NEWSLETTER

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN DESALINATION

P.K. Tewari and B.M. Misra
Desalination Division

Introduction

The cost of desalted water depends on three factors, namely, energy input, depreciation and interest, and
operation and maintenance cost. Each of the three components contributes roughly one third to the total water
cost. The cost of desalted water is coming down due to continued R&D and technological innovations in both
thermal and membrane desalination. In the field of thermal desalination, efforts are directed towards utilizing the
low grade heat and the waste heat as energy input for desalination, lesser chemical treatment and the advantage
of scale up to higher capacity as a cost reduction strategy. In membrane desalination, work is being carried out
on newer pretreatment methods like use of ultrafiltration, energy reduction using energy recovery devices and
higher membrane life from better quality membranes. Work is pursued on hybrid desalination for producing
different quality of product water for process industries and for potable use at lower cost. Table 1 gives the
specific capital cost and desalted water cost for seawater desalination for the year 1980-2000. A projection for the
year 2010 is also given. It is expected that the specific capital cost of seawater desalination plant will come down
in the range of US $ 500-700 / daily m3 and water cost in the range of US$ 0.5-0.7/m3 by the year 2010. The cost
for brackish water and effluent treatment by membrane processes are known to be even lower.
 Table 1 : Seawater desalination cost were part of a programme of setting up a number of
demonstration plants for the energy intensive
processes such as desalination of sea water,
Year Capital cost Water cost electrolytic production of hydrogen, and electro-
(US$/ daily m3 ) (US$/m3 ) thermal production of phosphorus. These activities
are presently termed by IAEA as “Non Electrical
1980 1500 1.25 Application of Nuclear Energy”. The activities on
desalination in the beginning were based on thermal
1990 1000-1200 1.0-1.2
processes. Later the programme of membrane
2000 800-1000 0.8-1.0 processes was also included in the 1980s when this
2010 500- 700 0.5-0.7 process showed commercial viability. Table 2 gives
the list of the pilot plants installed and operated/
operating. These plants provided useful design data
for larger capacity plants and for bringing in further
Milestones Covered So Far
technological innovations.
Desalination Division has been engaged in R & D on
desalination since 1970s. The desalination activities

Table 2: Pilot plants installed and operated so far

Date of Commissioning
I. Thermal

1. 15 m3/d MSF experimental facility 1975

2. 30 m3/d low temperature evaporation unit 1985
3. 425 m3/d MSF plant 1990
4. 1 m3/d thermo-compression desalination unit 1997

II. Membrane

1. 3 x 30 m3/d brackish water RO plants providing drinking 1984

water in villages of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan (1998 Jodhpur)
2. 50 m3/d RO industrial effluent treatment plant at RCF 1986

3. 15 m3/d RO-DM plant at VECC for production of low 1994

conductivity water
4. 2 x 10 m3/d RO units for treatment of radioactive liquid 1990
effluents
5. 24 m3/d NF plant for a pharmaceutical industry 1998
6. 40 m3/d SWRO plant at Trombay being upgraded to 100 m3/d 1999
capacity
Nuclear Desalination economic production of good quality water by
nuclear desalination of seawater comprising of 4500
Coupling of 6300 m3/d hybrid MSF-RO plant with m3/d Multistage Flash (MSF) and 1800 m3/d
PHWR (MAPS, Kalpakkam)
Reverse Osmosis (RO) plant (Fig.1). MSF plant
In order to gainfully employ the years of experience uses low pressure steam from Madras Atomic
and expertise in various aspects of desalination Power Station (MAPS), Kalpakkam.
activity on laboratory scale/pilot scale and to bring
The objectives of the NDDP (Kalpakkam) are as
down the cost of water by scaling up, Desalination
follows:
Division has undertaken installation of a hybrid
desalination plant as a demonstration project 1. to establish the indigenous capability for the
coupled to 170 MW(e) PHWR station at Kalpakkam design, manufacture, installation and operation of
under IXth plan, which would be good enough to nuclear desalination plants.
meet the dual needs of process water for nuclear 2. to demonstrate the safe and economic
power plant and drinking water for the neighbouring production of water.
people.
3. to generate necessary design inputs and
Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Project (NDDP) optimum process parameters for large size
at Kalpakkam aims for demonstrating the safe and nuclear desalination plant (10 MGD).

Fig.1 6,300 m3/d hybrid MSF- RO desalination plant coupled to 170 MWe PHWR
The hybrid plant is envisaged to have a number of travelling water screens. It is reported to have less
advantages: biofouling potential.

1. A part of high purity desalted water produced

from MSF plant will be used for the makeup
demineralised water requirement (after
necessary polishing) for the power station.
2. Blending of the product water from RO and MSF
plants would provide requisite quality drinking
water.
3. The RO plant will continue to be operated to
provide the water for drinking purposes during
the shutdown of the power station.
The 6300 m3/d combined MSF-RO nuclear
desalination project is located in between the
existing 170 MW(e) PHWR MAPS and proposed
500 MW(e) FBR at Kalpakkam. The MSF plant uses
the required quantity of low pressure (LP) steam for
seawater desalination. In order to avoid any chance
of ingress of radioactivity (tritium) to MSF process
and product water, it has been decided to
incorporate an isolation heat exchanger between
MAPS steam supply and the brine heater of MSF. Fig.2 NDDP site (Kalpakkam)
The LP steam is tapped from the manholes in the
cold reheat lines after HP turbine exhaust from both Considerable progress has been achieved in the
the nuclear reactors (MAPS I and II). The moisture implementation of the project. Fig.2 indicates the
content is removed through a moisture separator. progress of civil work at the site. Indents for all the
The steam is sent to intermediate isolation heat major equipment and materials for NDDP have been
exchanger to produce process steam for brine released and are in various stages of procurement
heater of the MSF plant. It is designed to keep the and fabrication at the site. Useful design data are
steam temperature in brine heater below 130oC to expected from the plant on the coupling of SMR
avoid scaling on the tube side. The condensate from based on PHWR with a hybrid desalination plant.
the isolation heat exchanger is returned back to the This will also help in scaling up and taking the
deaerator section of the power station. Adequate advantage of the economy of scale to larger size (10
provisions for monitoring and control have been MGD) commercial plants. India will share the O&M
incorporated for isolation of the steam supply in experience of NDDP to member states of IAEA
case of shutdown of the power station or when the plant is commissioned as per schedule.
desalination plant.
Low temperature evaporation plant utilizing
NDDP requires around 2000 m3/hr of seawater. waste heat from research reactor (CIRUS)
After detailed study, it has been decided to use
process cooling water from MAPS outfall as a As the energy cost contributes about one third of the
source of seawater supply for NDDP. Normally, the total water cost, efforts are directed towards the
cooling water discharge has no debris since the utilization of waste heat which is available free of
intake water passes through the trash rack and cost. Desalination Division has an active programme
to study the possibility of use of large amount of
waste heat of nuclear research reactor and PHWR
for seawater desalination using low temperature PHWR respectively. A significant part of this waste
evaporation technology. The know-how for the heat can be utilized for seawater desalination. The
desalination plant based on low temperature 30 m3/d LTE plant earlier established at Desalination
evaporation (LTE) utilizing low-grade waste heat (as Division is being shifted to the CIRUS research
low as 530C) for producing pure water from reactor for its coupling to the reactor (Fig. 3). The
seawater was developed. A 30 m3/d pilot plant was plant will be commissioned in the current year. It will
installed and operated for endurance test. This unit demonstrate the coupling of LTE desalination plant
is eco-friendly because it does not require to nuclear research reactor and the feasibility of
exhaustive chemical pretreatment using low quality nuclear waste heat for seawater
desalination. The plant eliminates the elaborate
Mainstay of Indian nuclear reactors is the PHWR chemical pretreatment of feed water for producing
type using natural uranium oxide as fuel and heavy demineralised water. The data from this plant will be
water as moderator and coolant. About 40 MW(th) useful for design of larger size LTE seawater
and 100 MW(th) of waste heat are available in the desalination plant for the production of
moderator system of 220 MW(e) and 500 MW(e) demineralised water and process water.

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of the LTE desalination plant coupled to nuclear reactor (CIRUS)
Such plants would be ideal for industries where used in the design and installation of 1 m3/d HTTF
waste heat is available in the form of fuel gas and desalination unit for MED (Fig. 4). Low temperature
process heat. It is an attractive alternative for vapour compression desalination plants of 50-200
producing pure water from high salinity or sea water m3/d capacities are suitable for providing drinking
for the rural areas where waste heat from DG sets/ water in the rural/ water scarcity areas and process
solar energy is available. Consultancy services were water/ boiler feed water for industries. MED with
provided to the Union Territory of Lakshadweep in mechanical vapour compression is ideal for areas
utilizing the waste heat of the DG sets for LTE where only electrical energy is available and
desalination. A 10 m3/d LTE desalination plant sufficient cooling water is not available. MED with
utilizing the waste heat of 400 KVA generator has thermocompression are suitable for the regions
been operating in Kavaratti for producing pure water where high pressure (5-10 bar) steam is available.
from seawater.
The total water requirement for the LTE desalination
plant is quite high. Work has been initiated to bring
down the total water requirement by 20-30 times by
coupling a cooling tower and recycling the
condenser water. It will be a totally indigenous,
reliable and rugged desalination system. Energy
requirement can be further brought down by
employing more number of effects. The design of
such plants of larger capacity for Advanced Heavy
Water Reactor (AHWR) program has also been
taken up. Studies are undertaken towards utilizing
low quality waste heat from the steam and feed
water system of AHWR for producing demineralised Fig.4 HTTF desalination unit for MED
(DM) water from high salinity water or sea water.
It produces low conductivity water directly from the
high salinity water. It is planned to carryout high
Innovative Developments Undertaken temperature MED studies using nanofiltration (NF)
Improved heat transfer for MED in the upstream for the makeup feed pretreatment.
Laboratory data on NF indicate substantial reduction
Basic studies carried out earlier on a horizontal tube
of the scale causing constituents in seawater when it
thin film (HTTF) boiling indicate that the bubble
is passed through it. The use of NF permeate as
nucleation in the thin film on the tube takes place
makeup feed to MED will provide high Gain Output
with rapid bubble growth. The application of forced
Ratio (GOR) by operating it at higher top brine
convection due to liquid spray on the tube increases
temperature. NF helps in removing the total
the convective contribution and results in early
hardness thus reducing the energy and chemical
removal of bubble adhering to the surface which
consumption.
increases bubble frequency. The overall heat
transfer coefficient in the range of 3-4 kW/m2K was
Improvements in reverse osmosis for
obtained which is about three times the heat transfer
desalination
coefficient as compared to submerged tube
evaporator. High heat transfer coefficient implies low The RO desalting industry is looking for continued
heat transfer area requirement and in turn low reduction of the cost of desalted water. This calls for
capital cost. The data collected on the fluid flow and the development of better quality membranes
heat transfer aspect of the boiling in a thin film were offering higher output while maintaining the optimum
salt rejection, reduced chemical pretreatment, longer salinity brackish water sources. Another RO plant is
membrane life and low energy requirement. to be set up at village Chadi (Barmer) for removal of
excess fluoride and nitrate apart from brackishness.
Effluent treatment and zero discharge
Due to an increasing demand for good quality water,
attempts have been directed to treat the waste
water for reuse and recycle. The approach is further
reinforced by the need to preserve the environment
and to follow a zero discharge concept wherever
possible. R&D work in the field of thermal and
membrane processes has been pursued for the
treatment of waste water and removing pollutants
from the effluent stream for safe discharge into
Fig.5 SWRO pilot plant at Trombay environment and recovery of significant fraction of
the water for reuse. Selection of a process for
R&D work on indigenous development of advanced treatment of a particular waste water is based on
polyamide based thin film composite (TFC) product requirements, influent water characteristics
membranes has been undertaken at the Division to and cost. Industrial waste water often is the
meet these objectives. After successful development combined product of a number of different
of brackish water RO desalination plants to manufacturing processes in the complex. The
demonstrate the utility of RO desalination systems in membrane processes that are useful for waste water
meeting the drinking water needs of brackishness treatment include: microfiltration, ultrafiltration,
affected villages, a 40 m3/d seawater RO plant has nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. The suspended
been setup in Trombay for producing drinking quality solids in waste water are successfully removed by
water (Fig. 5). The plant is being upgraded to 100 microfiltration. Ultrafiltration is useful in separating
m3/d capacity. The conventional pretreatment macromolecules and the submicron particles
system has been setup, which includes chlorination, including oil emulsion and very large molecules such
clarification, media filtration, chemical dosing and as polymeric compound having a polymeric weight
cartridge filtration. It is planned to introduce of 1000 and above. Nanofiltration is capable of
membrane based pretreatment system using separating molecules in the range of 300-1000
ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF). The molecular weight. It also helps in selective
adoption of UF and NF is envisaged to reduce the separation of low molecular weight organics from
elaborate feed treatment for removal of scaling salt solution. Reverse osmosis has very small pore
constituents, suspended impurities, organics and size (5-10 Ao ) suitable for removing ions and
microbial load. UF installed upstream of RO is very molecules. Laboratory scale studies are continuing
effective as a pretreatment setup. Preliminary on development of such membranes and their
investigations have been carried out by using NF as performance evaluation. As no two waste waters
a means to improve the performance of desalination are exactly alike, it is necessary to carryout
plant. NF reduces the hardness ions of calcium, laboratory evaluations to determine the flux rate
magnesium and sulfate to a great extent. It also under different temperatures and pressures for
partially reduces the TDS of seawater. This results individual waste water samples. LTE and VC
in reduced seawater treatment and higher recovery. desalination is ideal for treating high salinity effluent
and producing pure water for reuse.
A brackish water RO plant is setup in Rajasthan in
cooperation with Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur, for
providing drinking water to the villagers from high
Barge mounted desalination unit Assessment of Hybrid Nuclear Desalination Project’
Barge mounted desalination plant offers a suitable for the economic research and assessment. The
choice for remote locations and small islands or study would involve evaluation of the economic
coastal communities where the necessary aspects of hybrid nuclear desalination project. The
manpower and infrastructure to support desalination competitiveness of the hybrid nuclear desalination
plants are not available. It can be installed anywhere under specific conditions would be studied.
anytime depending on the need in coastal regions. It Emphasis will be laid on aspects of cost reduction
can supply potable water to remote coastal regions strategies through technological innovations in both
or islands where both good quality water and the thermal and membrane processes. Economic
energy sources are severely lacking. It does not assessment will be useful in establishing the hybrid
require intake or outfall infrastructure. It is planned nuclear desalination plants for the ultimate benefit of
to setup a barge mounted 50 m3/d seawater RO the society.
plant. The preliminary details have been worked out.
The design considerations of a barge mounted plant Conclusions
are different from those of land based plant. The
limitations due to marine environment including The development work has generated capability in
conditions of sea and wind, space availability, the country to design, fabricate, commission and
weight limitations and technical considerations operate small and large size desalination plants.
including pump cavitation and vibration are Efforts are now directed towards reducing the cost
considered in the design stage. of desalted water through technological innovations.
In the case of thermal processes, this calls for
Participation in the IAEA activities on nuclear capital cost reduction through heat transfer
desalination enhancement and use of cheaper materials, low
Guidebook on ‘Introduction of Nuclear Desalination': grade or waste heat utilization and least chemical
Contributions were made in the preparation of a pretreatment. Today, production of boiler quality
guidebook on ‘Introduction to Nuclear Desalination’ water and high quality process water from sea water
and a number of TECDOCs related to nonelectrical desalination is cheaper than that produced from
applications. conventional DM plant using raw water where the
raw water contains 500 ppm or more salinity. In the
Optimization of the coupling of nuclear reactors and
case of membrane processes, attempts are
desalination systems : Desalination Division has
continued towards the development of better
undertaken a Coordinated Research Project (CRP)
membranes, least pretreatment, longer membrane
entitled ‘Performance Improvement of Hybrid
life and reduced energy consumption. Effluent
Desalination Systems for Coupling to Nuclear
treatment and water reuse through desalination
Reactors’ (IAEA Research Contract No. 10245/RO)
route, as a step towards zero discharge, appears
for optimization of the coupling of nuclear reactors
promising. The development of barge mounted
and desalination systems. The objective of the
desalination units will go a long way as a means of
applied research project is to study the behaviour of
pure water supply to remote coastal areas anywhere
MSF, RO and LTE plants under different operating
and at anytime. The technological innovations in
conditions utilising data for improving the
desalination would lead to its large scale application
performance of hybrid MSF-RO plant coupled to
and provide opportunities for the socioeconomic
PHWR, and LTE plant coupled to nuclear research
development of water scarcity areas and large
reactor.
coastal arid zones of the country.
Economic research on, and assessment of, selected
nuclear desalination projects and case studies : It is
proposed to take up another CRP entitled ’Economic