius (Sonoran Desert toad) may be trance inducing” (Lyttle et al., 1996, p. 269). The
I. alvarius in Figure 24 bears a striking resemblance to pre-
One of the most dramatic religious experiences found in the Columbian stone toad effigies such as the toad effigy with the
“Tree of Life” dream accounts reported by Joseph Sr. and Mayan Sun-God carved on its back from Northern Guatemala
recorded in The Book of Mormon by Joseph Jr. may be or Southeastern Mexico, in Figure 26, and the stone pipe toad
effigy from the Ohio Hopewell Culture in Figure 27.
Figure 24. Sonoran Desert toad (I. alvarius) (photo by Todd Figure 26. Toad-shaped Effigy container carrying Sun-God mask
Pierson, 2011). Creative Commons from Guatemala or Mexico (photo from Art of the Ancient
Americas, Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Public Domain)
Figure 25. Distribution of I. alvarius in brown (Terry, 2017), L.

williamsii in red (Hammerson & Santos-Barrera, 2004), and the
proposed Mormon territory in purple (see text). The area where L.
williamsii overlaped with the proposed Mormon territory is in blue. Figure 27. Stone toad of Hopewell culture origin
Distribution of I alvarius and L. williamsii adapted from the (100 BC–400 AD). Ohio History Connection Archaeology
University of Texas Libraries at Austin Photograph Collection

Beckstead et al.
Early critics of Mormonism linked magical toads with the Sonoran Deseret Toad catchment area. Figure 25 also
Joseph Smith. For instance, a neighbor of the Smiths, shows the area where the distribution of L. williamsii and
Willard Chase, reported that in 1827, Joseph Smith’s father Native American expertise in peyote sacraments and medi-
related the following story: cine overlapped with the proposed Mormon territory.
Some years ago a spirit had appeared to Joseph, his son,

SHAMANIC TRANSFORMATION
in a vision, and informed him that in a certain place there
was a record on plates of gold : : : [and that] he
must repair to the place where was deposited this We have discussed mentors for Joseph Smith, which we
manuscript : : : [Joseph Smith repaired to the place] believe knew entheogens and employed them in his mentor-
opened the box, and in it saw the book, and : : : ing. Overwhelming childhood trauma suffered by Joseph
something like a toad (Howe, 1834, p. 242) Smith facilitated his formation as a shaman prophet of a
successful new religion, enabling the use of entheogens to
The subsequent transformation of the toad described by their maximum religious potential.
Chase strongly suggests an entheogenic source for this vision.
Further, in 1830, the year Joseph Smith finished his Unimaginable childhood trauma
“translation” of the “plates of gold,” his occult mentor,
Groesbeck (1990, 2004, 2005), a Jungian trained psychia-
Luman Walters reportedly possessed a stuffed toad (Quinn,
trist, has argued that the shamanic-healer archetype aptly
1998, p. 117), a common familiar of a conjurer (Ermacora,
describes Joseph Smith’s personality structure. Groesbeck,
2017). Walters, who traveled in Europe, would have known
who studied with a Huichol shaman, agreed with Mircea
the toad’s magical and possibly hallucinogenic properties.
Eliade (1964) that the shaman’s role and function depended
According to Lyttle et al. (1996), the more “purely psyche-
on their techniques of facilitating ecstasy. According to
delic applications of the Bufo toad had to do with the
Eliade, a shamanic healer’s abilities in ecstasy or trance,
so-called toad stone, supposedly found in the head [parotid
to enter “into contact with divine or semidivine beings”
gland?] of the Bufo toad : : : In 1644 [France], Boetious de
(p. 84) and to “consort with the dead with impunity”
Boot, in his Parfait Joallier [Perfect Jeweler], described ‘the
(p. 214), generally resulted from severe trauma during early
toad stone’ alleged ‘to exist in the toads head : : : another
life. This shamanic complex and its archetypal pattern result
sure talisman for obtaining perfect Earthly happiness.’”
from a severe illness early in life and strenuous ordeals
The twice mentioned “toad” during the production of The
(Groesbeck, 1975, 1989). Joseph endured such an ordeal at
Book of Mormon suggests the remote possibility that Smith
age 7 when stricken with life- and limb-threatening osteo-
employed a toad entheogen in its writing. Further, the happi-
myelitis secondary to typhoid fever (Adams, 2013; Morain,
ness mentioned by Boetious de Boot is a significant sequela of
1998, 2013; Wirthlin, 1981). In a horrific and prolonged
many early Mormon visions discussed below. For Joseph
ordeal, the young Joseph Smith (1833) suffered multiple
Smith to have used toad 5-MeO-DMT, it would have had to
exquisitely painful surgical procedures without the benefit
been smoked or snuffed. Further, I. alvarius entheogen would
of anesthesia or sedation. One might get a sense of what this
have had to be transported from Southwest Texas (Figure 25)
7-year-old boy must have endured in a revealing revelation:
along existing Indian trade routes into the American Northeast
(Tanner, 1996, see map by Sanderson Associates). Peyote, I [God] command you [to] repent, lest I smite you : : :
found in Texas (Figure 25), retains its potency (2% mescaline) and your sufferings be sore. How sore you know not!
over thousands of years (Terry, Steelman, Guilderson, Dering, How exquisite you know not! Yea, how hard to bear you
& Rowe, 2006), while5-MeO-DMT retains its potency over a know not! (Smith, 1833, p. 23)
much shorter period. Although no literature indicated how
long and at what temperatures, 5-MeO-DMT remains active, The appalling nature of young Joseph’s surgeries, documented
if it is like is cousin, N, N-dimethyltryptamine, its salts retain by physician LeRoy Wirthlin, is incomprehensible except to
their potency significantly longer than when kept in solution. those who have experienced them (Wirthlin, 1981). William
Presuming this entheogen remained active between harvest- Morain, a surgeon with a Mormon background, describes how
ing, arrival in the Midwest, and use, a stuffed toad with the terror of such painful surgical assaults creates dissociative
5-MeO-DMT could easily supply the needs of a magician or injuries within a child’s developing brain that become “an
seer for a prolonged period or a small congregation of integral part of the psyche that can permeate all corners of
believers for a year. Further 5-MeO-DMT would be an [his] mind forever” (Morain, 2013). However, severe child-
attractive entheogen for Joseph Smith due to its immediate hood trauma does not explain his ability to facilitate en masse
and profound antidepressant properties (Davis, So, Lancelotta, visionary experience; and does not explain the anticholinergic
Barsuglia, & Griffiths, 2018). symptoms associated with his own early visions and many
Had Joseph Smith known the features of entheogenic toad early convert visions reported to have occurred between 1830
venom, he would have undoubtedly arranged for its procure- and 1831 as discussed below.
ment and transport to Nauvoo in the 1840s. Further, in 1844,
Joseph Smith instructed fellow Mormons to settle the region
surrounding the Rio Grande River. One follower, Lyman JOSEPH SMITH JR.’S VISIONS
Wight (referenced below) went to Midwestern Texas to form
the Mormon colony of Zodiac (Langford & Bandera, 2003), a Joseph Smith Jr. had visionary experiences in his spiritual
site within easy traveling distance to both the peyote beds and quests that display several specific features. Analysis of

these accounts and the features of his experiences provide arrived if not to follow the commandment given to his father
data to support the hypothesis he deliberately employed in his vision, to obtain wisdom?
entheogenic substances. Against the backdrop of the biblical Adam and Eve story,
the Masonic-biblical promises of “hidden manna,” and the
1820: The first vision visionary commandment to his father to acquire wisdom by
eating what God placed on the dead timber, Joseph Jr. was
At 14 (Smith, 1838) or 15 years of age (Smith, 1832), Joseph primed to perceive entheogenic plants and mushrooms at the
Smith Jr. embarked on a spiritual quest. Like the alchemical culminating moment of his search for wisdom as a provi-
“philosophers” before him, one object of his quest was dence auguring that he needed to eat to obtain wisdom and
“wisdom” (Smith, 1838, 1843). Joseph Smith’s later revela- of what he needed to eat to become wise.
tion “the Word of Wisdom” reflects the view that taking the Another potential clue to what Joseph Jr. needed to eat to
proper things into one’s body – avoiding addictants and using gain wisdom was the biblical description of it as the “hidden
“every herb in the season thereof” would enable the seeker to manna.” The original biblical manna, appearing in the story
“find wisdom and great treasures of knowledge, even hidden of Moses’s Exodus, was described in Joseph’s King James
treasures” (D&C 89). Before he went into the grove in 1820 Bible (“KJV”) as round edible objects found on the ground
or 1821 to obtain wisdom, already three powerful precedents in the morning (Exodus 16:13–15). If Smith expected the
directed Joseph to seek wisdom through what he ate. First, he “hidden manna” to take a similar form, he would have found
had a prototype for his quest in the story of Adam and Eve, obvious candidates all around him in the spot where he
who acquired wisdom by what they ate (Genesis 3:6, 22, sought wisdom, growing on and hidden under the fallen
“KJV”). Next, the search for wisdom had also been modeled trees of his father’s clearing.
for him by the Christian alchemists and Freemasons, who Early in the spring morning, Joseph Jr. knelt under a
sought wisdom through the philosopher’s stone, the Bible’s canopy of oaks, birch, and hemlock, to petition God’s
“white stone,” and by partaking of the elixir, the “hidden forgiveness of his sins. The accounts of the ensuing vision
manna” of the Book of Revelation, which also promised that compiled by Mormon writer Eldon Watson (1983, see also
“to him that overcometh” the gift to “eat of the tree of life” Harper, 2002, 2016) reveal the problematic mentation and
(Revelation 2:7, 17, “KJV”). Also, finally, the quest for peripheral symptoms secondary to the onset of what
wisdom was more immediately modeled for the young Burkhart (2004) identifies as anticholinergic hallucinogen
Joseph by the elder Joseph, his father, who had been intoxication. At the onset of his theophany, Joseph (cited in
instructed through prophetic dreams how he could gain Watson, 1983) reported he:
wisdom. Here again, the model was that one could acquire
– Saw all kinds of improper pictures;
wisdom by what one ate.
– [Was] seized upon by some power which entirely
Joseph Smith’s spiritual quest is a continuation of his
overcame [him];
father’s – a quest for Christ’s “primitive church” for tem-
– [Was blinded as] thick darkness gathered around
poral and spiritual salvation, and wisdom. Joseph Jr.
[him];
reported that a quest for “wisdom” was his motivation for
– His tongue : : : cleaved to [the] roof [of his mouth] so
going to a grove of trees where, at the age of 15, he
that [he] could not speak;
experienced his first vision (Smith, 1839–1841, pp. 2–3).
– He heard a noise behind [him] like someone walking
In what Lucy Mack Smith similarly called Joseph Smith
towards [him];
Sr.’s “first vision,” Joseph Sr. began a quest for wisdom and
– He sprang upon [his] feet and looked round but saw no
forgiveness of sins by journeying into a fallen wood. He was
person.
told, “eat,” of certain edible materials found on a fallen tree,
– [Was] ready to sink into despair and abandon [himself]
and informed, “[this] will make you wise, and give unto you
to destruction, not to an imaginary ruin but to the
wisdom and understanding” (Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 57). It
power of some actual being from the unseen world
would be remarkable if the younger Joseph’s quest for
[with such] marvelous power as I had never : : : felt in
“wisdom” were not informed by the visions of his father.
any being (see also Harper, 2012).
Joseph Jr. should, therefore, have expected that to obtain
wisdom, he also would need to “eat” something provided by
God. However, where would he acquire the necessary Anticholinergic toxidrome
entheogenic foods? Here again, his father’s vision showed
the way. Had Joseph been taken to a local physician of the period
Joseph Jr. sought his visionary experience in the clearing during the initial phase of intoxication, the diagnosis of
in “early spring” (Smith, 1839–1841, p. 3), the precise time poisoning with a member of the Solanaceae family, such as
when plants would be sprouting and entheogenic mush- Black Henbane (H. niger) or D. stramonium would have
rooms could begin to be harvested amid the dead timber. easily been made (“Communications”, 1811; Copland,
Joseph, a firm believer in providence, saw divine purposes Darwall, & Conolly, 1826, pp. 422–423; Jonasson & Afshari,
in nature’s provision of various herbs and perceived God’s 2016; Thornton, 1811, pp. 55–61; W, 1833). Similar clinical
“hand in all things,” the minute details of life (D&C 59:21; features can also present with poisoning by the A. muscaria
8,9:10–11; Bradley, 2019, pp. 186–188). After seeking a mushroom (Burkhart, 2004, p. 691; Cahill, 2003; Rolston-
physical landscape for his own “first vision” quest for Cregler, 2017). Ibotenic acid (pantherine and agarine) and
wisdom that actualized the dreamscape of his father’s “first muscimol are among the active components of A. muscaria,
vision” wisdom quest, what did Joseph intend to do when he substances that with powerful effects on the central nervous

Beckstead et al.
system. Although tropanic alkaloids are not present, the signs textural harmony of Joseph Smith’s first vision, we learn that
and symptoms of poisoning with the fly agaric are called just as Joseph was anticipating ego dissolution and imminent
“mycoatropinic,” and they resemble those produced by D. death, a “light appeared to : : : gradually descending towards
stramonium, A. belladonna, and H. niger (Satora, Pach, him” until he was “surrounded by a brilliant light” creating “a
Butryn, Hydzik, & Balicka-Ślusarczyk, 2005). peculiar sensation throughout his whole system” and causing
The symptoms Smith experienced related to those of the “his mind” to be “caught away from the natural objects with
anticholinergic or mycoatropinic toxidrome were: hyperten- which he was surrounded; and he was enwrapped in a
sion and hyperthermia, agitated hallucinations, delirium and heavenly vision.” In the vision, Joseph’s profound sense of
strange mental states, slurred speech, tremors, coma, and guilt was assuaged as an angel appeared (the Lord) and assured
occasionally seizures, tachycardia and dysrhythmias, dry him that his sins were forgiven. Then, “when I came to myself
and flushed skin – especially the face-dilated pupils, mydri- again,” Joseph explained, “I found myself lying on [my] back
asis, and blurred vision, and dry mouth. These symptoms looking up into Heaven : : : without any strength : : : [but with
constitute one of five basic toxidromes (Omar, & Foxworth, a] mind in a state of calmness and peace, indescribable.”
2014). Features of the anticholinergic toxidrome in Joseph’s Joseph added, “my Soul was filled with love and for many days.
accounts of his first vision include being rendered “blind as I could rejoice with great Joy, and the Lord was with me.”
a bat” (mydriasis, blurred vision), “mad as a hatter” (altered Table 1 compares the relationship between Smith’s
mental status, delusional paranoia, and hallucinations), and symptomatology and those of the anticholinergic syn-
“dry as a bone” (dry mucous membranes), and a duration of drome. Joseph Jr.’s description of his first vision is pro-
intoxication lasting several hours or more. Paralysis associ- foundly personal and unlikely to have been manufactured
ated with D. stramonium is also reported (Anon., 1811). due to embarrassing symptoms diagnostic of anticholiner-
Young Joseph either understood the sublethal, visionary gic intoxication he later attempted to hide or contextualize.
dose or was lucky, since coma and death may ensue in severe Further confirming that Joseph was in a visibly physically
poisonings of D. stramonium (Le Garff, Delannoy, Mesli, altered condition after his initial recovery from the vision-
Hédouin, & Tournel, 2016) and A. muscaria (Mikaszewska- ary state, he reports that upon his reentry into his
Sokolewiczi, et al., 2016). From Eldon Watson’s (1983) family home, his mother asked him, “What is the matter?”
Table 1. Joseph Smith’s first vision and related anticholinergic symptoms

Joseph Smith’s symptoms Anticholinergic syndrome
Category 1: Onset of peripheral anticholinergic syndrome
Blind as a bat : : : thick darkness gathered around [him] Pupils to dilate widely, inhabitation of accommodation of
the eyes
Dry as a bone. His tongue : : : cleaved to [the] roof [of Inhibition of salivary and bronchial secretion and sweating
his mouth] so that [he] could not speak
Face and skin color changes- initially flushed, then pale Bradycardia and decreasing blood pressure due to blocking
of muscarinic M2 receptors on the postganglionic
parasympathetic neurons
Category 2: Onset of central anticholinergic syndrome
Mad as a hatter. All kinds of improper pictures Hallucinations
Heard a noise behind [him] like someone walking Paranoia and delusion
towards [him]; : : : sprang upon [his] feet and looked
round but saw no person
[Was] seized upon by some power which entirely Facial and body contortions, feeling bound
overcame [him]
Was ready to sink into despair and abandon [himself] to Fear associated with ego dissolution and/or actual death
destruction, not to an imaginary ruin
Category 3: Anticholinergic visionary ecstasies and sequelae
Surrounded by a brilliant light Visions and ecstasies
His mind [was] caught away from the natural objects
with which he was surrounded. Was enwrapped in a
heavenly vision
: : : an angel who had appeared (the Lord) informed him Hallucinations
that his sins were forgiven
Category 4: After effects and anticholinergic-related mood elevation
I [lay] on [my] back looking up into Heaven : : : with no Post intoxication weakness and fatigue
strength
A mind in a state of calmness and peace, indescribable Peak experiences or afterglow phenomenon
Soul was filled with love and for many days. I could Sustained mood elevation
rejoice with great Joy and the Lord was with me
Desire to heal others Shamanic personality (see text)

(Smith, L. M., 1853, p. 133). Similar symptoms also appeared

during Mormon convert visionary experience when Joseph
Smith founded his Church in 1830 (referenced below).
The positive symptoms associated with Joseph’s vision
also suggest the known antidepressant effects of scopolamine
(from D. stramonium or Black Henbane) or possibly musci-
mol from Amanita muscaria. Scopolamine “produces rapid
and significant symptom improvement in patients with depres-
sion” (Witkin et al., 2014), similar to the afterglow phenome-
non of classic entheogens (Majić, Schmidt, & Gallinat, 2015).
A feature of Smith’s “first vision” experience that cries out
for explanation is its stark tangibility and experienced veridi-
cality. He emerged from his experience of the demonic and the
divine convinced of the actuality of the beings he had
encountered: “But exerting all my powers to call upon God
to deliver me out of the power of this enemy which had seized
upon me, and at the very moment when I was ready to sink
into despair and abandon myself to destruction, not to an
imaginary ruin but to the power of some actual being from the
unseen world who had such a marvelous power as I had never
before felt in any being : : : I had actually seen a light and in Figure 28. Mushroom found in Sacred Grove (photo by Robert
the midst of that light I saw two personages, and they did, in Beckstead)
reality, speak unto me” (Smith, 1839–1841, p. 4). Smith either
found himself bound by an “actual being” and then “actually
saw” a light, or there were neurophysiological changes in his
brain and body that facilitated their perception. Even if Smith
is understood to have encountered external spiritual forces,
one would have to explain what physiological changes facili-
tated his ability to physically engage with entities that cannot
usually be seen or felt. Entheogenic D. stramonium explains
how Joseph Smith perceived his engagement with spiritual
forces as an actual physical encounter.
A high dose of psilocybin would have provided the mind-
opening, cosmological, transformative, and disintegrating/
reintegrating aspects of the experience, while D. stramonium
would have given the experience of another reality, initially in
the grips of a terrifyingly, physically real evil being. Unbe-
knownst to Joseph Smith, as for the mythical Adam and Eve,
eating the “forbidden fruit” entailed an experience of evil in
tangible form (Satan/the serpent) to obtain wisdom – that is to Figure 29. Psilocybe species (Shutterstock photo)
experience the “deepest abyss” besides “commune with God”
(Smith, 1977, p. 137). Smith also acted the part of an
alchemist transmuting or “transfiguring” his physical state to in Figure 28. The photographed mushroom in the sacred
enable himself to find wisdom through the visionary experi- grove appears suspiciously like a Psilocybe species mush-
ence of both good and evil, Satan and God. room in Figure 29; unfortunately, no field-testing for the
It is also possible that Joseph Smith used P. ovoideo- typical blue reaction to pressure was conducted.
cystidiata or another species of psilocybin-containing
mushroom, although this is less likely than an anticholin- Entheogenic replication of Smith’s first vision
ergic entheogen based solely on the symptomology. We
mention the possibility of P. ovoideocystidiata use here Many examples of entheogenic experiences are reported in
because this mushroom can be found from Rhode Island to peer-reviewed literature and on the internet that bear a
Kentucky and is especially prevalent in the Ohio River striking similarity to those of Joseph Smith. For example,
Valley (Allen, Gartz, Molter, & Sihanonth, 2009; Guzmán religious historian Huston Smith initiation into “ultimate
et al., 2007), where it grows on wood debris, especially reality” was occasioned by a psilocybin-containing mush-
along rivers, streams, and wet valley areas such as the room. Huston reports:
Sacred Grove. The Sacred Grove hosts a great variety of
fungi, besides A. muscaria due to it residing in a small What the day accomplished, : : : was to enable me for the
valley of seasonally wet and cooler terrain. On two visits first time to experience the respective levels of the Chain
to the Sacred Grove before the conception of an entheo- [of Being], all the way to its top. The dominant effects of
genic origin of Mormonism, one author (RB) found the experience were two: awe (which I had known con-
abundant mushrooms of several varieties, including one ceptually as the distinctive religious emotion but had

Beckstead et al.
never before experienced so intensely) and certainty. Deity, an All-Seeing Eye” (Bradley, 2010; Purple, 1877)
There was no doubting that the Reality I experienced was reflecting another probable occasion on which he ate from
ultimate. That conviction has remained. (2001, p. 126) an entheogenic plant. Joseph Smith, eating from such “tree
of life” anticipated The Book of Mormon’s descriptions of an
In the same year (1961), Huston ingested peyote cactus and entheogenic “tree of life,” discussed below.
reported: “I noted mounting tension in my body that turned
into tremors in my legs : : : I [began] experiencing : : : the 1823 Indian visions
clear, unbroken Light. I was now seeing : : : with the force
of the sun, in comparison with which everyday experience Joseph Smith’s next vision in 1823 is notable for the post-
reveals only flickering shadows in a dim cavern : : : [I saw] vision weakness and its ancestral Amerindian content. The
worlds within worlds” (2000, p. 11). Smith concluded that many ancestral Amerindian tumuli found and excavated in
using entheogenic substances can occasion an experience New York and Ohio undoubtedly fascinated the young
with a form indistinguishable from those of the experiences Joseph, as did the widely held belief that Amerindians were
of religious mystics. the remnants of Lost Tribes of Israel. However, as he had 3
Heinrich (2002, pp. 201–203) ingested A. muscaria as years previously, Joseph’s vision was preceded by fervently
the entheogenic facilitator and reported: asking forgiveness of his sins. When the vision opened, a
brilliant light appeared; and in the light, Joseph claimed that
– I felt like I weighed thousands of pounds and could no
he saw an angel, identified as an ancestral Amerindian, with
longer sit up.
whom he spent the entire night. “I discovered a light appear-
– [In] a great darkness and a great silence, the heavens
ing : : : until the room was lighter than at noonday, when
opened above my head.
immediately a personage appeared at my bedside, standing
– The bliss I had experienced prior to this new revelation
in the air : : : his whole person was glorious beyond descrip-
now paled to insignificance in an immensity of light
tion, and his countenance truly like lightning. The room was
that was also the purest love.
exceedingly light : : : When I first looked upon him, I was
– The absolute profundity of the experience cannot be
afraid. [And he] said there was a book deposited, written
denied, neither can be adequately expressed, though
upon gold plates, giving an account of the former inhabitants
one is moved to try.
of this continent” (Smith, 1830, front piece). Following these
Huston’s and Heinrich’s entheogenic reports reveal the visions, Joseph arose to work on the family farm but on
core features of Smith’s earlier vision: an experience of meeting his father in the field, “found [his] strength so
physical heaviness, visual darkness, an awe-inspiring light exhausted as to render [him] entirely unable” to labor.
from above, a voice out of heaven, experience with the
unfathomable Godhead and feelings of unspeakable joy.
PSYCHEDELICS IN THE BOOK OF MORMON
Joseph Smith’s actual first vision
Several lines of evidence in The Book of Mormon suggest
His “actual first vision” and a vision of a divining instrument, Joseph Smith’s awareness of psychedelics and their effects.
a “seer stone,” initiated Joseph Smith’s career as a visionary The Book of Mormon functioned as sacred scripture and
scryer. Mormon historians connected this seer stone vision, in acted as a psychopomp for early Mormon converts seeking
which Smith saw “a small stone : : : [which] became lumi- direct and personal experience with God under the influence
nous, and dazzled his eyes, and after a short time it became as of entheogenic material. Consistent with this view, Mormon
intense as the mid-day sun,” with his theophanic “first vision,” Jungian psychiatrist Groesbeck (2004) argues for The Book
linking the visions conceptually and placing them in roughly of Mormon as “symbolic history.” We suggest that passages
the same time frame (Bradley, 2010; Purple, 1877). in The Book of Mormon and other early Mormon sacred
Smith’s understanding of his white seer stone as the white writings guide spiritual experiences as outlined by Leary,
stone of Revelation 2:17 also connects it with the white stone Metzner, and Alpert (1964) in discussing the Tibetan Book
of Hiram Abiff and, therefore, the “hidden manna” mentioned of the Dead – to establish a setting for predisposing early
in the Masonic degrees and thought to have been adminis- Mormon converts to direct and personal experience with
tered in the more esoteric versions of those degrees. God through spiritual ecstasies. Another aspect of the set
It was from underneath of the acacia sprig, believed to be and setting of early Mormon visionary experience is Joseph
an entheogenic symbol in masonic lore, that Hiram Abiff’s Smith himself – as the archetypal shaman. Leary et al.
remains and “jewel” were reportedly excavated (Bernard, (1964) emphasize the need for “a trusted person : : : to
1829). Conflating “jewel” and “white stone,” Smith may have remind and refresh the memory of the voyager during the
conceived of Hiram Abiff’s body and “white stone” being experience.” Smith was that trusted person.
recovered together from under the tree. The acacia marking Herbs, although not frequently mentioned in The Book of
the burial site of Hiram Abiff’s body and “jewel” is under- Mormon, are highly endorsed as medicines explicitly and
stood in freemasonry as a “tree of life” (referenced below). entheogenic substances implicitly. For instance, The Book of
Joseph Smith reported excavating under a tree to find his Mormon speaks of the “excellent qualities of the many plants
white stone, recalling the excavation of Hiram’s white stone and roots which God had prepared to remove the cause of
under the acacia tree. After recovering this stone, Joseph diseases” (Smith, 1830, p. 353). We argue here that Smith, in
Smith placed it in the darkness of his hat, looked into it, and The Book of Mormon, intended to reference not only the
discovered that he had acquired “one of the attributes of treatment of bodily diseases but also maladies of the soul.

While traditional herbs may be useful for treating ailments more. And 0, what joy, and what marvelous light I did
relating to the body, it is the entheogenic herbs that lift the behold; yea, my soul was filled with joy as exceeding as
mood and relieve despair, as demonstrated after partaking was my pain. (pp. 324–325)
of unusual fruit described in Joseph Sr.’s entheogenic dream
discussed above and in The Book of Mormon tree of life These remarkable narratives in The Book of Mormon paral-
allegory discussed below. Also, in The Book of Mormon, lel the first-vision accounts given by Joseph Smith support-
Smith associates the use of herbs with symptomatology ing the thesis that his first vision was an entheogen-infused
such as initiation. In his first vision,
– death-like experience lasting days rather than hours, 1. Smith felt profound guilt and shame associated with
– symptoms resulting in sensations of tongue swelling, his sin (Smith, J., 1832, p. 6),
– sensations of motions, 2. He was in mortal fear of “sudden destruction” (Smith,
– taste of light, J., 1839–1841, p. 3),
– enlightenment, and 3. When Smith came to himself, he “was sprawling on
– mood elevation. [his] back and it was some time before [his] strength
returned” (Smith, J., 1842, p. 748).
These symptoms, in our view, demonstrate that Smith 4. Afterward, he had feelings of “calmness and peace,
encoded his entheogenic knowledge encoded in The Book of indescribable” (Pratt, 1840, p. 7).
Mormon.
We suggest that more than coincidence, Joseph Smith’s
Death and rebirth symbology (ego death) first vision, The Book of Mormon death and rebirth accounts
parallel Knight and Lomas’ entheogen-infused royal initia-
Mormon historian Don Bradley (2019) interprets that tion rite. It seems reasonable to conclude that Smith’s
Joseph Smith’s first vision is an initiation or endowment experience and The Book of Mormon accounts were related
transforming an unaccomplished young man from an to esotericism and entheogens.
improvised family into religious royalty as a seer and
prophet. We argued here that Smith’s first vision, facilitated Synesthesia
by an entheogen, corresponds to similar royal entheogen-
infused death and rebirth initiation rituals. Knight and One feature of visionary experiences reported in The Book
Lomas (1996) explain: of Mormon, synesthesia (the stimulation of one sense mo-
dality provoking sensation in another) strongly suggests the
The new king would have undergone ‘death’ by means of effect of an ingested entheogen. In The Book of Mormon,
a potion administered by him to the high priest in the Joseph informs the convert that after ingesting the seed of
gathering of the inner group of the holders of the royal the fruit of the tree, they should expect it to feel “swelling”
secrets. This drug would have been a hallucinogenic that within the chest closely followed by “swelling motions.”
slowly induced a catatonic state, leaving the new king, as After the onset of the swelling motions, Smith informed
inert as a corpse. (p. 145) converts to expect the appearance of light that “enlightens
the understanding” so the “mind doth begin to expand,”
An entheogenic initiation of this nature would change the i.e., experiences the desired psychedelic properties of the
thoughts and feelings previously held by the new king. seed. This mind expansion is accompanied, according to
Two Book of Mormon narratives reflect entheogen-infused Smith, by the taste of light suggesting the phenomena of
royal initiation rites discussed by Knight and Lomas. In the psychedelic associated synesthesia: “when you feel these
first narrative, after being chastised for unrighteousness, swelling motions : : : it beginneth to be delicious : : : ye
have tasted this light” (Smith, 1830, pp. 315–316).
[The King] fell unto the earth, as if he were dead : : : for Two examples will be most relevant here: Lehi’s dream
the space of two days : : : under the power of God : : : of the tree of life and Alma’s parable of a seed that grows
and the light which did light up his mind : : : had infused into a tree of life. Joseph Jr. inserts into The Book of
such joy into his soul (276-7) [and similarly, the Queen Mormon a vision of an Edenic tree its fruit, and upon
then arose and] : : : cried : : : O blessed Jesus : : : ingesting it, the profound experience of the love of God –
[clasping] her hands, being filled with joy. (pp. 278–279) nearly identical to his father’s Edenic vision in 1811 (Smith,
1830, pp. 18–21). Another probable reference to synesthetic
In the second narrative, the son of a Prophet King unpre- bodily symptoms in the text of The Book of Mormon appears
pared to succeed him on the throne is reprimanded by his in a parable by the prophet Alma comparing God’s word to a
father. In this account, the son reported: seed. The parable describes the cultivation of a plant from
seed, ultimately to a full-grown tree revealed to be, like
I fell to the earth; and it was for the space of three days Lehi’s, “a tree of life” bearing fruit.
and three nights, that I could not open my mouth; neither
had I the use of my limbs : : : I [thought] that I could : : : Now, we will compare the word unto a seed. Now, if ye
become extinct both soul and body : : : [after three days give place, that a seed may be planted in your heart,
and three nights] I cried within my heart, 0 Jesus, thou behold, if it be a true seed, or a good seed, if ye do not
Son of God, have mercy on me, : : : and when I thought cast it out by your unbelief, that ye will resist the Spirit of
this, : : : I was harrowed up by the memory of my sins no the Lord, behold, it will begin to swell within your

Beckstead et al.
breasts; and when you feel these swelling motions, ye endowment also features oil anointings but adds plucking
will begin to say within yourselves—It must needs be that fruit from tree branches. In June, Joseph Smith (1839,
this is a good seed, or that the word is good, for it pp. 17–18) told trusted leaders:
beginneth to enlarge my soul; yea, it beginneth to
enlighten my understanding, yea, it beginneth to be God hath not revealed anything to Joseph, but what He
delicious to me. (Smith, 1830, p. 315) will make known unto : : : the least Saint : : : for the day
must come when no man need say to his neighbor, ‘Know
The effects of cultivating this seed expand the mind, ye the Lord; for all shall know : : : [he] will have the
enlarge the soul, stimulate the taste of light, and produce personage of Jesus Christ to attend him : : : and
inexpressible joy and happiness. In these passages, Joseph the visions of the heavens will be opened unto him, and
Smith encapsulated the very meaning of the current the Lord will teach him face to face.
meanings of “psychedelic” and “entheogen.” More
importantly, at least as far as Joseph Smith is concerned, It is likely that models of Biblical visions, and esoteric-
the reader of The Book of Mormon is invited in this minded mentors guided Joseph Smith to ingest something
passage to experience the same psychedelic or entheo- crucial to his own visionary experience.
genic enlightenment, synesthesia, and transformation as
– Genesis 2:17 pointed to the need to eat the fruit of any
he had.
tree in the garden to retain peace, happiness, and
tranquility (possibly A. muscaria), but not the fruit
Mood elevation of the tree of knowledge (possibly datura).
– Moses instructed Israel to eat manna that tasted like a
Descriptions of the visionary dreams of Joseph Smith’s
wafer made with honey (Exodus 16:31).
father, and his first vision, his Indian visions, and early
– Ezekiel (3:1-3) eats a scroll that was as sweet as honey
Mormon visions in Kirtland Ohio (discussed below)
in Ezekiel 3:1, the consumption of a scroll or book
manifest mood-elevating properties. The mood-elevating
tasted “as honey for sweetness.”
effects of entheogens are well established: eventually, they
– John, in association with his vision in Revelations
will be one modality of managing treatment-resistant de-
10:10, eats an entheogen that tastes sweet but in “belly
pression (see articles in Winkelman & Sessa, 2019). The
[it] was bitter.”
antidepressant effects of psychedelic experience suggest
– Jesus said, “To him who conquers I will give some of
motivational salience for entheogen use throughout history
the hidden manna, and I will give him a white stone”
and specifically in the Smith family to facilitate visionary
(Revelation 2:17, see also 10:9).
experience and as antidepressants. La Barre (1947) observed
that Native American peyote use in religious confessionals In each of these cases, the ingestion of some substance
provided a primitive form of psychotherapy. Similarly, the tasting bitter, sweet, or forbidden was transformative.
mood-elevating sequelae of Joseph Smith’s use of Gastrointestinal upset is a feature of ergot alkaloids (Schiff,
entheogens in early Mormon rituals and confessionals was 2006), Psilocybe species, and A. muscaria mushroom in-
practical psychotherapy for early Mormons; and likely gestion (Beug, Shaw, & Cochran, 2006). Also, Smith
unconscious salience for conversion to Mormonism expounded on the Revelation of St. John, explaining that
and convert resilience during the hardships of Mormon “the little book which was eaten by John, as mentioned in
diasporas. the 10th chapter of Revelation” is understood to be “an
ordinance.” In this statement, Joseph Smith informs con-
Entheogenic ordinances verts that visions are associated with consuming a substance
or the application of anointing oil during Mormon ordinance
In early Mormonism, converts anticipated visions and direct work.
face-to-face communication with God, but only in the
context of Church ordinances administered by Joseph
Smith. In 1832, Joseph Smith explained: EARLY CONVERT VISIONS
And this greater priesthood administereth the gospel and As a budding prophet, Joseph Smith’s altered appearance
holdeth the key of the mysteries of the kingdom, even the was readily apparent to observers (see Sally Heller above),
key of the knowledge of God.— Therefore, in the but with experience, his demeanor during visions did not so
ordinances thereof, the power of godliness is manifest; readily betray an altered state.
and without the ordinance thereof, and the authority of Early Mormon converts, as novice prophets themselves,
the priesthood, the power of godliness is not manifest would experience altered states similar to those reported by
unto men in the flesh; for without this no man can see the Joseph Smith in his early visions.
face of God, even the Father, and live. (Smith, 1833, For instance, in an 1832 shared experience Joseph Smith
Section 4) and his first counselor, Sidney Rigdon alternately related
what they saw in vision while others wrote the revelation
Importantly, visions and ecstasies in early Mormonism are down. As was the customary order of the priesthood at that
associated with ordinances involving the serving of time, Smith and Rigdon likely partook of the sacrament at
bread and wine sacraments, and anointings of bodies with the beginning of this meeting. After this vision, Sidney
anointings; while the expected visionary Nauvoo temple appeared pale and exhausted.

As a budding prophet, Joseph Smith’s altered appearance experiences. By following this entheogenic protocol, Joseph
was readily apparent to observers (see Sally Heller above), Smith facilitated an unprecedented number of “on demand”
but with experience, his demeanor during visions did not so religious visions and ecstasies.
readily betray an altered state. Early Mormon converts, as
novice prophets themselves, would experience altered states Three witness’ visions
similar to those reported by Joseph Smith. For instance, in
an 1832 joint vision reported orally by both Joseph Smith The type and quality of visionary experience among
and Sidney Rigdon each taking turns and witnessed by Mormon converts was similar to that experienced by Joseph
several others, likely after partaking of the sacrament that Smith, including the replication of the troublesome symp-
was the custom, Sidney appeared exhausted. An observer tomology reported by Smith. Converts receiving visions
reported: “Joseph sat firmly and calmly all the time in the containing doctrine and commandments that contradicted
midst of a magnificent glory, but Sidney sat limp and pale, that of Joseph Smith, however, were tightly controlled by
apparently as limber as a rag, observing which, Joseph him and non-binding on the Church (Smith, 1835, p. 181).
remarked, smilingly, ‘Sidney is not used to it as I am’” In July 1829, shortly after Joseph Smith completed his
(Dibble, 1892; for a description of this vision, see Smith, work on the text of The Book of Mormon, Oliver Cowdery,
1835, pp. 225–231; Woodward, 2012). David Whitmer, and Martin Harris accompanied Joseph
Joseph Smith’s and Sidney Rigdon’s account of this Smith in prayer and Cowdery, Whitmer, and Smith, and
vision was added to the Latter-day Saint canon as Doctrine then separately Harris and Smith, experienced visions of an
and Covenants, currently Section 76. This vision entailed a angel descending from Heaven and showing the golden plates
physical change, elsewhere called “transfiguration,” a and other artifacts associated with The Book of Mormon, a
change that converts would experience in their own bodies testimony they never recanted even when ridiculed.
in connection with priesthood ordinances, if they desired to However, considerable controversy raged in the 19th
see God and Heaven. According to Smith, such a transfor- century and today about whether the witnesses saw the
mation of the body was needed so that “while in the flesh, plates in a physical, sensory way (with “natural eyes”) or in
they may be able to bear his presence in the world of glory” an altered, visionary state (with “spiritual eyes”). One
(D&C 76:117–118; Moses 1:11, 31). Smith taught that witness, Martin Harris, equivocated on whether the experi-
Mormon ordinances and “transfiguration” were prerequisite ence was “natural” or “spiritual.” Further light was shed on
to visionary experience. Partaking of an entheogen would the experience by another witness, David Whitmer: “I have
account for the physical symptoms experienced by Sidney been asked if we saw those things with our natural eyes. Of
Rigdon and other early Mormon converts and also account course, they were our natural eyes. There is no doubt that
for the “transfiguration” phenomenon. Early Mormons were our eyes were prepared for the sight, but they were our
led to understand that distressing bodily symptoms follow- natural eyes nevertheless” (Vogel, 2003). Of particular
ing sacraments and anointing were nothing to fear but interest to this discussion is David Whitmer’s statement
instead to eagerly anticipate. that: “our eyes were prepared for the sight.” In 3 Nephi 28
Early Mormon converts prepared for entheogenic Church found in The Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith’s reveals that
ordinances in several ways. Many of the most ardent early the physical body must change, or “transfigure” to see
Mormon converts joined Mormonism after hearing of convert spiritual things or else they would die (Moses 1; 3 Nephi
visions and after reading The Book of Mormon, which itself 28). From Whitmer’s testimony, it appears that The Book of
has multiple allusions to entheogenic experience. These Mormon witnesses were informed by Joseph Smith either
allusions, we argue, prepared converts to experience similar directly or in the form of The Book of Mormon passages that
entheogenic interactions with Heaven and divine beings. symptomology precedes visionary experience.
Among the significant exhortations Joseph Smith gave on The Three Witnesses and Mormon converts alike were
this topic did not have so much to do with personal worthi- aware of the biblical precedent involving Adam and Eve
ness as it did by a willingness to participate in the ordinances eating the “forbidden fruit.” Another precedent involved the
and loyalty to the Church and himself. If a member remained practice of receiving communion, in which ordinary food and
loyal, Smith in effect guaranteed their personal and immedi- drink received an Apostolic blessing leading to those present
ate success in accessing Heaven and angels and receiving at the visionary Christian Pentecost to appear intoxicated. The
revelation themselves. telling of Joseph Smith Sr’s. entheogenic dreams and the
Smith’s promise that converts would see God and entheogenic accounts in The Book of Mormon would also
experience visions, dreams, and ecstasies would occur in have provided yet another precedent. All of these precedents,
receiving sacraments and endowments. The settings where and others discussed in this paper, placed in the immediate
sacraments were received were initially nature-based, backdrop of their vision, provided “emotional immunization”
followed by private homes; and later shifted to specially from fear and embarrassment secondary to the troublesome
constructed temples incorporating mystical symbols, includ- entheogen-related physical and emotional symptomology
ing symbols utilizing esoteric and masonic imagery. For preceding their visionary and ecstatic experience.
instance, labyrinths, gonfalons, spirals, and squares within
squares adorned the Kirtland temple. Even more mysterious, 1830: New York visions
unquestionably alchemical-masonic symbols decorated the
Nauvoo temple. Further, Joseph Smith himself was the Joseph Smith promised converts visions, but only in Mor-
trusted guide for ceremonies, prayers, and singing; and mon “ordinances” and in the presence of Church leaders. In
when necessary, Smith managed problematic entheogenic the first conference of the Church held on June 9th of 1830

Beckstead et al.
in Fayette, New York, organizing his Church, Smith for- Mormon excesses described below. Mormon missionaries,
malized the instructions to “oft” partake of the sacrament. Of including Frederick G. Williams (see above), stopped in
this meeting, Joseph Smith wrote: Kirtland on their way to Independence, Missouri. In
Kirtland, they converted most of Sidney Rigdon’s Camp-
: : : we partook together of the emblems of the body and bellite congregation, including Isaac Morley and Peter Kerr.
blood of our Lord Jesus Christ : : : Much exhortation
and instruction were given; and the Holy Ghost was
Unusual manifestations
poured out upon us in a miraculous manner many of our
number prophesied, whilst others had the Heavens In his book, Hearts Made Glad: The Charges of Intemper-
opened to their view, and were so overcome that we ance. Against Joseph Smith, the Mormon Prophet, author
had to lay them on beds, or other convenient places: Lamar Petersen noted during the early days of the Church
Among the rest was Brother Newel Knight who had to be there were “unusual spiritual manifestations” associated
placed on a bed, being unable to help himself. By his own with the drinking of sacramental wine, behaviors of such
account of the transaction, He could not understand why a shocking nature it “impaired the image of the young
we should lay him on the bed, as he felt no sensibility of Church among sober people” (Petersen, 1975, p. 79).
weakness. He felt his heart filled with love, with glory According to Moss (1913), a medically trained school
and pleasure unspeakable, and could discern all that was teacher in Kirtland, Ohio, offered testimony that Mormons,
going on in the room, when all of a sudden, a vision of
futurity burst upon him. He saw there represented, the took what was called the sacrament up at the [Isaac]
great work which through my instrumentality was yet to Morley house. They were in the habit of turning every-
be accomplished. He saw Heaven opened and beheld the body out of the door when they partook of the bread and
Lord Jesus Christ, seated at the right hand of the majesty wine, putting blankets up at the windows, shutting off the
on high, and had it made plain to his understanding that sight from without : : : then [later] they opened the door
the time would come when he would be admitted into his and let us all come in again. [The] poor-house in
presence to enjoy his society for ever and ever. When Portage County, Ohio, where there were half a dozen
their bodily strength was restored to these brethren, they insane and idiotic persons, was the best comparison of
shouted, “hosannas to God and the lamb” and rehearsed anything to the scene that night. And if I had had my
the glorious things which they had seen and felt, whilst cloak on, I would have stolen the wine and carried it
they were yet in the Spirit. (Smith, 1843, pp. 41–42) home to see whether it was drugged or not. (p. 384)
The relationship of the symptomology associated with this William S. Smith, testifying after Moss, supported the
visionary experience highly suggests Joseph Smith surrep- recollections of Mr. Moss:
titious use of entheogenic material in the Mormon sacrament
ordinance. Further, symptomology associated with Mormon I have attended the meetings at Mr. Morley’s. : : : in the
visionary experience likely results in charges of medicating house I have seen young men and women seemingly
or doctoring the wine. Seeming to deflect this criticism onto unconscious, and the folks said they had lain so for two
those making the charges, Smith warned members in August days and they were there on their beds, and nobody tried
1830 they should not “partake” of wine “except it is made to prevent us looking at them, but we were not allowed to
new among you” (Smith, 1835, p. 27). As he will do again in go into the room. (Ibid, p. 888)
1833, and in 1836 (see below), Joseph seems to suggest that
any wine he administers during Mormon ordinances will be On another occasion, Moss concluded that Mormon sacra-
new wine, consecrated, and non-intoxicating. ment meetings “exceeded the wildest scene ever exhibited
among the Methodists” and instead “became fully satisfied
1830–1831: Kirtland, Ohio, charges of intemperance the wine was medicated,” even attempting to secure a bottle
for testing but was unsuccessful (Moss, 1878). Petersen also
When Joseph Smith arrived in Kirtland, Ohio in 1831, noted that “the catalepsy could, of course, have been
converts had experienced visionary sacraments similar to induced without the aid of wine [but the scene was]
that witnessed in New York. How did these Mormons, reminiscent of the first conference of the Church a year
having not met Joseph Smith, institute an entheogenic earlier at Fayette, New York.” That Moss indicated that
sacrament? Mark Staker (2009, pp. 19–26) in his “Hearken, Mormon enthusiasms exceeded that of the Methodists and
O Ye People” contextualizes the episode in 19th-century lasting 24–48 hr, strongly supporting this conjecture of
African American worship practices and the enthusiasms of Smith including psychoactive substances in the sacraments.
the Second Great Awakening. However, there are reasons to Joseph Smith arrived in Kirtland, Ohio after the inci-
believe that “wild enthusiasms” associated with early Mor- dences discussed above but in time to preside over the June
mon visionary meetings were more than just such reflec- 6th, 1831 Elders conference. According to Levi Hancock
tions. For instance, a medically trained school teacher, Jesse (1858, p. 90) who was present as this meeting:
Moss, who knew the nature of religious enthusiasms,
reported that Mormon enthusiasms far exceeded those of Joseph put his hands upon Harvey Whitlock and
the Methodists. A more likely possibility for early Mormon ordained him to the high Priesthood he [Whitlock]
wild enthusiasms is one of the four Mormon missionaries turned as black as [Lyman Wight] was white his fingers
who visited Kirtland and departed before the onset of the was set like Claws he went around the room and showed

his hands and tried to speak his eyes were in the shape of medicinal remedy in Joseph Smith’s day and may also have
Oval O’s. Hyrum Smith said Joseph that is not God. lent itself to more spiritual uses.
Joseph said do not speak against this. (Ibid) Complaints about Mormon enthusiasms drew the atten-
tion of the nation’s newspapers. For instance, in the
It is likely that Joseph Smith, had considerable experi-
September 1831 edition of the Vermont Gazette (Benning-
ence with entheogens, is not concerned with the chaos
ton, Vermont), published a letter to the editor reporting:
they create, and is reluctant to attempt to intervene.
“Some [Church members] lie in trances a day or two and
However, Joseph’s brother was not convinced:
visit the unknown regions in the meantime; some are taken
I will not believe : : : unless you inquire of God and owns with a fit of terrible shaking which they say is the power of
it. [At this] Joseph bowed his head, and in a short time the Holy Ghost” (Kirkham, 1959). A trance lasting 24–48 hr
got up and commanded Satan to leave Harvey, laying his is highly suggestive of D. stramonium intoxication (Bryson,
hands upon his head at the same time.” : : : [Then] 1996, p. 673; Wiebe, Sigurdson, & Katz, 2008). The
Copley, who weighed over two hundred pounds, Independent Gazetteer (Taunton, Massachusetts) reported
somersaulted in the air and fell on his back over a on January 11, 1833 that during Mormon meetings there
bench. Wight cast Satan out of Copley, and Copley was would be “shoutings, wailing, fallings, contortions, trances,
calmed. The evil spirit, according to Hancock, was in visions, speaking in unknown tongues and prophesying”
and out of people all day and the greater part of the (Morgan, n.d.). Also, Henry Caswell (1843, p. 63) wrote of
night. (Ibid) “a pretended sacrament” associated with manifestations of
power in early LDS meetings. A pretended sacrament,
Taken together, the events of the 1830 and 1831 conferences although not stated explicitly, suggests drugged wine. So
strongly suggest entheogenic influence and compares well vociferous were Mormon critics that local Church leaders
with Joseph Smith’s earlier entheogenic-facilitated early became alarmed and complained to Joseph Smith of similar
visions (Smith, 1830, pp. 276–267, 324–325). undisciplined scenes. Table 2 summarizes what was
reported by church leaders.
Negative publicity Although Joseph Smith chastised Isaac Morley in whose
house many of the sacrament meetings occurred, Smith
A letter to the editor of Palmyra Reflector, published in failed to acknowledge their similarity to his own first
January 1831, accused Joseph Smith of legerdemain. 1820 vision of God, his 1823 visions of an angel and
Since this term referred then, as now, to “Sleight of hand; golden plates, and the 1829 scrying visions while translating
a deceptive performance which depends on dexterity of The Book of Mormon. Similar problematic scenes beset
hand; a trick performed with such art and adroitness, that meetings Smith conducted. At Kirtland sacrament meeting
the manner or art eludes observation” (Webster, 1828), in 1831, Joseph Smith suggested imminent mass visions and
its use in this context may reflect ongoing accusations promised Lyman Wight he would have a vision of Christ.
that Joseph Smith was manipulating the sacramental wine. Mormon historian, Richard Bushman, explains what hap-
Sacramental wine was not the only possible carrier for an pened next: “Wight turned stiff and white, exclaiming he had
entheogen enhancing early Mormon sacramental experi- indeed viewed the Savior : : : Joseph himself said, ‘I now see
ence. We have noted the entheogenic potential of ergot- God and Jesus Christ’ : : : Then Harvey Whitlock : : : turn
infected rye, possibly mixed with the sacramental bread, like as black as Lyman was white : : : his fingers were set like
that which may have induced preternatural experiences in claws. He went around the room and showed his hands and
the life of Joseph Smith’s great grandfather Samuel Smith. tried to speak, his eyes were the shape of ovals “O’s” : : :
As we will see in discussing Mormonism’s 1840s Nauvoo, [Then] Leman Copley, who weighed over two hundred
Illinois period, ergot-infected rye was widely used as a pounds, somersaulted in the air and fell on his back over
Table 2. Comparison of converts undisciplined scenes and Joseph Smith’s first vision
Church leader reports Undisciplined scenes
George A. Smith (1867) Unnatural distortions
Extravagant and wild ideas
David Whitmer (“John Whitmer, Wielded the sword of Laban as expertly as a light dragoon
History,” 1831–ca. 847) Acted like an Indian : : : scalping
Slid on the floor with the rapidity of a serpent, sailing in boats to preach to the Lamanites
Parley P. Pratt (Bushman, 2005, p. 151) Swoons
Unseemly gestures
Cramps
Falling into ecstasies
Joseph Smith’s First Vision (from Table 1) Insanity
Bound hand and foot in chains as immovable as a stick of timber
Getting on the stumps of trees and shouting
Pursuing balls flying in the air
Running off a cliff, nearly being killed in pursuit of a floating scroll

Beckstead et al.
a bench : : : [Similar behavior was manifested by] people all In 1833, Joseph Smith blamed the enemies of the Church
day and the greater part of the night” (Bushman, 2005, for the medicated wine. In an 1833 revelation, it was
pp. 156–157). These experiences, likely following the ad- advised, “in consequence of evils and designs which do
ministration of the sacrament with Joseph present, are and will exist in the hearts of conspiring men in the last days
difficult to explain absent some toxidrome, yet easy to : : : your sacraments : : : should be wine, yea pure wine of
explain in the presence of one, and are strikingly similar the grape of the vine of your own make” (Smith, 1835,
to those described in Smith’s own first vision and those that pp. 207–208).
took place in early Kirtland, possibly under the direction of
Peter Kerr, a former slave known as “Black Pete” in early Prejudice and secrecy
Mormon literature.
Joseph Smith’s surreptitious use of entheogenic material
Peter Kerr was a closely guarded secret for obvious reasons.
Although the ingestion of such substances was not illegal
According to Mark Staker (2009), after the missionaries left in the 19th century, their use was discouraged by wither-
Kirtland later in 1830, 55-year-old Peter Kerr (“Black Pete”) ing ridicule. In a telling passage of The Book of Mormon,
acted as “a revelator” and “a chief man” to a small Mormon Joseph psychologically prepared early converts for the
community in Kirtland, Ohio, until Joseph Smith arrived in ridicule they might face and primed them to embrace it.
early 1831 (pp. 77, 79). Kerr was raised by a mother whose This persecution incorporated, into The Book of Mormon
religious tradition was the syncretic African-Muslim that associates an entheogenic tree and the hostility of his
religious tradition of what is now the Ivory Coast. When neighbors, “And after they had a tasted of the fruit, they
enslaved, she lived along the Monongahela River in western were ashamed, because of those that were scoffing at
Virginia where Peter was likely raised in an ecstatic reli- them” (Smith, 1830, p. 20).
gious fusion of African, Baptist, and Methodist ideas that Smith even faced strong opposition from his family. In a
included “interacting with the spirit world, dancing in fire, family gathering: Joseph Sr. began to speak of the discovery
and speaking in tongues” (p. 11). It is therefore likely that and translation of The Book of Mormon. At this, [his cousin]
Kerr had exposure to African folk magic, conjure, and root Jesse grew very angry, and exclaimed, “If you say another
medicine and knowledge of D. stramonium. word about that Book of Mormon, you shall not stay a
According to Catherine Yronwode, “root doctoring” minute longer in my house, and if I can’t get you out any
mixed African magical practices with American Indian other way, I will hew you down with my broad ax” (Smith,
herbal medicine. Further, “most medical herbs also have L. M., 1853, pp. 154–156). Although Jesse’s heart eventu-
magical uses, so urban conjures were able to take advantage ally softened and he reconciled with his cousin, such
of the medical industry’s commitment to herb purity and prejudice against the visionary, magico-religious practices
specificity” (2002). Among the visionary materials used by of Joseph Smith Jr. required that he make considerable
Native Americans was jimson weed or D. stramonium (see efforts to conceal his selective use of entheogens.
Schultes, 1975), a substance also used in African medicine
(Hamby, 2004, pp. 39, 54). 1833: Kirtland, Ohio School of the Prophets and the
According to Staker (2009, p. 34), Kerr was “among those Mormon Pentecost
brought into the Reformed Baptist movement in early 1828”
and not until late 1830, a period of nearly 3 years, that he In 1833, visionary endowments associated with washings,
converted to Mormonism and “was recognized as a ‘revela- anointings, and sacramental wine during sessions of the
tor’ among them” (Ibid, p. 119). If Kerr was solely responsible “School of the Prophets.” For example, in a March 1833
for the entheogenic-infused enthusiasms in early Mormonism, meeting of high priests, “Bro Joseph : : : [gave] a promise
why didn’t the same enthusiasms appear after he joined the that the pure in heart that were present should see a heavenly
Reformed Baptists in 1828? It seems more likely that one of vision : : : after which the bread and wine was distributed by
the missionaries noted that like Joseph Smith, Kerr was a Bro Joseph after which many of the brethren saw a heavenly
“charismatic with a distinctive religious perspective” (Ibid, vision of the savior and concourses of angels and many other
p. 3) and concluded he was the logical choice to minister to things” (Roberts, 1902). During this period, on-demand
converts’ spiritual needs. As Staker states, “Kirtland’s visions again suggest the administration of an entheogen.
religious enthusiasm was similar in so many ways to the Mormon elder Zebedee Coltrin reported Joseph Smith con-
religious world Black Pete knew that it is unlikely it developed fidently promising Coltrin and Oliver Cowdery, “Now breth-
as an independent experience” (Ibid, p. 171). It would have ren we will see some visions,” after which Smith verbally
been surprising, given Kerr’s background and the likely guided them through a trip to heaven, where they saw Adam
promptings of at least one Mormon missionary, had he not and Eve seated on a golden throne that looked like a celestial
utilized D. stramonium in his visionary syncretism. lighthouse (Anderson, D. S., 2018).
For several months, Kerr (like Joseph Smith would do Between 1833 and 1836, we have no reported visions
later when he arrived in Kirtland) introduced converts to such as seen in New York or early Kirtland period. The
entheogenic facilitated visions and spiritual ecstasies bring- embarrassment to the Church and various accusations sur-
ing many into the nascent Church. Further, like Smith’s use rounding Mormon visionary experience necessitated a
of datura, Kerr’s administration of this anticholinergic change in venue. Smith would build a temple to house
entheogen was problematic, leading to an embarrassed convert visions before the next series of reports of drugged
Church and accusations of medicated wine. wine would emerge.

The spiritual outpouring associated with the dedication 1842: NAUVOO TEMPLE
of the Kirtland Temple in March and April of 1836 was
called the Mormon Pentecost, the equivalent to the early In 1841, Joseph Smith laid the cornerstone of a new temple
Christian Pentecost that was also accused of alcohol in Nauvoo, Illinois, and in May of 1842, Smith taught a
intoxication. Visionary experiences during this period are lengthy Masonic-like initiation rite to trusted leaders. The
linked, we argue, to the administration of bread and wine purpose of the training was to prepare for the dedication of
sacraments and oil anointings. Although not exhaustive, the temple (Smith, 1977, p. 237). Since the temple was not
these remembrances are pertinent to the question of completed and likely not wishing to repeat the embarrass-
entheogen-infused Mormon ordinances and visionary ment associated with the open access to the Kirtland
experience. visionary period, there were no visions during this initial
The Kirtland temple endowments created a sacred space endowment, and there were none promised. However, the
decorated with labyrinths, gonfalons, spirals, and squares expected endowment planned for the completed Nauvoo
within squares (Howlett, 2014) and a prolonged ceremony would eclipse those of the Kirtland Pentecost. Smith
that included a day of fasting and the “reenactment of the explained,
Passion narrative and Pentecost” (Olaiz, 2014) that in-
cluded the washing of feet and anointing the head with I spent the day : : : instructing them in the principles and
holy oil. In the evening, the fast was broken with a order of the Priesthood, attending to washings, anoint-
communion of bread and wine as a “reenactment of the ings, endowments : : : by which anyone is enabled to : : :
Last Supper” followed by a ceremony that “mimicked the come up and abide in the presence of the Eloheim : : : [as]
high point of Christian redemption : : : they stayed up all soon as they are prepared to receive, and a proper place is
night : : : a re-enactment of Gethsemane” (Ibid). In serving prepared to communicate them, even to the weakest of the
the wine, Joseph Smith explained, “the wine was Saints [see D&C 89:3]; therefore let the Saints be diligent
consecrated, and would not make them drunk : : : they in building the Temple. (Smith, 1977, p. 237)
began to prophesy, pronouncing blessings upon their
friends” (Harris, 1841, p. 32).
With increasing confidence in his entheogenic sacra- The Edenic tree
ments, Joseph Smith enabled hundreds to received visions
during the dedication ceremonies of the Kirtland temple, The organization and context of the anticipated Nauvoo
but only if willing to participate in the Mormon endowment provide for the covert administration of entheo-
ordinances. Smith’s exuberance, however, was tempered genic anointings and sacraments, although for this endow-
as the manifestations of anticholinergic toxidromal ment, the sacrament included partaking of the fruit from the
symptoms led, once again, to accusations of drugged tree in the Garden of Eden. Following purifying ceremonies
wine. For instance, a Church member with the last name of washing and oil anointing, a “new name” was given to
of McWhitney complained that the wine consumed in the initiates, who were informed was connected with Christ’s
temple ordinances was actually “mixed liquor” and that promise in Revelation 2:17 of a “white stone” (Van Dusen,
“the Mormon leaders intended to get the audience under 1847). Then, fruit representing the forbidden fruit of “the
[its] influence” so visions experienced were believed to be tree of knowledge of good and evil” was plucked from the
of “the Lord’s doing” (1888, p. 135). John W. Gunnison tree and eaten by the initiate. The Nauvoo endowment
interviewed the Church elders present at the 1836 Kirtland would avoid the problems of mass entheogenic visionary
Pentecost and reported: “Wine was administered : : : that experience by conducting initiates in small groups within
had been consecrated and declared by the Prophet to be the seclusion of the temple. Receiving this sacred food also
harmless and not intoxicating. This : : : produced unheard fulfilled the other promise of Revelation 2:17 – that they
of effects, if we may credit the witnesses of these proceed- would be given “to eat of the hidden manna.” Their
ings. Visions, tongues, trances, wallowings on the ground, initiation followed both the pattern of alchemical freema-
shoutings, weeping, and laughing, the outpouring of sonry with its entheogenic elixir and philosopher’s stone
prophecies : : : these and other fantastic things were and the pattern set by Joseph Smith when he ate of “hidden
among ‘the signs following’ at Kirtland” (Gunnison, manna” and acquired his “white stone.” Following this, the
1852, p. 107) initiates engaged in an interactive entheogenic journey
Even though descriptions of visions and ecstasies asso- through the fall of Adam and the redemption of man by
ciated with entheogenic sacraments and anointings at the Jesus Christ after which they would pass through a curtain
Kirtland temple were inspirational and stirring, problems into a beautifully decorated celestial room and the presence
developed almost immediately. Soon afterward accusations of God (Buerger, 2001; Hyde, 1857).
of adultery beset Joseph Smith as did challenges to his We argue that to fulfill his promise of coming into the
leadership, a Mormon war in Missouri, and the failure of the presence of God in the Nauvoo temple, Joseph Smith would
Kirtland Anti-Bank society. These catastrophes would oc- have offered:
cupy Smith’s attention and prevent him from creating an
environment suitable for entheogen administration. It would 1. An overall sense of the holy and a mindset of
not be until the Smith had established the City of Nauvoo, sacredness.
formed the Nauvoo Legion to protect him and the Saints, 2. An impressive and uplifting multistoried edifice with
and completed a new temple would he again promise mass esoteric symbols inside and out and multiple special
visionary experience. purpose rooms.

Beckstead et al.
3. Trusted attendants to guide initiates through each The purpose of these negotiations is not altogether clear to
aspect of the ceremony, to prompt attendees should historians. However, as we will see, the negotiations proba-
they experience confusion and provide assurance if bly involved Joseph Smith giving valuable and sacred
distress occurs, and property to the Potawatomi without apparent gain to Smith
4. An entheogen that would not produce the indecorous in return. We suggest that Joseph Smith negotiated with
symptoms and outside criticisms such as the Church nearby Native Americans for the delivery of peyote to
experienced during the visionary Kirtland period. Nauvoo for the Nauvoo temple endowment.
After receiving the new name, an entheogenic anointing, Quest for a new entheogen
and ingesting Edenic fruit, converts basked in emotional and
physical safety designed to provide spiritual experiences of There were several groups of Native Americans living on the
such consequence it would enhance the joy of living and American Prairie in the early 19th century, any of which
provide comfort during periods of struggle. could have provided for the transport of peyote from South
Texas. Joseph Smith has had dealings with the Prairie groups
of the Potawatomi, Fox, Sauk, and Delaware (Lenape), with
Nauvoo Entheogen
Smith sending missionaries to the Mahican, Sioux, and other
The procurement of an entheogen for the Nauvoo temple Indian peoples residing in Wisconsin and Canada (Jensen,
would not be as easy as harvesting datura seeds found 2012; Mahas, 2017; Walker, 1993). Further, although few
growing in the surrounding countryside and used as orna- Indians joined Mormonism, there were “many among the
mentals in some gardens. Because of the Kirtland experience, Shawnees” who believed in Smith’s mission (Byron, 1993).
datura as an entheogen would draw unwanted attention. And
gathering enough entheogenic mushrooms for the rapidly
The Potawatomi
increasing Church population, at time around 10,000, was not
practical. However, several physicians in positions of Church The Potawatomi were an Algonquian-speaking Eastern
leadership would have known about the medical use of ergot Woodlands group related to the Ojibway, discussed in
in obstetrics and could easily extract ergot’s water-soluble relation to D. stramonium and A. muscaria. However, with
entheogenic component. In Nauvoo, ergot was readily avail- the Indian Removal Act of 1830, “the Potawatomi were
ability, easy to hide, and of high potency making it an ideal removed in two groups: The Prairie and Forest Bands from
entheogen for burgeoning Church population. However, by northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin went to Council
1842, two important physicians in the Mormonism, Luman Bluffs in southwest Iowa, and the Potawatomi of the Woods
Walters and John C. Bennett, became disaffected with Joseph (Michigan and Indian bands) relocated to eastern Kansas
Smith and a third, Frederick G. Williams died. Another near Osawatomie” (Bassett, 2016).
physician, Williard Richards, may have been able fill these Peyote “was used in ancient times in Mexico, spreading
vacancies, but in 1843, the malpractice trial of doctor William from the Rio Grande Valley and taking hold on the Plains
Brinks may have persuaded Joseph that an ergot-derived [the American Prairie] as early as the 1840s” (White, 2011,
entheogen could become very problematic. p. 178). Peyotism existed among Native American shaman
A year before the 1843 trial, Dr. Brinks treated a female and medicine people for centuries and was likely used by
in labor suffering from severe pain and fever. When he Potawatomi and other Plains Indian shamans before they
treated her with ergot to hasten delivery, her womb “lacer- formally adopted the Peyote Religion in the 1890s (Stewart,
ated or ruptured” (Dinger, 2016, p. 85). In his defense, Dr. 1987, p. 93). The Potawatomi passed through Nauvoo on
Brink explained, “I gave her ergot : : : nothing but what any their way to and from their hunting grounds in Iowa territory
physician would do” (The Joseph Smith Papers, (Smith & Edwards, 1972) and could have served as an
1842–1844). However, Dr. Samuel Bennett, a traditional early bridge between the Indians of the Southwest
doctor, testified against Dr. Brink, stating that he “should (e.g., Comanche-Osage) and Joseph Smith for the delivery
not have administered ergot : : : its effect on the uterus [is] of peyote to Illinois for the Nauvoo temple. Prairie Pota-
to expel the contents of the uterus [or] to produce delivery,” watomi began actively trading peyote imported from South
but ergot caused increased intrauterine pressure, rupture, Texas at least by 1870 (Schaefer, 2015) and perhaps even
and permanent disability (Dinger, 2016, p. 85.) The case earlier (Howard, 1962).
was high drama and 3 months later, Joseph Smith meet with In August 1841, a large group of Fox and Sauk Indians,
Native American leaders in what appear to be negotiations including 100 chiefs, visited Nauvoo in 1841 (Appanoose-
for a safer, more effective entheogen – peyote. Biography, n.d.) with their leader, Chief Keokuk, forming a
personal relationship with Joseph Smith and his wife,
Emma. Emma exchanged recipes for herbal medicines with
PEYOTE ENTHEOGEN the wife of Chief Keokuk (Newell & Avery, 1994, p. 278).
During the spring and summer of 1843, three delegations of
During the period of Indian Removal beginning in 1830, Potawatomi traveled to Nauvoo primarily to ask Joseph
Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River Smith “for assistance and advice in their struggles with
passed through Nauvoo on their way to their seasonal white Americans” and in April 1844, eleven Potawatomi
hunting grounds. Potawatomi delegations, including mem- Indians visited Smith again “seeking help to avoid losing
bers of the Fox and Sauk nations, visited Joseph Smith their land” (Council of Fifty, 1844–1846). Joseph Smith had
between April 18 and August 28 of 1843 (discussed below). a significant number of Native American contacts during the

Nauvoo period, any of which could have provided for the

delivery of peyote to Nauvoo; we feel it was most likely
with the Potawatomi.
Besides this encounter, there were additional meetings
between Joseph Smith and the Potawatomi. According to
LDS Church Historian Jay Todd (1968), in June 1843,
Several of the Potawatomi Chiefs called to see the

Nauvoo House and Temple : : : Nauvoo was a prominent
spot for Indians and was called by them Quashquema
: : : [and] Indian burial grounds abounded in the area.”
However, not finding Joseph Smith present, the Pota-
watomi explained, “They were not free to talk, and did
not wish to communicate their feelings until they could
see the great Prophet.” (Ibid)
They returned in July and told Smith, “We have talked
with the Great Spirit, and : : : the Great Spirit has told us
that he had raised up a great Prophet : : : We will now
wait and hear your word.”(Ibid) After Smith spoke,
Smith had an ox killed for them and they were given
fresh horses for their journey home. (Ibid) Figure 30. The Neueces strip shown in pink and white stripes.
Adapted from the U. S. Army Campaigns of the Mexican War
During one of the several visits of Potawatomi to Nauvoo, (Carney, n.d.). In Figure 25, the same area is shown in the purple–
Joseph possibly gave the Potawatomi captain a significant blue area.
portion of the Egyptian papyri from which he “translated” a
work of scripture said to have been written by the hand of
Lyman Wight, having experienced an entheogenic vision
the Biblical Abraham (Todd, 1969). These papyri were from
of Christ as documented above, became a reliable friend of
a larger collection purchased by Joseph Smith in 1835 for
Joseph Smith and resolutely carried out his orders, including
$2,400 (Gee, 2007; Remini, 2002, p. 105). The value of
being part of a Mormon pinery colony in Wisconsin. Joseph
these papyri was significant since $2,400 in 1835 represents
Smith used such colonies, flung out from the Church’s central
nearly $70,000 adjusted to 2019 value. It is a mystery why
hub at Nauvoo, to acquire resources for the main body of the
Smith would give away such valuable papyri when he
Church. The Mormon colony in Wisconsin, between 1841
anticipated showing them on display for a fee, and also
and spring 1845, floated timber to Nauvoo amounting to “1.5
anticipated translating the “Book of Joseph” from the same
million board feet of milled time, more than two hundred
collection of papyri (Larsen, 1992). The gesture is striking.
thousand shingles, and a large number of miscellaneous logs,
Was Smith negotiating for access to Native entheogens?
barn board, and timbers” (Clark, 1997–1998, p. 67). In
Such negotiation is suggested by the timing of these inter-
February 1844, Lyman Wight, in conversation with local
actions with the Potawatomi, Fox, and Sauk, beginning
Wisconsin Native Americans, concocted a plan to form a
within weeks of the discrediting of ergot in the Brink trial,
joint Mormon–Indian colony in Texas. Wight wrote to Smith
by Smith’s inordinate “gift” to these representatives, and by
requesting permission for himself and the Native Americans
earlier exchanges of herbal information between the Smith
to travel to Texas to initiate such a colony (Figure 31). Smith
family and the family of the local Sauk chief Keokuk.
agreed, and Wight was ordered “to take a small colony to
Acquiring Native American entheogens could have fueled
Texas and make smooth and ready the path for a major
a new and more profound spiritual Pentecost in the endow-
migration of the L.D.S. church to Texas” (Banks, 1945;
ment to be given in the Nauvoo temple, scheduled for
Johnson, 2006, p. 5). However, given the Mormon emphasis,
completion in 1845–1846.
since 1829, on building settlements near Native American
Lyman Wight lands, and given that the initial colony idea proposed by
Wight was to be a Mormon–Indian colony, it seems highly
Joseph Smith’s vision was for Mormon colonies to span the probable, if not nearly inevitable, that Woodworth would
globe, with Independence, Missouri being the center of a have entered into contact with Native Americans there.
worldwide kingdom of God. After the Mormon War of Joseph Smith aimed to establish colonies to procure
1838, Smith moved the center of the kingdom to Nauvoo, resources for the body of the central hub of the Mormon
Illinois but still sought to establish colonies adjacent to community at Nauvoo. What resource was the planned Texas
Indian Territory in areas such as California, Oregon, Mormon–Indian colony intended to provide? Texas was a
Minnesota, the Great Basin, and Texas (The Joseph Smith keystone to peyotism; peyote grew in abundance in South-
Papers, 1842–1844, pp. 55, 170, fns 46–47). Smith’s emis- west Texas, especially along the Texas–Mexico
saries also negotiated for the Neueces strip (Figure 30) in border and the Rio Grande River, with an active peyote trade
deep south Texas, an area extending from Corpus Christi that only abated in 1959 (Morgan & Stewart, 1984). In this
down the coast to Brownsville, then westward between the expedition, Joseph Smith may have attempted to plant a
Rio Neueces and the Rio Grande River. Mormon–Indian colony in the heart of peyote country, where

Beckstead et al.
his colony could harvest thousands of peyote buttons, just any other he used for scrying (Quinn, 1998, pp. 246–247,
what the thousands of Nauvoo saints would need if peyote Figure 10). The stone is smooth in texture with a hole
was the entheogen used in the completed Nauvoo temple. through the center surrounded by eight smaller indentations
Did Joseph Smith know he was planting his prospective of alternating sizes where the central flower and tuffs of the
colony where Mormon colonists could acquire peyote? peyote button have been cored out. It is comparable to the
Smith’s evident use of entheogens, his need for them to eight-lobed peyote button in Figure 33. The coin-like ridged
replicate the Kirtland Pentecost, the timing of the Texas circular edge of Smith’s stone not seen on the peyote button
negotiations shortly after other potential entheogens and signifies the visionary nature of peyote. The alternating sizes
sources of entheogens faltered, his intention to involve Native
Americans in his scheme, his pattern of planting colonies to
supply resources from the local environment, and his choice
of the peyote environs suggest to us his intention to use his
Texas colony to supply peyote. In addition, tangible, artifac-
tual evidence exists indicating that Joseph Smith knew and
was interested in the peyote trade and had contacted a peyote
trade network of Native Americans through intermediaries, or
directly from the anticipated Texas Mormon colony, or both.
A sacred stone found among Smith’s belongings, which we
will call “the peyote stone,” is that artifactual evidence.
Joseph Smith’s Peyote Stone
Among Joseph Smith’s possessions during his death was a

finely tooled sandy-colored seer stone (Figure 32), unlike
Figure 32. Joseph Smith’s peyote stone (image from Quinn, 1998,
Figure 10, colored version. Copyright: Signature Books)
Figure 31. Route and locations of the Wight Colony in Texas, Figure 33. Eight-lobed peyote cactus reduced sized
1845–1858 by Davis Bitton (1969) photo. Shutterstock

Figure 35. Gorget seers stone belonging to David Whitmer

(courtesy: Signature Books)
Figure 34. Eight-lobed peyote pouch (image from the Plains Indian
Museum in Cody, Wyoming)
of the indentations on this stone are somewhat similar to the

peyote button and are comparable to the alternating size of
the tufts in Figure 33, an eight-lobed Plains Indian peyote
pouch (Figure 34) currently displayed in the Plains Indian
Museum in Cody, Wyoming (see Hultkrantz, 1997, p. 6).
The nomadic aboriginal peoples of the American Plains
included the Lipan Apache, Tonkawa, Comanche, Kiowa,
Otto, Osage, Arapaho, Sioux, and Pawnee, bordered on the
northeast by the Ojibway, Potawatomi, Sauk, and Fox.
Most of these groups were relocated, westward into Plains
Indian territory following the Indian Removal Act of 1830
and interacted with Joseph Smith (Walker, 1993, pp. 6–7).
For instance, by the 1840s, the Potawatomi had been Figure 36. Pre-Columbian Aztec stone spindle whorl (photo by
resettled west of Nauvoo, Illinois, within the cultural Christophe Helmke)
boundaries of the Plains Indian groups, providing an
opportunity for the transmission of information about
peyote to Joseph Smith. one of the three witnesses to the angel and golden plate and
According to Omer Steward (1974), “The Lipan used as a seer stone. Native American gorgets, worn around
Apache Indians in the vicinity of Laredo, 1760 to the neck as signs of goodwill or an indication of status, and
1850s, learned of the properties of Peyote and the ritual Smith’s peyote stone, although of Native American origin,
for its use from Coahuiltecan-speaking Carrizo and is not typical of a Native American gorget. Instead, it is
Tonkawa and in turn taught Peyotism to the Comanche similar to the pre-Columbian stone whorl from Mixtec,
and Kiowa” (p. 211), their northern allies by 1830 Mexico, shown in Figure 36. Joseph Smith’s stone appears
(p. 215). A possible route for the spread of peyotism to be a Native American visionary peyote stone effigy.
toward the northeast from Texas proposed by Steward Similarly made pre-Columbian visionary stone effigies
(pp. 215–216) and included in the report by R. A. Smith appear to represent the I. alvarus toad in Figures 35 and 36.
(1961) states, “The demand for Mexican livestock, cap- Further, the Native Americans of the Lower Pecos region of
tives, and plunder increased after American commis- southwest Texas have a history of ritual peyote use and the
sioners made treaties of amity and trade with the Indians manufacture peyote effigies extending back 5,000 years
of the South Plains in the 1830s. The Comanche and (Powell, 2017; Terry et al., 2006).
Kiowa consequently stepped up their predatory raids Peyote has tufts of “hair” on each of its lobes and a
below the Rio Grande : : : Their deepest penetrations of central flower that if removed, leave a corresponding
Mexico put the Indians at points a thousand miles straight number of depressions. Native art, such as the peyote
south of their home range in Kansas and Oklahoma : : : pouch in Figure 31 depicts peyote by the several circular
One can suspect the warriors might also have learned depressions or tufts, often five or eight, surrounding a
about and experimented with the little spineless cactus, central circle or hole. The representation can further be
peyote, which grew in the area.” stylized in native art by showing the tufts or depressions as
The intricate patterning on Joseph Smith’s peyote stone alternating in size around the button as in Figure 32. An
in Figure 32 above may be a Native American stone gorget examination of Joseph Smith’s stone shows precisely this
such as the stone in Figure 35 belonging to David Whitmer same stylization. The stone consists of a central circle

Beckstead et al.
surrounded by eight circular depressions arranged in an Smith is unknown. Quinn (1998, pp. 246–247) speculated
alternating pattern of large-small-large. this stone, which was one of the seer stones Brigham
Joseph Smith’s peyote stone in Figure 32 above bears a Young had mentioned Joseph finding at Nauvoo on the
striking resemblance to Figures 37–39 (frames from a video banks of the Mississippi. However, considering the infor-
produced by DiezyMedia in 2007). In Figure 37, the mation above, it is likely a tooled stone that was hand-
transfixed, partially transformed shaman is holding a tooled by a Native American familiar with peyote. Joseph
smooth-edged cactus, but in Figure 38, the shaman’s eye Smith owned other hand-tooled Native American stones
is wide open, and reflecting a partial transformed eight- used for divination, as other early Mormons did, each
lobed peyote button that had five lobes in Figure 37. In one tooled by a Native American (Quinn, 1998, p. 247).
Figure 39, the consumed peyote button has further under-
gone entheogenic transformation amidst “spiritual light”
pouring from its scalloped edges. In comparison, a reduced
image of Joseph Smith’s peyote in Figure 40 favorably
compares to the visionary portrayal of the Huichol peyote
button reflected in the shamans eye in Figure 41. Figure 41
shows the shaman in spirit and endowed with new powers.
While ownership of the peyote stone transferred to his
heirs after his death, how this curious stone came to Joseph
Figure 39. Fully transformed eight-lobed peyote button appears

illuminating a new world. DiezyMedia (2007)
Figure 37. Huichol shaman transfixed as he looks on a five-lobe

peyote cactus. DiezyMedia (2007)
Figure 38. Partially transformed five to eight-lobed button is Figure 40. Joseph Smith’s visionary peyote stone reduced in size
reflected in shaman’s eye. DiezyMedia (2007) for comparison (adapted from Figure 35)

Corpus Christi down the gulf coast to Brownsville, then

westward between the Rio Neueces and the Rio Grande
Rivers encompassing the northern reaches of peyote
inhabitation.
Just weeks after the Texas expedition party’s return,
Smith tasked Lyman Wight to establish a Texas colony,
gave him a seer stone, and told him he would need this stone
to receive revelation pertaining to his colonization work
(Johnson, 2006, pp. 30–31). The stone Smith gave Wight
was a seer stone, but not the peyote stone he retained until
his death.
With the single exception of giving Oliver Cowdery his
brown seer stone in 1829, Smith is not reported to have
given anyone else such a stone until he gave this one to
Wight in April 1844. This unique action on Smith’s part and
its timing are both readily explainable if the negotiating
party delivered the peyote stone to Smith in Nauvoo.
Also noteworthy is that Joseph Smith gave Lyman Wight
not just any seer stone but specifically a white stone. We
have noted above that the “white stone” has a place in
Figure 41. Huichol shaman in vision with new powers. Joseph Smith’s biography, biblical interpretation, and
DiezyMedia (2007) theology. Drawing on Jesus’ promise in Revelation 2:17
(“KJV”), the young Joseph Smith had searched for a “white
stone” to use in scrying. This biblical promise of receiving a
For instance, the Whitmer family, followers of Joseph “white stone” also included the promise of receiving “the
Smith from the 1820s, used two hand-tooled Native Amer- hidden manna to eat,” a promised gift that appears to have
ican gorgets with holes bored into them as seer stones materialized for Smith as A. muscaria mushrooms or datura
(Quinn, 1998, Figures 11–13). Further, research conducted in the family’s “sacred grove.”
on these stones by Mormon scholars aside from Quinn has Since Smith’s own experience of becoming a seer
uniformly identified them as tooled by Native Americans included obtaining a “white stone” used to find entheogenic
(Ashurst-McGee, 2000, p. 165; Murphy & Baca, 2016, “hidden manna,” Smith’s bestowal to Wight would have
p. 707). The peyote stone broadly resembles Native Amer- been only a halfway-boon had he stopped there. Joseph
ican gorgets but has a more intricate representation carved Smith’s instructions to Lyman Wight on how to be a seer on
into it, and compares well to Native American representa- the same pattern as Smith would have included instructions
tion of peyote. on using “hidden manna” as an entheogen to facilitate
Wight’s experience of second sight.
Lyman Wight, Mission to Texas Some researchers have concluded that the “manna” in
Judeo-Christian scripture was a psychoactive variously
Joseph Smith’s vision was for Mormon colonies to span the identified as a water-soluble extract of ergot (Merkur,
globe, with Independence, Missouri being the western hub a 2000) and the A. muscaria mushroom, also known to some
worldwide kingdom of God, Jerusalem being the eastern as the white stone. (Allegro, 1970; Irvin, 2009). Such a
hub. After the Mormon War of 1838, Smith moved the reading was known in early Christianity judging by the
center of the kingdom to Nauvoo, Illinois along with his number of works of art featuring the A. muscaria and
converts; simultaneously, he attempted to establish colonies psilocybin-containing mushroom (Brown & Brown, 2016;
adjacent to Indian territory in areas such as California, Merkur, 2014; Rush, 2011). Joseph Smith, if he had not
Oregon, Minnesota, the Great Basin, and Texas (The Joseph learned it from a mentor, had his own experience with
Smith Papers, 1842–1844, pp. 55, 170, fns 46–47). The entheogens, which would have led him conclude that
purposes of these colonies were twofold: (a) expand the entheogens were used in Judeo-Christian religion. It would
Kingdom of God until it filled the earth and (b) provide a be reasonable to believe that Joseph Smith would want to
place where, if another Moron War were to break out, the transmit his entheogenic knowledge to a trusted friend who
Mormons could find protection. had successfully ingested entheogens. Lyman Wight had
How did Joseph Smith acquire a peyote stone? Given that responded well to the administration of an entheogen in
peyote was grown at the Texas–Mexican border, and Joseph 1831 when he “turned white” and “saw the Savior”
Smith sent a scouting-and-negotiating team to south Texas (Hancock, 1858, p. 90) and remained a loyal friend to
to establish a Mormon–Indian colony on the Rio Grande, it Joseph Smith even after Smith’s death. It seems apparent
represents one of two possible modes by which the peyote that Wight’s experience and loyalty resulted in Smith’s gift
stone traveled from the hands of a peyotist in Texas to those of a white stone to locate entheogens in Texas. Apparently
of Joseph Smith in Nauvoo, Illinois. In 1844, Smith sent a successful, Wight would have visions of Smith himself,
Mormon expedition to persuade Sam Huston to allot lands years after the latter’s death (Blythe, 2014; see also Johnson,
then disputed by the Texans and the Mexicans. These lands 2006). Wight could easily carry 20,000 peyote buttons
included the entire Neueces strip (Figure 30) extending from weighing 60 pounds to Joseph Smith in Nauvoo.

Beckstead et al.
THE END OF VISIONARY MORMONISM exchanged a peyote stone for Egyptian papyri as a token
of their bargain, then the return of the papyri following
The end of visionary and ecstatic Mormon can be causally Smith death solves the mystery.
associated with the death of Joseph Smith. Only a few of the
many Mormon schisms that successors organized proved to Successors’ negative views of visionary symptomology
be visionary. Those are visionary Mormon-Native American
Joseph Smith told early converts to expect somatology-
syncretisms that use peyote as an entheogen. Only one of
associated religious visions and spiritual ecstasies. To
Smith’s descendants is reported to have used entheogens to
prepare converts for the entheogen-facilitated spiritual man-
facilitate spiritual growth and wished to introduce it as a
ifestations and associated symptomology, Joseph Smith
general form of religious worship.
(1839, pp. 18–19) explained:
Death of Joseph Smith It is more powerful in expanding the mind, enlightening
the understanding, and storing the intellect with present
Friction between Mormonism and their Missouri neighbors
knowledge, of a man who is of the literal seed of
increased to the breaking point, and war broke out with
Abraham, than one that is a Gentile though it may not
Joseph Smith barely escaping with his life and the body of
have half as much visual effect upon his body; for as the
Mormons moving north in Illinois (Baugh, 2000). After
Holy Ghost falls upon one of the literal seed of Abraham,
fleeing Missouri, Smith established a new city that he called
it is calm and serene; and his whole soul and body are
Nauvoo, the Beautiful along the eastern banks of the
only exercised by the pure spirit of intelligence; while the
Mississippi River. Anticipating continued contention with
effect of the Holy Ghost upon a Gentile, is to purge out
non-Mormons, Smith formed a theocracy with political and
the old blood, and make him actually of the seed of
military branches (Hansen, 1960, 1967). After Mormons
Abraham. That man that has none of the blood of
deserters published an inflammatory first issue of the
Abraham (naturally) must have a new creation by the
Nauvoo Expositor, Joseph Smith as the mayor of Nauvoo
Holy Ghost.
and general of the Nauvoo Legion ordered the destruction of
the press.
Therefore, stark was the difference between the many
visions reported in early Mormonism and lack of similar
Schismatic Mormonism
reported after Joseph Smith’s death, which distressed
Within a century following the death of Joseph Smith, members inquired of their leaders. Mormon Apostle George
Mormonism splintered into over 200 schisms that collec- A. Smith responded to these concerns in an 1867 discourse
tively boast worldwide membership of over 16 million. The in Salt Lake City:
largest Mormon denominations are The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Community of Christ The question has often arisen among us, why it is that we
(formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter do not see more angels, have more visions, [and] do not
Day Saints), and groups collectively called Fundamentalist see greater and more manifestations of power? (Smith,
Mormons who still practice polygamy (Shields, 1982). 1867, p. 10)
The leaders of these schisms each claim to be the What followed is revealing. Apostle Smith recalled that in
legitimate heir to Joseph Smith, and prophet leader of 1836, a filled Kirtland temple with over four hundred men of
their only true Church. Each schism attempts to maintain the priesthood, most of whom witnessed,
Mormonism as it was under Joseph Smith’s leadership,
including teaching his doctrine, believing his revelations, great manifestations of power, such as speaking in
build temples, and performing his ordinances. For instance, tongues, seeing visions, administration of angels. Many
in 1846, Brigham Young conducted temple endowments in individuals bore testimony that they saw angels, and
the Nauvoo temple, as he understood Joseph Smith David Whitmer bore testimony that, he saw three angels
intended, including oil anointing, and raisins plucked from passing up the south aisle, and there came a shock on the
an Edenic tree (Buerger, 2001). However, to the disap- house like the sound of a mighty rushing wind, and
pointment of many, no religious visions or spiritual ecsta- almost every man in the house arose, and hundreds of
sies were reported. them were speaking in tongues, prophesying or declaring
visions, almost with one voice. (Ibid)
Return of the Egyptian Papyri
Then, Apostle Smith diminished the value of these experi-
In winter 1846 as Brigham Young led the first contingent ences when he noted that,
of Mormon’s westward out of Illinois and across the
Mississippi River and into Iowa where they camped. While A number of them who manifested the greatest gifts, and
there, a Potawatomi Captain inexplicably presented Brig- had the greatest manifestations have fallen out by the
ham Young with “two sheets of the Book of Abraham way side, you look around among us and they are not
[papyri]; also, a letter from their ‘Father’ Joseph Smith, here : : : . But where you find men who have turned away,
dated 1843, and a map of their land by W. W. Phelps” and have got terribly afflicted with self-conceit, you will
(Todd, 1968, p. 40). Had Joseph Smith arranged for the find those, who, on that occasion and similar occasions,
Potawatomi captain to deliver peyote to Nauvoo and received great and powerful manifestations, and when

the spirit came on them it seemed to distort the counte- by Emma’s letters and oral transmission of information to her
nance, and caused them to make tremendous efforts in children and grandchildren about the entheogenic-potent
some instances. (Ibid) herbs jimson (datura) and lobelia, information about entheo-
gens was passed on from Joseph Smith Jr’s generation not
Reflected in George A.’s next remarks is the post-Joseph through his Church but within his family. Joseph’s family
Smith Mormon attitude regarding public religious manifes- was also heirs to his hand-tooled seer stone in a peyote button.
tations and spiritual ecstasies. Speaking favorably of non- After his death, the stone remained in possession of his
visionary post-Smith “revelation” by inspiration, George A. widow Emma, who passed it on to her second husband,
spoke of faithful converts, Lewis Bidamon. The stone eventually came into the posses-
sion of Lewis’s illegitimate son Charles Bidamon.
who received the knowledge of the things of God by the Frederick G. Smith, born in 1874, is likely to have seen
power of his spirit, and sought not after signs and the stone as a child and would have known it by reputation at
wonders, and when the spirit rested upon them seemed the least. As the stone passed beyond the Smith family and
to produce no visible demonstration. (Ibid) eventually to collector Wilford C. Wood, any oral lore
passed along with the stone within the Smith family failed
George A. Smith knew there was a significant change in to be transmitted with it further, and the stone was known
convert’s visionary and ecstatic experience following the only as one of Joseph Smith’s seer stones, with no other
death of Joseph Smith. Direct and personal experience with information about its provenance or significance. However,
angels and God gave way to revelation described as inspi- just because the stone’s representational significance was
rational manifestations. As discussed above, in every case unknown to those who later sold and bought, it does not
involving entheogen use in early Mormonism, a change in mean this significance was unknown to the Smith family.
mental and emotional state was apparent to non-intoxicated Joseph Smith family’s cross-generational legacy of a
observers both inside and outside the Church. That cessation peyote stone and oral traditions about entheogenic herbs,
of observable symptomology associated with post-Joseph and possibly about the stone itself, makes it unsurprising
Smith spiritual experience and the lack of visions and that Frederick M. Smith would have been exceptionally
ecstasies reported by his successors provide persuasive open to using entheogens, including peyote. Joseph Smith’s
evidence that Joseph Smith made use of entheogens. Even revelations were the “bed-rock” of Mormonism and Freder-
more noticeable are the many contemporary reports of ick “wanted to understand the [revelatory] process,” a
entheogen-facilitated visions and ecstasies echoing those subject he explored in The Higher Powers of Man
of Joseph Smith and early of Mormon converts. (1918), with an entire chapter devoted “to the wonders of
The cessation of convert and leadership visionary and peyote” (Tommasini, 1997, p. 83). In this work, Frederick
ecstatic experience following the death of Joseph Smith may discussed the usefulness of peyote as an aid to spiritual
partly inform the observation of Sterling Professor of Hu- development, reverberating his previous entheogenic
manities at Yale University, Harold Bloom (2007) when he experiences, experiences “he did not dare to chronicle”
observed, “I am puzzled by the current Salt Lake City (Tommasini, 1997, p. 83). Frederick wrote, “Ecstasy has
hierarchy. If there is any spiritual continuity between played an important role in human affairs, particularly the
[Joseph] Smith and Gordon B. Hinckley [a Prophet and religious, and it is scarcely stating the matter fairly to hold
Utah successor to Joseph Smith], I am unable to see it. No that it is always associated with the pathological. Ecstasy is
disrespect is intended by that observation.” If “placebo the central experience of religious experience usually
sacraments” replaced those infused with entheogens in early associated with mysticism” (Smith, 1918).
Mormonism, the spiritual discontinuity between Joseph Frederick learned “the rituals and powers of peyote”
Smith and his successors noted by Hard Bloom is readily while pursuing his PhD in psychology. When Frederick
accounted for and easily explainable. visited Texas on vacation, “he observed Native American
Indians who ate [peyote] : : : [and] Catholic converts, who
[drank it as a tea] for communion” (Tommasini, 1997,
ENTHEOGENIC SUCCESSORS p. 83). Frederick believed the use of peyote in a spiritual
setting was not a violation either of the spirit or the letter of
More than any other American religion, Mormonism has his grandfather, Joseph Smith’s 1833 dietary revelation
spawned several forays into entheogenic sacraments. We known as the “word of wisdom” (Smith, 1833, pp. 207–208).
start with Joseph Smith’s grandson, Frederick G. Smith. “Frederick did not believe that peyote was technically, a
drug. To him it was a natural substance, an ancient means to
Frederick M. Smith tap one’s inner power derived from hallucinogenic cactus [as
Frederick put it, is] ‘neither injurious nor habit-forming’”
The evidence reviewed above that Joseph Smith kept a Native (Tommasini, 1997, p. 83).
American peyote stone as a sacred possession, attempted to Frederick introduced peyote to Virgil Tomson (1896–
locate a colony in peyote country, and intended to offer his 1989), an American composer who played a significant
followers peyote in the temple to facilitate their experience of role in creating an “American Sound” in classical music.
God puts us in a better position to now to address a question Smith gave Virgil “five bumpy little buttons less than an
we raised early in the paper. Like his grandfather Joseph inch across and hard as wood and suggested that he chew
Smith, Frederick M. Smith (1875–1946) manifested a preco- them up before he went to bed” (Ibid). Virgil described his
cious openness to entheogens, particularly peyote. As shown experience: “The effect, full visions complete in color and

Beckstead et al.
texture as a stage set, began slowly to appear before my age-old vision, the Community of Christ is perhaps uniquely
closed or open eyes. Then came more rapidly : : : Each positioned among restorationist and liberal Christian
one, moreover, had a meaning [and] could have been denominations to leverage entheogens to become “a pro-
published with a title; and their symbolisms or subjects : : : phetic people” as Joseph Smith envisioned.
constituted a view of life not only picturesque and vast, but
just as clearly all mine and all true” (Tommasini, 1997, Oto Church of the First-Born and the Native American
p. 84). Church (NAC)
Virgil introduced S. Foster Damon, an academic and poet
specializing in the mystic William Black, and “who reported The Mormon-Indian-peyote syncretisms began in 1914 with
on the similarity of Blake’s art to Peyote visions” (Piper, the incorporation the Oto Church of the First-Born, the
2016). Frederick, Virgil, Damon, and others belonged to a predecessor to the Native American Church (Rigal-Cellard,
“Harvard psychedelic circle” who were engaged in the 1995). According to Weston La Barre (1938), early Plains
exploration of peyote spirituality (Piper, 2016). Damon was Indian peyote “rites diffuse[ed] from the Kiowa-Comanche
profoundly affected by his peyote experiences and subse- ... [to] the Oto Church of the First-born : : : and its
quently penned articles titled, The Evidence for Literal successor, the Native American Church.” In their Churches,
Transmutation and Symbols of Alchemy (Ibid). In Symbols the Oto met to see the “faces of their dead relatives” and the
of Alchemy, Damon (1922) argues that “To the alchemists, Osage met “to see the face of Jesus” (Ibid).
‘Gold,’ the most perfect in the metalline world, stood for The Oto Church of the First-born was found by Jonathan
Man, the perfect product of creation” and to “‘to make Koshiway (La Barre, 1938), the first Native American
gold,’ actually meant to make (or materialize) a human syncretism to seek legal incorporation. Koshiway was a
being” (p. 79). Damon also discussed “The Elixir of Life” missionary for the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of
stating it was called such “because of the way it [by a Latter Day Saint, now the Community of Christ and later
chemical process] manifested itself : : : since by its means, “met with Kiowa and Arapaho to found the Native Ameri-
the afterworld could be reached.” Further, “each alchemist can Church” (Rigal-Cellard, 2004).
used a new term [for the Elixir] every time he could think of The Oto Church of the Firstborn likely represents Koshi-
one” (p. 81). Damon argued that Alchemists kept their secret way familiarity with the Mormon concept of the “Church of
by means of symbols and “frankly confessed that they the Firstborn,” and its visionary nature as described in
deliberately confused their symbols” because it “was a Mormon scripture. Joseph Smith (1844) explained that
matter of life and death for these men to keep their secret: Mormon’s who were faithful and obtained the ordinances,
one hint, and they with all their colleagues would have been
massacred” (Ibid, 79, emphasis added). We have argued have the privilege of receiving the mysteries of the
that Joseph Smith’s intentionally obscured entheogen for the kingdom of heaven, to have the heavens opened unto
same reason. them, to commune with the general assembly and Church
Frederick Smith represents a rare confluence of many of the Firstborn, and to enjoy the communion
factors discussed in this paper. He was the patrilineal and presence of God the Father, and Jesus the mediator
grandson of Joseph Smith, the prophet of the Reorganized of the new covenant” (pp. 101–102; also see Collier,
Mormon church (1915–1946), a classically trained psy- 1977).
chologist, and his doctoral thesis extensively discussed and
advocated for using the entheogen peyote in religious Probably, Koshiway viewed peyote as the key to commune
settings. And if Frederick Smith’s engagement with psy- with the heavenly Church described by Joseph Smith.
chedelics and the “Harvard psychedelic circle” (Piper,
2016) reverberated in family traditions of his grandfather The Peyote Way Church of God
Joseph Smith’s engagement with psychedelics, then
Joseph Smith may himself have exerted an indirect but The next Mormon-Native American-peyote syncretism, The
positive influence on the unfolding of psychedelic culture Peyote Way Church of God (PWCG), was founded by
in the United States. One might think such was the case Reverend Immanuel Pardeahtan Trujillo in 1979 and is
since the next “Harvard psychedelic circle” included Tim- based in Willcox, Arizona (Rigal-Cellard, 2004). In 1948,
othy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil before founding the PWCG, Rev. Trujillo (50% San Carlos
who played a significant role ushering in a “New Age” for Apache) joined the NAC. However, Trujillo became dissat-
America (Lattin, 2011). isfied with the NAC because it limits membership and
Contemporary scripture in the Community of Christ peyote sacrament to “genuine Natives” who can prove at
establishes Joseph Smith’s original, historic goal of univer- least 25% American Indian ancestry, and their spouses
sal prophethood as one of the faith’s immediate priorities. regardless of race. Trujillo’s objection arose when, “William
Revelations issued by Community of Christ prophet Russell, Apache Roadman for the NAC. Rev. Russell and
presidents Grant McMurray and Stephen Veazey and ac- Rev. Eugene Yoakum. .. [taught] Trujillo about the Spirit
cepted by the Church into its Doctrine and Covenants Walk and instilled in him the non-racist nature of the Holy
(Community of Christ, 2007) who proclaim that participants Sacrament Peyote” (Peyote Way Church of God, n.d.).
in the Community of Christ are called “to be a prophetic Preferring not to limit peyote sacraments to Native
people” and to “live prophetically” (Section 162:2c, 8c; Americans, Trujillo left the NAC in 1966. The PWCG
164:1). With its heritage of two early prophets who used and “strictly adheres to the creeds of the L.D.S. Church”
promoted entheogens as a potent means for living out this (Rigal-Cellard, 2004). According to Rigal-Cellard, “Anne

Zapf, the President of the Church from 1985 to 1993, decision to the Utah Supreme Court who: “Reverse[d] the
became a Mormon while in college and helped Trujillo trial court’s decision : : : the federal regulation does not
settle the Church and : : : a fairly high number of Natives of restrict the exemption to members of federally recognized
the region belong to the L.D.S. Church” (Ibid). Shields tribes. We therefore rule that the exemption is available to
(1982, p. 221) goes further stating the PWCG descends from all members of the Native American Church” (State of Utah,
Joseph Smith’s Mormonism. The PWCG believes that 2004).
Joseph Smith’s “Word of Wisdom” (D&C 89) provides for Following this decision, the Utah District Attorney
their peyote sacrament (Murphy, 1994a, 1994b). Further- attempted to convince the federal government to prosecute
more, the bylaws of the PWCG published in 1981 permit it James and Linda on similar charges related to peyote
to: “To grow, obtain, steward, protect and defend the Holy sacrament. The question in the government’s case against
Psychedelic Sacrament of Peyote and its religious use; and James Mooney was his claimed Native American descent.
to regulate the distribution of this Holy Psychedelic Sacra- Unexpectedly, government-certified genetic testing revealed
ment to other members of this and other churches that use a Mooney’s ethnicity: 58% European, 35% Native American,
psychedelic as their Holy Sacrament.” and 9% Sub-Saharan African. (Certificate of Ancestry,
In its mission to offer peyote sacraments to non-Native 2005). After 6 months of investigation by United States
Americans, the PWCG ran into legal difficulties. In 1991, Federal Attorneys and Federal Investigators, the case against
one leader, Brother Bill Stites, was arrested by federal James Mooney resolved when the Mooneys entered into a
officers for felony possession of peyote found in his car plea agreement. In conversation with one of the authors,
(Rigal-Cellard, 2004). The legal challenges to the NAC Mooney believes that ONAC worldwide membership top
offering peyote sacraments to non-Native Americans faced well over 10,000.
by the PWCG would bleed into the legal woes of the
next Mormon-Native American-peyote syncretism, the
Oklevueha NAC (ONAC). CONCLUSIONS
James Warren “Flaming Eagle” Mooney In this paper, we have reviewed the historical and psycho-
pharmacological data that Joseph Smith employed entheo-
James Warren Mooney, a former Mormon, is the founder of gens in religious ordinances, facilitating many early Mormon
the controversial ONAC that openly provides peyote cere- visions and ecstasies. Gaining proficiency over time, Smith
monies for people without Native American descent. dealt with troublesome entheogen-related symptomology and
Mooney reports being told in 1988 by Oklevueha Chief “difficult trips” by encoding them, along with entheogenic
and Medicine Woman Little Dove he was a descendant of visions and ecstasies, in his published teachings and
both Osceola, the Seminole Indian chief, and the famed revelations. The reproduction of biblical prophetic and apos-
ethnologist James Mooney (1861–1921); these genealogical tolic experience and the antidepressant effects of entheogens
attributions would become a center of controversy. in early Mormonism contributes to an understanding of
James Warren Mooney, then a Mormon and successful Joseph Smith’s charisma and the spectacular rise of his
businessman, was given to understand that he was called to Church – it continues to do so if only in story. If organized
carry Native American plant medicine to non-Indians, the religion is to relevant in our post-modern, Internet-informed,
particulars of which he was instructed to decide for himself and ecopsychologically sensitive world, it must come to grips
(L. B. Buford, personal communication, May 6, 2019). In with what cognitive and neuroscience have to say about
1994, after a lengthy period of training with various Native religious experience as natural phenomena and entheogens as
American medicine people including Guadalupe Rio de la near-universal facilitators of that experience.
Cruz, a Huichol Medicine woman, Mooney, conducted
NAC peyote sacrament ceremonies without regard to race.
In 1997, Mooney founded the ONAC and in 2000 was Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank Cindy
excommunicated from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- Winkelman for her work in completing and formatting
day Saints. references, and Michael Winkelman for his tireless assis-
In 2001, Mooney’s home and new Church was raided by tance and mentoring. They would also like to thank historian
local law enforcement officials. In these places of worship, Don Bradley who provided extensive research on Joseph
according to Mooney, they seized peyote amounting to over Smith’s first vision, possible origins of the peyote stone,
thirty pounds, representing about 10,000 dried peyote but- activities as an herbalist, and entheogenic Freemasonry; and
tons. Mooney and his wife, arraigned on charges of “a dozen his son Don Bradley Jr. who offered insight into Joseph
counts of drug trafficking and one count of racketeering,” Smith Sr.’s possible identification of entheogens with the
faced life in prison (Gehrke, 2001). The State of Utah Bible’s “forbidden fruit” and “tree of life.” They would also
contended that Mooney was not covered by the Federal like to acknowledge the vast amount of historical data
Religious Peyote Exemption (21 C.F.R. § 1307.3) because covering the Joseph Smith period that has been published
he was not of Native American descent, nor a member of a as electronic transcriptions and photocopies of original
federally recognized tribe. The trial resulted in James’ and documents by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
his wife Linda’s conviction on multiple felony counts Saints and the historical documents published by the
related to what was alleged to be a criminal enterprise based Community of Christ. To their credit, these two Churches
on distributing peyote within the context of their religious have placed on the Internet, both appealing and troublesome
services. In 2003, the Mooney’s appealed the trial court’s aspects of their foundation, making the combined collection

Beckstead et al.
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Conflict of interest: The authors have no conflicting interest trieved from https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
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Bailey, R. T. (1952). Emma Hale: Wife of the Prophet Joseph Smith
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp.

The entheogenic origins of Mormonism: A working hypothesis*

(Received: March 19, 2019; accepted: June 8, 2019)

Keywords: Joseph Smith, Mormonism, entheogen, psychedelic, spirituality

INTRODUCTION early Mormon converts. In this entheogenic working hypoth-

© 2019 The Author(s)

Context of Mormon entheogens

Two salient characteristics of the early Mormon religion,

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Joseph Smith Sr.

The founding prophet of Mormonism, Joseph Smith Jr., was

Lucy’s ﬁrst vision

The golden Amanita muscaria could be the mushroom that

216 | Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp. 212–260 (2019)

Joseph Smith Sr.’s ﬁrst vision

Two dreams reported by Joseph Smith Sr. strongly suggest

You effectively keep your rational, sober mind along with

The frightening aspect of Smith’s dream suggests a waking

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be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting

The “living water,” according to Heinrich, is water-soluble

He that believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of

The phrase “out of [Jesus’] belly” may describe entheogenic-

In this statement, Smith seems to suggest that Jesus did not

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Mormon historian and former director of the Institute of

Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(2), pp. 212–260 (2019) | 221

Figure 13. Enlarged belt on the Salomon Trismosin Rebis (adapted

Figure 11. Joseph Smith’s alchemical amulet (courtesy of

Figure 14. Enlarged belt on the Joseph Smith amulet (adapted

of the names of God in conjurations. [And that]

In America, as in Europe, speculative masonry subsumed

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included D. stramonium, A. muscaria variation guessowii,

D. stramonium and H. niger

Two prominent members of the Solanaceae plant family

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Figure 17. Sweet Honeydew stage of ergot on wheat development

C. purpurea (ergot and mushroom)

The physicians Luman Walters, Frederic G. Williams, and

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Figure 19. Stromata germinating on a sclerotium of C. purpurea

(Ibid, p. 7), LSD, or psilocybin (Wasson, Kramrish, Ott, &

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Smith between April 18 and August 28 of 1843 (discussed

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Figure 25. Distribution of I. alvarius in brown (Terry, 2017), L.

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Some years ago a spirit had appeared to Joseph, his son,

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Table 1. Joseph Smith’s ﬁrst vision and related anticholinergic symptoms

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