Table of Content

TIWI COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Tiwi, Albay
Earth and Life Science
Subject: Earth and Life Science Equivalence: 4 Units or 4 hours/Week
(20 weeks)
Course Code: SHS Core Subject
Unit I, Earth Science (1st Grading Period)
Course Description: I. The Origin and Structure of the Earth -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 2
This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the
II. Earth Materials and Processes -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 13
understanding of Earth Science and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth
through geologic time. It discusses the Earth’s structure, composition, and III. Natural Hazards, mitigation and adaptation -- -- -- -- -- -- - 27
processes. Issues, concerns, and problems pertaining to natural hazards are also
Unit II, Life Science (2nd Grading Period)
included. It also deals with the basic principles and processes in the study of
biology. It covers life processes and interactions at the cellular, organism, IV. Introduction to Life Science -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 32
population, and ecosystem levels.
V. Bioenergetics -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 38
General Course Outline: VI. Perpetuation of Life -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 46
Unit I, Earth Science
VII. How plants survive -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 55
I. The Origin and Structure of the Earth
II. Earth Materials and Processes VIII. The process of evolution -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 66
III. Natural Hazards, mitigation and adaptation IX. Interaction and interdependence -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 71
Unit II, Life Science
IV. Introduction to Life Science
V. Bioenergetics Grading Date of
VI. Perpetuation of Life Period Project Submission
VII. How plants survive .
VIII. The process of evolution 1st _______________
IX. Interaction and interdependence

Course Reference books:

2nd
_______________
o Joselito P. Duyanen, Mylene Ortiz-Andaya, Earth and Life Science, K-12 book Take Note: Answer all the activity in this module.
o Jose Tolentino Olivar II, Anna Cherylle Morales-Ramos Earth and Life Science
The photos, picture, illustration and diagram were came Prepared by:
o QuexBook Earth and Life Science, E- book Apps.
from the same various resources in the book under Glenn C. Borbe
o Teacher Guide for Earth and Life Science, SHS Support Team at [email protected]
course references description.
[email protected]. 09651998192
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 Module no. 1
Key Learning
Topic/Title Objectives Time Duration
points

Lesson I. At the end of this lesson Universe and

ORIGIN AND the student can…. Solar System
STRUCTURE 1. Describe the structure
OF THE and composition of Earth and Date Started:
EARTH the Universe. Earth Systems
2. State the different - Uniqueness ______________
hypothesis that - Subsystem
preceded the Big Bang - Interior Layer
Theory of the Origin of Date of
the Universe. Submission:
3. Explain the Big Bang
Theory and evidences ______________
supporting the theory.
4. Discuss and
understand why Earth
is unique when it
comes to subsystem,
layers and sustaining
life.

Activity no. 1
A. How big is the universe? How about our galaxy?
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B. Challenge yourself; Make your own code, or mnemonic (memory aid), using the Universe and the Solar System
first letters of the planets according to their distance from the sun. Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the
_____________________________________________________________________ universe.
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▪ The Milky Way is but one of the
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billions of Galaxies in the Universe.
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▪ We are definitely not at the
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center of the universe.
Readings;
The Universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars, and planets.

Structure, Composition, and Age

• The universe as we currently know it comprises all space and time, and all matter
and energy in it.
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter consisting of protons,
electrons, and neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other
bodies), 24% cold dark matter (matter that has gravity but does not emit light),
and 71.4% dark energy (a source of anti-gravity)
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that
the low total mass is insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy can
The Universe Milky Way Galaxy explain the observed accelerating expansion of the universe.
Photo Source; K-12 QuexBook Apps. • Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements. Having the
lowest mass, these are the first elements to be formed in the Big Bang Model of
Our Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in
the Origin of the Universe.
the Universe.
• Stars - the building block of galaxies-are born out of clouds of gas and dust in
So far there are 51 galaxies that have been discovered but there are an estimated
galaxies. Instabilities within the clouds eventually results into gravitational
number of about 100 to 200 billion in all.
collapse, rotation, heating up, and transformation into a protostar-the hot core of
Astronomers there are at least one hundred billion galaxies in the observable
a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in.
universe. They've counted the galaxies in a particular region, and multiplied this up
- Protostar - an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the
to estimate the number for the whole universe.
gravitational collapse of gases.
Optical telescopes have been used for astronomical observation since the time of
- A star's energy comes from combining light elements into heavier elements
Galileo, but the technology has moved on significantly since then.
by fusion, or "nuclear burning" (nucleosynthesis). In small stars like the sun,

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 H burning is the fusion of 4 H nuclei (protons) into a He nucleus (2 protons + • In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” and its
2 neutrons). interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence
- Forming He from H gives off lots of energy (i.e. a natural hydrogen bomb). for an expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General
- Nucleosynthesis requires very high T. The minimum T for H fusion is 5x10 6 Relativity.
oC. • He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are
• Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are synthesized or shifted toward the red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the
combined/fused together. Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called band of lower frequency; thus, the inference that the star or galaxy must be
“main sequence stars.” In the cores of such stars, hydrogen atoms are fused moving away from us.
through thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms. Massive main sequence Red shift as evidence for an expanding universe.
stars burn up their hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our Sun burn up The positions of the absorptions lines for helium for light coming from the Sun are
hydrogen in about 10 billion years. shifted towards the red end as compared with those for a distant star. This evidence
- Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in for expansion contradicted the previously held view of a static and unchanging
their cores; outward pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by universe.
gravitational forces. Source: The Red Shift (https://www.google.com.ph/url?

Birth, evolution, death, and rebirth of stars Interactive Activity: Doppler Effect
• The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or Source: http://molebash.com/doppler/horn/horn1.ht
other bodies in the accompanying planetary 1. Watch two short video clips filmed inside a car. Try to determine where the horn
is coming from. Is it coming from inside the car or outside the car? If outside the car,
system.
where?
• A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters Video 1
of galaxies form super clusters. In between the _____________________________________________________________________
clusters is practically an empty space. This _____________________________________________________________________
organization of matter in the universe suggests _____________________________________________________________________
that it is indeed clumpy at a certain scale. But at a Video 2
large scale, it appears homogeneous and isotropic. _____________________________________________________________________
• Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion _____________________________________________________________________
years old. The diameter of the universe is possibly _____________________________________________________________________
infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years
(1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is 4.5 Doppler Effect – is the apparent change in the frequency and wavelength of a wave
x 10-31 g/cm3. due to the relative of the source and the observer.
- It is also true and works to light waves.
Expanding Universe The Doppler Effect for sound waves:
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- to a stationary observer, the frequency or pitch of a receding source decreases as • In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose
it moves away. head, feet, eyes, and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
Cosmic Microwave Background • The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme
1. There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in the being created the universe, including man and other living organisms.
universe. Its accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow
Wilson earned them the physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
Steady State Model
2. It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band
• The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by
coming from all directions-blackbody radiation with an average temperature of
Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle.
about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
• It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands thereby
maintaining its density.
• Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the discovery of the
cosmic microwave background.

Big Bang Theory

• As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the
Big Bang Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from
a tiny, dense and hot mass to its present size and much cooler state.
• The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. In
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of
space-time and no longer described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law
Source: Cosmic microwave background radiation map showing small variations from of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit
WMAP - (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe), of Mercury and the bending of light by the Sun and has passed rigorous tests. The
(https://www.google.com.ph/url? Cosmological Principle assumes that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic
when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our current large-scale
Origin of the Universe image of the universe.
• The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion:
Non-scientific Thought 1) the redshift
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world 2) abundance of hydrogen, helium, and lithium
arose from an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun. 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background radiation-the remnant
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or heat from the bang.
Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach
pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon. Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory

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• From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second later, all matter and • The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240 million
energy in the universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state. It then underwent years.
extremely rapid, exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which and • Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of
until 10 seconds from time zero, conditions allowed the existence of only quarks, the Virgo supercluster of galaxies.
hadrons, and leptons. • Based on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and produced protons, neutrons, they were formed, radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the Earth and
atomic nuclei, and then hydrogen, helium and lithium until 20 minutes after time solar system are 4.6 billion years old on the assumption that they are remnants
zero when sufficient cooling did not allow further nucleosynthesis. of the materials from which they were formed.
• From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling universe entered a matter-
dominated period when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel
freely as still observed today in the form of cosmic microwave background
radiation.
• As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected into clouds giving rise to
only stars after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies would form after 100
million years from time zero during which, through nucleosynthesis in stars,
carbon and elements heavier than carbon were produced.
• From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy
dominated and underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after
the big bang, the solar system was formed.

Additional Resources:
Short article: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/?origin-universe
Source: Layout of the solar system comprising mainly the Sun, planets and their
Universe and the Solar System satellites, asteroids, and icy bodies such as dwarf planets and comets.
(https://www.google.com.ph/url?
Solar System
• The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and spiral- • The solar system comprises the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets such as Pluto,
shaped aggregation of about at least 100 billion stars and other bodies. satellites, asteroids, comets, other minor bodies such as those in the Kuiper belt
• Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at and interplanetary dust.
the center of which lies a supermassive blackhole. • The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller asteroids.
• This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 They are thought of as remnants of a “failed planet”—one that did not form due
km. to disturbance from Jupiter’s gravity.
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• The Oort cloud marks the outer boundary of the solar system and is composed Element Abundance on Earth, Meteorites, and Universe
mostly of icy objects. A. Except for hydrogen, helium, inert gases, and volatiles, the universe and Earth
• The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance = 150
million km) and comprise numerous rocky or icy bodies a few meters to hundreds
of kilometers in size.

Large Scale Features of the Solar System

1. Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while
angular momentum is held by the outer planets.
2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
4. The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the
Sun; - the innermost planet moves fastest, - the outermost, the slowest.
5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun.

Small scale features of the Solar System

1. Most planets rotate prograde.
Prograde - counterclockwise when viewed from above the Earth's North Pole.
2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as
silicates, iron, and nickel.
have similar abundance especially for rock and metal elements.
- Rotate slower - have thin or no atmosphere - higher densities
B. The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and helium.
- lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and noble gases. Rare inert gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low
3. The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas abundance.
giants" because of the dominance of gases and their larger size. C. Retention of volatile elements by the Earth is consistent with the idea that some
- Rotate faster - have thick atmosphere - lower densities materials that formed the Earth and the solar system were “cold” and solid;
- fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane). otherwise, the volatiles would have been lost. These suggest that the Earth and
the solar system could be derived from materials with composition similar to that
Hypothesis regarding the origin of the solar system should conform to or of the universe.
explain both large scale and small scale properties of the solar system. Natural D. The presence of heavy elements such as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth
forces created and shaped the solar system. The same processes (condensation, suggests that it was derived from remnants of a supernova and that the Sun is a
accretion, collision and differentiation) are ongoing processes. second-generation star made by recycling materials.
Abundance of elements
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Earth’s origins known mainly from its compositional differences with the entire theory failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum in the solar
Universe. Planet-making process modified original cosmic material. system.

The table shows the abundance of elements across bodies in the solar system as
compared to abundance in the universe.

Origin of the Solar System Source: Nebular Hypothesis

(http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/images/nebular_hypothesis.gif)
Rival Theories
Many theories have been proposed since about four centuries ago. Each has The two major flaws of this type of hypothesis include:
weaknesses in explaining all characteristics of the solar system. A few are discussed 1) Fails to explain how planets are formed (hot gas from the sun/star expands and
below. will not form planets)
2) This type of encounters is extremely rare.
Nebular Hypothesis
In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace Encounter Hypotheses:
independently thought of a rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the ▪ Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to form planet.
middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that become the planets. This nebular
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▪ James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that, would have drawn from the sun B. As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun, the
matter that would condense to planets. remaining materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets and
▪ T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving a momentum is transferred outwards.
star much bigger than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments C. Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each other
from both out which planetisimals were formed; to form larger and larger bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-
▪ Ray Lyttleton’s(1940) sun’s companion star colliding with another to form a planets are accretions of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum,
proto-planet that breaks up to form Jupiter and Saturn. iron, and other metals in rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and
▪ Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun passed through a dense helium.
interstellar cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelope that eventually D. High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much of the mantle of Mercury,
became the planets. However, it cannot explain how the planets and satellites puts Venus in retrograde rotation.
were formed. The time required to form the planets exceeds the age of the solar E. Collision of the Earth with large object produces the moon. This is supported by
system. the composition of the moon very similar to the Earth's Mantle F. When the
- Accretion and bombardment generate heat (kinetic energy is transformed to proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and
heat) which was partly retained by the Earth as internal heat. volatiles from the inner planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving
▪ M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a variation of James Jeans’ near-collision behind a system we know today.
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a filament of
material which becomes the planets. Collisions between proto-planets close to Recent advancement/information on the Solar System
the Sun produced the terrestrial planets; condensations in the filament produced Exploration of Mars
the giant planets and their satellites. Different ages for the Sun and planets were Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union and the U.S. have been sending unmanned
predicted by this theory. probes to the planet Mars with the primary purpose of testing the planet's
habitability. The early efforts in the exploration of Mars involved flybys through
Sun - Star interaction which spectacular photographs of the Martian surface were taken. The first
Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional studies on meteorites in the successful landing and operation on the surface of Mars occurred in 1975 under the
1950s and other scientists’ work on these objects led to the conclusion that Viking program of NASA. Recently, NASA, using high resolution imagery of the
meteorite constituents have changed very little since the solar system’s early history surface of Mars, presented evidence of seasonal flow liquid water (in the form of
and can give clues about their formation. The currently accepted theory on the brine - salty water) on the surface of Mars.
origin of the solar system relies much on information from meteorites.
Rosetta's Comet
Protoplanet Hypothesis - Current Hypothesis Rosetta is a space probe built by the European Space Agency and launched on 2
A. About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly- March 2004. One of its missions is to rendezvous with and attempt to land a probe
rotating gas and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper Belt. One of the purposes of the mission is to
due to gravity better understand comets and the early solar systems. Philae landed successfully on

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comet (67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko) on 12 November 2014. Analysis of the water ▪ Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. Rotational speed of Venus is
(ice) from the comet suggests that, its isotopic composition is different from water extremely slow.
from Earth. ▪ Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color. The Earth is a
habitable planet.
Pluto Flyby
- Water - in the liquid form, turns out to be one of the most important
On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizon spacecraft provided mankind the first
prerequisites for life as we know it.
close-up view of the dwarf planet Pluto. Images captured from the flyby revealed a - There is recent evidence that liquid water, in the form of brine (salty water)
complex terrain - Ice Mountains and vast crater free plains. The presence of crater flows intermittently on the surface of Mars.
free plains suggests recent (last 100 millions of years) of geologic activity. ▪ Planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant atmosphere. The
composition of the atmosphere, specifically the amount of greenhouse gases,
The Uniqueness of Earth influences the planet surface temperature.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system with properties necessary to support life. ▪ The amount of solar radiation that a planet receives is primarily a function of
▪ Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the inner terrestrial or "rocky" planets. Their distance from the sun. Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis but some
composition and densities are not too different from each other. organisms are able to extract energy from other sources (chemosynthetic
▪ Venus is considered to be the Earth's twin planet. It has a very similar size and organisms).
mass with the Earth. Mars is about half the Earth's size. ▪ A system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients to organisms is
▪ Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's distance from the sun. important to sustain life. On Earth, nutrients are cycled through the hydrologic
Among the three planet, Venus is the nearest and Mars is the farthest from the cycle and plate tectonics (volcanism)
Sun.

Factors that make a Planet Habitable Atmosphere

✓ Temperature - it influences how quickly atoms and molecules move. - The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
✓ Atmosphere - Traps heat, shields the surface from harmful radiation, and - The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2),
provides chemicals needed for life, such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
✓ Energy - Organisms use light or chemical - One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is
energy to run their life processes. redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
✓ Nutrients - Used to build and maintain an - There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere
organism’s body. and the hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.

Earth Subsystems Lithosphere

A closed system is a system in which there is - The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid
only an exchange of heat or energy and no outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.
exchange of matter. - The Plate Tectonics is an important process shaping the surface of the Earth. The
The arrows in the diagram indicate the primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle
interaction among the components. convection.
The Earth System. (Source:
https://www.earthonlinemedia.com)
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Biosphere Plate Tectonics – theory which proposes that the earth’s crust and upper mantle to
- The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. be composed of several large, thin, and relatively rigid plates that move relative to
- It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral one another.
reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea. The Layers of the Earth.
- For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises
photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the
atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2
sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.
- Sunlight is not necessary for life. Chemosynthetic organisms use energy from
hydrothermal vents or methane seeps (methane seeping through rocks and
sediments) to produce simple sugars.

Hydrosphere
- About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of
it is in the form of ocean water (Figure 3).
- Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the
remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.

The Internal Structure of the Earth

The layers of the Earth

▪ Crust – thin, outermost layer of the Earth; is of two different types:
- continental crust - oceanic crust
▪ Mantle – middle layer of the earth between the crust and the core; makes up
about 83% of Earth’s interior.
▪ Core – innermost layer of the earth;
- outer core is in a liquid state Earth and Life Science
- inner core is in solid state Evaluation for Module no. 1

Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of the layer which is made up of the brittle crust and Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
upper mantle. Define the following words. (2 points each)
Asthenosphere – layer of weak, ductile rock in the mantle; situated below the 1-2. Universe & Galaxy.
lithosphere. _____________________________________________________________________
Moho – is a boundary separating the crust and the mantle. _____________________________________________________________________
Seismic wave – is an elastic shock wave that travels outward in all directions from an
____________________________________________________________________
earthquake source.
Convection – transfer of heat by mass movement or circulation of a substance
3-4. Big Bang Theory
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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5-6. Redshift
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7-8. Earth Subsystem
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9-10. Solar System
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Essay; (for 5 points)
Give some reasons or evidence, why Earth is unique compare to other planet?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 Module no. 2 Readings;
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration Minerals
Mineral - are the basic building blocks of rocks.
Lesson II. At the end of this Minerals and — is a naturally occurring (not man-made or machine generated), inorganic (not a
Earth Materials lesson the student Rocks byproduct of living things) solid with an orderly crystalline structure and a definite
and Processes can…. Processes chemical composition.
1. Identify common - Exogenic
rock forming - Endogenic
There are several different mineral properties which must be identified and defined.
minerals using Deformation of Date Started:
▪ Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
their physical and the Crust
- Several range of terms used to describe minerals lusters.
chemical History of the ______________
properties. Earth Greasy; Silky; Metallic; Earthly, Vitreous;
2. Distinguish the - Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a
different processes Date of polished metal
under exogenic Submission: - Non-metallic – vitreous(glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous,
and endogenic. silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, among others.
3. Explain the history ______________
▪ Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface)
of the Earth and
describe the to abrasion.
different methods Mohs Scales of Hardness – Hardness scale designed by German geologist and
to determine it mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812.
age. The Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch resistance of various minerals
from a scale of 1 to 10, based on the ability of a harder material/mineral to scratch a
Activity no. 2 softer one.
Complete the table below.
Make a list of mineral that you know and tell the reason why it became a mineral. Pros of the Mohs scale:
i. The test is easy.
List of Mineral Reason why it became Mineral
ii. The test can be done anywhere, anytime, as
long as there is sufficient light to see
scratches.
iii. The test is convenient for field geologists with scratch kits who want to make a
rough identification of minerals outside the lab.
Cons of the Mohs scale:
i. The Scale is qualitative, not quantitative.
ii. The test cannot be used to accurately test the
hardness of industrial materials.
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 https://smediacacheak0.pinimg.com/564x Color vs. streak of a hematite (Fe2O3). Source:
/df/fa/6c/dffa6c9f697edd http://www.instructables.com/id/How-toidentify-
062da51204c6a03211.jpg a-Mineral/step6/Streak/ (8/30/2015)
▪ Crystal Form/Habit
- The external shape of a crystal or groups ▪ Cleavage – the property of some minerals
of crystals is displayed / observed as to break along specific planes of weakness
these crystals grow in open spaces. to form smooth, flat surfaces.
- The form reflects the supposedly - These planes exist because the bonding
internal structure (of atoms and ions) of of atoms making up the mineral happens
the crystal (mineral). to be weak in those areas.
- It is the natural shape of the mineral - When minerals break evenly in more than
before the development of any cleavage one direction, cleavage is described by
or fracture. the number of cleavage directions, the angle(s) at which they meet, and the
- Examples include prismatic, tabular, quality of cleavage (e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).
bladed, platy, reniform and equant. Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct, unrelated properties.
- Amorphous mineral that do not have a crystal structure. o Crystal habit forms, relying on how the individual atoms in the crystal come
together as the mineral is growing.
▪ Color and streak o Cleavage, is the weak plane that developed after the crystal is formed.
- A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar colors. Individual minerals can also
display a variety of colors resulting from impurities and also from some Specific Gravity – is the ratio of the density of the mineral and the density of water.
geologic processes like weathering. - This parameter indicates how many times more the mineral weighs compared to
- Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), an equal amount of water (SG 1).
orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc. - For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times more than a
- Streak - on the other hand, is the mineral’s color in powdered form. bucket of water.
- It is inherent in almost every mineral, and is a more diagnostic property SG = ____mass of mineral ______ , or __ weight of mineral in air___
compared to color. mass of equal volume of water weight in air – weight in water
Others – Magnetism, Odor, Taste, Tenacity, Reaction to acid, etc.
Note; The color of a mineral can be different from its streak. - For example, magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is
- Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but has a black or dark salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered form; etc.
gray streak.
- The crystal’s form also defines the relative growth of the crystal in three
dimensions, which include the crystal’s length, width and height.
14
 Sample for mineral identification. Rock Classifications and Rock Cycle
Mineral Name Halite (table salt) Rocks Texture
Chemical composition NaCl o Phaneritic texture - from slow cooling forms large interlocking crystals.
Luster Non-metallic – vitreous; transparent to translucent - are rocks that have grains which are big enough to see.
Hardness Soft (2-2.5) o Aphanitic texture - fine-grained texture; minerals not visible to the naked eye;
Color White relatively fast rates of cooling/solidification prevented the formation of large
Streak White crystals.
o Porphyritic texture - formed through two stages of crystallization: magma partly
Crystal Form / Habit Cubic
cooled below the surface of the Earth, giving time for the large crystals to grow
Cleavage Perfect cubic
(phenocrysts) before it is extruded to the surface forming the fine-grained
Specific Gravity Light (2.2)
groundmass.
Other Properties Salty taste; very soluble; produces reddish spark in flame o Vesicular texture - voids created by rapid cooling which causes air bubbles to be
Minerals Chemical Composition trapped inside.
▪ Silicates – minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust, namely, silicon and oxygen. Rock Classifications
- When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen Igneous rocks - rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten rock
tetrahedron - the fundamental building block of silicate minerals. material (magma or lava).
- Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group. - Molten rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic
▪ Oxides – minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more igneous rocks) or at the surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks).
metal ions. - Minerals are formed during the crystallization of the magma.
▪ Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4) – anion. - The rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that control crystal
▪ Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of size and the texture of the rock in general.
economically important metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.
▪ Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion combined with Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.
other elements. Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through volcanic or
▪ Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elements. fissure eruptions.
- Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical
conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead). Plutonic or intrusive rocks
- Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower - from solidified magma underneath the earth.
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth). - gradual lowering of the temperature gradient at depth towards the surface would
- Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond). cause slow cooling/crystallization.
▪ Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more - Phaneritic texture - a texture from slow cooling forms large interlocking crystals.
metals. - Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro.
15
Volcanic or extrusive rocks Temperature and pressure at the Earth’s surface are low, allowing sedimentary
- from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth. processes to happen.
- fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature
between Earth’s surface and underneath. Sedimentary rocks- These are rocks that formed through the accumulation,
- common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic and vesicular compaction, and cementation of sediments.
- examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt - They generally form at surface or near surface conditions.
- Pyroclastic rocks - fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive - Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include:
type of eruption. o weathering of rocks
- Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite) o sediment transport and deposition
o compaction and cementation
- Factors in sedimentary processes: weathering and transport agents (water,
Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content:
wind, ice)
• felsic (granitic); >65% silica, generally light-colored.
- Common sedimentary features: strata and fossils.
• intermediate (andesitic); 55-65% silica; generally medium colored (medium gray).
o Strata: - >1cm is called bedding - anything less is called lamination;
• mafic (basaltic); 45-55% silica; generally dark colored.
- Layering - is the result of a change in grain size and composition; each
• ultramafic <45% silica; generally very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine
layer represents a distinct period of deposition.
and pyroxene which are the major constituents of the upper mantle.
o Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks
Silica – the dioxide of silicon SiO2 occurring in crystalline, amorphous, and impure
Lithification – the process of unconsolidated materials solidified into rocks.
forms (quartz, opal, and sand).
Granite on the left with
Non-clastic / Chemical/Biochemical – derived from sediments that precipitated
phaneritic texture. Rhyolite on
the right with aphanitic and from concentrated solutions
vesicular texture. (e.g. seawater) or from the
Diorite on left with phaneritic accumulation of biologic or
texture vs. Andesite on right organic material (e.g. shells,
with aphanitic texture. Same plant material). They are
composition but different
further classified on the basis
textures.
of chemical composition. Limestone Coquina
Examples of Igneous Rocks Source: Sandstone https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/
Ferruginous_Sandstone_(banded)_label.JPG

Clastic/terrigenous - form from the accumulation and lithification of sediments

derived from the breakdown of pre-existing rocks. They are further classified
according to dominant grain size.
16
 Metamorphic grade increases (from slate to gneiss) as pressure increases.
Source:http://2.bp.blogspot.com/K5WWnSwIFd0/VquIU8_PM2I/AAAAAAAAHr/0
Lui_DqxK5A/s1600/The%2Bformation%2Bof%2BFoliated%2BMetamorphic%2BRock-
geology%2Bin.jpg
Examples of Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks - rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing

rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the process of
metamorphism.
Metamorphism can involve changes in the physical and chemical properties of rocks Examples of metamorphic rocks
in response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.
- They are commonly formed underneath the earth. Protolith – is the original rock prior to metamorphism which can be either igneous
Contact metamorphism rock, sedimentary rock or metamorphose.
- Heat as the main factor: occurs when pre-existing rocks get in contact with a heat
source (magma).
- Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of intruding magma.
- Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks (e.g. hornfels).

Regional metamorphism
- Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone deformation during
orogenic event resulting in mountain
belts.
- Occurs in a regional/large scale.
- Creates foliated metamorphic rocks
such as schist and gneiss.
- Non-foliated rocks like marble also form
thru regional metamorphism, where
pressure is not intense, far from the
main geologic event. The rock cycle involves processes that destroy, generate, and transform one rock
Foliated rocks from into another.
shale as precursor rock. Source: Earth and Life Science textbook.

17
Exogenic Processes - This occurs because the conversion of water into ice increases the volume of
water by 10 percent.
Weathering - is the combined action to all physical and chemical processes that - This is the most important physical
disintegrate and decompose rocks near earth surface through the element of weathering process in cold regions.
weather. - The repeated expansion and contraction
of water due to freezing and thawing
- occurs as a response to the low pressure, low temperature, and water and
forces cracks to open wider
oxygen-rich nature of the Earth’s surface.
- Physical weathering and chemical weathering almost always occur together in Chemical weathering decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change
nature and reinforce each other. the original rock-forming minerals.
o Oxidation is the process in which oxygen reacts with the rock and changes its
Physical weathering (or mechanical weathering) disintegrates rocks, breaking mineral composition.
them into smaller pieces. - The greatest impact of this process is observed on ferrous minerals, which
o Blocks disintegration is caused by successive heating and cooling that causes the contain iron.
expansion and contraction of rocks. - The oxygen in humid air reacts with iron in
- In hot desert regions, the high diurnal range of temperature of day and night the rocks to form oxides of iron called rust.
causes successive expansion and contraction of the rocks. Rust can break down rocks completely
- This repeated expansion and contraction when given enough time.
creates stress along the joints, eventually - The rusting effect caused by oxidation
breaking down the rock, block by block. often occurs in ferrous rocks.
- Its creates smaller blocks from large
blocks of rocks. o Carbonation is the process involving the formation of various types of
carbonates in rocks.
o Exfoliation is the stripping of the outer layers of rocks due to intense heating. - Some of these carbonates are soluble in water. For example, when rainwater
- Since rocks are poor conductors of heat, the inner layers remain almost containing carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, it passes through permeable
unaffected by heat. limestone rocks.
- The successive expansion and contraction - This process results in the enlargement of
of the outer layers of the rock peels off rocks and removal of lime, which holds
from the main rock in the form of the particles together.
concentric shells. - Rock materials react with carbonic acids,
- Exfoliation peels off outer layers of rocks which dissolve or break down rocks.
which are immediately affected by heat. o Hydration is the result of the absorption or
combination of water and a particular substance on the rock, leading to a change
o Frost weathering refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water inside the in shape.
joints of the rocks, causing them to split into small particles or fragments.
18
 - The addition of water - in the rock increases its volume, which changes the o Humans play a very important role in the weathering of rocks.
shape of the grains. Feldspar, for - Provisions for agriculture construction of houses, and construction of roads,
example, is changed into kaolin through among others, require large amounts of rocks to be broken down.
- Mining minerals also require breaking,
hydration.
weakening, and loosening of rocks. The
- The volume of rocks increases through increase of acid rain is mainly due to
hydration. human activities.
- An increase in pollution also results in an
o Solution is the process in which some of the minerals in rocks are directly increased amount of weathering agents in
dissolved in water. soil, water, and wind.
- As water continues to remove
substances in rocks, the rock is Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil
deformed, broken into pieces, and because of gravity.
disintegrated. Rock salt and gypsum are - Mass wasting is a natural process that occurs after weathering. It is
removed through this process. considered a natural hazard.
- Some rocks contain minerals that - Mass wasting was classified based on their moisture (wafer content) and
dissolve with water.
speed (rate of movement).
- The saturation of water destroys the cohesion of rock particles, causing them
Biotic Weathering
Biotic or biological weathering is the weathering or disintegration of rocks caused to become loose.
by living organisms. - Water adds weight to a mass, causing their downslope slide or flow. The
o Plants - contribute to both mechanical and chemical weathering. speed of the downward movement of rocks results when air becomes trapped
- The roots of the plants penetrate into the joints of the rocks searching for and compressed beneath the falling mass. This allows the mass to move as a
moisture. As the roots grow larger and thicker, buoyant, flexible sheet across the surface.
they exert pressure on the rocks.
- Mass wasting could be generally classified based on the type of motion as a
- The pressure acts as a wedge, widening and
extending the cracks, and breaking the rock into fall, a slide, or a flow.
fragments. • Free-fall movement of detached individual pieces of rock is called fall. This
o Animals like earthworms, rats, rabbits, termites and ants breakdown the rocks is common on slopes that are too steep for loose material to remain on the
through burrowing. surface.
- These disintegrated rocks can easily be exposed to • Slides occur when rock materials remain fairly coherent and move along a
more intense processes, or be eroded or removed well-defined surface.
by other agents. • Flow happens when rock materials are saturated with water anti move
- The action of microbes on rocks changes the downslope as a viscous fluid.
chemical composition of rocks. This makes the rocks more susceptible to Soil erosion - is the removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by
weathering. natural agencies after the disintegration of rocks into particles of soil.

19
- Wind erosion happens when winds carry large amount of fine soil particles and It includes all phenomena associated with the creation and discharge of
sand away from a region, spreading it over adjoining cultivated land and magma within the mantle to rise through the crust, forming volcanic rocks on the
destroying their fertility. It takes place in and around all desert regions of the surface. The driving force of volcanism is the plate tectonic motion created by the
world. movement of molten rocks in the mantle caused by thermal convection currents.
- Sheet erosion is the removal of thin layers of soil because of surface runoff and
rain. This type of erosion is common along the riverbeds and areas affected by The heat of the planet is trapped underneath. In the upper crust, the rate of
floods. If left unattended, the soil could be completely exhausted or devoid of temperature change averages at 20° to 30°C per kilometer.
nutrients due to removal of topsoil, rendering it completely unusable for This change in temperature is called the geothermal gradient resulted from the
agriculture. residual heat of primordial Earth.
- Rill erosion is the removal of soil by the action of concentrated running water.
This process creates several centimeter-deep tiny channels called rills, which Magma is generated when the right conditions such as the addition of heat,
carry water during storms. decrease in pressure, and change in composition of the mantle are met.
- Gully erosion is the removal of soil in water channels or drainage lines. The Subduction zones are the long, narrow zones where one lithospheric plate descends
gullies gradually multiply and spread over a wide area. The land being dissected beneath another, specifically, when an oceanic lithosphere thrusts into the mantle
is called badlands or ravines. along a convergence.
- Addition of heat can-be generated.
Endogenic Processes Pressure-release melting is the melting caused by decreasing pressure.
Volcano is a vent in the surface of Earth where magma is expelled during a volcanic
Heat is seen as energy from the motion of the molecules of body.
eruption. It is sometimes referred to as igneous activity because the rock being
It may transferred by conduction,
formed is an igneous rock.
convection, or radiation. Such heat drives the
Lava is the primary material extruded from a volcano in addition to volcanic rocks,
many internal processes of planet.
ash, and dust during volcanic eruptions.
There are three main sources of heat on
Volcanic eruptions can cause
Earth:
changes to Earth’s surface in
1. Heat from the accretion of Earth during its
many ways. Eruptions could
formation. (primordial heat)
trigger mudflows, avalanches,
2. Frictional heating, caused by the sinking of
and cracks or fissures on
core materials to the center of the planet.
Earth’s surface.
3. Heat from the decay of radioactive
elements.
Volcanic eruptions contribute
The temperature of Earth’s layers increases with depth.
Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock called magma onto Earth s surface through to the recycling of rocks.
a vent.

20
Tectonic Forces and Processes
As the plates continue to move due to the convection of Earth’s layers, rocks are
continuously exposed to stress and it will eventually undergo strain or deformation. The upward arch in a
fold is called
Deformation refers to any change in the shape or size of a rock as a response to the anticline,
stress. while the downward
- It may occur by either folding or faulting. arch is called
syncline.
Folding in rocks occur when they are subjected to tectonic forces from opposite
sides.
- Compressional stress causes squeezing, tensional stress causes stretching.
- Shearing stress causes side-to-side movement.
Folding in rocks often results in the appearance of physical folds called anticline and
syncline.
With enough pressure exerted on a rock layer, it will eventually result in a fracture.
Joint a term used if there are no movements on either side of the fracture.
(A) (C)
Fault a term used if there is any movement on one or both sides of the fracture.
- is the result of the fracture or displacement of rock layer or strata along a fault
plane. (A)Normal fault, the hanging wall moves
- Show a displacement of the two sides of a non-vertical fault: the hanging wall and down along the fault line.
the footwall. (B) (B)Reverse fault, the hanging wall
There are different types of faults based on the relative movement of these sides. moves up relative to the footwall.
- Dip-slip faults show vertical movement of the hanging wall and the footwall. (C)Transform fault, the rocks are pushed
Examples of dip-slip faults are the normal fault (caused by tension) and reverse in opposite directions.
fault (caused by compression).
- Strike-slip fault shows horizontal and parallel displacements of the fault planes. Plate Motion
- Transform fault, which is caused by shear strain, is an example of a strike-slip Different Theories about the Origin of the Continents
fault. Continent accretion theory (James Dwight Dana, geologist, 19th century)
- He proposed that the continents' have always been stationary with the gradual
Tectonic forces cause compression, addition of new material around a central nucleus.
tension, and shear stress to rocks
and rock layer. Continental assimilation hypothesis explained how the ocean areas accumulated
the denser elements then subsided to form basins.
21
Expanding Earth hypothesis (1925) stated that the present continents split apart Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates split apart from
with the expansion of Earth and that the continents combined could cover half of each other as a result of mantle convection— the slow, churning motion of Earth’s
the current Earth’s surface area. mantle.
- Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates move
Continental drift is the gradual movement of the continents over time. The upper away from one another, the heat from the convection currents makes the crust
layer of the crust is broken down into large slabs called plates, which sit on a fluid more plastic and less dense material rises, often forming mountains or elevation
level of molten rock. on the seafloor. The pressures cause the crust to crack.
- Plate tectonics is the movement of the lower molten layer, causes the plates to Convection currents carry heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere.
shift. Scientists estimate that the continents move anywhere from one centimeter - It also recycles lithospheric materials back to the mantle.
to several inches per year.
- Alfred Wegener (1912) theorized that the continents once existed as a single Mid-ocean ridges are large mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor as a result
landmass, which he called Pangaea. At point between 275 and 175 Mya, of seafloor spreading. For example, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the North
Pangaea began to separate. American plate from the Eurasian plate, and the South American plate from the
African plate.
Plate Tectonics and Plate Movements - It is a slow-spreading center. It spreads 2 to 5 cm per year and forms an ocean
Divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates trench about the size of the Grand Canyon in Arizona.
move away from each other. Along these boundaries,
lava is expelled from long fissures, and geysers spurt hot The East Pacific Rise is a mid-ocean ridge that runs through the eastern Pacific
water.
Ocean, and separates the Pacific plate from the North American, Cocos, Nazca, and
Convergent boundary (when two plates come together) Antarctic plates.
- Two plates collides, one or both buckles into a - It is a fast-spreading center at a rate of about 6 to 16 cm per year.
rugged mountain range or bends into a deep seafloor
trench.
- Parallel to the boundary, mountain range, or
trench, a chain of volcanoes often forms. How mantle movement
- Powerful earthquakes occur around wide areas
affect seafloor
on both sides of the boundary.
spreading.
Transform boundary (two plates sliding past each other)
Natural or human made structures that cross a transform
boundary are offset— split into pieces and carried
opposite directions. Rocks that line the boundary are
pulverized as the plates grind along, creating a valley or
canyon.
22
Subduction happens when tectonic plates crash into each other instead of move Principle of crosscutting relations (3rd key idea)
apart. This idea states that any rock or fault that cuts across other rocks is younger than
- At subduction zones the edge of the denser slides beneath the less dense one. those it cuts across. When layers of rocks are cut by another event, such as a lava
The denser lithospheric material then melts back into Earth’s mantle.
flow, the original rock layers are older and the intrusion is younger.
- Subduction destroys the old crust. The two forces roughly balance each other, so
the shape and diameter of Earth remain constant.
Idea of unconformities (4th key idea)
- Unconformities are surfaces of erosion that separate younger rocks from older
History of the Earth
ones.
- For example, if a sedimentary rock forms and is exposed to the elements, it
Uniformitarianism -One guiding principle in the study of Earth history.
would begin to wear away. The eroded surface would eventually form a new
- It states that the present is the key to the past, which is based on the principle
always form in horizontal layers rock as new sediments begin to pile up.
that natural laws have remained the same throughout time.
- the existing rock is lost and unrecoverable.
- The same natural laws that impact Earth today had the same impact millions of
- It can occur because of wind, water, or friction when other rocks scrape along
years ago.
them.

Relative dating is used to determine whether an object or event is older or

Absolute dating is the method of measuring the absolute age of an event or
younger than other objects or events.
object.
- Sedimentary rocks, which are formed in layers, provide useful information in
- To determine the absolute ages of rocks and fossils, scientists analyze isotopes of
relative dating.
radioactive elements.
Sedimentary rocks are useful in relative dating due to the following reasons:
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have similar number of protons but
• They are formed from fragments of other types of rocks.
different numbers of neutrons.
• New sedimentary rock layers are almost always flat.
- Most isotopes are stable, in that they stay in their original form. Other isotopes
• Fossils are deposited in the sedimentary layers of rocks.
are unstable, in that they break down into stable isotopes or other elements.
They are called radioactive.
Ideas or Laws in deducing geologic history of the Earth
Since radioactive decay occurs at a steady rate, we can use the relative
Law of original horizontality (1st key idea)
amounts of stable and unstable isotopes present in an object to determine age. In
This means that sedimentary rocks are originally formed in horizontal layers. This
radioactive decay, an unstable radioactive isotope breaks down into a stable
can be seen in any river or lake where sediment will settle to the bottom in layers.
isotope.
o Parent isotope is the unstable radioactive isotope.
Law of superposition (2nd key idea)
o Daughter isotope is the stable isotope produced by the radioactive decay.
It states that in any undisturbed sequence of layers of rock, the oldest layer would
The rate of radioactive decay is constant, that is why comparing the amount of
be at the bottom, and the youngest would be at the top.
parent material with the amount of daughter material is important in- dating rocks.
The more daughter material there is, the older the rock.
23
 o Uranium-lead method uses uranium-238, has a half-life of 4.5 Ga. Uranium-238
Half-life is the time needed for half of a sample of a radioactive substance to decays in a series of steps, which ultimately becomes lead-206.
undergo radioactive decay. After every half-life, the amount of parent material - The uranium-lead method can be used to date rocks, which are more than 10
decreases by one-half. million years old.
A sample isotope with a half-life of lO,OOO years o Rubidium-strontium method uses rubidium-87, which forms a stable daughter
isotope strontium-87. The half-life of rubidium-87 is 49 Ga.
- This method is used for rocks which are older than 10 million years
(megaannum or Ma).
o Carbon-14 method uses the radioactive isotope carbon-14, which has a half-life
of 5730 years.
- Living plants and animals contain a constant carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio.
Once a plant or animal dies no new carbon is taken in.
- The amount of carbon-14 begins to decrease as the plant or animal decays,
which could be compared to the amount of carbon-12.
- The carbon-14 method of radiometric dating is used mainly for dating things
that lived within the last 50000 years.

Fossil is the remnant of any ancient animal or plant that has been preserved in
cystallized rocks.
- The age of the fossil is equal to the age of the rock from where it is found. Index
fossils serve as guide or indicators of certain geologic periods.
- If two rocks anywhere on the planet contain the same index fossil, then it can be
said that those rocks are from the same period.

Radiometric dating is another dating method achieved by determining the Geologic time scale is the system used by scientists to relate stratigraphy and time
absolute age of a sample based on the ratio of parent material to daughter to any geologic events.
material. - They have divided the 4.6 GA of Earth’s rich history into different spans of time to
- Knowing the rate of decay for any radioactive element could help in figuring conveniently indicate a major geological or paleontological event.
out the absolute age of the rock. - These time spans include age (millions of years), epoch (tens of millions of years),
Four radiometric dating methods based on the estimated age of an object; period (one hundred million years), era (several hundred million years), and eon
o Potassium-argon method uses potassium-40, has a half-life of 1.25 billion years (half billion years or more).
(gigaannum or Ga) and as it decays, it leaves its daughter material, argon.
- This method is used mainly to date rocks, which are older than 100000 years.
24
Earth Past - The Proterozoic eon is when the atmosphere began to have oxygen, eukaryotes
diversified, multicellular animals appeared, and the continents began to drift
away.
▪ Paleozoic era, fossils of marine invertebrates, which lived near shallow water,
were formed in sedimentary layers. Fossils of trilobites and brachiopod were also
found preserved in rocks.
▪ Middle Paleozoic era, marine life form developed shells.
▪ Devonian period, animal began to breathe air as amphibians came out of the sea.
Land plants, such as giant ferns and marsh plants, also began to develop during
this period.
▪ Late Paleozoic era, reptiles started to appear. They appeared much like their
amphibian ancestors but where different in that they were able to lay their eggs
Paleontology is the study of life prior to or at the start of the Holocene epoch. on land.
- It include the study of fossils to determine how organisms evolved and how they ▪ Early Mesozoic era was marked by the breakup of the major landmasses.
interacted with their environment - North America began to part from Europe and South America, while Australia,
New Zealand, and India began to separate from Africa
Paleontologists are the Scientist who studies paleontology.
- The largest creatures that existed during this era were believed to be
- They discern the nature, occurrence, and evolution of life throughout the descendants of the primitive reptiles that survived throughout the Paleozoic
geologic time. era. They were called dinosaurs.
▪ Precambrian— about 88% or roughly 4.1 billion years. ▪ Before the Mesozoic era, North and South America, Australia, Africa, and India all
- Represents 80% of Earth’s history had separate plates.
- Eon of “Hidden Life” – fossil record obscure. ▪ Cenozoic era, mountains were uplifted and new life forms started appearing.
▪ Hadean, is a chaotic eon mainly due to the meteorites that constantly bombarded - Volcanic activities became widespread, forming immense flows of lava and
Earth, causing severe volcanic activities. Hadean came from Hades which means basalt.
“hell”. - Warm-blooded animals, such as marsupials like kangaroo, and primitive
- During this eon, the ocean and atmosphere were formed and the core, the crust mammals roamed the land.
was also stabilized. - During this period that humans left their marks on land, as observed in the
▪ Archean eon lasted for 1.3 Ga. It was characterized as the period when Earth stone tools that were used.
became warm but the atmosphere contained only, methane, with little to no
oxygen.
- Most of Earth was still covered with water. Earth and Life Science
- Continent formation was presumed to begin during the eon, but not until the Evaluation for Module no. 2
mantle cooled.
▪ Archean eon is characterized by an orange atmosphere primarily due to the Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
abundance of methane. Identification; Identify the word being defined by the following statement.
- The oceans were green due to the abundance of iron and stromalite-field ____________________1. This drives the many processes of Earth and is transferred
shorelines. through conduction, convection and radiation.
▪ Proterozoic eon lasted for 1.9 Ga, lasting almost half the age of Earth.
25
____________________2. It is the gradual movement of the continents over time. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________3. It is the removal of soil at a greater rate than its _____________________________________________________________________
replacement by natural agencies. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________4. This refers to the downslope movement of rock and soil _____________________________________________________________________
under the influence of gravity. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________5. The general term applied to the combined action of all _____________________________________________________________________
processes that cause rock to disintegrate physically and _____________________________________________________________________
decompose chemically due to the exposure on or near _____________________________________________________________________
Earth surface. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Enumeration; Answer the following question by supplying information. _____________________________________________________________________
6 – 12. Give at least seven (7) major properties of minerals. _____________________________________________________________________
6. ____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
9. ____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
11. __________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
12.__________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13 – 15. Give the three (3) types of rocks. _____________________________________________________________________
13.___________________________
14. ___________________________
15. ___________________________

Essay; (for 5 points)

Describe the different methods to determine the age of the Earth.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

26
 Module no. 3 Natural Processes and Hazards
Key Learning Time Natural hazard is a naturally-occurring event or phenomenon which has negative
Topic/Title Objectives
points Duration anthropogenic and environmental effects.
Natural phenomena involving geologic, hydrometeorological, and marine and
Lesson III. At the end of this lesson Natural coastal processes could lead to natural disasters.
Natural the student can…. Processes and
Natural disaster refers to any natural hazard or threat that causes fatality or damage
Hazards, 1. Describe the various Hazards
Mitigation, and hazards that may Hydrometeorol Date Started: to property.
Adaptation happen in the event of ogical Hazard mitigation is the ways of decreasing damages, minimization of risk and
Natural processes. Phenomena and _____________ casualties that could otherwise be involved from the natural hazards.
2. Identify the human Hazards
activities that speed up Marine and ➢ Geologic Hazards and Mitigation
or trigger landslides. Coastal Date of
The processes that have shaped Earth continually act on or beneath the surface.
3. identify the areas in Processes and Submission:
Geologic hazards brought by earthquakes, earthquake-induced landslides,
your community prone their Effects
to any hazards, give a _____________ volcanic eruption, and tsunamis are due to the movement of plates and local
practical way of coping concentrations of geologic heating.
with it and cite way to - It causes great risk to both humans and human made structures.
prevent or mitigate to
its impact. Earthquakes
Since 1968, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
Activity no. 3
(PHIVOLCS), the government agency overlooking all seismic and volcanic activities in
1. Identify the phenomena represented by the pictures.
the Philippines, have recorded 12 destructive earthquakes. The infamous Luzon
earthquake of 1990 alone caused innumerable injuries and a death count of over
1100.There have been earthquake events in all parts of the Philippines. This is
largely due the Philippine’s location within the Pacific Ring of Fire.

____________________ ____________________ ___________________ Landslides

When earthquakes occur, the shaking and rupture are usually accompanied by other
environmental risks such as landslides.
When earthquakes happen in humanmade embankments and natural slopes in
mountainous areas, the hazard and potential devastation greatly increases.

____________________ ___________________ ___________________

Common human activities that trigger and hasten the occurrence of landslides
Readings,
• Removal of vegetation.
27
• Interference with, or changes to the natural drainage. 10 Nueva Ecija Rizal Batanes Masbate
• Leaking pipes such as water and sewer. Hydrometeorological Hazards
• Modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways, buildings, subdivisions. Hydrometeorological hazards are processes of atmospheric, hydrological or
• Overloading slopes. oceanographic nature that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage,
• Mining and quarrying activities.
social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
• Vibration from heavy traffic, blasting during road constructions of nearby mining
Examples are tropical cyclones, monsoon rains (habagat and amihan), tornado, ipo-
activities.
• Excavation of rocks. ipo and thunderstorms, floods, drought, wildfire and storm surges.
- Atmospheres circulation causes tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, and
Volcanic Eruptions tornadoes.
The Philippines lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire. This explains the
distribution or most volcanoes in the Philippines. The Mount Pinatubo eruption of Monsoons is a prevalent winds in a country located within the tropics such as
1991 was well known to be the most violent eruption in the 2Oth century. There are Philippines.
22 historically-active volcanoes distributed all over the Philippine archipelago. - It is a consistent reversal of wind pattern or a wind system generated by large
weather system affecting a large area over a period of several months.
Tsunamis
Aside from landslides, tsunami is another hazard caused by earthquakes or
There are two prevailing wind patterns which affect the Philippines
seismic activities that affect, being an archipelago of the Pacific Ring of Fire, is bodies
▪ Southwest monsoon (Habagat)
of water. The Philippines located in the region constantly at risk for tsunami. In
- Which occur within the months of May to October.
November 14, 1994, a 7.1-magnitude earthquake in Mindoro triggered a tsunami
- It brings heavy rain to the Philippines, with the highest percentage of rainfall
that left 41 dead.
attributed to the occurrence of tropical cyclones.
Most coastal areas experience a tsunami or have a tsunami hazard potential.
▪ Northeast monsoon (Amihan)
The top 10 provinces that are risks to:
- Which occur within the months of November to February.
No. Earthquake Landslides Volcanic Eruptions Tsunamis
1 Surigao Del Sur Ifugao Camiguin Sulu Tropical cyclones (bagyo) are common in the Philippines due to its being in the
2 La Union Lanao Del Sur Sulu Tawi-tawi typhoon belt.
3 Benguet Sarangani Biliran Basilan The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services (PAGASA)
4 Pangasinan Benguet Albay Batanes - It is the government weather bureau that monitors atmospheric occurrences
5 Pampanga Mountain Province Bataan Guimaras within the Philippine area of responsibility, its internationally-recognized
6 Tarlac Bukidnon Sorsogon Romblon jurisdiction.
7 Ifugao Aurora South Cotabato Siquijor - It records an average of 20 tropical cyclones entering the PAR annually, with
8 Davao Oriental Davao Del Sur Laguna Surigao del Norte about five being destructive.
9 Nueva Vizcaya Davao Oriental Camarines Sur Camiguin There are five categories of tropical cyclones based on their wind speed.

28
 Tropical Cyclones and Wind Speeds
Flood is another natural
Sustained Wind Near the hazard which is common
Type
Center to the countries of the
Tropical depression 30 – 60 km/h Asia-Pacific region.
Tropical storm 61 – 88 km/h
Severe Tropical storm 89 – 117 km/h They occur when water
Typhoon 118 – 219 km/h from heavy rainfall are
Super Typhoon Faster than 220 km/h not properly channelled.

Mitigation and Prevention The color-coded rainfall warning system provides information about incoming
rainfalls and necessary responses which should be taken.
To mitigate the effects of tropical cyclones and flooding, PAGASA have Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH) of the Department of
Science and Technology is one of the many programs the Philippine government has
implemented some measures. Floods and 3D hazard maps are made and
undertaken to address disaster prevention and mitigation in the country.
disseminated to areas which are usually hit by typhoons and areas which are prone The NOAH program currently has nine projects under their wing, including advance
to flooding. disaster science, research and technologies. In one of their projects, they have
PAGASA issues public weather forecasts and advisories called public storm warning provided the public with high-resolution flood hazard maps which are useful in
in several mass media to provide five level warnings related to weather conditions. identifying areas prone to flooding, such as the areas near the 18 major river
Public Storm Warning System systems in the country.
Level Wind and Lead Time
1 30 – 60 km/h; within 36 hrs. Marine and Coastal Processes and Hazards
Using PAGASA’s PSWS, the Coastal area refers to the land and sea areas bordering the shoreline.
2 61 – 88 km/h; within 24 hrs.
Department of Education (DepEd) - It comprises the natural boundary between the land and ocean which may
3 89 – 117 km/h; within 18 hrs.
has adopted the following guidelines include the beach, dunes, mangroves, estuary, delta, or lagoon, among others.
4 118 – 219 km/h; within 12 hrs. with regards to class suspension: - Living in coastal areas provides many benefits such as food production and
5 Faster than 220 km/h; within 12 hrs. revenue from tourism. As an archipelago located in the tropics, the Philippines
PSWS 1 — All classes in kindergarten are particularly susceptible to coastal hazards.
are suspended.
o PSWS 1 — All classes in kindergarten are suspended. - The hazards of living near the coastlines include dangers of waves, tides, erosion,
o PSWS 2 — All classes in elementary and high school are suspended. flood or submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
• PSWS 2 — All classes in elementary
o PSWS 3 — All classes in all levels, including college and graduate schools, are
and high school are suspended.
suspended. Submersion and Coastal Erosion
PSWS 3 — All classes in all levels, Waves - are caused by wind and storms.
Aside from the PSWS, PAGASA also provides color-coded
includingrainfall
collegewarning system in
and graduate
- It causes large impacts around the coastline for the potential coastal erosion,
their storm forecasts to help communities prepare for incoming heavy rain and flooding and damages they may bring.
schools, are suspended.
Tides - are the result of the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon on the
potential flooding, and act accordingly.
oceans
29
 - It caused the frequent rise and fall of ocean levels. wash up on a beach at a very high angle from the line of the beach except perhaps at
Dominant Coastal Proesses an inlet or where the shore makes a sudden right angle bend.
Coastal erosion - is the effect of the processes such as wave action, wave
currents, and tidal currents that wear away the land and removes sediments
Coastal deposition
near the coastline.
When waves lose their capacity to carry or transport sediments because of a
- is the wearing away of the land by the sea and is done by destructive waves.
reduction in energy, they can and will "drop" or deposit its sediment load. Waves
Five common processes that cause coastal erosion: that do not have the capacity to transport sediments and which results to sediment
o Corrasion is when waves pick up beach materials and hurl them at the base deposition and accumulation are called constructive waves. Deposition happens
of a cliff. when the swash (or the waves that rushes inland) is stronger than the backwash
o Abrasion happens when breaking waves containing sediment fragments (waves rushing back to sea). Deposition can occur as waves enter areas of shallow
erode the shoreline, particularly headland. It is also referred to as the sand water, sheltered areas like coves or bay, little or no wind, and there is a sufficient
paper effect. supply of sediments. Emphasize that the waves lose kinetic energy to transport the
o Hydraulic action The effect of waves as they hit cliff faces, the air is sediment load.
compressed into cracks and is released as waves rushes back seaward. The To prevent flooding and erosion, structures can be built to attempt to stop the
compressing and releasing of air as waves presses cliff faces and rushes back transport of sand, uncontrolled rise of sea level, and the forces of waves and tides.
to sea will cause cliff material to break away. Seawalls - are specifically designed and constructed to protect areas of human
o Attrition is the process when waves bump rocks and pebbles against each habitation and recreational spots.
other leading to the eventual breaking of the materials. - Building seawalls which run parallel to the sea prevents the direct impact of
o Corrosion/solution involves dissolution by weak acids such as when the coastal processes to landforms near the coast.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is dissolved into water turning it into a - Depending on the available material and degree of wave and tidal action,
weak carbonic acid. Several rocks (e.g., Limestone) are vulnerable to this seawalls could be vertical, curved, or made of rubble and blocks.
acidic water and will dissolve into it. The rate of dissolution is affected by the Groynes are built perpendicular to the beach to limit the movement of sediment
concentration of carbonates & other minerals in the water. As it increases, and interrupt the natural flow of water and waves.
dissolution becomes slower. - They may be made of wood, concrete, or pile of rocks.
- Building groynes along with seawalls could also be helpful.
Sediment movement along coasts
As wave crashes on the shore, the water pushes sediment up the beach and Hydrologists are involved in monitoring, managing, and protecting Earth's water
then pulls it back down the beach as the water slides back down. If the waves do not and water resources.
- They engineer pipes and channels that would make the flow of water more
come in parallel to the beach long shore transport (littoral drift) of sand occurs.
effective, efficient, and sustainable.
When waves approach the beach at an angle, the part of the wave that reaches - Their work involves efficient planning, development, and sustainable use of
shallow water earliest slows down the most, allowing the part of the wave that is water resources.
farther offshore to catch up. In this way the wave is refracted (bent) so that it
crashes on the shore more nearly parallel to the shore. You will never see a wave
30
Saltwater Intrusion disaster to prevent loss of lives and properties. One very common mitigation
When saline water moves into freshwater aquifers, which are the main source of measures against floods are river channel dikes.
drinking water in coastal areas, it often leads to contamination.
Intrusion of saltwater happens naturally because of the varying densities of Earth and Life Science
Evaluation for Module no. 3
saltwater and freshwater.
- when the demand for freshwater is greater than the natural recharge rate of the Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
aquifer (primarily though precipitation), rate of saltwater intrusion increases, A. Item completion; Supply all the information needed by the table. (for 10 points)
leading to the depletion of useable groundwater. Type of Hazard
To mitigate the effects of saltwater intrusion, injection wells are built where Localities/Place (Specify the Adaptation Mitigation
freshwater is injected. The addition freshwater in injection wells creates a hydraulic cause)
pressure or barrier to saltwater intrusion.

Project TeWS (Tsunami Early Warning System is a reliable system for tsunami
forecasts and timely disaster response devised and implemented by the Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS).
- It aims to provide alerts and warnings to coastal communities to avoid or reduce
coastal hazards. B. Essay; (for 5 points)
- It includes orientation on earthquakes and tsunami concepts, familiarization of If you were to build your own preparedness kit, what would it contain? Why?
tsunami hazard maps, and preparation of tsunami evacuation plans. _____________________________________________________________________
- After being implemented in densely-populated coastal towns and cities of Metro _____________________________________________________________________
Manila, TeWS has been adopted by coastal communities in Western Visayas. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Hazard adaptation - is knowing how to adjust or cope with an existing _____________________________________________________________________
environmental condition in particular those pertaining to areas with potential _____________________________________________________________________
hazards brought about by hydrometeorological phenomenon. _____________________________________________________________________
- To be able to do this, it is important to identify potential hazards and their _____________________________________________________________________
potential impacts and effects to the community. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Risk Reduction _____________________________________________________________________
Measures to reduce the frequency or severity of losses brought about by the _____________________________________________________________________
effects of hazards. It is also a measure of reducing the exposure of people to the _____________________________________________________________________
effects of hazards. _____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Disaster Mitigation
These are measures or methods or strategies that eliminate or at least reduce
the impacts and risks of hazards. There must be proactive measures done prior to a

31
 Module no. 4
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration

Lesson IV. At the end of this lesson Historical

Introduction the student can…. development of
to Life Science 1. Explain the evolving the concept of
Date Started:
concept of life based life.
on emerging pieces Unifying themes
______________
of evidence. in the study of
2. Describe the classic life.
experiments that
Date of
model the conditions
Submission:
which may have
enable the first form
______________
to evolve.
3. Describe the unifying
themes in the study
of life.

Activity no. 4
A. What is Life? Answer this question by creating a words or sentence associated or
seems to be related in every letter of the word L. I. F. E.
L -_____________________________________________________________
I - _____________________________________________________________
F -_____________________________________________________________
E -_____________________________________________________________

B. State your reason why you come up to that answer.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

32
Readings; Evidence on the First Forms of Life
Fossils are one of the strongest pieces of evidence that show many life forms
The Historical Development of the Concept of Life
Studies on the Origin of Life existed on Earth in the past 3.5 billion years. Fossils such as those in the form of
Curiosity about the many mysteries of life serves as the driving force in studies that bones, shells, leaves, and footprints of animals were formed when living organisms
seek to further our understanding of how life began. were quickly buried in sand, mud, and gravel at the bottom part of different bodies
An important part of the nature of science is to provide theories on the beginning of water.
and formation of the universe and pieces of evidence to support these theories. Over long periods of time, particles piled up on the remains of organisms and
eventually became sedimentary rocks, preserving the original body pattern of the
Many scientists have dedicated themselves to finding out how life first appeared on
organisms.
Earth.
▪ In 1920, Alexander Oparin, a Russian biochemist, and John Haldane, a Scottish Paleontologists carefully examine the age of fossilized organisms through
biologist, independently investigated the spontaneous occurrence of organic radioisotope dating using radioactive materials such as the radioactive components
molecules like nucleotides and amino acids under simulated conditions of the of potassium-argon.
early Earth. Paleontologists (scientists who study fossils) have found remains of
- Oparin and Haldane hypothesized that the spontaneous formation of organic microscopic living cells, called microfossils, in rocks that formed 3.5 billion years ago
molecules produced a "primordial soup" which later gave rise to living after the Earth cooled and solidified.
organisms. The microfossils existed in mats and formed layered structures called
▪ In 1953, (classic experiment) Harold Urey and his graduate student, Stanley stromatolites. These microfossils show that the stromalites were composed of
Miller, tested Oparin and Haldane's hypothesis by setting up an apparatus that prokaryotes, or single-celled organisms, called cyanobacteria— the blue-green
simulated the early Earth conditions. algae.
- In a flask, Miller and Urey sealed a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and
hydrogen, similar to the major components found in the Earth's early Stromatolites in the Siyeh rock
formation of Glacier National
atmosphere.
Park, Montana, USA.
- Water vapor from the flask of boiling water rose into the chamber. Electric
sparks were moved through the mixture of water vapor and gas resulting in a Images Credits: National Park
simulation of lightning bolts. Service
- The sparks were fired between the electrodes and then water vapor cooled and
condensed again. • Scientist believed that these early cyanobacteria were the first oxygen producing
- After a week of experimentation, the contents were analyzed. About 10% to organisms that helped evolve the Earth's early atmosphere into one that can
15% of the carbon combined to form organic compounds. A few types of amino support the early life forms.
acids and lipids were found. • As these microorganisms continued generating oxygen, other photosynthetic
- It provided foundational pieces of evidence that support a theory on the origin organisms evolved and increased the level of oxygen in the atmosphere.
of life forms that arose spontaneously through chemical reactions.

33
• This also increased the chance of more and more oxygen reacting with ammonia, - Some live in hot springs and in alkaline or acid waters. Others live inside the
a reaction that results in the release of nitrogen into the atmosphere. gut of cows, termites, and some marine life forms where they produce
• Eventually, a layer of ozone formed in the atmosphere which served as a shield methane.
for life forms against ultraviolet radiation. A rapid evolution of life occurred after ▪ Organisms belonging to domain Bacteria, also called true bacteria or simply
oxygen became abundant. bacteria, constitute a great portion of prokaryotic microorganisms.
▪ Bacteria are ecologically diverse; they are found in water, soil, and even in other
The Three Domains of Life organisms.
- Life is everywhere on Earth. ▪ Some are aerobic which require oxygen to live and grow, while others are
- There are organisms in soil, air, and even in freezing waters or deep sea thermal anaerobic, which means that they can survive oxygen-depleted environments.
vents.
▪ Eukaryotes, belonging to the domain Eukaryota or Eukarya
- This diversity of life constitutes many and varied lineages of organisms. Some of
the lineages of life have gone extinct due to geological events brought about by - They have membrane-bound nucleus and are organisms that have eukaryotic
tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, extreme fluctuations in temperature, and rising cells composed of membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondrion,
water levels. endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast, among others.
- What is known from fossil record about extinct species and their relationship with - They are either unicellular such as the protists and yeasts or multicellular such
remaining life forms suggests a possible lineage of life on Earth. as the plants, fungi, and animals.

Organisms have been historically grouped into kingdoms, the pioneering

studies of Carl Woese, an American microbiologist and biophysicist, have led to the
further grouping of organisms into a higher level of classification called domains.

The three-domain classification system;(Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya).

▪ The domain Archaea and domain Bacteria are the prokaryotes, which are
Representative eukaryotic organisms
microscopic, single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-covered nucleus.
▪ The organisms that belong to domain Eukarya are all eukaryotes, which are
Halobacterium sp.
mostly multicellular organisms that have a true nucleus. strain NRC-1, a
▪ The members of the domain Archaea are also known as the ancient bacteria representative Archaea.
because they resemble the first prokaryotes on Earth. Salmonella typhimurium
- Scientists classify the archaea into a separate kingdom because their (red)a representative
morphological and genetic characteristics differ from those of other forms of bacterial species.
bacteria.
- Archaea live mostly in extreme environments like near rift vents in the deep Unifying Themes in the Study of Life
sea at temperatures over 100°C. ▪ Theory of Abiogenesis/Theory of Spontaneous Generation
- Living things arose from non-living things.

34
The theory of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis was disproved by Louis The ecosystem is also a biological system.
Pasteur in an experiment using boiled beef broth placed in a sealed flask. The forests, grasslands, and bodies of water have interacting components.
He conducted a series of experiments to prove his claim that life can only come from These ecosystems have properties that depend on the interaction between and
life forms. among their components. The diversity of living things in an ecosystem is sustained
o He prepared two setups of boiled beef broth using short-necked flasks. by materials in the environment and the cycling of these materials.
o He found out that the unsealed flask which he left for a few days was For example, most plants obtain their food from soil nutrients, water, and
contaminated with microorganisms. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Animals get nourishment from the plants and
o The other flask, which was sealed, did not show evidence of growing organisms. animals they eat. These materials are returned to the soil with the help of nitrogen-
o Based on these findings, he argued that microorganisms which are present in the fixing bacteria and ammonifying bacteria through the process of decomposition.
air contaminated the sterile beef broth in the unsealed flask. The interaction among organisms and their environment is a unifying theme
o In other words, the microorganisms that contaminated the beef broth came from that provides a framework for relating different biological systems with narratives
microorganisms in the air. on survival.

Theory of Biogenesis Cellular Basis of Life

- Life originated from pre-existing life forms. - All living things, whether unicellular or multicellular, are made up of cells. The
cells of an organism are specialized to perform different physiological functions.
The Unifying Theme of Life - The nerve cells and muscle cells, for example, are specialized cells of the body.
Biodiversity is one of the unifying themes of biology that helps describe the Muscles contract and relax due to nerve cells that transmit impulses, which in
interaction among living things and their environment. turn control the
Biological system refers to the complex system of parts which form an organization action of the
with many different properties based on the arrangement and interconnection of muscles.
these parts. - In most multicellular
For example, the skeletal system and the muscular system work together. organisms like
The movement of the arm depends on the contraction of the arm muscles which are humans, cells are
attached to the arm bones. organized into higher
- The muscular system works together with the nervous system. levels of
- The nervous system transmits information through electrical signals from the organization. Cells
brain to the motor neurons to facilitate muscle contraction. that have similar or
- The nervous system and the endocrine system also work together. the same functions
- These systems control and coordinate the workings of the different parts of the combine to form
body. tissues. Tissues
All bodily activities are coordinated by a complex group of organs and nerves that combine to form
enable living organisms to receive and respond to stimuli. organs and organs to
form organ systems.

35
 - This organ system work together to ensure the survival of an organism. The abiotic components which include temperature, light, air, and water provide
- Complex organisms have different levels of organization: cell, tissue, organ, and organisms with their basic needs.
organ systems.
Form and Function For example;
Morphology and physiology (form fits function) help describe many biological - A plant obtains water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from animals,
systems and processes. Cell shape in multicellular organisms help determine the and energy from sunlight. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants give off
cell's function. oxygen, which is one of the essential elements that animals need to survive.
For example; - Organisms interact with other organisms and their environment to survive.
- the human red blood cells are disc-shaped for faster exchange of oxygen and to - Organisms that have the same needs compete for limited resources. An increase
allow it to pass through narrow blood vessels. in the growth rates of competing organisms also puts a strain on these
- is the aerodynamic shape of a bird's wings for flight. These wings complement
resources.
the bird's strong breast muscles,
Everything in nature is interconnected and interrelated with everything else. No
allowing the bird to flap its wings and
organism can live on its own. It has to rely on other organisms and on the resources
fly.
in the environment to survive.
- The honeycomb-like structure of the
bird's skeletal structure provides
Energy
agility with little weight to move and
Energy is needed to sustain life. Organisms need energy to perform many biological
fly.
processes that help them meet their basic needs and survive.
The different structures that make up
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
living organisms have parts that work
- The cell undergoes a series of biosynthetic processes to transform energy.
harmoniously together to allow the
- The energy-releasing reactions involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
organism to perform its role in the
proteins, lipids, and fats transform energy into a form that can be used by
environment and to survive.
organisms.
- The Sun is the ultimate source of energy Organisms use the Sun's energy to
Reproduction and Inheritance
Living things reproduce to perpetuate their kind. They pass on their traits to their survive.
offspring.
- Offspring resemble their parents because they inherit the same units of gene Evolution
information from their parents. Evolution is the developmental process through which organisms develop from
- The passing on of genes across generations is responsible for the similarities in earlier forms of life.
characteristics among organisms that descended from a common ancestor. - Living things evolved through time.
- Animals and plants went through changes in structures to adapt to the type of
Interaction with the Environment
ecosystems in which they lived.
The abiotic and biotic components of the Earth interact with one another.

36
As scientists discover more and more organisms and learn more and more about _____________________________________________________________________
their habitats and their interactions with one another, we get a better _____________________________________________________________________
understanding of how different life forms came about. _____________________________________________________________________

Earth and Life Science

Evaluation for Module no. 4

Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________

Item Completion; Complete the table below. (for 10 points)
Differentiate the Three (3) domain of life.
Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

Essay; (for 10 points)

Describe and explain the unifying themes in the study of life.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
37
 Module no. 5 Readings;
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration
The Cell as the Basic Unit Of Life
The cell is the smallest independently functioning unit or structure in an organism.
Lesson V. At the end of this lesson The cell as the
The idea that all life forms are made of cells is credited to the German botanist
Bioenergetics the student can…. basic unit of life.
1. Explain how cells carry Photosynthetic Matthias Schleiden and the German physiologist Theodore Schwann.
out function requires organisms Date Started: - Schleiden conducted a microscopic study of plant structures and concluded that
for life. Photosynthesis plants are made up of cells.
2. Trace the energy flow Cellular ______________ - Schwann performed a similar study involving animal tissues and concluded that
from the environment Respiration animals are made up of cells.
to the cells.
- Rudolf Virchow, German biologist suggested that cells came from pre-existing
3. Describe how Date of
cells through cell division.
organisms obtain and Submission:
utilize These ideas about the cell led to the development of the cell theory.
energy/Recognize that ______________
organisms require Cell theory - states that the cell is the basic unit of life.
energy to carry out - all organisms are composed of cells.
functions required for - the cells arise from pre-existing cells.
life.
- The activity of an organism is dependent on both individual and
collective activities of its cells.
Activity no. 6
- The cell is the smallest unit having the properties of life.
Give the similarities and differences of the following, by completing the table below.
Battery Sunlight Respiration Food
(Differences) Discovery of the Cell
- The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
- Using a magnifying glass, he observed the cork of an oak tree and saw little boxes
or hollow spaces (cells) that are distinct from one another.
- Perhaps, the first to observe live cells was Anton van Leeuwenhoek. He observed
single-celled organisms that have animallike properties. He call these organism
animalcules or small animals.
(Similarities)
- Robert Brown (1831) provided the first account of the nucleus- the conspicuous
central structure of the cell.

The Structure of a Living Cell

38
Prokaryotic Cells Cell Membrane
- In terms of cell morphology, Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes. These - The cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane.
organisms are microscopic and lack membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. - It serves to protect the organelles in the cytoplasm and determines which
- Prokaryotes are widely distributed. Some prokaryotes live in soil, water, and materials can pass in and out of the cell.
even in digestive tract of many animals.
- It has an outer membrane that regulates the exchange of materials between the
- As decomposers, they play an important role in ecosystems; they help in the
cycling of materials. cell's internal and external environment.
- Some bacterial species are pathogenic and can cause diseases. - It also permits cell to cell adhesion and intercellular communication.
- The cell membrane, which serves as a physical barrier, is principally composed of
Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell phospholipids and proteins along with oligosaccharide side chains.
A prokaryotic cell is composed of the following parts: - It is composed of the following molecules.
▪ Capsule - sticky protective outer layer ▪ Phospholipid - the basic structure that provides a framework to the cell. It
▪ cell wall - helps the bacterium maintain its shape consists of two different ends— a head and a tail.
▪ plasma membrane - separates the - Head end is made up of a phosphate group that is attracted to water
cell from the environment.
molecules. It is the hydrophilic (polar) end of the molecule.
▪ plasmid - small circle of DNA
▪ nucleoid - region within the cell - Tail end is made up of fatty acid chains and is attracted to lipid molecules. It is
containing the DNA the hydrophobic (non-polar) end of the molecule.
▪ cytoplasm - semi-fluid where ▪ Cholesterol - a molecule responsible. for maintaining the consistency of the cell
metabolic process happen membrane.
▪ ribosome - the site of protein ▪ Proteins - found in the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. Some of these proteins
synthesis in the cells; in most act as enzymes that help speed up chemical reactions involved in transporting
bacteria, it is the most numerous
materials across the cell membrane.
structure.

Eukaryotes Cells Protein channels are

- Eukaryotes, on the other hand, are organisms that belong to kingdom protista, small openings for the
fungi, animalia, and plantae. specific molecules to
diffuse across the
- It has cells that possess a true nucleus where most of the DNA molecules are
bilayer. The carrier
found. The nucleus in eukaryotic cells controls and regulates the functions of protein alternates
other cell parts. between two
- Eukaryotic cells have a distinct compartmentalization that partitions the cell into conformations on the
different membrane-bound organelles. binding site of the
- These organelles carry out specialized chemical reactions in the cell. protein surface to pull
- For example: the synthesis and breakdown of proteins take place in different them into the gated
channel.
compartments in the cell.
39
Nucleus - These organelles are
- is the largest and most distinct feature of both animal and plant cells. commonly termed as
- is usually centrally located and serves as the control center of the cell. the powerhouse of
- It is responsible for cell division. It is also where DNA is located. the cell for their
- The nucleus is enclosed with a nuclear membrane. involvement in
cellular respiration.
Following are the parts of the nucleus and their functions: - It has a smooth outer
▪ Nuclear membrane – is a double-walled membrane that regulates the exchange wall and inner wall
of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. consisting of several
▪ Nucleolus - a dark staining body which disappears when the cell is about to inwardly directed
folds.
divide.
▪ Nucleoplasm - the liquid matrix that Lysosomes
is enveloped or enclosed by the - Are smaller than the
nuclear envelope. mitochondria, serve as storage
▪ Chromatin - the long thread-like or vesicles for hydrolytic enzymes.
granular structures that are made up - It functions as a "digestive
of the genetic material and proteins system" for the cell through
to form chromosomes. which food particles ingested by
phagocytosis or pinocytosis are
Organelles digested.
Organelles are structures that are suspended in the cytoplasm. They perform
- It contain chemicals that break
specific functions. Organelles are usually enclosed within their own membranes.
down food into new cell-
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes building materials.
The endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes form a thin network of membranes
within the cytoplasm and continuously connect with the membrane of the nucleus. Vacuoles
The endoplasmic reticula may look like long tubules or flattened sacs. - are fluid-filled spaces found in both
▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum – is when the ribosomes are attached on their animal and plant cells.
surface. - The vacuole in a plant cell is bigger
▪ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - is the absence of ribosomes. than the vacuole in an animal cell.
- Most plant cells have a single
Mitochondria vacuole which takes up much of the
- The mitochondria serve as sites for chemical reactions that extract energy from cell's interior and helps maintain
different food sources. Under the electron microscope, the mitochondria the shape of the cell.
appear as double-walled sausage-like structures or oval bodies.
40
- Many protists have vacuoles which are called contractile vacuoles. These Mitochondria present present
vacuoles play an important role in water and food storage. Microtubule present present

Centrioles Photosynthetic Organisms Capture Light Energy

- are structures found outside the nucleus.
All forms of life are powered by a chemical energy called adenosine
- They are responsible for the formation of triphosphate (ATP). During cellular respiration, ATP is broken down and re-formed
the spindle fiber in cell division. to make energy available for use in biological reactions.
- They are self-replicating organelles made Phosphorus is one of the building blocks of life, an important element in ATP, and
up of nine bundles of microtubules and insoluble in water with a minimal chemical reactivity.
are found only in animal cells.
- They appear to help in organizing cell Photosynthesis
- Carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular respiration or the oxidation process.
division but are not essential to the
- Humans and animals release carbon dioxide as they respire. In turn, carbon
process.
dioxide is used by plants as a raw material for photosynthesis.
- The process of photosynthesis is a metabolic pathway in which the energy from
PIastids
- Plastids are structures found only in plant cells. They are rounded or oval in sunlight is converted to chemical energy. It also forms glucose molecules from
shape. carbon dioxide and water.
Plastids consist of three types: - Photosynthetic organisms, which include plants and algae, harness energy from
▪ leukoplast which is a colorless plastid involved in storing food and is usually sunlight. Sunlight, as an electromagnetic form of energy, has the ability to travel
found in the roots of plants like potatoes and cassava; through space.
▪ chloroplast which contains the green pigment chlorophyll
- The chlorophyll pigment in chloroplasts traps light energy from the Sun. The
▪ chromoplast which contains the other photosynthetic pigments-orange,
pigment chlorophyll a, the most common organic molecule in plant, absorbs light
yellow, blue, and red.
of certain wavelengths.
Comparison between Plant cell and Animal cell - The light energy that is not absorbed is reflected.
Cell Structure Plant Cell Animal Cell - Most photosynthetic plants such as trees, shrubs, and herbs get the full range of
Cell wall Made of cellulose absent wavelengths tor photosynthesis through a combination of pigments. These plants
Chloroplast, leucoplast and contain an abundance of chlorophyll a and b which mask the colors of other
Plastids absent pigments. This explains why most leaves are green.
chromoplast
big; contains cell sap like water-soluble - In places with temperate climate, the green leaves change their color in autumn
small; contains water and
Vacuole pigments and various metabolites like because they stop producing pigments in preparation for the dormancy period.
foods
sugars, inorganic salts, alkaloids - The breakdown of chlorophyll is faster during autumn, so the leaves turn yellow,
Lysosome Not visible Occurs in cytoplasm red, orange, and violet.
Ribosome present present

41
The Light-dependent Reactions
- When chlorophvll absorbs light energy, the electrons become excited and move Plants and animals depend on each other to survive.
to a higher energy level. Animals need oxygen which is released by plants. Plants in turn, need carbon
- Almost immediately, the electrons drop back down to a lower energy level, and in dioxide released by animals and other organisms as they respire.
the process, make extra energy available. Within the thylakoid membrane, which
consists of stacks of interconnected disks, the chlorophyll pigments are joined Animals depend on plants for food.
together by proteins to transform energy. These animals get their much needed energy from the plants they eat.
- When sunlight strikes the surface of a leaf, changes happen.
- The water which is absorbed by the roots of plants combine with carbon dioxide
which enters the leaf through small openings or pores called stomata. Water and
carbon dioxide are combined together inside the leaves of plants using the energy
from sunlight.
- The light energy trapped by chlorophyll, along with the help of enzymes, carry on There will be nothing for animals to eat if there are no plants that carry out
a process that combines carbon dioxide with water to form glucose which is used photosynthesis.
by plants as food. This process also releases oxygen in the atmosphere as a by-
product. - The ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
- The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis start when the energy from dinucleotide phosphate) molecules that were formed during the light-
excited electrons within the thylakoid membrane reaches the bundle of independent reactions of photosynthesis are needed to form glucose in the
chlorophylls, accessory pigments, and other molecules in the chloroplast. These stroma of chloroplasts.
pigments and molecules are called photosystems. The absorption of energy by a - Carbon dioxide is used as a raw material in the light-independent reactions of
photosystem excites photosynthesis to produce glucose. This process is called carbon fixation.
electrons. - The enzyme Rubisco is responsible for fixing carbon by attaching C02 to a 5-
- A part of the light- carbon compound called RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate). This reaction results in a
dependent reactions of 6-carbon molecule which splits at once into two three-carbon molecules called
photosynthesis involves PGA (phosphoglyceric acid).
breaking water into - Each molecule of PGA is then phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by hydrogen.
hydrogen ions and oxygen The resulting energy-rich three-carbon compound is called
molecules. This process is phosphoglyceraldehyde.
also referred to as the - The reaction continues in the cycle until a molecule of glucose is produced.
photolysis of water — a
process in which the oxygen Light-dependent reaction Light-independent reaction
molecules exit the cell as • Usually occurs in the grana of the • Occurs in the stroma of the
oxygen gas. Chloroplast. chloroplast
42
 • Photolysis of water happens, thus • It does not require light. • Two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose are used to carry out the process
releasing oxygen. • No photolysis of glycolysis. This process, which involves substrate level phosphorylation of
• ATP and NADPH are produced which • Glucose is produced. glucose, yields four molecules of ATP (net yield) and two molecules of NADH.
are needed in the dark reaction phase.
• Since no molecular oxygen was used, glycolysis can occur whether or not 02 is

Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration seems to be the opposite of photosynthesis.
- Cellular respiration is a biochemical pathway by which living cells obtain energy
from the chemical bonds of organic molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats.
- The process produces ATP and releases carbon dioxide as waste material. When a
person breathes, the oxygen molecules inhaled or taken are needed for aerobic
respiration.
- In aerobic respiration, the muscles in the body need oxygen and glucose to
produce the energy required.
- Cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria.
- It is a Catabolic pathways – release energy by breaking down complex molecules
to simpler compounds; ex. glucose broken down to CO2 and H2O

It can be broken down into three stages of metabolic processes. available. If 02 are available, pyruvate enters the Krebs cycle and the energy
▪ The first stage is the process of glycolysis or the splitting of glucose into pyruvic stored in NADH is changed into ATP.
acid. In this process, oxygen combines with glucose to release ATP the high- • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
energy molecule or chemical energy. Glycolysis
▪ The second stage is the Krebs cycle which consists of a series of metabolic Krebs Cycle
pathways that take place in the mitochondria. • The Krebs cycle, which is also called the citric acid cycle, takes place within the
▪ The third stage is the Electron Transport Chain which requires oxygen as a final mitochondria.
electron acceptor. • The pyruvate molecules from glycolysis enter the mitochondrial matrix where
pyruvate oxidation, a series of chemical reactions, takes place converting
Glycolysis pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA. These reactions involve enzyme that catalyze the
• The splitting of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis. This metabolic breakdown of pyruvate.
pathway does not need oxygen to proceed. • As a by-product of these reactions, carbon dioxide is also released. The
• Glucose, which is a stable six-carbon sugar, is broken down into two molecules of remaining two carbon molecules attach with coenzyme A to form Acetyl-CoA.
pyruvic acid. Through an activation process, electrons and H ions are passed on to NAD+
resulting in the formation of NADH.
43
• In the Krebs Cycle, Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C molecule called oxoaloacetic Electron transport chain
acid to form citrate, a 6-C molecule. This process is catalyzed by the citrate • It requires oxygen to proceed, also takes place in the mitochondria. A series of
synthase enzyme, releasing CoA. electron carriers in the membrane of the mitochondria facilitates this process.
• The water molecule in citrate is removed and rehydrated by the aconitase • High energy electrons are passed to oxygen through a series of reactions to
enzyme to form isocitrate. produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
• Isocitrate undergoes oxidative carboxylation in which carbon and hydrogen are • The energy produced by the electron transport chain fuels the phosphorylation
given off to form alpha ketoglutarate, a 5-C molecule. of ADP to ATP which is catalyzed by the ATP synthase enzyme.
• The isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme catalyzes this reaction which produces
C02 and NADH.

Electron Transport Chain in the Energy Cycle of a Cell

Bioenergetics is the
complementary
processes of
interdependence
between plants and
animals — cellular
respiration and
photosynthesis.

Citric Acid Cycle

44
There are two types of organelles— membranous and non-membranous. C. Essay; (for 5 points)
Chlorophyll a is a pigment in plants. Describe how organisms obtain and utilize energy and recognize that organisms
Stomata are openings in leaves that facilitate gaseous exchange. require energy to carry out functions required for life.
Light-dependent reactions use energy from the Sun, converting it into chemical _____________________________________________________________________
energy. _____________________________________________________________________
ATP and NADPH are needed in the light-independent reactions. _____________________________________________________________________
The raw materials for photosynthesis are water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide. _____________________________________________________________________
The internal factors that influence the process of photosynthesis are carrier _____________________________________________________________________
molecule, chlorophyll, and enzymes. _____________________________________________________________________
Glycolysis is the splitting of sugar molecules. _____________________________________________________________________
Oxidation (redox) reactions are: _____________________________________________________________________
▪ Reduction – gain of electrons _____________________________________________________________________
▪ Oxidation – loss of electrons
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Earth and Life Science _____________________________________________________________________
Evaluation for Module no. 5 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Associate each component of the reaction with one of these. A. Glycolisis, B. Kreb _____________________________________________________________________
Cycles, C. Electron Transport Chain. Write the letter in the space. _____________________________________________________________________
____________1. Oxygen _____________________________________________________________________
____________2. Glucose _____________________________________________________________________
____________3. Carbon Dioxide _____________________________________________________________________
____________4. Water _____________________________________________________________________
____________5. ATP _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
B. Analogy; _____________________________________________________________________
6. Kreb Cycle : 2 ATP ; Electron Transport Chain : ____ATP_ _____________________________________________________________________
7. Light dependent reaction : oxygen ; Calvin Cycle : ______________
8. Plant cells : Chloroplast ; Animal cell : ________________________
9. Prokaryotes : lack membrane-bound nucleus ; Eukaryotes : _________________
10. Photosynthesis : Plants ; Cellular respiration : ___________________________

45
 Module no. 6 Readings;
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration
Reproduction is one of the characteristics of life.
- a biological process in which new individual organisms are produced.
Lesson VI. At the end of this lesson Plant and - It may be sexual or asexual.
Perpetuation the student can…. animal ▪ Sexual reproduction involves the union of gametes (egg cell and sperm cell)
of Life 1. Describe the different reproduction. Date Started:
through fertilization.
ways of how plant and Mechanisms of ▪ Asexual reproduction involves the creation of cloned offspring from a parent
animals reproduce. Gene action. ______________
organism.
2. Explain how the Genetic
information in the DNA Engineering. Plant and Animal Reproduction
allows the transfer of Date of
genetic information Submission:
Sexual reproduction
and synthesis of In plants, flowers play a major role in sexual
proteins. ______________
reproduction as it houses the structures for this
3. Describe the process of process.
genetic Engineering. The picture of a flower and the structures
involved directly/indirectly in sexual
Activity no. 6 reproduction.
A. Complete the table by supplying photos back when you were a baby up to this
Four main Sexual reproduction flower organs:
days and answer the question below.
Stamen and Carpel (Reproductive) and Petals and Sepals (Sterile)

Vegetative Part
• Receptacle – holds the floral parts of the flower
• Sepal – modified leaves that protects a flower in bud and holds the petals when in
Me, when I was a baby! Me, at this present day! bloom
• Calyx – collective term for the sepals
• Petal – modified leaves that surround the reproductive organ or plants; normally
colourful, and with odor, to attract pollinators.
• Corolla – collective term for petals
• Inflorescence – cluster of flowers
How life’s go on?
Reproductive Part
o Stamen – male reproductive organ.
o Filament – stalk that holds the anther at the end
o Anther – produces the pollen which houses the sperm cell
46
o Carpel – Female reproductive organ. Singly or fused, is called a pistil ▪ Flies – are attracted to red, fleshy flowers with a rank odor reminiscent of
o Style – the slender neck of the carpel which holds the stigma at its end. decaying meat.
o Stigma – is a structure with sticky substance which traps pollen ▪ Birds – do not have a keen sense of smell, thus, flower fragrance is not a flower
o Ovary – the bulbous structure of the carpel which contains the ovule. character trait by plants pollinated by birds. Birds are usually attracted to bright
o Ovule – has the egg cell of the plant. flowers such as red and yellow. Also, their nectar has high sugar content which is
needed by birds.
Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma. There are other biotic agents of pollination, which aids in the delivery of pollen to a
Various ways in which pollination occurs; flower’s carpel.
▪ Self-pollination - wherein the pollen is transferred to the stigma of a plant’s ow After the process of pollination, the process of fertilization might occur, which can
▪ Coss-pollination wherein pollen from a different plant is delivered to a stigma of
a flower of a different plant.
▪ It can increase genetic diversity of plants as genes from two different n flower.
- individuals are shared by the offspring.
Pollination is needed in order for fertilization to occur.
There are different methods on how pollen is transferred from one anthers to one
stigma. Pollination is through;
- biotic means (80%) and among abiotic methods of pollination
- winds (98%)
- water (2%) is the main agents.

Biotic Pollinators
▪ Bees - rely on nectars from flowers for they food, as such they pollinate flowers
with delicate, sweet fragrance. They are also attracted to bright colors, yellow
and blue. Red might be dull to them, but, flowers were able to evolve by creating
ultraviolet markings as nectar guides as bees can see ultraviolet light.
▪ Moths and butterflies – like bees, it detect odors and pollinate flowers with
sweet fragrance. The difference in activity of a butterfly and a moth allows
pollination of different plants, as butterflies are attracted to bright flowers they
are day pollinators while moths, which are mostly active at night, are attracted
to white or yellow flowers which are very distinct at night.
▪ Bats – like moths are attracted to sweet smelling lightly colored flowers which result in the development of a seed which houses the embryo of a future plant.
stand out at night. Source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/ bio203/2011/ismatull_otab/purple_
template/images/Angiosperm

47
- First, egg cells (1) and sperm cells (2) are developed from particular reproductive ▪ Roots: swollen roots called tubers can allow asexual reproduction. Example of
organs. this is the swollen root of a cassava, not that of a potato. Potatoes are stems, as
- Through pollination, two sperm cells are delivered to the ovule which fertilizes evidenced of their nodes.
an egg cell and the endosperm, creating a process called double fertilization. ▪ Leaves: that are succulent, such as the catacataca leaf, can allow asexual
- The union of the sperm cells and egg cells, which both contains half the genetics reproduction.
materials of the parent, allows the creation of a possible organism with the same ▪ Bulbs: such as onion (each skin is a leaf) and garlic (each piece is a modified stem
set/number of genetic material. and leaf) is attached to an underground stem. Each can form a new bulb
- If fertilization is successful, the seed will develop with the corresponding underground.
embryo, endosperm and seed coat. It will then be prepared for dispersal and
germination. Artificial propagation
▪ Grafting: is composed of the stock (rooted part of the plant) and the scion (the
Asexual Reproduction attached part). This is usually done to hasten the reproductive ability of a plant,
In plants grow a selected fruiting plant, etc.
- as some organs grow indeterminately due to tissues that can actively divide ▪ Layering: like what happens to a runner, wherein, a shoot of a parent plant is
(meristem- actively dividing cells) and revert to non-specialized structures bent and is covered by soil. This stimulates root growth, after which, the plants
(parenchyma tissues). can be separated.
- This indeterminate growth can lead to a form of reproduction called asexual ▪ Cutting: is done to propagate a plant by cutting the stem at an angle of a shoot
reproduction, as these organs can separate from the parent plant with the with attached leaves. Sometimes, growth stimulator is given.
ability to grow and develop. Advantage and Disadvantage of Both Types of Reproduction
- Fragmentation, the most common method of asexual reproduction, can occur Sexual Reproduction
through growth from a stem, leaf, root and other plant organ which gained the Advantage Disadvantage
ability comparable to parent plant. • Genetic variability • Energy expensive
- Apomixis occurs when diploid cells in the ovule creates an embryo, this can • Dispersal • Need for a pollinator
later result in the formation of a seed. • Large number • Prone to predation
- A process of producing seeds without the process of pollination and • Adapted to unstable and difficult environments • Time constraint
fertilization. • Growth can be suspended
- Vegetative propagation and grafting are natural and man-made processes of
asexual reproduction. Asexual Reproduction
Advantage Disadvantage
• No need for pollinator • Clones are prone to
Below are different types of vegetative propagation.
• Pass all good genetic material as offsprings are diseases, predation, etc.
▪ Stems: that grow horizontally above the ground is called a runner. The nodes of
clones of parents • Cannot be dispersed long
these plants can allow asexual reproduction through bud growth. Example of this • Can grow rapidly in a stable environment, as the distances
is grass. offspring are genetically adapted to the • Prone to environmental
48
 environment fluctuating conditions - To protect the embryo from harsh environmental conditions, it goes into a state
• Strong seedlings, prevents predation of dormancy until a period for favorable growth and development arrives. The
• Energy economical embryo, which is not able to produce its own food, yet, is provided with food by
the cotyledon or the endosperm, or both.
Complete flower has all the parts described
- To protect the embryo, the seed coat has an hardened outer covering which
Incomplete flower is missing one or more parts.
protects it from physical or chemical disturbances.
Adaptive mechanisms - The embryo is composed of the hypocotyl or the embryonic axis which termites
- As the flower is important in the development of a fruit and the eventual to the radicle or the embryonic root and the epicotyl, which is attached to the
dispersal of the seed for plant propagation, it has evolved different adaptive first, leaves.
mechanisms. - The young leaves—together with the cotyledon, the epicotyl and the apical
- This structure to function relationship is important as the plant should be able to meristem (responsible for apical growth or elongation)—is called the plumule.
attract specific pollinators to increasing the success rate of its propagation. - In grass, the embryo is protected by two sheaths: the coleoptile (protects the
- Competition among plants over one pollinator may result in lesser chance of young shoots) and coleorhiza (protects the young roots).
propagation.
Seed and Fruit Dispersal
Fruits – structures that not only protect the seeds of plants but also aid in their - Like pollination in plants, different agents aid seed and fruit dispersal.
dispersal; derived from the maturation of a flower’s ovary ▪ Abiotic agents (wind, water)
- The ovary walls eventually become the pericarp during development. ▪ Biotic agents (animals)
- The pericarp is further divided into three parts: the exocarp or skin, the - In order to propagate, plants have evolved in order to adapt to their
mesocarp or the flesh and the endocarp, which is the core. environments.
- Depending on fruit adaptations, the pericarp can be stony, woody, fleshy as such ▪ Flowers ensure the formation of the embryo through different adaptations
the endocarp might not be fleshy, the exocarp might be rubbery or woody, etc. for pollination and fertilization.
- For example: the apple’s seed and fruit is protected by an accessory fruit which ▪ The developing embryo is helped by the adaptation of the fruit and seeds,
formed from the fleshy receptacle. This ensures that the seed will not be harmed which further protects and aids in its propagation.
during the consumption of the fleshy receptacle, as the fruit is not eaten, rather
is thrown, aiding in its dispersal. Again, this is an example of a structure function Sexual reproduction is the process of joining the haploid gametes (sex cells) to form
relationship not only in one organ (the fruit) but between the flower and the a diploid cell called a zygote.
fruit that was formed. Zygote, eventually becomes an embryo and later on develop into an organism.
The female gamete is an egg cell, is usually non-motile, to ensure survival of the
Seeds embryo by storing energy.
- The seed or mature ovules contain the embryo, which will eventually germinate The male gamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to search for the egg cell for
and grow if properly dispersed in a favorable environment fertilization.

49
Asexual reproduction, fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell does not occur; differ greatly, difference lies mostly in the site of the process and the characteristics
reproduction is mainly through mitosis which creates a clone of the parent. of the genetic information.
To ensure the constant creation of proteins, the cell should be able to replicate the
The following are the different methods of asexual reproduction: information which will determine the creation of the protein. DNA replication
▪ Budding- occurs when individuals arise throughout the outgrowths from a ensures that the information for a particular protein synthesis will not be lost.
parent. This can create a colony of individuals attached to a parent, such as in
The double helix structure which was discovered by Watson and Crick with the help
corals.
▪ Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of of X-ray crystallography by Rosalind Franklin allows the efficient replication of DNA,
approximately same size. This is usually observed in animal-like protists. preventing information lost. Different proteins and enzymes help in the process of
▪ Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body replication.
breaks into different parts, which later regenerate to form several individuals. Once a DNA segment is ready, it will be read and transcribed in the process called
Sponges, annelids, cnidarians and tunicates are examples of this mode of translation.
reproduction.
▪ Parthenogenesis- is like apomixes in plants, where the egg cell develops without
Nitrogenous bases
fertilization. This is exhibited by bees, wasps, lizards, sharks.
DNA sequence RNA sequence Complementary strand
Sexual reproduction is disadvantageous in terms of energy expenditure but is cytosine (C) cytosine (C) guanine (G)
advantageous due to the genetic variation it creates. It allow organism to perpetuate guanine (G) guanine (G) cytosine (C)
in an unstable environment where factors such as diseases can decrease the survival thymine (T) thymine (T) uracil (U)/ adenine (A)
rate of the population. adenine (A) uracil (U) thymine (T)
Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction which lessens energy expenditure The different DNA sequence characterized by the Nitrogenous bases are read and
in animals, as fully formed individuals is produced, increasing the chance of survival. transcribed by different proteins and enzymes. These bases pair together, forming
complementary strands of DNA (for Replication) or RNA (for Transcription).
Mechanisms of Gene action
The process of transcription involves various processes of converting DNA
The Central Dogma segments into RNA, splicing of these segments and joining in order to from an mRNA
The central dogma, or the directional command of creating proteins from genetic (or messenger RNA) which will carry the message from the DNA to the ribosome for
information (DNA) was dubbed by Francis Crick in 1956. translation of the message to a particular protein. With the help of a tRNA or a
transfer RNA in a ribosome, message carried by the mRNA is translated to particular
amino acid sequence which makes a protein.
A codon or a sequence of three DNA or RNA nitrogenous base is the
The information from the DNA is transcribed into an RNA which is later translated information needed in the creation of an amino acid. The 20 amino acids in the
into a protein. The protein produced has implication on a trait inherited or a biological systems are created through the different information formed by the
particular cell function such as in the production inflammatory agents and other sequence of the base pairs.
protein molecules. The central dogma in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells do not
50
 Table showing different amino acids

A particular DNA segment has implication on the particular protein which a

cell will produce. A problem, such as deletions, insertions or inversions in one or
more of the bases in the DNA can change the protein that will be decoded during
translation.
Structurally, the red blood cell changed from a donut shape to a sickle-like shape
even if only one amino acid was changed.
A difference in the middle base pair is the culprit in the change in the amino acid The illustration shows the great implication of a change in the DNA or genetic
which later caused a change in the protein structure. information in an organism.

51
 Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the process in which genetic material is transferred from one
organism to another.
Artificial selection is the most traditional form of genetic engineering, wherein
specificity of synthesis of target DNA sequence is less than current genetic
engineering technology.
- It has application on the pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural, medical and
other industries.
- Below is an example wherein genetic information from a firefly and a jellyfish for
bioluminescence is transferred to a tobacco and a pig. This has application for
medical technology, especially in tracking cell activities.

Genetic information is
transferred via a vector.
A vector can be
bacteria, through its
circular DNA called
plasmid, or a virus.
Below is a diagram of
genetic transfer through
the use of bacterial
plasmid. A specific
target genetic segment,
is spliced into a bacterial
plasmid and allowed to
be replicated. This gene
can then be transferred
to a target organism,
such in the case of pest-
The synthesis of proteins as shown in the central dogma, is carried by a series resistant crop, or
of complex processes. These processes have stop gaps to prevent problems from proteins can be
occurring especially in the final translation of the protein. The cell has the ability to harnessed, such as in
terminate the process whenever problems exists, but if this is not prevented certain the case of insulin.
genetic diseases might occur.
52
Process of Developing prevent weeds from developing herbicide resistance since they affect only the
GMO Crops. weeds that surround them. This protection results in increased yield and greater
1. DNA extraction of the food security.
Genes of Interest for • They improve crop production.
Modification.
2. Gene Cloning. The Risks of Using GMOs
3. Insertion of the gene There are risks in using GMOs. Among these risks are the following:
in a transfer vector.
1. The American Public Health Association opposed the use of GM bovine growth
4. Plant transformation.
5. Tissue Culture. hormone due to the addition of an insulin-like growth factor (IGH-1) which is
linked to cancer.
Bacillus thuringiensis 2. Some farmers reported that their fields were contaminated by natural cross-
(Bt) is a type of bacteria pollination when GM seeds from nearby farms went airborne.
focused in soil that 3. It was reported that the population of monarch butterflies has decreased by
produces a protein half due to the poisoning of the milkweed they feed on. Roundup herbicide was
toxic only to some insect used to eradicate weeds that surround the GMO crops.
pests. 4. The use of herbicides has increased because most of the GMO crops are not
susceptible to them. Herbicides contaminate groundwater and damage many
plants and animals.
5. The Institute for Responsible
Technology (IRT) released
Benefits of GMOs
data from the US
• GMOs improve the economy by producing more nutritious food plants. One of
Environmental Protection
the components of vitamin is the ß-carotene, an orange photosynthetic pigment
Agency and US Department
which helps the prevention of some skin diseases. Bt rice has been engineered to
of Agriculture suggesting that
make ß-carotene.
GMOs were linked to gluten
• They protect crops against damage caused by
disorders affecting 18 million
insect pests.
Americans.
• They increase the nutritive value of plants.
• They enable crops to survive high soil salinity
and to adapt to extreme weather conditions.
• They protect crops against herbicides and

53
 Earth and Life Science _____________________________________________________________________
Evaluation for Module no. 6 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
_____________________________________________________________________
A. Enumeration; List the different ways of how plant and animals reproduce.
_____________________________________________________________________
(for 5 points)
_____________________________________________________________________
(Plants) (Animals)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Ways to
Reproduce.

B. Arrange the process of developing GMO crops. Write 1 to the first steps, 2 to the
next and so on.
____________ Tissue Culture.
____________ Insertion of the gene in a transfer vector.
____________ DNA extraction of the Genes of Interest for Modification.
____________ Plant transformation.
____________ Gene Cloning.

C. Essay; (for 5 points)

Describe the process of the cell dogma, from DNA to RNA to Protein.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

54
 Module no. 7 Readings;
Key Learning Nutrition
Topic/Title Objectives Time Duration
points
Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking up the nutrients
Lesson VII. At the end of this lesson the Nutrition from a food source.
How Animal student can…. Circulation and Food processing has four main stages: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption and
Survive? 1. Explain the different gas exchange Elimination or Egestion.
Date Started:
metabolic processes ▪ Ingestion or process of taking in food substances, the animal takes in food in
(Homeostasis
involved in the various different ways (mostly mouth).
and Waste _____________
organ system.
Removal ▪ Digestion process occurs in mouth and stomach. It could be done mechanically
2. Describe the general and
unique characteristics of Immune System (through crushing), chemically (digestive enzymes and acids) or both.
Date of ▪ Absorption process occurs in the villi of small intestine (human).
the different organ Hormones
Submission:
systems in representative Nervous System - It allows the animals to acquire the necessary energy, organic molecules and
animals. Locomotion essential nutrients from the digested food.
_____________
3. Analyze the functional - Chemical energy comes from the breakdown of ATP which comes from
relationships of the
sources such as sugars from carbohydrates.
different organ system in
▪ Elimination or Egestion occurs in rectum (deposit) withdrawn in anus.
ensuring animal survival.
In other animals, such as in cnidarians (jellyfish, anemone, corals) where the
entrance and exit of food and waste is the same (incomplete digestive system), the
Activity no. 7
region where this occurs is called the gastrovascular cavity. Gastro for digestion and
Complete the table below and answer the question based on your respond to the
table. List the activity/routine you did per hour, and the organ or body vascular for circulation or movement of digested food.
involved/used in the entire day. In other animals, with complete digestive system, where entrance and exit of food
Date:____________________ and wastes are different there are different mechanisms of ingestion depending on
Time their evolutionary adaptation to their food.
Routine/ The four main feeding mechanisms;
Activities ▪ Filter feeding- uses adaptation in feeding food particles from the environment,
Organ/ which is usually aquatic. Examples of these are clams, mussels, whales, etc.
Body ▪ Substrate feeding- animals live in or on their food source. Examples of this are
What is the feeling after every activity? And, what makes you live? the leaf miner, maggots and other parasites.
▪ Fluid feeding- animals suck nutrient-rich fluid from a host or a source. They have
different adaptations in order to get food such as the proboscis of mosquitoes,
the long tongue of nectar feeding bats and long beaks of hummingbirds.

55
▪ Bulk feeding- animals, such as us humans, take in large particle sized food. and minerals are examples of essential nutrients.
Different animals have acquired different adaptations such as tentacles, claws, As food is only partially digested, not all particles are absorbed by the body.
venomous fangs, large mandible and teeth which aids in killing prey or tearing The semi-digested food, which in turn becomes waste is then eliminated or
off pieces of meat or vegetation. digested. In some animals, such as humans, water is first reabsorbed before it is
eliminated or egested out of the body. Different symbiotic relationships are present
in order to fully utilize the substances present in waste (feces) before it is finally
Organic molecules can serve as the organic building blocks of the body where released. Bacteria which can synthesized Vitamin K is present in human gut, some
muscles, connective tissues, nerve tissues are built. These organic molecules are the bacteria process the feces and creates by-product rich in methane or hydrogen
biomolecules that we acquire from food: carbohydrate, protein, fats and nucleic sulfide which results in flatus (fart) which smell like rotten egg.
acids. Carbohydrates are important for instant energy, but if not used will be stored
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
and can turn into fats.
The human digestive system can serve as a model for other organisms with
Proteins, which are
complete digestive system. Variation is a result of adaptation to particular food, such
made up of amino as the four-chambered stomach of the cow, the long cecum (appendix) of
acids, are the building herbivores, rough tongue and sharp dentition of carnivores, etc.
blocks of different
structures in the The Circulatory System
organism, (muscles,
cells, antibodies, etc). ➢ There are different ways in which animals transport substances across their
Fats are great source body. Animals with thin body rely on the movement of substances from high
of energy as they can concentration to low concentration, in the transport of substances (diffusion).
store a lot of energy. Together with a fluid medium, a thin structure allows diffusion to occur
Nucleic acids are efficiently.
important for building - Organisms such as those with gastrovascular cavity like cnidarians, flatworms
blocks of genetic use diffusion in moving substances across and within their bodies.
information. Essential ➢ Animals with thicker tissues have devised a way in order to transport substances
nutrients are across and within their bodies. Animals have evolved structures which carry
substances which the substances (circulatory fluid, e.g. blood), pipes (blood and lymph vessels) and a
animal’s own body pumping organ (heart).
cannot synthesize,
thus, comes from the Animals with these structures either have an open or closed circulatory system.
food source. Essential ➢ Open circulatory system, blood is not fully enclosed in a vessel and is pumped
amino acids, essential out of the system via an exit called an ostium to a space which surrounds tissues
fatty acids, vitamins called a sinus. When the heart contracts, the circulatory fluid goes out of the
system, if the heart relaxes the fluid returns.
56
 - As the blood goes directly to the tissues, it mixes with the interstitial fluid Mixing of blood does not have major implication on amphibians as;
which surrounds tissue and cells and is called a hemolymph. The interstitial - they have low metabolic rate, thus, less need for energy.
fluid allows diffusion from the blood to a cell. - they have the ability to respire through their skin, thus not needing to fully
- circulatory and respiratory systems are independent of each other. oxygenate the blood through the lungs.

➢ Closed circulatory system, the circulatory fluid does not go out of the vessel. Structures
- Exchange occurs through diffusion via thinner vessels called capillaries across ▪ Atrium- receives blood
the interstitial fluid. ▪ Ventricle- pumps blood
For both types of circulatory systems, the pumping organ (heart) allows substances ▪ Artery- transports blood away from the heart, muscular
to travel long distances with the aid of the vessels, which acts like hi way for ▪ Vein- transports blood back to the heart, has valves and thinner in structure
transport. With the ability of the circulatory fluid to carry a lot of substances, it ▪ Capillary- exchange of substances, has very thin walls
allows efficient bulk transport of substances. Diffusion is still used, but only in ▪ Venule- small vein
exchange of substances not in its bulk transport. ▪ Arteriole- small artery
- The pulse is the wavelike force which is a result of the pumping of blood
Different animals, have adapted different mechanisms in transport such as in fishes through an artery with decreasing diameter. As the diameter of the artery
where a single circulation is enough. decreases, the walls of the artery stretch to accommodate the blood that is
➢ Single circulation has implication on pressure created in pushing circulatory passing through it.
fluid, as it may lose the pressure to return to the heart. Once the circulatory fluid - The heart has the ability to produce its own electrical signal to stimulate the
has passed through the capillaries, in order for diffusion to be efficient, speed of contraction of the heart muscles. Thus, the heart is independent from the
movement of the circulatory should decrease. As a result, the pressure decreases brain, the brain only affects the rate of heart contraction but not starts the
which might not be enough to push the blood back to the heart. contraction of the heart. The cardiac cycle is the complete cycle of contraction
- Fishes have evolved an adaptation wherein their blood vessels are found and relaxation, together with the intervening phase.
between muscles, which squeezes the blood back to heart everytime the - Systole - is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
muscle contracts, whenever they are swimming. For those organisms which - Diastole – is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle
might have thicker bodies, thus, needing more pressure in pushing their
circulatory fluid has adapted a double circulation. GAS EXCHANGE
➢ Double circulation, blood does not move in a single direction, as it goes back to o Aerobic respiration is the term used when oxygen is present in the production of
the heart to restore pressure. energy.
- Amphibian double circulation differs from mammalian, crocodilian and avian o Anaerobic respiration is the process energy production without oxygen.
as blood is mixed. The presence of one ventricle does not prevent the mixing
of blood, unlike in the four-chambered heart of a mammal, crocodilian and In order to acquire oxygen, different animals have evolved different adaptations in
an avian where the ventricle is divided into two. order to adapt to their environment. What is constant among these organisms are;
- a thin respiratory structure,
57
 - moist respiratory surface Ventilation in lungs is called breathing, the alternating process of inhalation and
- Respiratory structure with high surface area. exhalation.
There are two mechanisms of breathing.
AIR AS A RESPIRATORY MEDIUM • Positive breathing air is pushed into the lungs, such as in frogs.
Air is lighter and has more oxygen content compared to the same volume of water. • Negative pressure is breathing by sucking in air in to the lungs through the
Dehydrating characteristic is the problem to air as a respiratory medium. creation of a negative pressure such as in humans and other mammals. When
- Terrestrial organisms keep their respiratory surfaces moist by keeping it within chest muscles contract, they increase the volume of the chest cavity decreasing
their body. the pressure inside. As the pressure decreases inside the lungs, air is pulled into
the lung cavity. The relaxation of the chest muscles squeezes out air through the
THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM OF INSECTS process called exhalation.
- It has a branched network of tracheal tube which responds to the problem of
decreased surface area in the respiratory structure. GAS EXCHANGE AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- It opens externally through the side of the insect through a structure called a Circulatory system functions in the delivery of the energy sources in the form of
spiracle. Air enters and exit through the spiracles. molecules processed by the digestive system.
- The respiratory systems of insects are independent from their circulatory system Respiratory system is important in the released of waste gases (CO2) and the
gases are directly exchanged through tracheoles which have extensions that are delivery of oxygen for energy production. Sugars are broken down, and the resulting
directly connected to the cells. process results in the formation of ATP, which when broken down by cells produce
- Air sacs act like aspirator which takes in and push out air out of the body of the energy which the cells can use for its metabolic activities.
insects.
Homeostasis and Waste Removal
THE MAMMALIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Homeostasis involves balancing of the internal concentration of an organism
- Mammals and other organisms have respiratory system that work together with compared to external environment.
their circulatory system. - is a state in which the internal environment of the body is maintained at a set
- Gases are transported via the bloodstream and are exchanged via diffusion. point despite changes in the organism's external environment.
- Some organisms which have smaller lung capacity compensate gas exchange - It is achieved through regulation of body temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases,
through thin epithelial lining of their anus or mouth like in turtles or through the and nutrients that help support life.
skin like in frogs. - The internal control system of the body responds immediately to changes in
- Gas exchange occurs via the movement of air from the external environment and conditions in its internal environment. Once the body temperature fluctuates,
is exchanged via a dead end of clusters of thin epithelium of the walls of air sacs animals are able to cope by moving to a warmer or cooler place, or to an
called alveoli. environment in which conditions are within a tolerable range of temperature.
- Other animals can generate heat internally or trap heat to maintain a normal
TERRESTRIAL VENTILATION level of body temperature, even when temperature in their external
environment decreases.
58
- Heat is also balanced in relation to the environment of an organism. Negative Feedback
- The integumentary system and the excretory system play a major role in - Negative feedback is a control system that slows down or stops certain processes
homeostasis. of the body and it helps in maintaining homeostasis.
- The circulatory and respiratory system also helps in homeostasis. - It denotes a deviation from a set point, the normal value or ideal condition
- There are different ways in which organisms have adapted to their environment around which the body performs normal functions. The secretion of hormones
in terms of homeostasis, such as behavioral, physiological, migration and by the endocrine glands is under the control of the hypothalamus, which in turn
structural adaptations. is also controlled by negative feedback.
- An example of negative feedback involves regulating body temperature. When
❖ Regulation of body temperature in animals is carried out differently in the body temperature increases from the set point, the body produces sweat,
endotherms and ectotherms. which provides cooling to the body, so that the body temperature decreases.
- Negative feedback loops maintain a state of balance by reversing change to
Endotherms are animals that include birds, mammals, and humans. return to normal condition. Negative feedback has the following components:
- It generates most of their own heat through metabolic reactions. This heat, ▪ Stimulus produces a change that evokes a specific functional reaction to a
which is a by-product of the metabolic processes that occur within the cells, variable.
allows organisms to maintain a certain body temperature despite changes in ▪ Receptor detects the changes within the body and receives chemical signals
temperature in their environments. from outside a cell of the body.
- In cases of extreme drops in temperatures, endotherms also use fur or feathers ▪ Input is the gathered information outside a cell that travels along the control
center.
which contain fats, to insulate their bodies.
▪ Effector is responsible for the response to changes.
Ectotherms or Poikilotherms include amphibians, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates
Positive Feedback
which have body temperatures that are the same as that of their environment. - Positive feedback uses information from sensors to increase the rate of
- They have low rates of metabolism and are poorly insulated. processes. A condition of the body that deviates from the set point encourages a
- They eat large amounts of food in preparation for dormancy. This food is stored disturbance in the physiological processes of the body.
as fat in their bodies. - The birthing process is an example of positive feedback.
- To maintain their body temperature, some ectotherms tend to change their - The whole body organization contributes to homeostasis. It regulates its internal
positions and locations. environment through a control system to maintain a stable condition. It ensures
the functioning of the body to stabilize health.
Homeostasis and Internal Environment
Your body is made up of complex tissues, organs, and organ systems that all
Conformers and Regulators;
work together to maintain homeostasis. Since the internal and conditions and
▪ Conformers - are animals which copy the environmental factors.
external environments of a cell are constantly changing, necessary adjustments
- osmoconformers (concentration conformers)
should be made to maintain the normal set point of bodily conditions and processes.
- thermoconformers (temperature conformers)
The body has a variety of control systems that help maintain homeostasis and keep
its internal environment stable.

59
▪ Regulators - are animals which maintain their body’s internal factors compared to characteristic of animals which live in aquatic environment as they are able to
the environment. easily dilute it, thus its toxicity is neutralized.
- osmoregulators (concentration regulators)
- thermoregulators (temperature regulators). - Uric acid is the least soluble and most expensive but is able to recycle the most
water. It is characteristics of animals living in an environment low in water.
Marine invertebrates are example of osmoconformers, while marine vertebrates are - Urea’s toxicity, energy requirement and solubility is in between the two
example of osmoregulators. Ectotherms or “cold-blooded” animals are nitrogenous wastes. Humans and other mammals use it while, sharks retain a lot
thermoconformers, they rely on their external environment for their body’s internal of urea to allow it to be more or less buoyant compared to the water. It protects
temperature. The term cold-blooded is a misnomer, as ectotherms sometimes have itself from accumulation of toxicity by having a chemical that protects its cells
higher body temperature compared to “warm-blooded” organisms as they copy called, trimethylamine oxide or TMAO which protects the proteins of the cells.
their environment’s temperature. Endotherms or thermoregulators maintain their
body’s internal temperature through metabolism, as a result they have higher Waste removal follows the following processes;
metabolism than thermoconformers. 1.) filtration, 2.) reabsorption, 3.) secretion, 4.) excretion

- Physiological and structural adaptation is observed in the placement of blood Activity in Excretory System
vessels for heat retention, while structures of for osmoregulation such as in the Give the definition of the following process.
kidneys are also placed adjacent to each other like the process of countercurrent Process Definition
exchange mechanism.
- Perspiration, is a mechanism which shows homeostatic reaction wherein Filtration
temperature and/or concentration is controlled. Water is a good cooling agent as
it is able to absorb high heat and also dilutes solutes.
Reabsorption

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is the process of removing waste product from their body. Secretion
- In order to remove wastes, animals have the excretory system, which enables it
to remove excess salt or water in the body.
- If there is excess water, waste material is diluted but if there is low water, waste Excretion
might be concentrated or none at all. Organisms have different wastes in the
form of nitrogenous wastes which they need to excrete.
The type of nitrogenous waste varies in toxicity, energy required for excretion and Different organisms have different excretory system, such as;
solubility. protonephridia of flatworms, metanephridia of annelids, Malpighian tubules of
- Ammonia, which is the most toxic, is the most soluble to water and the least insects and the nephrons of humans and mammals.
energy expensive among the nitrogenous wastes. This type of waste is
60
Immune System The Line of Defenses
Pathogen is a foreign substance, (living or non-living) which elicits an immune ▪ Barrier defenses are made up of the skin, mucus membranes and various
response from an organism. secretions.
- It can be pollen which can cause allergic reaction, a helminth (worm) which is a - Skin, which is covered by a tightly packed cells called epithelial cells
parasite, a bacteria or virus which can cause different diseases or illnesses. physically prevent the entrance of pathogens.
- Some illnesses that we experience are immune response from these pathogens, - Mucus membrane serve as barrier for body parts which can serve as an
such as fever which is a defense mechanism of our body against some entrance to the body such as ducts in the eyes, nostrils, urogenital region,
pathogens, mucus production for trapping pathogens and other such responses. and anus by creating an environment which is not optimum to the growth of
certain bacteria and other pathogens.
Innate and Adaptive immunity - Secretions, such as the sweat, are acidic or hypertonic which can destroy or
▪ Innate immunity is the inherent ability of an organism to fight pathogens which neutralize some pathogens.
bring about certain diseases. ▪ Internal defenses - are which can be activated and can neutralized the pathogen
. Evolutionary adaptation has allowed organisms to fine tune their innate once they able to enter and invade the body. Same with the barrier response,
immunity against possible pathogens that is why we are able to activate an these are not specific and as such can affect a large of the body or the whole
immune response even if we have not acquired a certain disease before. body itself, in case of fever.
▪ Adaptive immunity - Phagocytic cells - which eats pathogens regardless of what they are, which in
– the organisms are some cases increases the rate of infection.
able to launch - Inflammatory response activates different internal defenses in case of
specific immune infection.
response which can - In an inflammatory response, phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, and
change and adapt to other substances are activated to contain an infection.
the disease-causing - Histamines are substances which initiate an inflammatory response, which
pathogen. This results in the swelling of an area and increase in temperature of a localized
adaptive immunity is area or in cases of a fever the increase temperature of the whole body to
important, as it can neutralize a pathogen.
modify its immune - Heat destroys the protein of a pathogen, which is usually the reason of an
response in defense infection.
against the changes - Not only heating of the pathogen, but leakage of cells and antimicrobial
which can occur in proteins, especially phagocytic cells and antibodies, aids in the destruction
the pathogen. of the cause of inflammation.

61
 more rapid response to a hormone.
THE SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE - It can either be water-soluble or fat-soluble which has implication on how
The specific immune response is characterized by specific cells which react to response mechanism in cells is activated.
specific protein receptors from pathogens.
- The characteristic of the cell membrane, which is a selective membrane, chooses
- Humoral response - Activation of proteins or activation of cells with lysing
the molecules which can go in and out of the cells. The lipid bilayer of the cell,
capability.
thus, prevent the free movement of water-soluble hormones, while, fat-soluble
- Cell-mediated response is characteristic of the specific immune response.
hormones can easily pass through a cell membrane.

Active and Passive Immunity

The illustration shows the location of reception of the two types of hormones.
- Active immunity can be a result of specific immune response which is a result to
Reception is the process of a signal molecule to bind to receptor molecules. The
exposure to a specific pathogen. It can either be natural or artificial, in the case
inability of water soluble hormones to pass through the cell membrane requires
of vaccine, wherein pathogens are weakened and exposed to an individual.
them to activate response from outside of the cell. Receptor proteins which activate
- Passive immunity is a specific immune response transferred by the mother to a
cell responses are found on the cell membrane of the cell, this activates signal
child, which can develop as the child matures.
transduction pathway. The ability of fat-soluble hormones or steroid hormones to
Hormones pass through the cell membrane allows them to initiate cell response inside the cell.
Their receptors are found on the nuclear membrane which can initiate gene
- Hormones are substances which can cause a reaction to a cell, in Greek it expression. As a result, steroid hormones can have a longer, lasting effect than
literally means to excite. peptide hormones.
- It is secreted into
extracellular fluid such in The general reaction in both peptide and steroid hormones.
blood or lymph and Hormone can have different effects
depending on the target cells, such in
transported to target cells to
elicit a specific response, the case of epinephrine which can
which can be rapid or slow. either increase or decrease blood
- The growth and flow. This varied response is due to
the different characteristics of cells or
development of the body are
the difference in the receptors of
examples of slow and long
term effect of a hormone cells.
while circadian rhythm which Hormone can follow a simple
is responsible for the sleep- endocrine pathway or a simple
neuroendocrine pathway which
and-wake cycles respond to a
involves the nervous system.

62
 • When the endocrine system is not properly doing its job, the overall wellness of
▪ In endocrine pathway; the body may be affected such as decrease in energy level, changes in physical
▪ The reaction involves an endocrine cell, which releases the hormone to the appearance, and inability to produce offspring.
bloodstream or the lymphatic system, which is able to attach to receptors of a
target cell. Nervous System
▪ In neuroendocrine pathway;
▪ The nervous system is involved in the released of hormone for the reception Nervous system is composed of circuits of nervous tissue and supporting cells.
on/in a target cell. - The functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve, which is composed;
▪ Hormonal response is not unique to humans and mammals this is evident in the Neurons that have extensions for transmission of messages.
metamorphosis of some insects.
▪ Metamorphosis is controlled by the interaction of hormones which initiates The extensions of neurons are dendrites and axons.
changes in the organism.
o Axons transmit message away from
▪ The brain hormone stimulates an activator hormone called prothoracicotropic
hormone (PTTH), which activates a hormone called ecdysteroid. the cell body of the neuron.
▪ Ecdysteroid stimulates changes from larva to adult. o Dendrites transmit messages
▪ Juvenile hormone (JH) affects the changes in the insect, towards the cell body of neurons.
- high amounts of JH prevents metamorphosis. o Glia (glial cells) is a supporting cells
- low amount allows the action of ecdysteroid. function in structural, metabolic and
other activities of the neuron. The
The Role of the Endocrine System in your Body
Schwann cells, is an example of a
• Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands directly flow into the blood stream to glia, which surrounds the axon of
regulate bodily activities. neurons for more efficient transmission of message.
• Hormones are chemical messengers in the body that help stimulate target organs, - The nervous system has evolved in increasing complexity throughout the different
tissues, and cells. These hormones are responsible for causing changes in the groups of animals.
activity of your body. These changes are responses that correspond to messages - Connections among the neurons have increased from a simple nerve net to a
sent from your brain. system with ganglia (group of neuron) to encephalized organisms where
concentration of neurons is centered in a head.
• The endocrine system is like a system of checks and balances through which the
parts of the body work properly to ensure overall wellness of the body. If this • Central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
system of checks and balances goes awry, the body becomes affected by disease. • Peripheral nervous system is composed of corresponding structures outside of
• The endocrine system is like a thermostat (temperature regulator). It regulates these two organs of the nervous system.
body temperature. The thermostat of your body is turned on and off as a
response to the level of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands, which in The central nervous system is responsible for data/information processing which is
effect is a response to changes in temperature of the environment. gathered by the peripheral nervous system.

63
The CNS (upon processing) transmits the - In terms of the molecular and physiological process of contraction, nerve impulse
message again to the PNS, which then transmission is needed to depolarize the cell membrane of the muscle to
convey the message for the appropriate stimulate contraction.
response. - The reason why a taser or when you get electrocuted stops you from moving is
because of simultaneous of contractions of different muscles in your body.
The PNS is divided, based on its function; - When a stimulus (nerve impulse or electricity) arrives around the cell membrane
o Motor system controls skeletal muscles of a muscle cell, it starts a cascade of reaction which releases ions such as K+, Na+
or voluntary muscles. and Ca2+ which activates the pulling action of the thick filaments on the thin
o Autonomic nervous system functions in filaments. The pulling action is called the sliding filament theory, as the thick and
the control of involuntary muscles thin filaments slide past each other.
(cardiac, smooth muscles) and glands. - This action is an all-or-none response, wherein, a muscle will contract or not if the
stimulus reaches the threshold stimulation or not. The need for the ions K+, Na+
and Ca2+ illustrates why we experience cramps when we lack electrolytes (ions)
Locomotion in our diet, as our muscles are not able to undergo a cycle of contraction and
relaxation. The muscles are stuck in a contracted stage.
The skeletal muscle is organized from its largest structure (the muscle tissue itself) to
its functional unit (the sarcomere) as a repeating longitudinal structure that is bound
together.
All types of
Contraction is
movement are
possible because of
result of pulling
the structural
action of the
organization of
muscle result in
protein molecules
a pushing action
that makes up the
created by the
sarcomere.
arm. There are
different
Arms of the thick
skeletal systems
filaments move
which the
along the thin
muscle can pull
filaments, pulling
on.
both Z lines at the
ends into the middle.
- When contraction occurs, the sarcomere shortens and this is reflected in the
These are the hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
contraction of a muscle (you can ask the students to flex their biceps, and ask
Hydrostatic skeleton muscles act on a fluid trapped by a cylindrical muscular
them if their muscle shortened).
structure. The contraction of the muscle creates a strong structure which supports
64
movement and strength of a body of an organism, an organ or a particular body Organ
Definition
part. Examples of a hydrostatic skeleton are the body of a worm and the abdomen. system
Exoskeleton a clam’s shell is an example.
Endoskeleton the bones and cartilage in a human is an example. Digestive
- should not be
misconceived to be only
made up of bones, as
Respiratory
even in humans, our
skeletons are made up
of cartilage and bones.
- Shark’s endoskeleton is Circulatory
made up of cartilage.

We have different bones

Excretory
which our muscles can pull
to create movement, and
the different types of
joints are responsible for
Nervous
different movement that
our body can create.

B. Essay; (for 5 points)

How do I survive?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Earth and Life Science _____________________________________________________________________
Evaluation for Module no. 7 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Give the meaning of the following organ system and its function. Write it on a _____________________________________________________________________
table below. (2 points per System)
_____________________________________________________________________
65
 Module no. 8 _____________________________________________________________________
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Lesson VIII. At the end of this lesson Evidence for _____________________________________________________________________
Process of the student can…. Evolution _____________________________________________________________________
Evolution 1. Describe evidence of Origin of _____________________________________________________________________
Date Started:
evolution. Extinction _____________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how population
_____________ _____________________________________________________________________
of organisms have
_____________________________________________________________________
change and continue to
change _____________________________________________________________________
Date of ____________________________________________________________________
over time.
Submission:
3. Describe how the
present system of Readings;
_____________
classification of
organisms is based on Evidence of Evolution and the Origin of Extinction
evolutionary
relationship. Evidence of Evolution
Embryology
Activity no. 8 - Is the scientific study of embryos and their development.
A. What did you observe in this picture? - The similarity in embryonic development of vertebrates that include the fishes,
Elaborate all the things that you have seen in this picture.
birds, mammals, and amphibians can help explain the resemblance of these
groups of vertebrates in terms of a shared ancestry.
- Studies in evolutionary biology and genetics suggest that vertebrate animals
have developed, through time, unique characteristics that differentiate them
from one another. The development of these characteristics shows evidence for
a common ancestry of vertebrate animals.

Homologous structures
- Is the morphological structures of organisms that have the same evolutionary
Source: byjus.com origin.
_____________________________________________________________________ - Evolutionary biologists theorize that related species share similarities in
_____________________________________________________________________ structures because they have descended from a common ancestor.
_____________________________________________________________________

66
 - Homologies can be traced by comparing the structures of living things. Vestigial structures of a whale
For example, the appendages pelvic bone and human tailbone
of vertebrate animals have Source: Earth and Life Science Textbook.
Genetics
the same evolutionary origin.
- The genes of various species that descended from a common ancestor are made
As they progress, the animals
up of similar nucleotides and proteins which are the basic heredity units for all
develop differently in
life forms.
response to the function of
- Gene structures show how the physical traits of species are being modified from
their appendages— the legs
one generation to the next.
of amphibians are adapted
- Geneticists compare the DNA of different species and map relationships
for walking and crawling and
between them. Studies in genetics have shown that the chromosomal structure
the wings of birds are
of many species for a specific code of genes evolved or could be traced from a
adapted for flight.
common ancestor.
Vertebrate forelimb

Vestigial Structures Environmental Changes that Affect Extinction

- Certain structures of many life forms gradually lost their original function as Environmental and biological changes have taken place during the entire history of
populations adapt to changes in their environment. These changes are consistent life on Earth. These changes in living organisms such as genetic changes have
with natural selection. influenced the structures that made them up, which in turn have influenced their
- Vestigial structure is an anatomical feature of organisms that performed a abilities to survive.
specific function in the past but has since lost this original function as the Environmental changes like the gradual cooling of the Earth during the ice ages may
organisms adapted to changes in the environment through time. have also affected the ability of organisms to adapt and survive. This resulted in the
- Vestigial structures of some species are clearly homologous to corresponding extinction of certain species.
structures in other organisms. Atmosphere
- The Earth's atmosphere has changed over the past four billion years in terms of
- One of these structures is the
chemical composition.
tailbone. In the past, some - Increase in oxygen concentration is one of these changes.
mammals find their tails useful - Organisms such as plants, which undergo photosynthesis, added oxygen into the
for locomotory balance, but atmosphere.
when primates learned to walk, - Before this, oxygen level is relatively low; now, the Earth's atmosphere contains
the tail became useless. about 21% oxygen.
Through time, the tailbone was - The increase in the level of oxygen played an important role in the survival of
living things.
converted into fused vertebrae,
also called the coccyx.

67
Temperature - When organisms are exposed to too much cosmic radiation emitted from outer
- The Earth's temperatures in the last two billion years have fluctuated many times space and the Sun, their genes can
over. It varied, in part, due to the increase in the concentration of certain gases mutate and, in the process, weaken
in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide which dramatically changed climate their gene pool.
conditions. - When asteroids reach the surface of the
- Some organisms were able to adapt to these drastic change in temperature; Earth, their collision with the Earth could
others were not as successful. Extreme fluctuations in temperature have caused cause a cataclysmic impact which in turn
many species to go extinct. could cause many species to become
- Climate is one of the abiotic factors that affect life increase on Earth. The current extinct.
rapid in temperature, which is for the most part due to greenhouse gases, can Cosmic radiation and asteroid impact.
alter significantly weather conditions. Diseases
- Greenhouse gases such as carbon monoxide from the emission of automobiles Species have immune systems that help them fight diseases. With changing
and sulfur oxides from the burning of weather conditions, many of these species increasingly become less able to defend
coal contribute to increase in the themselves against diseases and increasingly become more susceptible.
temperature of the atmosphere.
- Most species cannot adapt to drastic Spread of Invasive Species
- Invasive species can be any organism which, when introduced in an
changes in weather conditions.
ecosystem, starts to reproduce quickly. They have the ability to spread
- Species that fail to adapt will find it
aggressively, harming many organisms that are native to the ecosystem.
difficult to find food or to meet their
- Invasive species invade the habitats of other species. They use the resources
basic needs. This causes the species to
that other species heavily rely on.
die and become extinct.
- Competition is greatly increased, reducing the other organisms' ability to
Fish kills due to heat.
Source: Earth and life Science textbook meet their basic needs and to reproduce.

Flood and Glaciation Adaptation- inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and
- When temperature on Earth gets warmer and warmer, the glaciers in the Arctic reproduction in specific environments. (Observed in the Galapagos finches)
regions start to melt.
- This could cause rising of the sea level, which in turn could cause catastrophic Natural selection caused these adaptations to arise. Natural selection explains the
floods in many places. This could drown and kill many. difference in survival of individual since some individuals of the same species have
- When the glaciers melt, water flows on land, thereby flooding it and making it inherited traits (adaptations) that allow the organism to survive and reproduce in a
unsuitable for some species. particular environment.

Cosmic Radiation and Asteroid Impact Nature selects organisms with high fitness

68
Darwin thought of the idea of descent with modification, which was caused by 5. Living things that survive and reproduce pass their genetic traits to their
natural selection. That time he was not quite confident of his idea, until Alfred offspring.
Wallace sent him his manuscript (worked in the Malayan Archipelago) that contains Animals and plants that survived have "good genes" that help them to adapt
Wallace’s hypothesis of natural selection identical to Darwin’s. to changes in their environment. They pass on these "good genes" to their
offspring. The probability of surviving increases with the help of these traits.
Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection Factors that Can Lead to Evolution
Evolution, as explained in Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection, happens in nature
Gene Flow - is the transfer of alleles from one population to another population.
and is divided into five parts.
- When certain organisms join a population to which they do not originally belong
1. Living things that produce more offspring have higher chances of surviving. and reproduce with members of this new population, their alleles becomes part
The environment is limited in terms of its support for living things. Conditions of the new population's gene pool.
such as diseases, starvation, and limited space all contribute to an organism's - The alleles transfer from one population to another population.
ability to survive. - It occurs when certain animals move from one population to another.
- For example, during summer many spores from fern and fungi will be transferred
2. Organisms have the ability to survive. and spread to new areas due to wind and water current. The area receives the
While organisms have the ability to survive, not all of these organisms will population allowing for gene flow to take place and for genetic variation to
eventually survive. They have to compete for finite food resources and increase. Gene flow increases the chance for these two populations to evolve a
shelter. They should be able to protect themselves from predators. new species.
The beaks of birds such as eagles, sparrows, kingfishers, and ducks determine
the kind of food they eat and the way they find and obtain their food. Genetic drift - is a change in allele frequencies or genotypes that affects small
populations of organisms. This mechanism of evolution is due to an entirely random
3. Variation within a species. process.
Members of the same species are not exactly the same; they have variations. Through genetic drift, some alleles will decrease in frequency and become
Variations within species include such differences as how fast or slow eliminated because of chance causing a loss in genetic diversity in the population.
organisms run and walk or the number of stripes or spots as in the case of
ladybugs and zebras. Mutation can form new alleles and can lead to genetic variation which is necessary
for evolution to take place. It is one of the mechanisms of natural selection.
4. Variation among members of a species increases their ability to survive and Mutation occurs in the DNA sequence which causes a nucleotide base to be
reproduce. inserted, deleted, or substituted.
Species that exhibit more variations among its members are better able to Some factors that can cause mutation are UV light, other forms of ionizing radiation,
reproduce and survive than species that show little variation among its and some chemicals.
members.
Sexual Selection
- The cost of reproduction for males and females is different.

69
- Female animals have a greater chance of selecting their mates. Earth and Life Science
- Males continuously produce sperm, making the value of individual sperm Evaluation for Module no. 8
relatively small.
Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
- Females produce a limited number of offspring due to their reproductive cycle.
Synthesis report in Evolution; You may use additional paper.
_____________________________________________________________________
There are two types of sexual selection;
_____________________________________________________________________
• Intersexual selection happens when males display unique traits that attract the
_____________________________________________________________________
females.
_____________________________________________________________________
• Intrasexual selection happens when there is competition among males. The one
_____________________________________________________________________
who wins the competition will mate with the female.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Lamarckian vs. Darwinian Evolution: Comparing theories on Evolution
_____________________________________________________________________
Lamarckian Darwinian
_____________________________________________________________________
Physiological needs drives organisms to Natural selection: nature selects which _____________________________________________________________________
evolve; to become more complex organisms will survive and reproduce
_____________________________________________________________________
Theory of inheritance of Acquired traits; Descent with Modification by natural
and Theory of Use and Disuse selection; survival of the fittest _____________________________________________________________________
Individual species Populations _____________________________________________________________________
No, variations are caused by inheriting Yes, important requirement for evolution _____________________________________________________________________
acquired traits _____________________________________________________________________
Environment as an important factor for Environment as an important factor for _____________________________________________________________________
evolution evolution _____________________________________________________________________
No, organisms just evolved into another Yes, organisms that do not possess _____________________________________________________________________
species adaptations (favorable traits) for a _____________________________________________________________________
specific environment go extinct. _____________________________________________________________________
Variations in population, acquired traits Raw material for evolution-mutation and _____________________________________________________________________
are not passed to the next generation how traits are passed from parents to _____________________________________________________________________
offspring (Genetics) since Darwin _____________________________________________________________________
observed offspring to be resembling _____________________________________________________________________
parents but not identical to them _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

70
 Module no. 9 B. Based on the diagram, what can you say when it comes to stability, sustainability
and their relationship. Does the absence of the other specially the environment
Topic/Title Objectives Key Learning points Time Duration
affect the stability and sustainability of the system?
_____________________________________________________________________
Lesson IX. At the end of this Principles of _____________________________________________________________________
Interaction and lesson the student Ecosystem
Interdependence
_____________________________________________________________________
can…. - Biotic and
1. Describe the Environmental _____________________________________________________________________
principles of resistance _____________________________________________________________________
Date Started:
ecosystem. Energy flow _____________________________________________________________________
2. Categorize the - Terrestrial and _____________________________________________________________________
_____________
different biotic aquatic _____________________________________________________________________
potential and ecosystems.
_____________________________________________________________________
environmental
Date of
resistance that
Submission: Readings;
affect population
explosion.
_____________ Principles of Ecosystem; Biotic and Environmental resistance
3. Describe how the
different terrestrial
and aquatic Ecosystem - includes organisms, populations, and communities.
ecosystems are - is the basic functional unit in ecology.
interlinked with - It is made up of abiotic and biotic components.
one another. The biotic components of the ecosystem are the plants and animals.
The abiotic components comprises of temperature, moisture, light, and climate.
Activity no. 9
The Core Ecological Principles
A. Observe the diagram below.
The following are core ecological principles which serve as important guidelines in
protecting ecosystems.
Environment
Balance of Nature
- Nature has its own laws and processes to sustain itself.
- Ecosystem can support only a given number of individuals at a given time.
Human Animals - For example, if a pond can only accommodate four frogs to support their needs,
there is going to be an imbalance once more frogs are added. The additional
frogs put a strain on the carrying capacity of the pond.
- Ecological balance in the pond or in any ecosystem for that matter is carried out
through nutrient cycles and biochemical cycles.

71
Diversity and Stability o The population size of consumers depends on the availability of materials and
- All life forms are important in an ecosystem. No matter how small or big the food resources.
organisms are, they have specific roles to perform in the ecosystem. o Overgrazing and overuse of resources strain the ecosystem. There are only
- The more diverse the ecosystem the more resilient and stable it becomes. enough resources for a number of organisms for a period of time.
- Every species has its own way of making the ecosystem stable. For example, the grassland can support only a certain population size of cows to
- When a species is lost, other species that depend on it are affected. maintain the stability of the ecosystem. Once the population becomes bigger,
the balance in the ecosystem will be disrupted.
Finiteness of Resources
Resources such as coal, fossil fuel, and natural gas are non-renewable. These non- Types of Ecosystem Stability
renewable resources must be used prudently and wisely. There is a limit to the It is a dynamic balance between resistance and resilience — the two types of
absorptive capacity of the environment. ecosystem stability.
▪ Resistance is a measure of how much an ecosystem can resist change. It remains
Stewardship a stable system despite disturbances or changes.
Every individual is part of nature. Humans are not masters but stewards of nature
For example, when a body of water such as lakes, streams, rivers, ponds, and
who take part in protecting, preserving, and conserving nature for the benefit of the
ocean, becomes rich in dissolved nutrients, oxygen becomes depleted
present generation and of generations that are yet to come.
(eutrophication) thereby harming aquatic organisms.
▪ Resilience is a measure of how quickly the ecosystem recovers from disturbance
The Stability of Ecosystems
or how to resists damage. It can immediately return back to a steady state or to
The stability of an ecosystem depends on the interaction among the different
a state of balance.
abiotic and biotic factors. Such interactions influence the capacity of an ecosystem
to become stable.
Ecosystem support living organisms
For instance, plant diversity depends on the availability of sunlight, water, and All life forms on Earth are important components of an ecosystem. They have a role
carbon dioxide which serve as raw materials for photosynthesis.
to play in making the ecosystem stable. Each living organism has its own ecosystem
o Abiotic factors include light, temperature, and nutrients among others. Light in which they interact with other organisms and their environment.
provides energy used by plants to carry out photosynthesis. Temperature should The different activities that are carried out by living things in the ecosystem are as
follows:
not exceed the range that many living things can tolerate. The nutrients in soil
▪ Activities of every organism which include walking, jumping, swimming, playing,
help nourish plants.
o The biotic components include the plants, animals, and all other organisms that and hunting food use energy.
have the ability to defend themselves, live in suitable habitats, and migrate. ▪ Organisms that cannot manufacture their own food depend on producers for
o To protect biodiversity is to also protect the ecosystem. There are many threats their energy source.
▪ Producers such as plants and algae make their own food through photosynthesis.
to biodiversity. Oil spill and water pollution for example should be controlled to
protect biodiversity in marine and fresh water ecosystems. The transfer of energy loses most of its usable energy in the form of heat. Energy

72
 never returns to the Sun and therefore, it is impossible for energy to cycle. Most - It consists of essential elements needed by living things. Plants are able to
of it will dissipate into the environment in a process called entropy. obtain important nutrients such as carbon, phosphorus, and potassium from
the soil through water.
Environmental factors that influence the survival of organisms in an ecosystem. - The availability of water in an ecosystem could increase and decrease
- Every organism on Earth has a life cycle. Animals grow, reproduce, and survive by depending on the changing environment. Hotter temperatures produce
obtaining nutrients from other organisms and from their surroundings. greater moisture which in turn, increases condensation rates and rainfall.
- Plants obtain nutrients from the soil. Both animals and plants grow, reproduce, - Some organisms like rodents have a high resistance to an abundance of
and eventually die. water.
- When they die, they decompose and the molecules that made them up are The Water Cycle
returned back to the soil— the same molecules that came from the soil and that • Temperature is one of the abiotic factors that influence the ability of living things
became the building blocks of these organisms. This process is called material to survive in a given environment.
cycling. - It affects certain environmental factors that govern several physiological and
biological processes.
The Survival of Organisms in a Changing Environment - Temperatures vary from time to time. The temperature in the Earth's
Organisms need air, water, light, and nutrients to survive. These are some of the atmosphere varies in different zones and locations.
- Some animals and plants are adapted to extremely warm or extremely cold
basic needs of organisms. To survive, these basic needs must be met.
environments.
- Other organisms prefer temperatures in tropical and temperate parts of the
• Water is an important abiotic factor which helps most living things to perform Earth.
their activities.
- is the "lifeblood of the Earth," as the saying goes.
• Light from the Sun is the planet's main source of energy. Plants need energy
from sunlight to manufacture their food.
- When animals and humans eat plants, a part of this energy is transferred.
- Light is very essential in the life of many living things.
- There are some groups of
birds that use UV light to
distinguish flowers of
certain trees and orient
themselves to other sources
of food. Plants as food
sources indirectly transfer
energy to animals through
the food chain.
73
 o Photic zone – Sufficient sunlight is available for photosynthesis and is the - Greenhouse gases can also cause acid rain which is harmful to plants and
basis of the food chain. animals. When acid rain combines with the ocean's water, many aquatic
o Aphotic zone – Sunlight cannot penetrate and food chain is based on non- organisms such as the corals will be affected.
photosynthetic activities.
• Atmospheric pressure (air pressure) - is due to the gravitational force of the Respiratory Problems
Earth exerted on the atmospheric gases. Air pollution can cause many respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, pneumonia,
- There is a particular range of atmospheric pressure within which organisms and asthma. Millions of people die of respiratory diseases each year due to direct
are able to survive. and indirect exposure to air pollution.
- When air pressure is .low, most especially in high altitudes, some living things
may find it difficult to respire because of insufficient amount of oxygen. Effect on Wildlife
- Atmospheric pressure increases with decreasing altitude. The presence in air of hazardous chemicals such as carbon monoxide and sulphur
dioxide forces many animals to transfer to other habitats.
Chemical components such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are essential Wildlife movement can cause harm to organisms. In most cases, many organisms die
elements of life. Most of these elements needed by many living things are derived as they seek new habitats.
from plants and animals.
Opportunities in Managing the Negative Environmental Effects of Air Pollution
Human Activities and Air Pollution ➢ Considering environmental factors in the early stages of decision-making.
➢ Reducing energy consumption and increasing use of renewable energy sources
o Global warming is the rapid increase in temperature due to the release of high such as hydropower and solar energy.
concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur oxide, ➢ Reusing, reducing and recycling, thus decreasing resource consumption and
hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. waste production.
- These gases trap heat from the Sun in the Earth's atmosphere which causes
the increase in temperature.
- Global warming greatly affects many living organisms and influences their Energy flow: Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
ability to adapt in extremely high temperatures. The flow of energy and the cycling of materials provide stability in an ecosystem.
- These gases come from vehicle exhausts which contain carbon monoxide, the Plants and algae are producers in the food pyramid. Different processes such as
use of chemical substances such as aerosols, and industrial plants that respiration, growth, and reproduction reduce the amount of energy transferred
produce sulfur oxides. between trophic levels.
Energy Flow
- The food chain illustrates the trophic levels through which energy flows and is
Population Growth
transformed.
- Human population is another factor that contributes to global warming. More
- Energy is always available in the ecosystem its usable form easily dissipates
people will be using automobiles and burn fossil fuels. This will increase the
anytime living things use the energy that flows through the trophic levels.
levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
74
 ▪ Producers (plants) can manufacture organic compounds which serve as
sources of energy and nutrients not only to plants but also to other
organisms.
▪ Consumers get their nutrients and energy by feeding directly or indirectly on
plants.
▪ Carnivores (flesh-eaters) are secondary consumers which feed only on plant-
eating animals.
▪ Herbivores (plant eaters) animals who feed on plants.
▪ Omnivores are considered tertiary or higher-level consumers which feed on
plants, herbivores, and carnivores.
▪ Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi absorb soluble nutrients from the
decomposition of dead tissues or organic matter.
Food chain is the transfer of food energy from the producers (plants) to a series of
organism in a process of sequential or repeated eating and being eaten.
Classification of Food Chains
The Energy Pyramid
▪ Grazing Food Chain starts with green plants and includes the grazing herbivores
Living things in an ecosystem occupy different trophic levels depending on how they and the carnivores.
produce usable energy for other organisms in the food web. ▪ Detritus Food Chain starts with decaying matter to microorganisms then to
Feeding relationship detritus feeding organisms such as beetles, ants, and earthworms and then to
- refers to a relationship in their predators.
which energy-rich molecules
formed by producers such as
plants are taken in or eaten by
a series of consumers.
- In a feeding relationship, the
energy from sunlight is the
ultimate source of energy.
- Green plants are able to use
the energy from sunlight to
manufacture food through the
process of photosynthesis.

Feeding Relationship
75
 The Soil Food Web
Relationships between soil food web, plants, organic matter, and birds and mammals. Behavioral adaptation refers to the action such as hibernation
Image courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service taken by animals to protect themselves from extreme
http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/soil_quality/soil_biology/soil_food_web.thml environmental conditions.
A food web illustrating the interconnected food chains in an ecosystem - Some animals hibernate during winter.
- Before these animals hibernate, they eat plenty of food.
Food web - refers to the interconnected or interlocking food chains in an ecosystem. The animal goes into a cave, or burrows underground, or
Living things may feed on several animals in a food web. finds some other shelter.
- Some mammals such as the mouse and squirrel also become inactive especially
Adaptation during summer as they enter a kind of deep sleep called estivation. They sleep
- Organisms have their own way of adapting to changes in their environment. for a long period of time, until the temperature of the environment becomes
Adaptation helps them to survive and thrive amidst these changes. favorable again.
- It is the result of evolution as species undergo changes over a long period of - Many animals take several months to hibernate or estivate. They wake up once
time. It usually happens when a gene mutates or changes. Some mutations can in a while, like the squirrel, to find food. They keep their food in their burrows.
help organisms to survive better. After eating, they go back to sleep again. Small animals come out of hibernation
- Animals that are better adapted to their environment have a greater chance of much faster than large animals.
surviving and breeding. A hibernating squirrel.
- Animals that are not as well-adapted may not survive.
- Different physical characteristics of species help them survive in a changing Social Adaptation
environment and pass on their genes to their offspring. Animals like humans do not live alone. They need other animals to interact with to
- Characteristics that do not help the species survive will slowly disappear. survive.
There are two types of animal interactions;
Types of Adaptation ▪ Intraspecific interaction is the kind of interaction
Structural adaptation among animals of the same kind.
- refers to the physical characteristics of organisms that help them survive in their ▪ Interspecific interaction is the kind of interaction
ecosystem. among animals of different kind.
- An example of structural adaptation
Each animal species has a unique social structure
in animals and plants is the
protective covering that helps them consisting of members with unique roles to play.
retain water in their body.
- Some animals change the color of Consider a colony of ants as an example.
their skin by blending with the Each colony consists of three kinds of members: the
environment to deceive their worker ants, queens, and males. The worker ants build
enemies. their nest underground, find food, and raise young ants. The queen will just lay eggs.
Structural adaptation of a frog and camel
The male ants mate with the queen. The colony of ants shows different roles for
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different members. Ants are social animals. Among social animals, members have ▪ Parasitism - it is a relationship in which one organism feeds on the tissues (body
not only distinct roles to play but also distinct structures. The male and young queen material like the muscles) of another organism.
ants have wings while the worker ants have stingers which they use to fight - Parasite- is the animal that benefits from this relationship.
enemies. They use their jaws for digging, carrying things, transporting food, - Host – the animal that is harmed.
constructing nests, and fighting. Ants use their lower jaws for chewing. Some of these parasites are ticks, lice, roundworms, tapeworms, and other
organisms. Many parasites like the tapeworm live inside the body, particularly in the
Organisms interact with one another as individuals or as populations. This intestine, of its host.
interaction helps each organism to survive in its own ecosystem. Sometimes this
interaction may harm other organisms for the sake of their survival. Major Types of Ecosystem

Different interaction of organisms: Marine Ecosystem

The oceans and seas are rich in biodiversity. The Philippines is one of the six
Competition is a type of ecological relationship that happens when two or more
countries that comprise the Coral Triangle Region which is home to the richest
species compete for the same limited resources such as food and habitat.
marine biodiversity on Earth. Marine life includes the coral species that inhabit the
There are two types of competition:
coral reefs. The Philippines has the largest recorded number of coral species. It
▪ Interspecific competition occurs between and among organisms that belong
consists of around 430 species, which represent about 50% of all the coral species in
to different species but have the same niche and needs. These organisms fight
the world.
for a limited resource such as food and habitat.
▪ Intraspecific competition occurs when members of the same species compete
Freshwater Ecosystem
for limited resources. This type of competition always happens during the
Milkfish, eels, and carps are common examples of fish that are found in freshwater
spring breeding season of birds.
habitats. Shrimps, freshwater snail, and mussels are species that also inhabit
freshwater bodies. Many invasive species, such as the water hyacinths, are found in
Predation is a type of ecological relationship in which a predator feeds on a prey.
rivers and lakes. Freshwater ecosystems support many living things which in turn are
sources of livelihood and food for humans.
Symbiotic relationship
- Any relationship in which two living organisms live closely together. Many
Terrestrial Ecosystem
animals relate with other species to survive.
Forest and mountain ecosystems have a high level of biodiversity. Many plants such
as wild ferns, mosses, and shrubs are found mostly on the shrub and herb layer of
There are several types of symbiotic relationships.
the forest. Trees serve as habitats for many species. Wild birds, snakes, and insects
▪ Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship that benefits species and the other
inhabit mostly the understory layer of forests. Some animals and plants species are
species is neither benefited nor harmed.
sensitive to high altitude and temperature in forest and mountains.
- For example, the barnacles that live on the skin of a whale do not harm or
benefit the whale, but the barnacles are given free transport as the whale
swims from one place to another.
77
 Earth and Life Science _____________________________________________________________________
Evaluation for Module no. 9 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name: _____________________________ Block: __________ Date: _________
_____________________________________________________________________
A. Identification; Identify the word being defined by the following sentence. The
_____________________________________________________________________
following questions are all pertaining to the relationship.
____________________1.Species uses more of the same resources than other _____________________________________________________________________
species. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________2.Species ate other species. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________3.Species who cultivate by other species as a source of food. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________4.Species Infect other species. _____________________________________________________________________
____________________5.Species rides along with other species to get food while _____________________________________________________________________
they hunt. _____________________________________________________________________
B. Synthesis paper; _____________________________________________________________________
Interaction and interdependence. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________- _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________- _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

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