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Journal of Applied Aquaculture

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Production of the Pacific White

Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei,
in High-Density Greenhouse-
Enclosed Raceways Using Low
Salinity Groundwater
a b
Tzachi M. Samocha , Addison L. Lawrence , Craig
c b b
A. Collins , Frank L. Castille , William A. Bray ,
d d c
Craig J. Davies , Philip G. Lee & Gary F. Wood
a
Texas A&M University System, Texas Agricultural
Experiment Station, Shrimp Mariculture Research
Facility, 4301 Waldron Road, Corpus Christi, TX,
78418, USA
b
Texas A&M University System, Texas Agricultural
Experiment Station, Shrimp Mariculture Research
Laboratory, 1300 Port Street, Port Aransas, TX,
78373, USA
c
Wood Brothers Farms, 77 Biltmore Estates,
Phoenix, AZ, 85016, USA
d
University of Texas, Marine Biomedical Institute,
200 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX, 77550, USA
Published online: 25 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: Tzachi M. Samocha , Addison L. Lawrence , Craig A. Collins ,

Frank L. Castille , William A. Bray , Craig J. Davies , Philip G. Lee & Gary F. Wood
(2004): Production of the Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, in High-
Density Greenhouse-Enclosed Raceways Using Low Salinity Groundwater, Journal of
Applied Aquaculture, 15:3-4, 1-19

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J028v15n03_01

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Production of the Pacific White Shrimp,

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Litopenaeus vannamei, in High-Density

Greenhouse-Enclosed Raceways
Using Low Salinity Groundwater
Tzachi M. Samocha
Addison L. Lawrence
Craig A. Collins
Frank L. Castille
William A. Bray
Craig J. Davies
Philip G. Lee
Gary F. Wood

ABSTRACT. Two nursery trials and one grow-out culture trial with Pa-
cific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were conducted at an inland
farm near Gila Bend, Arizona, using low-salinity (1.8 to 2.6 ppt) ground-

Tzachi M. Samocha, Texas A&M University System, Texas Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Shrimp Mariculture Research Facility, 4301 Waldron Road, Corpus
Christi, TX 78418.
Addison L. Lawrence, Frank L. Castille, and William A. Bray, Texas A&M Univer-
sity System, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Shrimp Mariculture Research
Laboratory, 1300 Port Street, Port Aransas, TX 78373.
Craig A. Collins and Gary F. Wood, Wood Brothers Farms, 77 Biltmore Estates,
Phoenix, AZ 85016.
Craig J. Davies and Philip G. Lee, University of Texas, Marine Biomedical Insti-
tute, 200 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77550.
Journal of Applied Aquaculture, Vol. 15(3/4) 2004
http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAA
 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J028v15n03_01 1
 2 JOURNAL OF APPLIED AQUACULTURE

water. Trials were conducted in greenhouse-enclosed concrete raceways

with bottom area of 97.5 m2 and water volume of 147.6 m3. Excellent
survival (98.1±2.9%), FCR (0.7:1), and yield (2.22±0.17 kg/m2) were
obtained in a five-week nursery study with stocking density of about
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20,000 postlarvae/m2. In the grow-out trial, survival as high as 86% and

a yield of 4.39 kg/m2 of shrimp with a mean weight of 14.7 g were
achieved in 107 days from an initial mean weight of 0.5 g. These trials
indicate that the Pacific white shrimp can be raised at very high densities
with good survival using low-salinity groundwater. Composition of the
groundwater is reported. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth
Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@
haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>  2004 by The
Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, low-salin-

ity groundwater, nursery, raceway, grow-out, high density

INTRODUCTION

Sporadic viral disease outbreaks in farm-raised shrimp have resulted

in severe crop losses all over the world. Thus, one of the limiting factors
inhibiting further expansion of the shrimp farming industry is the occur-
rence of disease epizootics (Lightner et al. 1997). White spot syndrome
virus (WSSV) is one of the viruses that has affected world production of
cultured shrimp and is still widely distributed in many countries (Jory
and Dixon 1999; Wang et al. 1999). In some cases disease outbreaks
have implicated shrimp farming intensification and increased occur-
rence of viral diseases in the seawater source. When virulent pathogens
are found in wild populations and in natural waters, the control of dis-
ease outbreaks in cultured stocks becomes very difficult and costly. As
a temporary solution and to minimize losses, some producers have relo-
cated their farms to new coastal sites where disease vectors are less
abundant. Another practice, used mainly in the Far East with the black
tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, is to raise shrimp in inland ponds far
from coastal waters (Flaherty and Vandergeest 1998).
The species of choice of the shrimp farming industry in the western
hemisphere is the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. This
species has been reported in hypersaline water of 40 ppt and higher and
in low salinity water of 1-2 ppt (Menz and Blake 1980). The preferable
salinity for culturing this species is not well documented. Several au-
 Samocha et al. 3

thors (Hirono 1989; Stern et al. 1990; Villalon 1991) report that in Ec-
uador postlarvae (PL) of this species have been acclimated to low
salinity water (<1 ppt) in culture situations. In a salinity preference
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study with PL of this species, Mair (1980) found a strong preference for
salinity between 1 and 8 ppt. Nevertheless, there is very little published
information on growth and survival of this shrimp at low salinities.
Samocha et al. (1998) working with this species in an indoor recirculat-
ing system did not find statistically significant differences in growth
and survival in a 70-day trial when working with water salinities of 2, 4,
and 8 ppt. On the other hand, Bray et al. (1994) found significantly
lower growth of juveniles of this species in salinity of 25 and 35 ppt (or
higher salinity) compared with 5 and 15 ppt. These examples demon-
strate the Pacific white shrimp tolerance to low salinity water. However,
recent interest in culturing shrimp in low salinity groundwater raises
new questions, as well water can differ considerably in ion composition
from diluted natural seawater. Published reports concerning the growth
and survival of this species in well water or inland surface water are lim-
ited. Successful culture of this species in saline groundwater of about 28
ppt was documented by Smith and Lawrence (1990) when juveniles
were raised in earthen ponds (25 shrimp/m2) from 1.2 g to 19.9 g in 120
days with 86.7% survival. In another study, Scarpa and Vaughan (1998)
examined different parameters affecting PL acclimation to freshwater
and the effect of low salinity on growth and survival of this species.
Hardness (as CaCO3) level greater than 150 mg/L was suggested by the
authors for good survival and growth. According to their findings, in-
creased survival of freshwater-acclimated PL can be expected when
adding magnesium rather than calcium to low-hardness freshwater. In
another study, Emberson et al. (1999) reported a yield as high as 6,770
kg/ha from outdoor earthen ponds using 2.0 ppt groundwater in the
Sonora Desert, USA. In a updated report of the same study, Samocha et
al. (1999, 2002) stated that production as high as 12,000 kg/ha was ob-
tained when a small pond (0.1 ha) was stocked at high density (109
shrimp/m2).
Limited data are available concerning both the nursery and grow-out
phases of Pacific white shrimp culture using high stocking densities in
low-salinity groundwater. The objectives of the current study were to
demonstrate that (1) early PL and juvenile shrimp of Pacific white
shrimp can be reared successfully at high density in low salinity water,
and (2) juvenile shrimp can be raised to marketable size at high density
in low salinity water.
 4 JOURNAL OF APPLIED AQUACULTURE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Farm Site Description

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Trials were conducted at the Wood Brothers Shrimp Farm, Gila

Bend, Arizona1 located in the Sonora Desert 300 km northeast of the
Gulf of California. The 15-ha shrimp farm is a division of a 500-ha di-
versified agricultural operation raising wheat and olives. Two geother-
mal (25°C) deep water wells (250 m) with low salinity (1.8 to 2.6 ppt)
provided the water for raising the shrimp. Water was delivered by pipe
directly into the culture vessels with no prior treatment. Some character-
istics of this water and the differences in ionic composition between this
water and natural seawater diluted to the farm water salinity are summa-
rized in Table 1.

Culture System Description

The nursery and grow-out studies were conducted in greenhouse-en-

closed concrete raceways. Raceway walls were painted black, while bot-
toms were painted white using a food-grade epoxy paint (Epmar Corp.,
Santa Fe Springs, California). Each raceway had a bottom area of 97.5 m2
(28 m × 3.48 m) with an operational water volume of 147.6 m3 and a cen-
ter partition (24 m × 0.2 m) extending within 2 m from the end-walls.
Raceways were built with 1% bottom slope and 0.3-m deep settling basin
at the deep end. Water depth of the raceway at the deep end was 1.8 m and
1.2 m in the shallow end. A perforated PVC pipe (30.5-cm in diameter)
covered with 500-µm netting that was positioned at the center of the set-
tling basin to serve as a drain for water exchange and pump- driven water
circulation. A 30.5-cm PVC pipe returned water from the settling basin
into a 5.3-m3 concrete reservoir located near the shallow end of the race-
way. A 3-hp pump delivered water from this reservoir back to the race-
way with an alternate loop directing the water into a rapid sand filter and/
or a Venturi injectors. Water was pumped back into the raceway through
a perforated PVC spray-pipe (5.1 cm in diameter) and/or a bottom mani-
fold (7.6 cm PVC pipe with spray nozzles).
Three banks of four airlift pumps (7.6 cm in diameter) were posi-
tioned on each side of the center partition to provide a constant counter-
clockwise current. Raceway water circulation could be further enhanced

1. Use of trade or manufacturer’s name does not imply endorsement.

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TABLE 1. Calculated mineral composition of natural seawater (NSW) diluted with distilled water to 2.2 ppt salinity, and
water samples from two wells at the Wood Brothers Shrimp Farm, Gila Bend, Arizona.

Parameter Diluted NSW Average Low High Parameter Diluted NSWa Average Low High
(mg/L) (mg/L)
Hardness (Ca+Mg) 14.1 531.0 345.4 716.7 Chlorine 1,215 891.5 796 985
Alkalinity 7.3 165 126 204 Lead 0.002 0.27 0.25 0.29
Total soluble salts 76 2,218 1,844 2,592 Boron 0.25 1.33 0.66 2
Total organic carbon N/Db < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 Zinc 0.0005 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01
NH4-N N/D 0.7 0.3 1.1 Sulfate-S 171 172.5 115 230
Nitrite N/D < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.02 Phosphate-P 0.004 0.03 0.01 0.05
Nitrate N/D 15.0 7.7 22.3 Iron 0.0005 0.31 0.22 0.4
Total N N/D 15.8 8.2 23.4 Calcium 25.9 187 124 250
pH 7.5c 7.5 7.6 7.3 Magnesium 81.3 15.3 8.5 22
Carbonate 0 0 0 0 Sodium 677 723.5 627 820
Bicarbonate 8.9 201 154 248 Potassium 25 12.5 11 14
a Natural seawater diluted with distilled water to 2.2 ppt salinity.
b None detectable.
c This value may vary based on the bicarbonate and the CO concentration in the sample.
2

5
 6 JOURNAL OF APPLIED AQUACULTURE

by injecting water via the bottom manifold and/or the spray pipe. Sup-
plemental aeration was provided by six, 3-m air diffusers (Bio-Weave
diffuser hose, Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc., Apopka, Florida) positioned
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along the raceway sidewalls. A flat polypropylene heat exchanger

(Heliocol Arizona, Inc., Phoenix, Arizona) was placed between the cen-
ter partition and the end wall at the shallow end to maintain optimal wa-
ter temperature in the raceway during the first nursery trial. This heat
exchanger was operated by solar energy and was supported by a natural
gas-fired boiler.

Postlarvae (PL) Trial

The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of raising

young PL at high stocking density in low salinity groundwater. Two
days before stocking, two raceways were filled with well water to about
10% capacity and salinity was adjusted to 17 ppt with artificial sea salt
(Crystal Sea Bioassay, Marine Enterprises Int., Baltimore, Maryland).
Culture water was fertilized with urea, triple superphosphate and so-
dium silicate to provide a final nutrient concentration of 10, 1 and 1 mg/
L for the N, P and Si, respectively. Raceway water was inoculated with
the diatom Chaetoceros muelleri at a concentration of 50,000 cells/mL.
Four million eight-day-old postlarvae (PL8) from domesticated stocks
of the USDA Marine Shrimp Farming Program were shipped by truck in
styrofoam boxes from Harlingen Shrimp Farm Hatchery (Los Fresnos,
Texas). Shipping water temperature, salinity and PL density were 18°C,
17 ppt and 1,500 PL/L, respectively. Water temperature in shipping
bags upon arrival varied between 22 and 24°C, while dissolved oxygen
varied between 15 and >20 mg/L. Postlarvae were kept in four 750-L
tanks (two tanks per raceway) for 2-hour acclimation before they were
released into the raceways. Throughout the acclimation process dis-
solved oxygen was maintained above 15 mg/L using oxygen from a cyl-
inder. Mortality due to shipping stress was estimated at 1.9% and 2.9%
for the first and second raceway, respectively. Acclimation to low salin-
ity water was conducted over a 28-day period (see section below). To
reduce stress during the acclimation process, raceways were stocked
based on population estimates provided by the hatchery. The mean
weight of the PL at stocking was 0.0025 g while stocking densities in
the two raceways were 19,200 PL/m2 (12,700 PL/m3) and 20,400 PL/
m2 (13,500 PL/m3).
Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH and salinity in the raceways were
monitored twice daily. Total ammonia-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, and ni-
 Samocha et al. 7

trate-nitrogen were monitored three times a week using Hach DR 2010

procedures (Hach Company, Loveland, Colorado). Algal-cell counts in
the culture water were performed with a hemocytometer on samples
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collected every other day starting seven days after stocking. Water sa-
linity in the raceways was lowered from the initial 17 ppt to 2.0 ppt over
a 28-day period using the farm’s well water. New water was added to
both raceways, with no water discharge until day 12. Daily water exchange
was increased from 10% of the volume on day 12, to 84% on day 25.
Shrimp were fed a 45% crude protein dry diet (“45/10” Rangen, Inc.,
Buhl, Idaho) which was supplemented for the first eight days with
newly hatched Artemia nauplii. Diet particle size (“swim-up,” Fry # 1
and Fry # 2) was changed based on shrimp size. Diet was fed five times
daily (7:00, 10:00, 14:00, 16:00 and 19:00). Daily rations from day 10
forward varied between 4.5% and 11% of the total estimated shrimp
biomass in each raceway. Shrimp growth was monitored three times
weekly from a group sample. Shrimp yields in both raceways were de-
termined by weighing all of the shrimp after draining excess water from
the shrimp for 20 seconds. Survival and average weekly growth rates
were calculated from the harvested biomass and the shrimp mean
weight as determined by group weight samples (each with 19 to 75
shrimp) collected during the harvest. One raceway was harvested 34
days after stocking while the other after 35 days.

Juvenile Trial

The objective of this trial was to evaluate the feasibility of rearing ju-
venile shrimp (0.091 g) in low salinity water at high stocking density.
The study was conducted in four raceways filled with well-water (2.2
ppt) enriched with cultured algae. All raceways were stocked at a den-
sity of 2,670 shrimp/m2 (1,760/m3) with juveniles collected from a sin-
gle raceway harvested on the day of the study initiation. Similar initial
biomass load (0.243 kg/m2 or 0.16 kg/m3) was placed in all four race-
ways. Shrimp stocked into three raceways were transferred directly
from harvest baskets. Shrimp used for stocking the fourth raceway were
kept for four hours after the harvest in two 2,000-L tanks with oxygen
supply before they were transferred into the raceway. No shrimp mor-
tality was observed during the harvest and stocking process. Monitoring
frequencies and testing of water quality parameters were similar to
those described for the first trial. Shrimp were fed four times daily the
same dry feed mentioned previously. For the first 13 days, shrimp were
fed the Rangen Fry # 2 diet. From day 14 until harvest, shrimp were fed
 8 JOURNAL OF APPLIED AQUACULTURE

the Rangen Fry # 3 diet. Daily rations varied between 10 and 15% of the
total estimated shrimp biomass in each raceway. Rations were adjusted
based on consumption, water quality condition and weight samples col-
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lected every three to four days. Shrimp yield, survival, average weekly
growth and mean weight at harvest were recorded using the same meth-
ods described for the first trial.

Grow-Out Trial

The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of produc-

ing marketable-size Pacific white shrimp in concrete raceways with low
salinity well water using various stocking densities. Raceways were
stocked with juvenile shrimp (0.5 g) at densities of 74, 93, 107, and 346
shrimp/m2. Feed was offered three times daily (8:00, 12:00, and 17:00).
During the first 69 days, shrimp were fed the same 45% protein feed en-
riched with squid meal (“45/10” Fry # 4 diet, Rangen, Inc.). From day
70 until harvest, shrimp were fed a 40% crude-protein feed without
squid meal (“40/0, 3/32,” Rangen, Inc.). Water quality monitoring and
frequencies were similar to those described for the first trial. Shrimp
growth was monitored weekly from a group weight. Three raceways
were harvested 107 days after stocking, while one raceway was har-
vested after 94 days. Shrimp yield, survival, average weekly growth and
mean weight at harvest were determined as in the PL trial.

RESULTS

Postlarvae Trial

An algal bloom was observed four days after stocking in both race-
ways with algal density reaching a density of 375,000 cells/mL. Good
algal blooms were maintained throughout the study in both raceways.
Averages for selected daily and weekly water characteristics are pre-
sented in Table 2. Afternoon water pH levels were higher than in the
mornings. Throughout the trial, dissolved oxygen levels were main-
tained above 62% saturation in both raceways. Stocking and harvest
data from this trial are summarized in Table 3. Raceways showed a
slight difference in yields (2.34 kg/m2 vs. 2.1 kg/m2). Shrimp survival in
both raceways was high with very low FCR values of 0.7 for both race-
ways.
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TABLE 2. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, TAN, nitrite, nitrate, and algal densities in trials conducted in low salinity
groundwater at the Wood Brothers Shrimp Farm, Gila Bend, Arizona. Values represent mean (±standard deviation) with
the number of records in parentheses.

DO (mg/L) Temp. (°C) pH TAN NO2-N NO3-N Algae

Trial
am pm am pm am pm (mg/L) (cells/mL ⫻ 103)
Postlarvaea 6.0±0.3 6.6±1.0 24.5±1.4 26.2±1.1 7.8±0.4 8.1±0.4 0.69±0.46 0.36±0.26 11.71±1.97 294.1±165.1
(70) (70) (70) (70) (70) (70) (30) (30) (30) (28)
Juvenileb 6.0±0.5 6.3±0.5 25.1±1.9 27.1±1.6 7.6±0.2 7.9±0.3 0.58±0.51 0.47±0.22 9.50±0.47 N/A
(80) (80) (80) (80) (80) (80) (18) (18) (18)
a Observations from two raceways.
b Observations from four raceways.

9
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10
TABLE 3. Stocking and harvest data for postlarvae and juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei reared in raceways using
low-salinity well water. Harvest weight values represent average weight (±standard deviation) with N representing the
number of observations.

Stocking Harvest
Trial Survival (%) Days in culture FCR
#/m2 Size (mg) Growth (mg/d) Av. wt. (mg) N Yield (kg/m2)

Postlarvae 19,800±850 2.5 3.24±0.35 111.78±9.93 18 2.22±0.17 98.1±2.9 34-35 0.70

Juvenile 2,670 91 18.97±1.72 370.0±34.6 966 0.81±0.16 81.8±11.7 19-20 1.22±0.19

 Juvenile Trial

Table 2 provides the average values for selected daily and weekly
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water quality parameters in the four raceways during the trial. Through-
out the trial dissolved oxygen level stayed closed to saturation. Maxi-
mum ammonia level was a little above 1 mg/L while the maximum
nitrite level was below 0.7 mg/L. The average shrimp weight at harvest
was 0.37 g with survival of 81.8 ±11.7% and FCR of 1.22± 0.19 (Table 3).

Grow-Out Trial

Dissolved oxygen and water pH levels were always lower in the

high-density raceway than the low-density raceways. Although water
exchange rates in the high-density raceway were about seven times
higher than the low-density raceways, ammonia and nitrite levels in the
high-density raceway were always higher than the other low-density
raceways (Table 4). Differences in shrimp growth between the high-
density raceway (346 shrimp/m2) and the low-density raceways were
observed four weeks after stocking (Figure 1). The average weekly
growth rate of the shrimp in the low-density raceways was 1.36 g/week
(Table 5). This growth rate was much higher than the growth found for
the high-density raceway (1.03 g/week). Shrimp survival and yield in
the high density raceway were the highest among all raceways (86.1%
and 4.39 kg/m2, respectively; Table 5). Mean survival for the low-den-
sity raceways was 66.9±6.8% with average yield of 1.1±0.1 kg/m2. No-
ticeable shrimp mortality in the raceway stocked at 93 shrimp/m2
resulted in early harvest (after 94 days). Histology of moribund shrimp
from this raceway showed intestinal inflammatory signs characteristic
of blue-green algal toxicity. FCR values for all raceways were high with
the lowest value found in the high-density raceway.

DISCUSSION

The high survival rate reported for the PL trial can be easily ex-
plained by the variability in PL counts experienced by commercial
shrimp hatcheries. Since PL population size was estimated only at the
hatchery from aliquot samples, coefficient of variance of 5% to 10%
can be expected. Thus the high survival rates (98.1 ± 2.9%) observed in
the PL trial may suggest that the initial stocking density of the PL was a
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12
TABLE 4. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, TAN, nitrite, nitrate, and daily water exchange recorded in a grow-out
trial conducted in raceway systems using low-salinity groundwater. Values represent mean (±standard deviation) with
the number of observations in parentheses.

DO (mg/L) Temp. (°C) pH TAN NO2-N NO3-N Water exchange

Trial (%/day)

am pm am pm am pm (mg/L)

Low densitya 6.4±0.0 7.2±0.0 27.4±0.1 28.6±0.2 8.0±0.0 8.4±0.1 0.15±0.04 0.25±0.05 8.86±0.39 21.4±1.23
(305) (305) (305) (305) (305) (305) (183) (244) (231) (305)

High densityb 5.8±0.9 6.4±1.0 27.1±1.1 28.4±1.1 7.9±0.3 8.3±0.3 0.30±0.20 0.28±0.19 9.09±1.94 148.1±123.2
(106) (106) (106) (106) (106) (106) (45) (45) (45) (106)
a Observations from three raceways.
b Observations from one raceway.
 Samocha et al. 13

FIGURE 1. Growth of Litopenaueus vannamei in raceways at low stocking

densities (74 /m2, 93/m2, and 107/m2) and high density (346/m2) in low-salinity
(2.2 ppt) groundwater.
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20

18 346/m2 74/m2 93/m2

107/m2
16

14

12
WEIGHT (g)

10

0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105
DAYS

little higher than the reported values. The high yields in this trial (2.22 ±
0.17 kg/m2) suggest that the farm’s low salinity ground water can sup-
port production equal to that which has been reported with higher salin-
ity water (Samocha et al. 2002). Furthermore, the low FCR values
(0.7:1) associated with the high survival and yields suggest that a large
portion of the nutritional requirements of the shrimp in this study were
met by natural productivity developed in the raceways.
The high yield (4.39 kg/m2) of marketable size shrimp (14.72 g) ob-
tained in the high-density raceway in the grow-out trial shows that the
low salinity ground water used in this trial could support high shrimp
biomass with good survival to market size. It is interesting to note that in
spite of the chronic higher total ammonia levels in this raceway, sur-
vival was much higher than the low-density raceways. We suspect that
the lower daily water-exchange rates in the low-density raceways (21.1-
22.8%/day) along with some over-feeding, as indicated by the high
FCR values (FCR 2.66:1 to 3.22:1), may have resulted in formation of
toxic hydrogen sulfide which affected shrimp survival. Although no
measurements of hydrogen sulfide were made during this trial, a hydro-
gen sulfide odor was detected every time the bottom of these raceways
was stirred.
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14
TABLE 5. Average weight, yield, survival, FCR, daily and weekly growth of Litopenaeus vannamei juveniles (0.5 g)
stocked at high (346/m2) and low densities (74, 93 and 107/m2) in concrete raceways using low-salinity groundwater.

Stocking Duration Average Growth Yield Survival (%) FCR

density (d) weight (g) (kg/m2)
(g/day) (g/week)a
Low 94-107 18.48±1.15 b 0.18±0.01 1.36±0.04 1.11±0.10 66.9±6.8 2.75±0.43
High 107 14.72±2.52 0.14 1.03 4.39 86.1 2.11
a Calculated weekly average growth from 1 g size.
b Standard deviation.
 Samocha et al. 15

Shrimp growth rates in the low-density raceways were higher than in

the high-density raceway. It seems likely that the higher density re-
sulted in a lower weekly growth rate as documented in previous studies
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(Browdy et al. 1993; Hopkins et al. 1995; Williams et al. 1996; Davis
and Arnold 1998). Another interesting finding was the high weekly
growth rate of the shrimp in the low-density raceways from week three to
week ten of the study (1.26 to 1.44 g/week) and the decrease in growth
rates from week ten until the harvest (1.08 and 1.13 g/week) (Figure 1).
The switching to lower protein diet on week ten may have resulted in
the decrease in shrimp growth observed in this study. Data obtained by
Jiang et al. (1999) suggest that a high protein diet is needed for optimal
growth of this species when it is raised in salinities above or below its
iso-osmotic point (24.7 ppt for L. vannamei as reported by Castille and
Lawrence 1981). This finding was also supported by the work of Rob-
ertson et al. (1993) in which increasing feed protein level improved
growth of this species when kept at low (5 ppt) and high (45 ppt) salin-
ity. Nevertheless, it is possible that this lower growth was a result of less
favorable protein to energy ratio in the lower protein diet as suggested
by Kureshy et al. (2002). Since these feeds were not analyzed for pro-
tein/energy content, answering this question will require further studies.
Clearly, more research is needed to better understand the interaction be-
tween shrimp growth in low salinity waters and the protein/energy require-
ments for the Pacific white shrimp in high density production systems.
Ionic composition of groundwater can vary from site to site even
when sites are only 3 km apart (Saoud et al. In press). Comparing the
ionic composition of the groundwater from these trials to natural seawa-
ter diluted to the farm’s salinity may identify some of the ions that play a
major role in low-salinity production systems of the Pacific white
shrimp. Table 1 compares the ionic composition of natural seawater di-
luted with distilled water to the farm’s salinity and the groundwater
used in our trials. The comparison was made based on the average val-
ues obtained from the two wells used in these studies. Similar concen-
trations were found only in sodium and sulfate. The levels (proportions)
of chloride, magnesium, and potassium were lower than in natural sea-
water. On the other hand, the levels of calcium, boron, phosphorus,
iron, lead and bicarbonate were higher than the calculated levels for di-
luted seawater.
The information available in the literature concerning the effects of
different natural minerals in ground saline water on growth and survival
of the Pacific white shrimp is limited. Saoud et al. (In press) looked at
the ionic makeup of various inland well waters from Alabama, Florida,
 16 JOURNAL OF APPLIED AQUACULTURE

Mississippi and Texas and evaluated the effect of these sources on

growth and survival of young PL (PL 10, 15 and 20) of this species.
These studies suggest that PL performance can be affected by the age of
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the PL and the source of water. They concluded that the older the PL the
higher the survival in acclimation to low salinity water. In addition,
shrimp survival appeared to be positively correlated with ions such as
K, Mg and SO4 and negatively correlated with a high concentration of
iron.
Laramore et al. (2001) in their work with PL and juveniles of this spe-
cies found similar age/size related tolerance to low salinity acclimation.
Similarly, McGraw et al. (2002) suggested that older PL had better
survival in acclimation to low salinities. Scarpa and Vaughan (1998) reported
production of 15 g shrimp in four months in a closed recirculating fresh-
water system and suggested that water hardness of 150 mg/L as CaCO3 is
needed for raising this species in low salinity water. In another study,
Allen et al. (2000) in their work with young postlarvae (PL 15-27) sug-
gested that magnesium at 102 ppm had no effect on survival, while both
calcium (170 ppm) and potassium (300 ppm) had detrimental effects on
survival. The authors conclude that sodium and chloride, in the form of
NaCl, are the most important ions affecting survival under the condi-
tions of their studies.
Unlike the water used by the previous authors, the culture water in
our studies had almost three times higher Cl level (891 vs. 300 ppm),
about seven times lower Mg level (15.3 vs. 102 ppm) and 24 times
lower K concentration (12.5 vs. 300 ppm). Although the Na concentra-
tion in the Allen et al. (2000) work was not specified, the fact that im-
proved shrimp survival was observed when 80 ppm of sodium was
added to the water suggests that their water had very low sodium level.
The higher Cl and Na and the lower K levels in the water used in our
studies may explain why we have not found noticeable shrimp mortality
in the presence of 187 ppm of Ca as observed by Allen et al. (2000)
when 170 ppm of Ca or 300 ppm of K were added to the water.
The present study demonstrated excellent survival and yields at high
densities when PLs were acclimated from 17 to 2 ppt over a 26-day pe-
riod. These results are not in agreement with the poor growth and sur-
vival observed by Laramore et al. (2001) when working with PL. Our
studies showed no adverse effect on the shrimp when they were raised
to marketable size at low salinity water. As ionic composition of the wa-
ter used by Laramore et al. (2001) was not provided, we can only specu-
late that differences in shrimp performance might have been related to
differences in ionic composition of the water between the two sites.
 Samocha et al. 17

These findings suggest that more studies are needed to better define the
optimal ionic composition of inland low-salinity water for the produc-
tion of the Pacific white shrimp.
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SUMMARY

The trials summarized in this paper demonstrate that the Pacific

white shrimp can be raised using low salinity (approximately 2 ppt)
groundwater at high densities (up to 20,000/m2) during the nursery
phase with high survival (98.1±2.9%) and yield (2.22±0.17 kg/m2).
Marketable-sized shrimp can also be produced under high density (up to
346 shrimp/m2) with good survival (>86%) and high yield (4.39 kg/m2).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

These studies were conducted in part with funding from NOAA

(Award No. NA67FD0036); The USDC, MSFP, CSREES (Grants No.
95-38808-1424 and No. 92-38808-6920); TAES, TAMUS (Project
H-8158); Texas ATP (Grant No. 004952-079); and the Wood Brothers
Shrimp Farm, Gila Bend, Arizona.

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