Chapter Three

Preferences
Rationality in Economics
 Preference Relations
Comparing two different consumption
bundles, x and y:
– strict preference: x is more preferred
than is y.
– weak preference: x is as at least as
preferred as is y.
– indifference: x is exactly as preferred
as is y.
 Preference Relations
Strict preference, weak preference
and indifference are all preference
relations.
Particularly, they are ordinal
relations; i.e. they state only the
order in which bundles are
preferred.
 Preference Relations
p
denotes strict preference;
p
x y means that bundle x is preferred
strictly to bundle y.
• the consumer definitely wants bundle
x rather than bundle y.
• If the consumer chooses bundle x
when bundle y is available, the
consumer prefers bundle x to bundle y
 Preference Relations
▪ ~ denotes indifference; x ~ y means x
and y are equally preferred.
• The consumer is just as satisfied
consuming bundle x as she with consuming
bundle y
 Preference Relations
▪ f denotes weak preference;
~
x f y means x is preferred at least as
~ as is y.
much
• The consumer prefers or is indifferent
between the two bundles.
 Preference Relations
These relations of strict preference,
weak preference, and indifference
are not independent concepts. They
are related.
 Preference Relations
x f y and y f x imply x ~ y.
~ ~
• If x is at least as good as y, and y is
at least as good as x, we conclude
that the consumer is indifferent
between the two.

x y and (not y x) imply x y.

 Preference Relations

x f y and (not x ~ y) imply x f y.

~
• If the consumer thinks that x is at
least as good as y, and she is not
indifferent between the two, then it
must be that x is strictly preferred to
y.
 Assumptions about Preference
Relations
Completeness: For any two bundles
x and y it is always possible to make
the statement that either
x f y
or
~
y f x.
~
or both , in which case the consumer
is indifferent between the two.
• The consumer is able to make choice
between any two given bundes.
 Assumptions about Preference
Relations
Reflexivity: Any bundle x is always
at least as preferred as itself; i.e.

x f x.
~
• Usually true for rational adults. How
about children?
Assumptions about Preference
Relations
Transitivity: If
x is at least as preferred as y, and
y is at least as preferred as z, then
x is at least as preferred as z; i.e.

x f y and y f z x f z.
~ ~ ~
 Indifference Curves
Take a reference bundle x’. The set
of all bundles equally preferred to x’
is the indifference curve containing
x’; the set of all bundles y ~ x’.
Since an indifference “curve” is not
always a curve a better name might
be an indifference “set”.
 Indifference Curves
x2 x’ ~ x” ~ x”’
x’

x”

x”’

x1
 Indifference Curves
x2 z
p x
p y
x

x1
 Indifference Curves
I1 All bundles in I1 are
x2
x strictly preferred to
all in I2.
z
I2

All bundles in I2 are

y strictly preferred to
I3
all in I3.
x1
 Indifference Curves
x2
WP(x), the set of
x bundles weakly
preferred to x.

I(x) I(x’)

x1
 Indifference Curves
x2
WP(x), the set of
x bundles weakly
preferred to x.
WP(x)
includes
I(x) I(x).

x1
 Indifference Curves
x2
SP(x), the set of
x bundles strictly
preferred to x,
does not
include
I(x) I(x).

x1
 Indifference Curves Cannot
Intersect
x2 I2 From I1, x ~ y. From I2, x ~ z.
I1 Therefore y ~ z.

x
y
z

x1
 Indifference Curves Cannot
Intersect
x2 I2 From I1, x ~ y. From I2, x ~ z.
I1 Therefore y ~ z. But from I1
p
and I2 we see y z, a
contradiction.
x
y
z

x1
Slopes of Indifference Curves
When more of a commodity is always
preferred, the commodity is a good.
If every commodity is a good then
indifference curves are negatively
sloped.
 Slopes of Indifference Curves
Good 2
Two goods
a negatively sloped
indifference curve.

Good 1
Slopes of Indifference Curves
If less of a commodity is always
preferred then the commodity is a
bad.
 Slopes of Indifference Curves
Good 2
One good and one
bad a
positively sloped
indifference curve.

Bad 1
Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Substitutes
If a consumer always regards units
of commodities 1 and 2 as
equivalent, then the commodities are
perfect substitutes and only the total
amount of the two commodities in
bundles determines their preference
rank-order.
 Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Substitutes
x2
Slopes are constant at - 1.
15 I2
Bundles in I2 all have a total
8 of 15 units and are strictly
preferred to all bundles in
I1 I1, which have a total of
only 8 units in them.
8 15 x1
Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Complements
If a consumer always consumes
commodities 1 and 2 in fixed
proportion (e.g. one-to-one), then the
commodities are perfect
complements and only the number of
pairs of units of the two commodities
determines the preference rank-order
of bundles.
 Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Complements
x2
45o Each of (5,5), (5,9)
and (9,5) contains
5 pairs so each is
equally preferred.
9
5 I1

5 9 x1
 Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Complements
x2
45o Since each of (5,5),
(5,9) and (9,5)
contains 5 pairs,
each is less
9 I2 preferred than the
bundle (9,9) which
5 I1 contains 9 pairs.

5 9 x1
Indifference Curves for Discrete
Commodities
A commodity is infinitely divisible if it
can be acquired in any quantity; e.g.
water or cheese.
A commodity is discrete if it comes
in unit lumps of 1, 2, 3, … and so on;
e.g. aircraft, ships and refrigerators.
Indifference Curves for Discrete
Commodities
Suppose commodity 2 is an infinitely
divisible good (gasoline) while
commodity 1 is a discrete good
(aircraft). What do indifference
“curves” look like?
 Indifference Curves With a
Discrete Good
Gas-
oline Indifference “curves”
are collections of
discrete points.

0 1 2 3 4 Aircraft
 Well-Behaved Preferences
A preference relation is “well-
behaved” if it is
– monotonic and convex.
Monotonicity: More of any
commodity is always preferred (i.e.
no satiation and every commodity is
a good).
 Well-Behaved Preferences
Convexity: Mixtures of bundles are
(at least weakly) preferred to the
bundles themselves. E.g., the 50-50
mixture of the bundles x and y is
z = (0.5)x + (0.5)y.
z is at least as preferred as x or y.
 Well-Behaved Preferences --
Convexity.

x2 x

x2+y2 x+y is strictly preferred

z=
2 to both x and y.
2
y
y2
x1 x1+y y1
1
2
 Well-Behaved Preferences --
Convexity.

x2 x
z =(tx1+(1-t)y1, tx2+(1-t)y2)
is preferred to x and y
for all 0 < t < 1.
y
y2
x1 y1
 Well-Behaved Preferences --
Convexity.
Preferences are strictly convex
x when all mixtures z
x2
are strictly
z preferred to their
component
bundles x and y.
y
y2
x1 y1
Well-Behaved Preferences --
Weak Convexity.
x’ Preferences are
z’ weakly convex if at
least one mixture z
is equally preferred
x to a component
z
y bundle.
y’
 Non-Convex Preferences

x2
The mixture z
z is less preferred
than x or y.
y2
x1 y1
 More Non-Convex Preferences

x2
The mixture z
z is less preferred
than x or y.
y2
x1 y1
Slopes of Indifference Curves
The slope of an indifference curve is
its marginal rate-of-substitution
(MRS).
How can a MRS be calculated?
 Marginal Rate of Substitution
x2
MRS at x’ is the slope of the
indifference curve at x’

x’

x1
 Marginal Rate of Substitution
x2
MRS at x’ is
lim {Dx2/Dx1}
Dx1 0
D x2 x’ = dx2/dx1 at x’

D x1

x1
 Marginal Rate of Substitution
dx2 = MRS  dx1 so, at x’,
x2 MRS is the rate at which
the consumer is only just
willing to exchange
commodity 2 for a small
dx2 x’ amount of commodity 1.
dx1

x1
 MRS & Ind. Curve Properties
Good 2
Two goods
a negatively sloped
indifference curve
MRS < 0.

Good 1
 MRS & Ind. Curve Properties
Good 2
One good and one
bad a
positively sloped
indifference curve
MRS > 0.

Bad 1
 MRS & Ind. Curve Properties
Good 2
MRS = - 5
MRS always increases with x1
(becomes less negative) if and
only if preferences are strictly
convex.

MRS = - 0.5 Good 1

 MRS & Ind. Curve Properties
x2 MRS decreases
MRS = - 0.5
(becomes more negative)
as x1 increases
nonconvex preferences

MRS = - 5
x1
 MRS & Ind. Curve Properties
x2 MRS is not always increasing as
x1 increases nonconvex
preferences.
MRS = - 1
MRS
= - 0.5
MRS = - 2

x1