1.

AJM
- SOD: 7-13mm causes higher MRR and α To MRR
- Abrasive flow rate α MRR
- Abrasive size: 10-50 microns(μ)
- Nozzle pressure α MRR (but less significant)
- Nontoxic, cheap, and easily available gases used
Abrasive type used:
- For cleaning, deburring, cutting - AL2O3, SiC
- For matt finish - glass beads
- Heavier peening -crushed glasses
𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠) / (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠)
Applications
● hard and brittle, fragile, and heat-sensitive materials.
2. WJM
- SOD: optimal 3mm but can be anything should be <25mm
- Pressure: α cutting
- Nozzle diameter : 0.07- 0.5mm
Applications
● Machining of Asbestos washers, baffles, and insulators→ for aerospace
applications (minimize airborne dust)
● High-speed cutting of corrugated box.
● Cutting of carbide grit safety walks
3. AWJM
- waterjet nozzle: 900m/s water with 0.075-0.6mm diameter
- Nozzle material- Tungsten Carbide, Boron carbide
Water based Abrasive based

Water jet pressure(400MPa) Abrasive type

- Garnet, Silica, and silica carbide
Water flow rate.:1-5kg/s water Abrasive size: 100-150 grit size
Abrasive Flow rate
Or 100g/min
- Transverse speed α 1/(depth of cut)
- SOD α 1/(depth of cut)
- There is an Upper limit of SOD
- There is a Lower limit of transverse speed
● Metals & non-metals both,
● Omni-directional cutting with no burrs,
● Industries - aerospace, nuclear, foundries, Construction, etc., •
● Steel components cut plates, tubes, corrugated Structures, etc
4. Ultrasonic
- Transducer: produces 19-25kHz and 15-20μm(amplitude) Ultrasound
- Tool holder /horn
- Tool(ductile): shape is converse of desired cavity.
- hard ,brittle, electrically conductive and non-conductive, heat-sensitive
fragile materials
EDM
• Power supply,dielectric system,servo system,electrodes
• Ionization of dielectric molecule(because of collision),conct. of electrons
increase,generation of plasma channel,avalanche motion of electron
• Arc jump,thermal energy,rise in temperature,melting rod and evaporation of
material
• Sudden expansion,knocking of loosen molten particle,removal of material,
• Electodes-machinable,electricaly conductive,Cu and brass(high wear),graphite and
Cu.
• Spark current:0.5-100A,
• IEG:0.012-0.050mm(small gap,good surface finish),
• aspect ratio-100:1,
• Increase pulse duration,increase material removal,increase surface roughness
• Applicatin:-aerospace,tool and die making,machining of exotic material,thin and
fragile component e.g. electronic component

WEDM
• Tool in form of wire(copper,brass,steel)dia-0.05-0.3mm)
• Frequency of order 1MHz,current=20A
• Use to cut complicated contours
EDG
• Hybrid of EDM+grinding
• Conductive wheel as tool.
• No physical contact bw tool and wpc.
• Used for dressing of bonded diamond grit wheel.
• By melting instead of shearing.

EBM
• Cathode at 2500 deg,
• Electron emission, toward anode,attaining high velocity,diverging beam,magnetic
lens,conveging beam,electro magnetic lens focuse beam on workpiece,passes
through deflector coil
• Melting and vapourisation of workpiece.
• Lens current:-determines working distance and focused spot on the pipe.
• Both electrically conductive and non-conductive ,thin,low strength material
• Very high temp results in residual thermal stress.
• Application:-aerospace, insulation,food processing,chemical,clothing,where
hundred to thousand holes are required.
ECM
Electric potential = 5-25 V

high current (up to 40000A) <= 40kA

electrolyte velocity = 20-30 m/s, If high → cause cavitation → uneven removal.

Aluminum, Brass, Cu, Bronze…… workpiece must me conducting

IEG varies from 0.025 to 0.76 mm, mostly used- 0.25 mm

Change in temperature → change in electrical conductivity of electrolyte

good surface finish (0.1-1 μm)

MRR is not dependent on mechanical or physical properties

Die sinking, profiling or contouring, grinding, drilling, micromachining

CM
Chemical etchant -> changes the metal into metal salts → Removes material.

Fecl3 → Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys, FeNo3→ Ag, HNo3→ tool steel.

Clean the W/pc→ maskant (cut and peel, screen and photoresist methods) → does not allow
chemical to reach and react with workpiece

Chemical milling → Production of blind holes, channels, pockets etc.,

Chemical blanking→ Production of through cavities, slots hole etc.

Etch factor = undercut/ depth of cut

Chemical blanking: burr-free etching of printed circuit boards (PCB), decorative panels, thin sheet-
metal stampings, and the production of complex or small shapes

Chemical milling: weight reduction of space launch vehicles.

Machine Tools
Generating- Desired profile is obtained by manipulating the relative motions of the work piece and
the cutting tool edge.

Ex – milling and turning

Forming: By impressing the shape of the cutting tool upon the work piece and so, the cutting edge of
the tool has the reverse of the shape to be produced on the part

Ex. Form turning, drilling, broaching etc

Single point tool: Lathes, boring machines, shaper, planer

Multipoint tool: Drilling, milling, broaching

Abrasive wheels: Grinding

Boring: Process to enlarge the existing hole

Reaming : It’s an operation to enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. It removes a
minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate
diameter and a smoother internal finish

Central Lathe
Lead screw - A large screw with a few threads per inch used for cutting threads.

Collet chuck - Provide strong clamping force by clamping the part all around. Suitable for holding
small length (50 mm) parts.

live center and dead center - to hold the w/pc from the head stock and tail stock end respectively

Compound slide-

• Compound slide is rotated at an angle as desired, and tool is made perpendicular to w/pc surface.
• Suitable to generate the steep and short length taper

Reciprocating machines
Planar Machine
Suitable to produce the vertical, horizontal and inclined flat surfaces on the large workpieces that
could not be accommodated on the shaper machine.

Cutting speed is provided to the workpiece

Feed speed is provided to the tool

Shaper machine
Clapper box→ to hold the single point cutting tool

Forward stroke - Cutting, Return stroke – idle (no cutting)

Quick return mechanism

• Return stroke has higher velocity while the forward stroke has lower velocity.
Slotter machine
Creating slots. Keys
Semi-automatic: 1) Turret 2) Capston
 DRILLING – circular hole cutting, rotational and linear motion provided to cutting tool,
TWO PARTS – Body (cutting edges, flutes) and shank (holding purpose). Flute provides
clearance to the chip produced and to allow cutting fluid to reach cutting edges.

Face -flute surface part adjacent to cutting lip

Flank -Drill surface extending behind cutting lip to the following flute
Land –cylindrically ground body surface between flutes, it gives torsional strength to drill
Reducing the land width increases chip space but reduces strength
Margin - (cleared diameter/body clearance)– cylindrical portion of land that is not cut,
prevents excessive rubbing and friction,
Single margin – least rubbing and friction, minimal support in hole.
Double margin – More friction, additional stability, reduced chatter possibility
Lead - distance between point on leading edge of the land in one complete revolution.
Chisel edge – edge at intersection of two flanks, doesn’t cut, it only exerts pressure and
friction for entering the material.
Web – Thickness across base of flutes, determines rigidity, racking performance
Thin web- small cutting resistance, low rigidity, suitable for soft machinable materials
Thick web – Large cutting resistance, high rigidity, suitable for hard materials.
LIP ANGLE/ Point angle - angle between two cutting lips of when it is projected on a
plane parallel to the axis.
118° HSS for soft materials, 130 – 140 ° carbide drills, machining of hard materials.
LIP Clearance angle - – angle formed by the flank adjacent to the land and plane at right
angle to the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill. Clearance must be given to
both cutting edges to allow them to enter into the workpiece to cut it.
8° to 12° clearance angle generally.
Helix angle – Inclination of flute w.r.t. axial direction of drill.
• 3 Types – slow 12 - 22°, regular 28 – 32°, fast 34 – 38° spiral helix.
High helix spiral – weaker, more lifting power for chips, Suitable for deep holes
Slow helix – Stronger , less lifting power for chips, Limited for shadow holes.

DRILL PRESS
- Rotational motion, Linear direction feed
- Mounted drill on spindle, Clamped workpiece on table
- Cheap, simple and suitable for low production

RADIAL DRILLING
- Drill head can move along radial arm to any posi.
- Suitable for large workpieces
- Radial arm can rotate on column to reach any position in radial range.
Multiple spindle drilling
- Large production of identical parts
- Each spindle drives power from same spindle

Gang drilling / progressive action multiple spindle

- Volume production, Multiple spindles in parallel with different drill tools
- Independent cutting speed of each tool
- Reaming tapping counterboring can be performed

Drilling time
V= pi*D*N/100 V=cutting speed, D= diameter of drill(mm), N=Rotational speed(rev/min)
Cutting Time
T= L/fN T= time, L= Length of tool trave, N=Rotational speed(Rev/min), f=feed rate(mm/rev)
Material remove rate(MRR)
MRR= pi*D^2/4 fN mm^3/min

REAMING
- Small material removal from existing hole surface.
- For smooth surface and exact size of hole
- Multi tooth cutter – many flutes(straight/helix) is used
- Rotary and linear motion
- Types- left and right hand, based on movement direction
- LEFT HAND – For through holes, pushes chips to other outside hole, reduces
damaging previous chips
- RIGHT HAND – For blind holes, Chips pushed outside of hole, prevents packing of
chips at bottom, reduces damaging

Boring
Enlarge existing hole
VERTICAL BORING MACHINE – Same as lathe with vertical axes, Rotates workpiece,
linear feed motion of tool at right angles or parallel to axis of workpiece rotation.

HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE – Horizontal spindle, Stationary workpiece

Boring Calculations – Depth of cut = (Do - Df)/ 2 mm
Avg. Dia. = (Do+Df) /2 Cutting time, tc = L+0 /fN
MRR =(pi*(Do^2 – Df^2)/4)*fN = pi*davgdfN Cutting speed = Vc =pi*Do*N/1000 mm/min
COUNTER BORING – Enlarge one end of a hole to accommodate heads of BOLT, studs
SPOT FACING – Similar to counter bore, but small amount is removed for smooth seat
for a nut or for head of cap screw.
COUNTER SINKING – Creates V-shape surface at hole end for counter sink - head screw.
MILLING:

Cooler operation compared to turning-> other edge get time to cool, while one edge cuts the w/pc

Larger MRR- Eg: for a given pass, turning-> Multiple Passes, milling->Single pass

Up Milling (Conventional milling) Down Milling (Climb milling)

W/pc fed against the milling cutter W/pc fed in the direction of milling cutter
Feed marks present, poor surface finish Feed mark absent, better surface finish
Chip thickness minimum at start and maximum Chip thickness maximum at the start and zero
at the end at the end
Cutting forces tend to lift the W/pc Cutting forces push the w/c into the table,
Better method to hold parts.

Milling machines:

➔ Principal parts:
Base, column, Knee, Saddle, Spindle and arbor

→ Types:

1) Knee and column type:

Horizontal Milling machines->

- Spindle mounted in Horizontal direction,

- suitable for heavier and deeper slots
- Eg: Slab mills, side and face cutters, etc.
- Worktable movement

Vertical Milling machine->

- Spindle head may be swiveled at an angle allowing milling cutter to work on angular surfaces
- Spindle mounted in vertical direction
 - suitable for machining die cavities
- More flexible and suitable for complex cavities
- Eg: End mills, T-slot cutters

Universal milling machine->

- Similar to Horizontal milling machine

- Has a table which can be swiveled 45o either to left or right

- Suitable for cutting spur, helical, worm gear and cam profiles

2) Bed type/(Production type):

- Table mounted on bed, Can move vertically on the column,

- Designed for increased MRR

Simplex-> single spindles

Duplex-> double spindles

Triplex-> three spindles

3) Plano millers/ Planer type milling machine

- Heavy duty machines, single point tools are replaced by one or a number of milling heads.
Wider range of milling actions similar to Bed type milling machines

4) Special types

- Used for only one job

- Completely automatic

- Suited to profile, pocket, surface contouring

Straddle milling

- operation of milling of vertical surfaces at a definite distance

Gang milling

- Used for milling complex surfaces or contours

- Combination of cutters are used.

Milling cutters:

Profile sharpened cutters – where the geometry of the machined surfaces are not related with the
tool shape,

• Slab milling cutter/plain milling cutter

- Generating flat surfaces, Made of HSS, Suitable to mount on the arbor of horizontal milling
machines

• Side slot milling cutters

- Arbor mounted disc type cutters, cutting teeth are equally spaced
 - Both sided cutters are used for making rectangular slots

• Slitting or parting cutter

- Arbor mounted cutter

- Small thickness, Made of single piece of HSS, teeth may be made of carbides

• Slotting cutters

- Similar to side slot milling cutter, Only one cutter instead of two

• End milling cutters

- Suitable for vertical milling machines, Made of HSS

- Face diameter-> 1mm to 40 mm
- 4-12 straight or helical teeths

• Face milling cutters

- Suitable for both horizontal and vertical milling machines

- Larger in diameter compared to end milling cutters
- Suitable for machining flat plates

Special Form cutter/ Form Relieved cutters-> The teeth have shapes which are replica of the job-
profile to be made

•Angular milling cutter

- Machining of flat surface at an angle other than right angle

- Suitable for milling of angular cuts like V-notches and grooves,

• Gear teeth milling cutters

- Conform to the shapes of gear tooth-gaps

- Can be used for producing teeth of straight and helical spur gears and worm wheels as well
as straight toothed bevel gears

• Spline shaft cutters

- Used for cutting slots of shaft having 4-8 straight axial teeth

• T-slot cutter

- For T-slots

• Woodruff key milling cutters

- Specially made for milling woodruff keys

• Tool form cutter

- Used to cut the slots of different cross sections of cutting tools

• Thread milling cutter

- Made of HSS or carbide

- have thread like annular grooves
- suitable for production of threads, bolts and screws.