Branches of Linguistics

(Department of English, University of Narowal)

Sociolinguistics
 BS English (Session 2017-21)
Course: Branches of Linguistics

Semester: Second Credit hours: 03

Instructor: Muhammad Ishaq Malik

Lecture #:

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is concerned with how language use interacts with, or is affected by, social
factors such as gender, ethnicity, age or social class, for instance. As Coulmas defines, it is the
study of choice and “the principal task of Sociolinguistics is to uncover, describe and interpret
the socially motivated” choices an individual makes. Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly
important and popular field of study, as certain cultures around the world expand their
communication base and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance.

The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language use symbolically
represents fundamental dimensions of social behaviour and human interaction. The notion is
simple, but the ways in which language reflects behaviour can often be complex and subtle.
Furthermore, the relationship between language and society affects a wide range of encounters--
from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.

Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language

Sociolinguistics- also called Micro- Sociolinguistics- is, as Hudson (1996, p.4) states, « the study
of language in relation to society ». Therefore, the focus here is emphasized on the structure of
language and the way society with its different aspects from social classes and culture, to gender
and ethnicity, influences the kind of linguistic structures we use and the way we talk. This leads
us to conclude that Sociolinguistics studies, for example, how social situations require a change
in the way we talk as there is a difference between ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ speeches,
‘discussions’ and ‘arguments’, and ‘requests’ and ‘demands’.
The Sociology of language- also called Macro- Sociolinguistics- is, as Hudson (1996, p.4)
affirms, « the study of society in relation to language ». Accordingly, we study the language of a
particular community with the aim of discovering and understanding the use of the social
structures and the way the people of this community use them to communicate properly. This
leads us to the idea that the Sociology of language studies, for example, the way linguistic
structures are formed when different members of a tribe, including the Chieftain, address each
other to identify the different social classes of that tribe.
Language and Variety
Language is a universal notion and social phenomenon. As we know language is a social
phenomenon and anything which is related to society or social institution, can’t be defined
precisely as it gets enough chances of it’s variability by any change in society. But in
sociolinguistics, in contrast to one variety of language, language may be described as ‘a
complete set of linguistic items comprising the all language elements (e.g. vocabulary, grammar,
styles etc.) of its own regional and social variants.’ And a variety of language or variety can be
used as different manifestations of it (language). Hudson (1996, p. 22) defines a variety of
language as ‘a set of linguistic items with similar distribution.’ Although a concept like ‘variety’
is difficult to define but it may still be useful in sociolinguistic work. So, Hudson and Ferguson
agree in defining variety in terms of a specific set of ‘linguistic items’ or ‘human speech
patterns’ (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features, etc.) which we can uniquely
associate with some external factor (presumably, a geographical area or a social group).
In sociolinguistics a variety —also called lect— is a specific form of a language or language
cluster. This may include languages, dialects, registers, styles or other forms of language, as well
as a standard variety. The use of the word "variety" to refer to the different forms avoids the use
of the term language, which many people associate only with the standard language, and the term
dialect, which is often associated with non-standard varieties thought of as less prestigious or
"correct" than the standard. Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard varieties. "Lect"
avoids the problem in ambiguous cases of deciding whether two varieties are distinct languages
or dialects of a single language.
Dialect (Regional Dialect & Social Dialect or Sociolect)
The word dialect—which contains "lect" within the term—derived from the Greek words dia-
meaning “across, between" and legein- meaning "speak." A dialect is a regional or social variety
of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary. The term dialect is
often used to characterize a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the
language. Regional Dialect is variety of language which varies from other verities of the same
language on the basis of geographical variation or difference. Regional variation in the way a
language is spoken is likely to provide one of the easiest ways of observing variety in language.
As you travel throughout a wide geographical area in which a language is spoken, and
particularly if that language has been spoken in that area for many hundreds of years, you are
almost certain to notice differences in pronunciation, in the choices and forms of words, and in
syntax. There may even be very distinctive local colorings in the language which you notice as
you move from one location to another. Such distinctive varieties are usually called regional
dialects of the language. A regional dialect is generally marked by the linguistics factors like
vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.
The term dialect can also be used to describe differences in speech associated with various social
groups or classes. A dialect which is marked on the basis of social differences (i.e. social group,
social class based on occupation, place of residence, education etc.) is called Social Dialect or
Sociolect. A sociolect or social dialect is a variety of language (or register) used by a
socioeconomic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group. A social dialect is
generally marked by the factors like social class, religion and specific social group etc.
Types of Lect
In addition to the distinctions discussed previously, there are also different types of lects, which
echo the types of language varieties.
1- Ethnolect
An ethnolect is a lect spoken by a specific ethnic group. For example, Ebonics, the vernacular
spoken by some African-Americans, is a type of ethnolect. This is a combination of the terms
ethnic groups and dialects, and it is directly associated with a subcultural group. It is feasible to
define it as a social marker. A clear example of this matter is the one that occurs in Paraguay
with the Guaranay language, then those individuals can speak either Spanish or Guarany,
depending on the context and the importance of the messages.
2- Idiolect
An idiolect is the language or languages spoken by each individual. For example, if you are
multilingual and can speak in different registers and styles, your idiolect is comprised of several
languages, each with multiple registers and styles.

 Types of Linguistic Items

There are some varieties of language, which are differentiated on the basis of just change in their
specialized linguistic item (lexemes/ vocabulary words).
Register
Register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. It is
almost about the choice words, tone of voice, even about body language. We probably behave
very differently chatting with a friend than at a formal dinner party or during a job interview.
These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers in linguistics.
They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience.
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms
and the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace.
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed.
Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate.
We don’t even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation
during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.
Jargon
Jargon refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group. Jargon is
language that is specific to a field or trade, and people outside a particular field are often
unfamiliar with the jargon of that field. Jargon consists of technical terms and common turns of
phrase that are used regularly to streamline communication with others in the field.
Such language is often meaningless to outsiders. American poet David Lehman has described
jargon as "the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an
air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial,
stale, frivolous, or false."
Slang
Slang is a particular way of speaking, a variant of language usage, a situation- dependent
communication code which is defined first of all by the attitude of the speaker – or rather, the use
of which is the expression of an attitude. In this definition the term “speech” figures prominently
since the use of slang is mainly characteristic of verbal communication and is inextricably
connected to the given speech situation.

 Standard Language
It is probably fair to say the only kind of variety which would count as a proper language is a
standard language. As society is the basic unit to count any variety as a proper language or
proper variety on the basis of its prestige. A sociolinguist defines it as ‘the most prestigious
language of a society is called standard language.’
The notion of ‘standard language’ is somewhat imprecise but a typical standard language will
have to pass through the following processes (Haugen 1966; Garvin and Mathiot 1956, Garvin
1959).
Selection: Somehow or other a particular variety must have been selected as the one to be
developed into a standard language. It may be an existing variety, such as the one used in an
important political or commercial center, but it could be an amalgam of various varieties. The
choice is matter of great social and political importance, as the chosen variety necessarily gains
prestige and the people who already speak it share this prestige. However, in some cases the
chosen variety has been one with no native speaker.
Codification: Some agency such as an academy must have written dictionaries and grammar
books to ‘fix’ the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct. Once codification has taken
place, it becomes necessary for any ambitious citizen to learn the correct form and not to use in
writing any ‘incorrect’ form that may exist in their native variety.
Elaboration of Functions: It must be possible to use the selected variety in all the functions
associated with central government and with writings: for example in parliament and law courts,
in bureaucratic, educational and scientific documents of all kinds, and of course, in various forms
of literature. This may require extra linguistics items to be added to the variety, especially
technical words, but it is also necessary to develop new conventions for using existing form.
Acceptance: The variety has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of
community- usually, in fact, as a national language. Once this has happened, the standard
language serves as a strong unifying force for the state, as a symbol of its independence of other
states (assuming that its standard is unique and not shared with others), and as a marker of its
difference from other states. It is precisely this symbolic function that makes states go to some
lengths to develop one.
This analysis of the factors typically involved in standardization has been quite widely accepted
by the sociolinguists (for more details and examples, see Fasold 1984, Milroy and Milroy 1985,
Haugen 1994). However, there is ample scope for debate and disagreement about the desirability
of certain aspects of standardization.

 Mixture of Varieties
In sociolinguistics a language may be referred to as a code. A code is a neutral term which can be
used to denote a language or a variety of language. Speakers of multilingual communities
generally mix different codes or varieties to satisfy their social needs. And they mix the codes in
different ways.
Code- Switching
Code-switching is a linguistic phenomenon which occurs in multilingual speech communities.
The term describes the process in which a communicatively competent multilingual speaker
alternates or switches usually between two languages or language varieties or codes during the
same conversation. For example, the speaker switches between two codes (Urdu and English)
within a single sentence.
The change of codes is done because of different reasons. The social context of interaction, can
affect a speaker’s code selection. Code-switching which is done because of change in a particular
factor, e.g. location (physical setting), participants or topic is called situational code-switching.
Sometimes skilled bilinguals/multi-linguals perform code switching for rhetorical reasons, which
is termed as metaphorical code-switching.
Code-mixing
Code-mixing is the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech.
Some scholars use the terms "code-mixing" and "code-switching" interchangeably, especially in
studies of syntax, morphology, and other formal aspects of language. Others assume more
specific definitions of code-mixing, but these specific definitions may be different in different
subfields of linguistics, education theory, communications etc.
Numan and Carter define code mixing as, a “phenomenon of switching from one language to
another in the same discourse.”
Very often the expression code mixing is used synonymously with code switching and means
basically intra-sentential code switching. However, recent research has given new meaning to
this term. Maschler (1998) defines code mixing or a mixed code as “using two languages such
that a third, new code emerges, in which elements from the two languages are incorporated into a
structurally definable pattern” (p.125). Code-mixing is one of the major kinds of language choice
which is subtler than ‘code- switching’, as stated by Fasold (1984). In code- mixed sentences,
pieces of the one language are used while a speaker is basically using another language.
Borrowing
“Borrowing is a phenomenon in which a word is adopted from another language completely or
partially naturalized.” “Borrowing is process that takes over words from most of the other
languages with it has had contact.” The language from which a word has been borrowed will be
called the donor language, and the language into which it has been borrowed is the recipient
language.
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing
is done in any language because of some linguistics or sociopolitical reasons.
One language may possess words for which there are no equivalents in the other language. There
may be words for objects, social, political, and cultural institutions and events or abstract
concepts which are not found in the culture of the other language. We can take some examples
from the English language throughout the ages. English has borrowed words for types of houses
(e.g. castle, mansion, teepee, wigwam, igloo, bungalow). It has borrowed words for cultural
institutions (e.g. opera, ballet). It has borrowed words for political concepts (e.g. perestroika,
glasnost, apartheid). It often happens that one culture borrows from the language of another
culture words or phrases to express technological, social or cultural innovations.

 Types of Language by Mixture of Varieties

Pidgin
A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but is a contact
language. And the process by which a pidgin is developed is called pidginization. That is, it is
the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or
improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so. Very often too, that situation
is one in which there is an imbalance of power among the languages as the speakers of one
language dominate the speakers of the other languages economically and socially. A highly
codified language often accompanies that dominant position. A pidgin is therefore sometimes
regarded as a ‘reduced’ variety of a ‘normal’ language, i.e., one of the aforementioned dominant
languages, with simplification of the grammar and vocabulary of that language, considerable
phonological variation, and an admixture of local vocabulary to meet the special needs of the
contact group.
The process of pidginization probably requires a situation that involves at least three languages
(Whinnom, 1971), one of which is clearly dominant over the others. If only two languages are
involved, there is likely to be a direct struggle for dominance.
Creole
In contrast to a pidgin, a creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of
a new generation of speakers. As Aitchison (1994, p. 3177) says, ‘creoles arise when pidgins
become mother tongues.’ A creole, therefore, is a ‘normal’ language in almost every sense.
Holmes (1992, p. 95) says that ‘A creole is a pidgin which has expanded in structure and
vocabulary to express the range of meanings and serve the range of functions required of a first
language.’ In practice it is not always easy to say whether we have a pidgin rather than a creole.
The process by which a pidgin is transformed or developed into creole, is called Creolization.
Creolization is the process in which Creole cultures emerge in the New World.
Creole, unlike ordinary language, arise through a process called (naturally enough) creolization,
and most of the time they are likely to gradually lose their identity by decreolization (Aitchison
1994: 3184-6). It is only in between these two stages that they are ordinary languages.
Decreolization is a process, when a creole is spoken in a country where other people speak
creole’s lexical source language. Since the latter (Creole’s lexical source language) has so much
more prestige than the creole, creole speakers tend to shift toward it, producing a range of
intermediate varieties. Sociolinguists call the creole the Basilect and the prestige language the
Acrolect, with the intermediate varieties lumped together as Mesolects. The range of varieties
spanning the gap between basilect and acrolect is called ‘Post-creole Continuum’.