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World hunger, malnutrition and brain development of children

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Eny Palupi Ahmad Sulaeman

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                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                            46  

World  Hunger,  Malnutrition  and  

Brain  Development  of  Children  
 
ENY  PALUPI*a,  AHMAD  SULAEMANb  and  ANGELIKA  PLOEGERa  
 
*  Corresponding  Author,  Email:-­‐    [email protected]  
a.  Department  of  Organic  Food  Quality  and  Food  Culture,  University  of  Kassel,Germany  
b.  Department  of  Community  Nutrition,  Bogor  Agricultural  University,  Indonesia  
 
Submitted:  15  September  2013;  Revised:  22  October  2013;  Accepted  for  publication:  12  November  2013; Published  :20  December  2013  
 
Abstract  
Hunger   is   still   a   major   problem   faced   by   people   in   the   world   especially   in   some   areas   in   developing  
countries,   and   this   condition   is   a   cause   of   undernutrition.   Insufficient   nutrition   during   the   early   stages  
of  life  may  adversely  influence  brain  development.  It  was  observed  from  my  own  research  conducted  
in   Bogor,   Indonesia,   that   children   with   severe   acute   malnutrition   (SAM,   body   mass   index   or   BMI   for  
age  z  score  <  -­‐3)  (N=54)  had  significantly  (p<0.05)  lower  memory  ability  score  (46.22±1.38)  compared  
to   normal   children   (BMI   for   age   z   score   -­‐2   ≤   z   ≤   1)   (N=91)   (51.56±1.24).   Further,   children   with  
Moderate   Acute   Malnutrition   (MAM,   BMI   for   age   z   score   -­‐3   ≤   z   <-­‐2)   tended   to   (p<0.1)   have   lower  
memory   ability   (50.08±1.58)   than   the   normal   children.   On   the   other   hand,   overnutrition   among  
children   also   might   impair   the   brain   function.   The   study   revealed   that   children   who   are   overweight  
(BMI   for   age   z   score   1   <   z   ≤   2)   (N=8)   significantly   (p<0.05)   had   lower   memory   ability   score  
(46.13±4.50)  compared  to  the  normal  children.  This  study  also  revealed  that  obese  children  (BMI  for  
age   z   score   >   2)   (N=6)   tended   to   (p<0.1)   have   lower   memory   ability   score   (50.33±5.64)   than   the  
normal   children.   It   is   therefore   very   important   to   maintain   children   at   a   normal   BMI,   not   being  
undernourished  (SAM  and  MAM  categories)  on  one  side  and  not  being  overnourished  (overweight  and  
obesity   categories)   on   the   other   side   in   order   to   optimise   their   brain   development.   This   could   be  
achieved  through  providing  children  with  an  adequate  and  balanced  nutrient  supply  via  food.  

Keywords:  Hunger;  Malnutrition;  Brain  development  

 
 
 
Introduction    
 
World  hunger  is  a  condition  in  which  the   reduced   from   18.6%   in   1990-­‐92   to  
substantial   world   population   undergoes   12.5%   in   2010-­‐2012.   However,   the  
undernutrition   as   a   result   of   food   progress   has   slowed   down   since   2009  
scarcity  (Halford  et  al.,  2005:  1015).  FAO   due   to   the   economic   crisis   (FAO,   2012:  
(2012:   8)   have   estimated   that   there   are   8).   Most   of   the   people   suffering   from  
about   870   million   hungry   people   hunger   are   from   developing   countries;  
worldwide   in   2012,   which   means   that   that  are  about  850  million  people  which  
one   in   eight   people   is   undernourished.   account  to  almost  15%  of  the  population  
Hunger  has  been  the  top  world  problem   (FAO,  2012:  8;  Figure  1).  
for   many   decades.   World   hunger   has  
 
 
Palupi,  Eny.,  Sulaeman,  Ahmad.,  and  Ploeger,  Angelika.(2013).  World  Hunger,  Malnutrition  and  Brain  
Development  of  Children,  Future  of  Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society.1(2):  46-­‐56
           ISSN-­‐Internet:  2197-­‐411X/  OCLC-­‐Nr.:  862804632        
   
47                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

 
1050

Number  of  hungry  people  (million)

1000
20 Developed  countries
Developing  countries
950

18
900
13

980 15 16
850
901
885
800 852 852

750
1990-­‐92 1999-­‐2001 2004-­‐06 2007-­‐09 2010-­‐12
Year
 
Figure  1.  Number  of  world  hunger  from  1990  to  2012.  
                                                                           Source:  Adapted  from  FAO  (2012:  9).  
 
People   who   suffer   from   hunger,   either   normal   life.   In   the   case   of   children,  
chronically   or   acutely   malnourished,   hunger   may   impair   their   brain  
are   mainly   located   in   Sub-­‐Saharan   development  which  then  may  threaten  
Africa   and   some   areas   in   Asia.   A   its   normal   function.   Multidisciplinary,  
number   of   reasons   have   been   the   integrated   and   systemic   approaches  
driving   forces   of   world   hunger,   i.e.   are   needed   in   order   to   combat   world  
limited   access   to   sufficient   quantity   hunger.   Therefore,   many   discussions  
and   quality   of   food,   starvation   due   to   and   researches   on   this   topic   will  
famines,  war  and  natural  disasters,  low   become   precious   and   be   demanded   in  
agricultural   productivity,   poverty   and   order   to   gather   valuable   findings   and  
unemployment,   and   some   solutions  for  a  better  quality  of  life  for  
micronutrient   deficiencies   (Sanchez   the   next   generation.   Accordingly,   this  
and   Swaminathan,   2005:   357).   More   article   attempts   to   discuss   the  
specifically   concerning   the   hungry,   relationship   between   hunger,  
approximately   half   of   them   are   small-­‐ malnutrition  and  brain  development  of  
holder   farmers.   About   20%   of   the   children   based   on   literatures   and  
hungry  are  the  landless  rural  and  10%   current  research  results.      
are   pastoralists,   fishers   and   forest    
dwellers.   The   rest   of   the   figure   is   made   The  fact  of  world  child  hunger  
up   by   the   urban   hungry   (Sanchez   and    
Swaminathan,   2005:   357).   The   Children   are   the   actors   who   suffer  
respective   problem,   i.e.   hunger   is   most   from   the   world   hunger.   Sanchez  
associated  with  undernutrition  (a  type   and   Swaminathan   (2005:   357)   have  
of   malnutrition;   the   other   one   is   identified   children,   in   particular  
overnutrition)   in   which   people   do   not   underweight   children   less   than   5   years  
get   sufficient   nutrients   for   supporting   of   age   as   a   substantial   hunger   hot   spot.  

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Further,   more   than   2.5   million   2012:   1).   And   in   2011,   as   many   as   52  
children,   equivalent   to   1   in   every   22   million   children   under   five,   or   8%,  
children,   die   every   year   due   to   world   were  wasting  (weight  for  height  below  
hunger   (FAO,   2012:   4;   UNICEF,   2007:   -­‐2  SD).  This  was  a  11%  reduction  since  
11).   And   it   has   left   many   generations   1990  (UNICEF,  2012:  1).  Most  of  them  
with   irreversible   physical   and   mental   (70%)   coming   from   Asia   who   live  
disabilities   (Black   et   al.,   2008:   1).   under   the   risk   of   severe   acute  
However,  nowadays  feeding  more  than   malnutrition  (SAM)  and  death.  
7   billion   people   in   the   world    
adequately  is  getting  more  challenging   At   the   same   time,   there   has   been   the  
due   to   population   growth   and   climate   emergence   of   other   types   of  
change  (Black  et  al.,  2008:  6;  Stoddart,   malnutrition,   i.e.   overweight   and  
2013:   33).   Food   supply   is   getting   obesity   (weight   above   normal)   as   a  
scarce   due   to   a   number   of   natural   result  of  long  term  overnutrition.    The  
phenomena,   i.e.   drought,   flood,   prevalence   of   obesity   among   children  
deforestation,   crop   failure,   and   water   and   children   being   overweight   is  
supply  (WHES,  2013;  Black  et  al.,  2008:   rising.   Is   was   estimated   that   43   million  
6).  In  turn,  insufficient  nutrient  supply   children   under   five,   or   7%,   were  
due   to   world   hunger   problem   may   overweight   and   obesity   (weight   for  
negatively   influence   the   brain   height   above   +2SD   from   normal  
development   of   children   which   may   standard)   in   2011   (UNICEF,   2012:   1).  
further  threaten  their  future.     The   trend   is   increasing   sharply,   about  
  54%   from   28   million   in   1990.    
Mainly,   there   are   three   indicators   of   Surprisingly,   this   phenomenon  
child   hunger.   Those   are   stunting   occurred   not   only   in   developed  
(height   below   normal),   underweight   countries,  but  also  in  many  developing  
(weight   below   normal)   and   wasting   countries.   Obesity   is   found   almost   all  
(ratio  weight  to  height  below  normal).   over  the  world  (UNICEF,  2012:  1).  The  
UNICEF   (2012)   reported   that   on   the   prevalence   in   2011   was   7%   in   Africa  
global   scale,   as   many   as   165   million   (12   million)   and   5%   in   Asia   (17  
children   under   five,   or   26%,   were   million)  (UNICEF,  2012:  1).  
stunted   (height   for   age   below   -­‐2   SD    
from   normal   standard)   in   2011.   Most   The  above  fact  presents  the  respective  
of   them   live   in   Africa   (36%   in   2011)   double   burden   of   malnutrition,   i.e.  
and   Asia   (27%   in   2011).   Trend   shows   undernutrition   and   overnutrition   has  
a   reduction   pattern,   that   is   35%   become   the   current   phenomenon.  
decrease   from   253   million   in   1990.   More   than   25%   of   the   world   children  
However,   stunting   is   still   a   major   live   undernutrition,   in   which   they  
public   health   problem   in   Africa   and   grow  up  with  many  risk  of  impairment,  
Asia,   even   it   often   occurs   as   a   hidden   discapabilities   and   morbidities   which  
malnutrition.   Most   African   and   Asian   then  will  reduce  the  quality  of  the  next  
are   stunting   (UNICEF,   2012:   1).   As   generation.   It   will   leave   many  
many   as   101   million   children   under   generations   less   productive   than   they  
five,   or   16%,   were   underweight   in   would   have   been.   Even   though   its  
2011  (weight  for  age  below  -­‐2  SD).  The   pattern   is   decreasing,   its   prevalence  
trend   of   being   underweight   was   also   still  remains  high  and  remains  a  world  
reduced   35%   from   159   million   in   problem.   With   the   undernutrition  
1990.   However   many   children   are   problem   remaining   unsolved,   the   over  
living   under   wasting   risk   (UNICEF,   nutrition   problem   emerged,   not   only  

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49                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

among   child   but   also   mothers   and   increasing   pattern   of   prevalence   of  

adults.   Figure   2   ilustrates   the   overweight   and   obesity   among  
decreasing  pattern  of  the  prevalence  of   children  under  five.
stunting   and   underweight   among    
children   under   five.   It   also   shows   the  

40
Stunting
36

33 Underweight
33
Overweight  and   obesity
29

26
25
24
23
% prevalence

23
20
18
16
14

13

7.8
6.7
5.1 5.8
4.2 4.6

3
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015*
Year
Figure  2.  Prevalence  of  stunting,  underweight,  and  overweight  and  obesity  among  children  
under  five  years  old  on  the  global  scale,  1990-­‐2015.  
     Source:  Adapted  from  UNICEF,  2012:  11;  de  Onis  et  al.,  2010:  1260.  Note:*Estimation          
     number.  

It   was   estimated   that   1000   million   and   certain   types   of   cancer   (Steinfeld  
people  were  suffering  from  overweight   et   al.,   2006:   269;   McAfee   et   al.,   2010:  
and   obesity,   and   300   million   people   1).  However,  childhood  obesity  is  very  
suffering  from  obesity  (Steinfeld  et  al.,   important   to   be   monitored.   This   type  
2006:   271).   Surveys   in   2008   showed   of   childhood   malnutrition   is   associated  
that  prevalence  of  obesity  in  Europe  is   with   serious   health   problems   and   the  
22%   (Perez-­‐Cueto   et   al.,   2010:   156).   In   risk   of   premature   illness   and   death  
Australia   in   2003,   60%   of   adults   were   later  in  life  (de  Onis  et  al.,  2010:  1257).  
overweight  or  obese,  which  the  rate  in   The   respective   double   burden   of  
2008   was   2.5   times   higher   than   in   malnutrition,   both   under-­‐   and   over-­‐  
1980  (Dunn  et  al.,  2008:  331).  A  study   nutrition,  is  the  current  world  problem  
in  USA  in  2000  reported  that  2  of  3  US   and  needs  to  be  solved.
adults   are   overweight   or   obese   (Glanz  
et   al.,   1998:   1118).   The   increasing   Malnutrition   and   child   brain  
trend   alarms   the   world.   Overnutrition   development  
might   cause   many   chronic   diseases,   Adequate   nutrition   intake   is   crucial   for  
like   cardio-­‐vascular   disease,   diabetes,   human  health  and  development.  Better  

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50                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

nutrition  is  correlated  to  the  better  life,   the   rest   of   the   body,   a   dietary  
both   physically   and   mentally   (WHO   deficiency   (due   to   hunger   or  
2011).   Along   the   period   of   life,   undernutrition)   during   a   critical   stage  
childhood   is   the   most   sensitive   period   of   development   may   result   in   lasting  
toward   the   nutrition   intake   quality.   changes   in   brain   structure   and  
Childhood   is   the   period   in   which   the   function   (Benton,   2010:   457).  
human   is   growing   and   developing.   Therefore,   undernutrition   especially  
Studies   reported   that   inadequate   for   under   five   children   threatens   the  
nutrient   intake   during   the   first   five   quality   of   the   next   life,   not   only   for  
years   of   life   may   influence   the   brain   their   own   life,   but   also   the   quality   of  
development   which   is   not   possible   to   the   next   generation   as   a   cumulative  
be   paid-­‐off   on   the   next   period   of   life   society   (WHO   2011;   Dekaban   and  
(Thompson  and  Nelson,  2001:  8;  Besty   Sadowsky,  1978:  355).  
and   Georgieff,   2006:   158;   Strain   et   al.,    
2008:   776;   Wainwright,   1992:   193).   Thompson  and  Nelson  (2001:  8)  gave  a  
The   following   paragraphs   present   the   best   illustration   regarding   the  
process   of   human   brain   development   developmental   of   human   brain   along  
in   normal   children   and   the   research   human   life   (Figure   3).   Brain  
findings   of   the   impact   of   development   starts   one   month   after  
undernutrition   and   overnutrition   on   conception,   when   the   brain   and   spinal  
brain  development.   cord   were   formed   within   the   embryo,  
  this   process   is   called   neurulation  
A  normal  growth  child  –  in  the  terms  of   (Thompson   and   Nelson,   2001:   8;  
a   child   with   adequate   nutrient   intake  –   Thompson,   2001:   28;   Ulmer   et   al.,  
will   achieve   80%   of   his   adult   brain   2013:   615).   Then   the   cell   continues   to  
weight   in   their   first   2   years,   and   migration.   Almost   all   neurons   were  
achieve   90%   in   their   first   5   years   formed   at   the   sixth   gestation   month.  
(Dekaban   and   Sadowsky,   1978:   355;   During   this   stage   as   many   as   250  
Lenroot   and   Giedd,   2006:   720).   Similar   thousand   neurons   were   generated   per  
to   the   rest   of   the   body,   the   brain   is   minute   which   then   quickly   migrate   to  
constructed   from   protein,   fat,   the   brain   region   where   they   will  
carbohydrate,   vitamins   and   minerals   function  (Thompson,  2001:  28).    
which   are   essentially   supplied   by   the  
diet.   Since   brain   develops   faster   than  

   
 
                             Figure  3.  Human  brain  development  along  the  human  life.  Source:  Thompson  and      
                             Nelson  (2001:  8).  

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51                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

The  neurons  then  differentiate  to  place   However   the   brain   formation   and  
a   specialised   roles   and   form   synapses   neuron   formation   and   initiation   only  
to   connect   with   the   other   neurons   for   occur   during   the   early   life  
communication   and   store   information.   development.   During   this   formation,  
This   process   is   called   as   the   brain   needs   adequately   good  
synaptogenesis   which   starts   3   months   quality   nutrition   as   a   raw   material  
before  birth  and  continues  throughout   (Thompson,   2001:   29).   Nutrients   are    
childhood.   Georgieff   (2007:   6146)   required   in   specific   metabolic  
mentioned  that  this  gestation  period  is   pathways   and   structural   components  
very   vulnerable   to   nutritional   insults   (Georgieff,   2007:   6146).   Therefore,  
due   to   the   rapid   trajectory   of   synapse   insufficient   nutrition   and   stimulation  
formation   and   myelination.   By   the   during   this   stage   might   impair   the  
moment   of   birth,   the   major   neurons   brain   development   process   which  
were   appropriately   located   within   could   not   be   paid   off   on   the   later   life.  
immature   brain   and   it   has   begun   to   Georgieff   (2007:   6145)   mentioned   that  
function  like  mature  brain  (Thompson   there   are   certain   nutrients   that   have  
and   Nelson,   2001:8;   Thompson,   2001:   greater   effecs   on   brain   development  
28).   than   others   have.   Those   nutrients   are  
  protein,  energy,  certain  fats,  iron,  zinc,  
A   significant   changes   and   development   copper,   iodine,   selenium,   vitamin   A,  
of  brain  would  be  expected  after  birth.   choline  and  folate.      
Synaptogenesis   occurs   particularly   in    
the   visual   system   and   hippocampus   Insufficient   nutrition   during   the   early  
(Georgieff   and   Innis,   2005:   99R).   The   stage   of   life   might   influence   the   brain  
formation   and   induction   of   synapses,   development.  A  child's  early  life  period  
which   makes   neurons,   communicate   is   very   susceptible   to   nutrient  
with   other   neurons,   and   continuously   deficiencies   (Georgieff   and   Innis,   2005:  
develops   during   this   stage.   This   99R).   Georgieff   (2007:   6145)   briefly  
proliferation   makes   the   brain   more   explained   how   nutrient   deficiency   can  
functioning   and   “connected”   influence     brain   development   on   early  
(Thompson,   2001:   28).   On   the   young   life.   Protein-­‐energy,   iron,   and   zinc  
brain   these   connection   was   made   the   malnutrition  all  affect  the  development  
brain   to   much   crowded.   Therefore   of   hippocampus   and   cortex   (Georgieff,  
along   the   stimulation   and   learning   2007:   6146).   Hippocampus   together  
process,  some  of  connection  is  reduced   with   amigdala   and   prefontal   cortex   is  
to  make  the  system  more  efficient.  This   essential   for   memory   processes   and  
process   is   similar   to   the   motto   “use   it   emotions   (Shin   et   al.,   2006:   70).  
or   loose   it”1.   Connections   which   are   Hipocampus  is  one  of  the  earliest  areas  
not   activated   are   then   progressively   to   show   cortical-­‐cortical   connectivity  
reduced   .   Along   the   human   life,   the   and   functionality   (Georgieff,   2007:  
neurogenesis   formation   and   synapses   6146).  Nutrient  deficiency  in  the  early  
formation   might   occur,     depending   on   stages  can  affect    differentiation  in  this  
the   human   experiece   (Thompson,   area   which   influences   the   cells  
2001:  29).     numbers   and   complexity,   which   then  
affect   the   functionality   (Georgieff,  
2007:  6146).  
1 “Use it or lose it” is a slogan by Slow Food® to  
protect endangered products by promoting people  
to consume them so that might save biodiversity
from on going lose.

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52                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

De  Souza  et  al.  (2011:  135)  mentioned   Children   with   Moderate   Acute  
that   brain   development   status   is   Malnutrition   tended   to   (p<0.1)   have  
possibly   to   be   assessed   according   to   lower   memory   ability   (50.08±1.58)  
some   cognitive   performance   than   the   normal   children   (Table   1;  
indicators.   Those   indicators   are   Figure   4;   Palupi   et   al.,   2013).   This  
memory,   learning,   and   attention   result   obviously   presents   that  
ability.   A   cross   sectional   study   undernutrition  during  early  life  affects  
conducted   in   Bogor-­‐Indonesia   (Palupi   their   cognitive   ability.   In   this   study,  
et   al.,   2013)   revealed   that   children   undernutrition   (SAM   and   MAM  
with   Severe   Acute   Malnutrition   had   groups)  occurred  due  to  lower  protein  
significantly   (p<0.05)   lower   memory   intake   from   total   food,   but   not   from  
ability  score  (46.22±1.38)  compared  to   energy,  carbohydrate  and  fat  intake.      
normal   children   (51.56±1.24).    
   
 
 
BMI-­‐for-­‐ Memory  ability
Nutritional   age  z   Number   Percent  
Mean   ±   SD
status   score  
SAM   <  -­‐3   54   24.43   46.22   ±   10.12a
MAM   -­‐3  ≤  z  <  -­‐2   62   28.05   50.08   ±   12.48ab
Normal   -­‐2  ≤  z  ≤  1     91   41.18   51.56   ±   11.85b
Overweight   1  <  z  ≤  2   8   3.62   46.13   ±   12.74a
Obesity   >  2   6   2.71   50.33   ±   13.84ab
 
Table  1  Mean  value  of  memory  ability  by  nutritional  status  (SAM,  MAM,  normal,  overweight  
and  obesity)  
     Note:  BMI:  body  mass  index;  calculated  as  kg/m2,  SAM:  Severe  Acute  Malnutrition,  MAM:      
     Moderate  Acute  Malnutrition.  Source:  Palupi  et  al.,  2013  

On   the   other   hand,   overnutrition   obesity  in  this  study  were  partially  due  
among   children   also   might   impair   the   to   higher   consumption   of   the  
brain  function.  The  study  conducted  in   respective  groups  on  formula  milk,  but  
Bogor-­‐Indonesia  revealed  that  children   not   the   breast   milk.   Further,   higher  
who   are   overweight   significantly   energy,   protein,   carbohydrate   and   fat  
(p<0.05)   had   lower   memory   ability   intake   on   these   groups   were   observed  
score   (46.13±4.50)   compared   to   as   compared   to   those   of   normal   BMI  
normal   children   (51.56±1.24).   This   group.   The   less   lower   memory   ability  
cross  sectional  study  also  revealed  that   score   of   obese   children   compared   to  
obese   children   tended   to   (p<0.1)   have   overweight     children   needs   to   be  
lower   memory   ability   score   confirmed   with   further   larger   sample  
(50.33±5.64)   (Table   1;   Figure   4;   Palupi   size  survey.  
et   al.,   2013).   Such   overweight   and  

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53                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

50.33ab
55 51.56b
50.08ab
46.13a
Score  of  memory  ability

50 46.22a

45

40

35

30
SAM MAM Normal Overweight Obesity

Figure  4.  Score  of  memory  ability  by  BMI  for  age  z  score  of  children  with  category  Severe  
Acute  Malnutrition  (SAM),  Moderate  Acute  Malnutrition  (MAM),  normal,  overweight  and  
obesity.  Source:    Palupi  et  al.,  2013.  
   
   
A   narrative   review   conducted   by   maintain  children  at  a  normal  BMI,  not  
Burkhalter   and   Hillman   (2011:   203S)   being   undernutrition   (SAM   and   MAM  
confirms   that   finding,   i.e.   the   inverse   categories)   on   one   side,   nor   being  
relationship   between   obesity   and   overnutrition   (overweight   and   obesity  
cognitive   performance.   The   authors   categories)  on  the  other  side.  
explained   that   overnutrition,   in  
particular  an  overnutrition  of  energy  is   Conclusion  
maladaptive   to   brain   health   and    
function;   obese   children   had   a   lower   When   hunger   occurres   to   either  
intelligence   score   as   compared   to   the   pregnant   women   and/or   the   children,  
normal   children.   Further,   such   lower   it  is  a  cause  of  undernutrition  and  such  
academic   performance   may   persist   condition  leads  to  impairment  of  brain  
when   the   obese   children   are   getting   development.   On   the   other   hand,  
mature  into  their  teens.  The  reason  on   overnutrition  is  the  other  opposite  that  
why   obese   children   possess   lower   also   lowers   cognitive   performance   of  
cognitive   performance   is   considered   children.   Providing   children   with   an  
due   to   changes   in   brain   structure.   adequate  and  balances  nutrient  supply  
Accordingly,   BMI   higher   than   30   was   via  food  is  therefore  essential  in  order  
associated   with   atrophy   in   the   frontal   to   optimise   their   brain   development,  
lobes,   the   anterior   cingulate   gyrus,   especially   during   its   critical   stage.   In  
hippocampus,   an   thalamus   relative   to   the  global  context,  the  causes  of  under-­‐  
individuals  with  normal  BMI  (between   and   over-­‐nutrition   has   to   be   opposed  
18.5   to   25).   Obesity   is   associated   with   through   integrated   and   systemic  
a  decrease  in  brain  volume  which  leads   approaches   for   a   better   quality   of   the  
to  lower  attention,  memory,  control  of   next  generation  of  human  beings.            
cognition   and   scholastic   performance  
(Burkhalter   and   Hillman,   2011:   203S).    
It   is   therefore   very   important   to    

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54                                        Future  of    Food:  Journal  on  Food,  Agriculture  and  Society  •  Vol.  1,  Nr.  2  •  Winter  2013                                                                                          

Acknowledgement   brain   fatty   acids,   learning,   and  

  memory.   In:   Nutrition   Reviews,  
There   are   no   conflicts   of   interest.   This   Vol.  69,  p.  132-­‐144.  
study   was   financially   supported   by    
Schlumberger   Stichting   Fund.   We   also   Dekaban   AS,   Sadowsky   D.   1978.  
would   like   to   thank   for   anonymous   Changes   in   brain   weights  
reviewers  of  the  manuscript.     during   span   of   human   life:  
  Relation   of   brain   weights   to  
  body  heights  and  body  weights.  
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